Koreana Autumn 2001 (English)

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BEAUTY OF KOREA

Jige {A-Frame Carrier)

]ige is Korea's traditional device for carrying heavy loads.

Inyented long ago, it is testimony to the ingenuity of ancient Koreans.

Some attribute development of the uniqu e carrying device to Korea's rough mountainous terrain, which made the building of roads difficult. There is even mention of Koreans using jige in the ancient Chinese document the History of the Three Kingdoms, confirming its use in Korea as a carrying device from the distant past.

The origin of the word jige is the verb jida, meaning to carry something on one's back

"Ge" indicates a tool or implement. jige has such a long history in Korea that, unlike other types of devices, it goes by the same name in all parts of the country, without regard to various dialects.

Straight pine or cedar branches are used to make the frame of a jige. The branches are placed at an angle so that they narrow toward the top.

Next, several birch or chestnut pieces are nailed across the branches to join them together and form a framework in which a load can be carried. With the framework of the jige resembling the letter "A," Westerners often refer to it as an A-frame carrier. Because jige can be made to fit the back of individual users, they come in a variety of sizes. To make it easier for the carrier to stand up with a heavy load on his back, short crutch supports are used in rough terrain, and longer ones in flat areas.

It is said that carrying a load on one's back with a device like the jige requires less effort than carrying loads on one's head, shoulders, or using a pole or both hands.

KOREAN ART & CULTURE Cover: In this issue KOREANA takes an in-depth look at Korean musicals, modern as well as traditional, including various performance groups, performers and trends On the cover is a scene of The Last Empres>

c 0 N

Korean Musicals

T E

4

N

Korea's Indigenous Musical Arts; Pansori and Changgeuk

T

Hahn Myung-hee

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Development of the Modem Musical in Korea

10 Yoo Min-young

Tasks for the Development of Korea's Musical Plays and Theater Art ·jung }in-sao Performance Groups Specializing in Korean Musicals Kim Moon-hwan

34

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50 TRADITIONAL ARTISAN

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Mt. Gyeryongsan: A Magnet for WISh-seekers Kim joo-young

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1980s, has been the engine behind the development of Korean musicals and thus has earned a special place in the history of musicals in Korea. From the very outset, the troupe was founded to specialize in the musical genre. As a troupe supported with government funding, it had the wherewithal to stage regular performances, unlike most privately funded troupes. This fact alone afforded the troupe considerable flexibility in its active staging of performances. As a resul~ the troupe was able to stage an original musical every year or two and has thus made a significant contribution to exploring a new horizon of the Korean arts scene.

At any rate, from around the end of the 20th century, the musical gradually came to the forefront of the Korean arts scene with a clear and vibrant identity.

Performing arts troupes specializing in musicals were founded while performers skilled in song, dance and drama became the new stars. The major theaters began staging original musicals as part of their special programs, along with ¡foreign musical companies coming to perform in Korea, though mostly on a limited scale.

Musicals are definitely an art form for the young, exuding the youth and freshness of people in their 20s or a grove of trees in mid summer. Musicals convey a dynamism that emanates from the stage, a rapid succession of things to see and hear amid dramatic vitality that is especially suited to the passion and energy of youth.

In man y ways, musicals are an embodiment of youth. Everyday life in industrial society is certainly based on the special characteristics of youth. This can be seen in our daily urban existence, full of hustle and bustle and dynamic movement like a huge, indefatigable engine that keeps driving ahead without pausing for a second. As such, it can be said that the musical is a performing art that emerged as a by-product of contemporary urban industrial society. Just as every period has given rise to various

forms of performing arts, the capitalist society of the 20th century can be said to have given birth to the musical. In the musical form can be found the spirit of the 20th century. It is no coincidence that musicals involve capitalist-style commercialism and popular appeal, nor is it by chance they feature much spectacle and fast-paced vitality. It is also by design that musicals rely on original ideas and humor while offering quality entertainment and fanciful enjoyment.

Moreover, the music from popular musicals is sweeping through the world like a tidal wave, being immensely enjoyed and wholeheartedly embraced by today's young people. Ultimately, the art

Pansori singer Park Dong- jin, a living treasure

form known as the musical can be seen as the essence of contemporary times.

Riding the current of commercialism and m;;tss popularity, the musical has emerged as today's favored art form, with Seoul being no exception to this worldwide phenomenon. But before the musical became so popular in Seoul, what form of traditional art, what type of artistic medium, was popular with Korea's general public? The answer would have to be pansori and changgeuk. Of course, pansori and changgeuk are not and cannot be consid-

ered the same as today's musicals. But of all the traditional Korean music forms, pansori and changgeuk most closely resemble the Western musical. Though pansori and changgeuk have different roots and have developed in separate ways with different artistic characteristics, they do possess various similarities in the way they both parallel musicals. Of course, as in the case of opera, neither musicals nor changgeuk are the result of simply combining music and drama.

These all need the help of lighting, costumes and stage props. But the essence of the performance itself includes musical and dramatic elements. It is in this regard that pansori and changgeuk can be likened to musicals or opera.

However, this is only a general comparison for practical purposes. Besides musicals and operas, there are many other forms of performing arts that feature the combination of music and drama. Far back in the past, the Greek tragedies were based on music and drama while in more recent times there are the music dramas of Wagner, the Peking opera of China, and kabuki of Japan, which are all composite art forms based on the use of music and drama. Therefore, the comparison of pansori and changgeuk to musicals and opera is for the sake of convenience only and inevitably quite subjective. However, it does seem helpful to identify links with these two Western art genres as a way to facilitate easier understanding of pansori and changgeuk, which are uniquely Korean art forms.

Around the time Western opera was first introduced to Korea,¡pansori was . likened to Korean opera More than anything else this was because the narratives of opera and pansori were both presented in song. Pansori also had its dramatic elements, though minimal enough, in simple movements called ballim that accompanied the song.

However, there are more differences than similarities between pansori and opera. The most striking difference is that in opera, multiple actors appear on stage, whereas in pansori there is only

one singer and one drummer on stage from beginning to end. In Western op~ra, the individual actors play a single role, whereas in Korean pansor~ the one singer plays multiple roles. For example, in the pansori classic "Chunhyangjeon" there is the female lead Chunhyang, the male lead Lee Mong-ryong, and several other characters such as Wol-mae, Bangja and Hyang-dan. In an opera these roles would all be played by different performers, but in pansori, the lone singer plays all these parts.

At first glance, this difference may seem insignificant. But after more careful consideration it is not a matter to be overlooked. In fact, this difference is indicative of the dissimilarities between the Western culture that created opera and the Korean culture that conceived pansori. If Western culture is said to be analytical, then Asian culture would be composite. Based on this notion, the composite nature of traditional Korean arts is readily evident. The example that perhaps most clearly demonstrates the composite nature of Korean culture is the term han. Han contains the meaning of "one." It also means "big," and at the same time "many." When it is used to indicate mid-summer or mid-winter, it means "deep" or "in the middle" of ¡ ~ something. It can also indicate several, when talking about small numbers. So . _ this word han, like a picture with many different parts, has many diverse meanings; scholars say that the word has some 30 different meanings.

It is an extraordinary feat for one singer to portray many different roles as in pansori. It was not something that came about to maximize the effect of the music, but it distinctly reveals the composite nature underlying Korean culture. This characteristic of pansori is a cultural symbol of a Korean culture that is in a constant state of flux and reflects the temperament of the Korean people.

An Sook-sun, a human cultural treasure for pansori, is revered for her highly animated performances.

The music of pansori itself is unlike Western opera in that it was not composed and written by selected individuals. In most cases, pansori is based on legends and tales passed down over long periods of time. Over the years, many master singers have added their own distinctive color to the music which in the end becomes a communal work Like the village shrines that were created by passei¡sby piling one stone atop another, pansori works are the cumulative result of many singers adding their own musical influence and the whole being refined and fine-tuned over time.

So a pansori work is the fusion of the artistic input of many singers, embodying the Korean people's sentiments over their long history. This is the underlying reason so many Koreans are devoted fans of pansori and how foreigners can gain an understanding of the uniqueness of Korean music through this genre. In terms of scale or the number of performers on stage, pansori may seem rudimentary in comparison to Western

opera. But pansori is like a reservoir of the accumulated sentiments of the Korean people, ever moving and changing, containing their joys and sorrows, their hopes and despairs. It depicts the twists and turns of Korean history while reflecting the good and bad times, the toil of real life and an optimistic worldview. The scenes of Korean life pass by like a panorama. In fact, like the word han mentioned earlier, there is a web of varied meanings as well as fused sentiments and thoughts embodied in pansari. Consequently, pansori has different meanings according to the performer and audience, a living and dynamic art that can change with each performance.

As such, it is not improper to compare pansori with opera. Though pansari seems simple and straightforward on the surface, it features a musical grandeur and elegance similar to that of opera while being capable of evoking a similar intense emotional response. As Westerners have enjoyed opera and made it a part of their lives, so too have

A scene from the Tale ofBae Bijang, a Korean-5tyle changgeuk opera

Koreans relied on pansori to deal with the ebb and flow of life. Ultimately, pansari is a unique legacy of the way Koreans enjoyed the arts of their rich cultural environment. Therefore, the matter as to which Western art form pansori most resembles is of secondary importance.

It is inevitable for art to change with the times and new art forms to appear.

This is the case with changgeuk, which debuted in Korea in the 20th century.

Pansori and changgeuk are of the same lineage, with the latter being derived from the former. Changgeuk was introduced around the early 20th century when the influence of Western culture and civilization began to take hold on the Korean peninsula. After forcibly annexing Korea, Japan sought to implement its colonial policies. The Japanese had been one step ahead in introducing Western culture and it was through Japan that these influences came to Korea. It was at this time that a Western style-form of theater known as sin-

pageuk (literally meaning "new school drama") emerged in Korea. As is well kn.own, in Western-style drama individual roles are assigned to individual performers, as in the case of opera, with this style of drama coming to have a major influence on pansori. The traditional pansori format of one person playing multiple roles was changed to introduce individual performers for individual roles. In addition, Western dramatic elements were incorporated to supplement the staging of a performance, with more realistic and substantial props and settings being utilized on a larger scale. So - under the influence of Western drama a new form of Korean performing art called changgeuk was born. Changgeuk reached its peak in the mid-1900s when many specialist troupes were established who performed throughout the country.

Traditional Korean pansori and changgeuk have various similarities with Western opera and musicals. This is particularly true with musicals and changgeuk as both feature a combina-

tion of song, dance and drama, complemented with elaborate costumes, props and stage settings. As such, musicals and changgeuk are both truly composite art forms. But while they are similar on the surface, this does not necessarily mean that changgeuk and musicals are always on the same plane. Two art forms may appear to be similar but their objectives and attistic character can be poles apart.

The varied performing art forms enjoyed by the different peoples of the world are all similar in various ways, especially in the fact that they tend to combine music, dance and dramatic elements. But in spite of such superficial similarities, there are differences in artistic subtleties. This is true for changgeuk and musicals.

Despite a tendency in the 20th century to acep~ ) he Western musical as a model form, changgeuk differs from Western musicals in the sentiments, style, the songs used and artistic esprit. In fac~ in changgeuk are almost all from pansori in terms of their melody and method of singing, while the story line is taken

from legends and classic tales. The dialogue is strong in Korean language intonation, with the costumes and stage settings being to a certain degree typically Korean. As such, it is indeed a difficult, perhaps even futile, exercise to attempt a simple comparison of the indigenous atts of two different cultures.

In the new age of the 21st century, there are a few theaters in Seoul which are staging musicals while others are sustaining the life of changgeuk by exploring new directions. The important thing is perhaps not an examination of the relationship of changgeuk and musicals. Such theoretical discussion aside, both changgeuk and musicals are flowing calmly on the current of the times, each in its own way. Therefore, it is more important to maximize the unique characteristics of each within their own context. In this age of globalization and internationalization, when the times call for increasingly artistic expression, only the most individualistic artistic forms will progress. +

A scene from the Tale ofSim Cheong, a Korean...,..tyle changgeuk opera

Development of the Modem Musical in Korea Yoo Min-young Dean ,'Graduate School for Mass Culture and Arts, Dankook University

he earliest forms of theater or performing arts included singing and dancing along with mime. These performing arts were rooted in the rituals of primitive humans and the worship of their gods. In the West, theater became a more narrative form in line with developments in language and urban civilization, resulting in a rich tradition of drama, whereas in Asia, including Korea, song-and-dance-oriented theater continued through the modern age.

Koreans have always been especially fond of song and dance, as evidenced

T ¡ ~

10

by ~he fact that most Korean theater relies on song and dance as its primary means of expression. Such a national trait is particularly noticeable in the nurJ:?.ber of noraebang, karaoke rooms, which ¡has exceeded 60,000 in the short

A scene from Porgy and Bess (below), a Broadway musical that was staged to mark the opening of the Drama Center in the 1960s Staged in their own small theater, Hakchon Theater's Subway Line No. I, a musical directed by popular composer Kim Min-gi, has enjoyed an extended run (right)-

11

¡ ~

10 years since karaoke was first introduced to Korea.

Today, the theater scene in Korea is witnessing a dramatic decline in traditional dialogue-based theater, while musicals, including changgeuk (Korean classical opera), chongeuk (musical drama), madangnori (open-air folk plays) and other song-and-dance routines, are thriving. Actually, this is even more so in. classical Korean theater, since most of the traditional theater formsmask drama, puppet theater, and panso1i as well as gut (shamanic ritual}-rely on song and dance, and mime in some cases, as their means of expression.

After Korea opened its doors to foreign countries at the turn of the 20th century, the Japanese sinpa, or new wave, theater and modern Western drama came to dominate dialogue-oriented theater for two decades. However, in the 1930s, changgeuk and traditional music drama, became popular while shortly after Korea's liberation from Japanese colonial rule in 1945, the gukkuk, a traditional-style musical with an all-female cast, set a new trend in theater. Nonetheless, theater history shows that dialogue-oriented dramas were always the mainstream.

In 1957, playwright Yu Chi-jin, a pioneer of modern theater in Korea, returned home after observing American theater with a belief that Korea should develop Broadway-style musicals. It was also around this time that the Drama Center, a new and modern theater, was built, where Yu staged DuBose and Dorothy Heyward's Po1gy and Bess as its inaugural event, in the form of a "semimusical," with several of George Gershwin's songs insetted into the play.

In order to stage musicals in the proper sense of the word, Yu began to train actors in singing and dancing. However, the actors, who had no experience with Broadway musicals and had little confidence in its potential as a theater form, did not show much enthusiasm. Then four years later, two groundbreaking events took place: Yu In-hyeong, Yu 12

Chi-jin's eldest daughter, who returned to Korea after studying theater in the United States, staged Po1gy and Bess as a true musical version; and music and dance critic Pak Yong-gu returned from Japan to head the Yegreen Musical Troupe, which presented an original Korean musical titled Come Softly, with Lim Young-woong directing.

The Drama Center's Broadway-style musicals and Yegreen's original musicals created two distinct trends In the early days of musicals in Korea. But the Drama Center's pursuit of translated Western musicals was cut short by the death of Yu Chi-jin and Yu In-hyeong's departure for the University of Hawaii to further her studies. By the early 1970s, Yegreen Musical Troupe was the only

- ~ Musical

are essentially spectacles, requiring

large-scale sets and theaters.

However, since the mid-1990s, musicals have also been staged at small-size theaters.

troupe performing musicals. Their musicals such as Speak, Ocean and Let the Bell Ring were all original works, featuring a mix of classical and modern subjects which were mostly intended to enlighten the public. As Yegreen's musicals proved popular among theatergoers, they embarked on nationwide tours.

But the Yegreen Musical Troupe ran into financial difficulty and its immediate future was in question when, in May 1973, the National Theater decided to absorb the troupe as part of its National Music and Dance Company. There was little change in the troupe's personnel or identity. Kim Hi-jo remained its composer and conductor, Choi Hyeon its choreographer, and Nab Yeong-su its chorus

director. However, its repertory was expanded to include Western musicals with new directors-Lim Young-woong, Lee Ki-ha and Heo gyu-being assigned for various productions.

By the mid-1970s, several other companies had joined the National Music and Dance Company in staging musicals. In 1973, Gagyo, a new company, staged a Broadway-style production of the Fantastics by Tom Jones at the National Theater, albeit with unrefined theatrical skills, and in May 1977, the Hyundai Theater Company staged Padam Padam Padam, the life story of French chanson singer Edith Piaf, as a musical, which have been credited with changing the landscape of musical theater in Korea.

In addition, Choi Jang-gwon, who composed Korea's first original musical, founded Mirinae, a center dedicated to the development of musicals and training of actors. This was an indication of the steady growth of interest in musicals.

One of the most noteworthy developments was that with the help of corporate sponsorship, the Hyundai Company began staging large-scale musicals for children, such as Snow White and Peter Pan. With theater for children having been limited to puppet shows until then, this marked a significant breakthrough for the Hyundai Company to promote the educational aspects of theater and at the same time nurture future musicalgoers among young audiences.

In 1980, the Hyundai Company set another milestone by staging Andrew Lloyd Weber's jesus Christ Superstar with Pyo Jae-soon directing, which provided audiences with their first taste of the rock musical genre. The enthusiastic response enabled Hyundai to stage successful follow-up productions The Sound of Music and Evita, while developing a loyal following and also distinguishing itself as the leader of the musical movement in Korea. Pyo Jae-soon and Kim Sang-ryeol, the company's resident directors, gained recognition as specialists in the field of musical theater.

As Hyundai's musicals gained wide popularity among young audiences and als? enjoyed commercial success, a new musical company called Musica l Company Daejung was established, while existing drama troupes, Minjung and Gwangjang, staged a joint production of Guys and Dolls, which all contributed to further expanding interest in musicals. The public enthusiastically supported the new shows: Hyundai's jesus Christ Superstar drew over 300,000 people in 143 performances during its yearand-a-half run, while the joint production of Guys and Dolls was seen by _ hundreds of thousands of people over an extended run.

As the public came to enjoy musicals, production companies began scheduling musicals during summer, traditionally considered an off-season for theater, which turned out to be a successful strategy. By then, musicals had become more popular than traditional plays. In 1985 director Kim Woo Ok launched a series of musicals aimed at teenagers including The Wandering Stars and The Dreaming Stars, ¡both written by playwright Youn Dai Sung, at the Drama Center where musicals had not been staged since the death of Yu Chi-jin, the pioneer of Korea's musical scene. These productions ¡ ~ drew tens of thousands of high school students to the theater, once again broad... ening the base for theatergoers.

As musicals proved to be a crowddrawing undertaking, several department stores, eager to attract customers, immediately moved to construct theaters in their establishments. For example, the Hyundai and Lotte department stores opened theaters where musical productions were presented. The Lotte World Art Theater even attempted to establish itself as a specialized venue for musicals with a resident company, which included recruitment of stage technicians from Broadway. Their efforts only lasted some five years, however, mostly because the operations were too costly. Nevertheless, the Lotte World Art Theater did discover and nur-

ture the talented Nam Kyung joo, Choi Jung-won, Jun Soo Kyeung and Joo Won Sung, who went on to become prominent musical performers.

Around the same time, the 88 Seoul Performing Arts Company staged its debut production of Saebul at the Sejong Cultural Center. This was quite a significant event as the 88 Seoul Performing Arts Company was a government-sup-

Playwright Yu Chi-jin, a pioneer of modem theater in Korea (right) The opening of the Drama Center in 1962 (below) The interior of the Drama Center (bottom)

13

ported institution that specialized in Korean-style musicals. It was also during this period that opera director Moon Hokun, whose preference was for political theater, attempted a new genre of original musicals that he named noraegeuk, or song drama, which lasted for only a short while. These attempts at d~ve l oping distinctively Korean musicals were at best theatrical experiments that soon faded away, since they could not generate much public interest due to their lack of entertainment value and musical sophistication.

The ability to entertain is a critical element of a musical, which is why these attempts at creating musicals with a specific aim did not work out. Government funding is the sole reason the 88 Seoul Performing Arts Company was able to survive. As aforementioned, in the 1980s, several musical companies and theaters were established, while public appreciation of musicals increased dramatically, enough to threaten the conventional drama genre. According to Kim Woo Ok's article "Musicals, the Past and Present," which includes statistics about musicals staged from the genre's initial introduction up to the early 1990s, a total of 16 productions were staged in its first 10 years between 1962 and 1971; 30 between 1972 and 1981; and an incredible 141 between 1982 and 1991. The num-

14

ber of musicals staged increased ten-fold over three decades.

Also of interest is the ratio between original Korean musicals and translated foreign works. For instance, original works accounted for 87 percent of the total number of musicals staged during the first 10 years and foreign works 13 percent; then 57 percent and 43 percent in the 1970s; and 37 percent and 63 percent in the 1980s. This indicates that Broadway-style imports took over the musical scene as time went by. This phenomenon became even more apparent in the 1990s. The most notable event was the 1992 production of The Sound of Music, staged by a touring company from Broadway. The Korean public got a taste of real Broadway through this show which helped the appeal of foreign musicals to grow rapidly among theatergoers. For example, Guys and Dolls set a record with more than 1,100 performances over 10 years, drawing ovet: one million viewers. This kind of commercial success led to a notable

A scene from The Last Empress, an original musical by the A-COM International that was staged on Broadway in August 1997 (right) The A-COM International's production of the popular Broadway hit Guys and Dolls (below)

15

increase in musical productions targeted for children, including the Musical Company Daejung that spent 550 million won, an unprecedented amount for Korean theater, for a lavish production of Cats. But even with their extravagant budgets, the companies focused only on re-creating the Broadway style, using recorded singing instead of live performances, for instance. The popularity of musicals continued to grow, but at the same time they became .increasingly commercially oriented with little development of other aspects. This resulted in a campaign for original musicals initiated

by The Sports Chosun, an influential sports and entertainment daily. In 1995, the campaign evolved into the Korea Musical Awards, intended to support the development of Korean musicals. The awards encouraged competition among the various local companies, though over time, the A-COM International dominated the awards.

After receiving the grand prize several years in a row, A-COM became the center of attention with its production of The Last Empress, wlitten by Yi Mun-yol and directed by Yun Ho-jin. After much success and popularity in Korea, the show went on a Broadway tour in August 1997. Thirty-five years after the arrival of the musical genre in Korea, an original Korean musical work appeared on the Broadway stage where the genre originated. The production went on to receive favorable reviews from The New Yo1k Times and other major newspapers, but financially, the show ended up hundreds of millions of won in the red.

Nonetheless, two notable changes occurred in Korea as a result of the onemonth Broadway run of The Last Empress: many companies began to develop original musicals and the government established a fund to support overseas tours of critically acclaimed productions.

Musicals are essentially spectacles, requiring large-scale sets and theaters.

However, since the mid-1990s, musicals have also been staged at small-size the16

aters. Subway Line No. 1, which is still running at the Hakchon Theater, and Singing in the Rain at the Ingan Small Theater are two successful examples. As musicals began to attract growing interest, Korean companies began to collaborate with and receive artistic support from foreign specialists; in one case, the noted Russian composer Igor Yakushenko wrote songs exclusively for the Chongdong Theater, which were featured in the children's musical The Woodman and the Fairy, one of their most popular repertory pieces.

Along with A-COM, the Seensee Musical Company, Musical Company Daejung, and the Seoul Metropolitan Musical Troupe, the Seoul Performing Arts Company was also among the several ~ ompanies that enriched the musical scene during the 1990s. In an effort to ovei¡come a lack of direction during its early years, the Seoul Performing Arts Company reestablished itself in 1991 as an endowed foundation and became a resident company of the Seoul Arts Center, which provided it access to the Opera House, Korea's premiere facility for large-scale productions. Meanwhile, the Hyundai Theater Company, which began focusing on original works, toured nationwide year after year while even performing in Rome with jang Eo-

go, ICing of Marine Merchants.

Determined to reverse the trend toward big-scale productions, composer and director Kim Min-gi set out to establish a distinctively Korean style of musical. He opened the Hakchon Theater with Subway Line No. 1, an adaptation of a German play, followed by Mosquito and Blood Brothers.

This boom in musicals, however, came to a temporary halt with Korea's financial crisis in 1997-1998. Conventional plays experienced a 40 percent decline in audiences while big-scale musicals were not staged for some time. The only exceptions were the government-funded companies such as the Seoul Performing Arts Company and the Metropolitan Musical Troupe, which continued to

stage new productions. The Samsung Visual Arts Foundation, which had supported the production of stage musicals, completely withdrew after two years.

As Korea eventually recovered from its financial crisis, the theater circles also regained their vitality, although this was strictly limited to musical productions.

Some of the most popular big-scale productions of the late 1990s included the Seensee Musical Company's Life, Musical Company Daejung's Chorus Line, Nunsense, and Cats--all foreign playsand the Seoul Performing Arts Company's original work, F01gotten Lullaby But the companies also came under criticism because for the most part these productions were revivals of past hits. It cannot be denied that musicals are essentially commercial productions. The budget for 42nd Street by the musical company T.N.S. topped 1.9 billion won, and with that much investment at stake, the company had to focus on ticket sales.

But it was not only translated foreign plays that were being produced with huge budgets. The Last Empress, Fo1gotten Lullaby and T1ipitaka Koreana were big-scale productions as well, although, with the exception of The Last Empress, original musicals have not enjoyed much financial success. Indeed, Korean musicals are still in their infancy, without specialized musical playwrights, notable composers or directors with proven track records. During the past four decades, however, a substantial pool of musical actors has been developed, but at the same time, it is difficult to find performers with excption~l talent and .experience in singing, dancing and acting.

So it could be said that in terms of quantity, Korean musicals have come a long way since the early days, but such progress is not well reflected in the quality of the productions. Since 2000, in addition to Broadway musicals, works from Britain, Germany and Russia have also been staged, providing much needed variety to the musical scene.

Hakchon TheaterJs Subway Line No. 1 is one of the most successful efforts at ere-

ating ¡diversity in musical productions.

The play enjoyed a six-year run at the same venue, setting a 1,000-performance record in the process. It was truly an _ amazing accomplishment that the production drew a total of 180,000 viewers to the small theater. During its run, the . _ play launched then newly emerging stars such as Sui Kyung Gu, Pang Eun-jin and Lee Jeong-heon, who have since joined the ranks of established musical stars like Nam Kyung Joo and Joo Won Sung. With its theme of "yearning for freedom and reunification," the production also drew attention from the government of Germany and Berlin's Grips Theater Company, which first staged the original version of the play, and whose playwright visited Hakchon's production. Hakchon was invited to Berlin for a three-day run, where the troupe received a standing ovation after each performance at the Grips Theater.

The best measure of the progress made in Korean musicals, however, is

A-COM's original work, The Last Empress. The production was far from being fully developed when it premiered in 1995; however, after six years of finetuning, it has now become "a musical for the entire nation," generating over 500 million won of earnings annually.

Unfoitunately, there has not been another original musical to follow up the success of The Last Empress, such that the Korean Musical Awards has not been able to name a Grand Prize winner for the past two years. Still, in the 40 years since the first Korean attempt to stage a Western musical in 1962, the musical evolution in Korea that has proceeded along two separate trends-one focused on how to best re-<::reate original Broadway works, the other on creating a Korean musical form-has now taken center stage of the nation's theater. And as is clear from The Last Empress and Subway Line No. L we are beginning to see some of the potential of these efforts.

However, in order to further nurture

Hakchon Theater's Subway Line No. I portrays the life of a man who lost his job, a runaway teenager, a street vendor, and a Chinese-Korean from Yanbian whose paths cross as they are riding the subway. A Korean version of a German original, the musical was reexported to Germany where it received a fuvorable response.

the musical genre, there is still much to be done. First, a theater especially designed for staging musicals is a must.

Second, a pool of specialized musical professionals will have to be nurtured.

Third, sponsors need to be found to fund the production of musicals.

Finally, to develop a viable musical industry, it w ill be necessary to produce works of world-class quality that can be staged in foreign markets. The market in Korea is limited to a mere 500,000 viewers, which is not enough to sustain a musical industry. After 40 years in the making, the Korean musical is only now starting to take shape. + 17

Tasks for the Development of Korea's

Musical Plays and Theater Art Jung}in-soo Professor of English Literature, Sungkyunkwan University

he history of modern drama in Korea dates to the early 20th century, which was marked by the introduction . of Western drama by way of Japan in the 1920s. There already were, of course, traditional Korean. forms of drama, such as panso1i (traditional operatic form performed by one person), mask dance, and puppet shows, but these had not developed into a theater culture as in China or Japan, while having struggled to avoid eradication under the Japanese colonial government's policy of cultural assimilation. Modern drama was introduced to Korea as "new drama" by Korean intellectuals who had studied in Japan where Western drama had been introduced earlier under the same name.

As was the case in Japan, from the onset Korea's modern drama could be categorized into so-called serious drama and popular drama. Aimed at intellectuals, the former, under the name new drama, mainly embraced Western realism and its succeeding forms of drama. Targeting the general public, popular drama, or sinpa, a type of play similar to the melodrama that had become popular in the West in the 19th century, came into vogue in the 1930s in Korea, with its

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production being developed almost to a¡commerciallevel. But it failed to stake a claim on the theater stage due to ¡the preference for serious drama among the intellectuals, who served as society's opinion leaders. Another factor was competition from popular media, including radio and movies that emerged in the mid-20th century, and then television in the 1960s.

With Korea's economy enjoying unprecedented growth since the 1970s, the public's demand for an enhanced quality of life increased dramatically.

As such, people began to pursue a variety of pastime'3, helping to diversify the forms of plays which previously centered on serious dramas of the modernist school that had appealed only to a limited audience consisting mainly of intellectuals and college students. Thus attempts were made to devise ways to attract larger audiences . to the rheater, such as the staging of Western-style musical plays. Yegreen Musical Troupe, a theater company established in the 1960s, sought to produce Korean-style musicals, but failed to satisfy audiences who had rapidly assimilated Western culture. In the 1970s, Broadway musicals were introduced, centered on the theater group Hyundai Theater. At that time, since Korea had not joined the international

convention on the protection of intellectual property, unauthorized performances of such Broadway hits as Sound of Music, West Side Sto1y and Evita were staged locally. Although the performances failed to achieve box-office success, they contributed much to heightening interest among audiences. The first successful performance that aroused Korean interest in musicals was a performance of Guys and Dolls by the Minjung Theater Company in 1985. Since then, this musical has been re-staged almost every year, with each production enjoying considerable success.

Audience interest in musicals has risen sharply ever since, such that musicals are the dominant genre of commercial drama in Korea today. In 1986, Korea joined the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC), an international treaty on the protection of intellectual property rights, and 10 years later also became a member of the Bern Convention. Naturally, this increased production costs, but in return, Korean productions were now legitin1ate, which enabled the building of a solid foundation for future development. But musical plays should be viewed as having only just begun in Korea. Although the musicals of the last 10 years have realized relative sue-

The production of a musical is, above all, a business venture requiring substantial financial resources.

The musical is said to be enjoying a boom in Korea, but no producer or theater company has yet to get rich by staging a musical.

On the contrary, far too many producers and theater companies are burdened with debts, due to the abysmal financial failure of the musicals they doggedly stage, unable to resist the temptation to produce musicals, following the exhilaration of one or two commercial successes.

cess, this was in large part the result of the "can-do" spirit of the Korean people, and the undaunted passion and efforts of its theatrical personnel.

Moreover, it was not the result of having acquireq the know-how of producing musical plays through a normal growth process. This article seeks to identify key components of Korean musical plays and provide an overview of each while explaining the direction in which each aspect should proceed to get on the right track, as well as the tasks to be addressed for further development.

Production Financing The production of a musical is, above all, a business venture requiring substantial financial resources. The musical is said to be enjoying a boom in Korea, but no producer or theater company has yet to get rich by staging a musical. On the contrary, far too many producers and theater companies are burdened with debts, due to the abysmal financial failure of the musicals they doggedly stage, unable to resist the temptation to produce musicals, following the exhilaration of one or two commercial successes. Just when the production of musicals was about to take off in Korea, the Asian financial crisis struck in late 1997,

which drove a number of theater companies and producers into bankruptcy. Since the musical is not yet firmly established in Korea, there are no professional investors who provide financing for new productions, as is the case in advanced countries.

And so in most cases, it is the producers who must assume the risk of launching a production after securing funding for only the advance preparations, while hoping to recover the production costs through box-office receipts. The producers also rely on corporate sponsorship, offered as a form of corporate public relations, to offset some of the related costs.

Based on current trends, some 500 million won to 1 billion won is required to produce a large-scale musical with a cast of 20-30 performers. Out of the 20 or so musical plays staged in a year, less than half succeed in recoveril)g their production costs.

And even those that become hits reap meager gains, because they are usually undertaken with a risk-sharing arrangement, such as joint production with a TV network Korea has recently seen the establishment of specialized companies that invest in the production of musicals, mainly because the downward trend in interest rates has motivated investors to seek out

alternative investments. But the participation of such an investment partner means less profits for the producer. In such case, the producer will often end up with just enough money to launch the next project. As such, Korean producers of musicals struggle to survive as do most small business proprietors.

Venues for Musicals A major obstacle to development of the musical in Korea is the serious lack of performing venues. In fact, there is not a single theater dedicated exclusively for musical performances.

Most musicals are performed in stateowned public theaters leased on a short-term basis, with all the theaters suitable for staging musicals being in Seoul. Moreover, there are only five theaters in Seoul capable of staging musicals-the Seoul Arts Center, Sejong Center for the Performing Arts, National Theater of Korea, Hoam Art Hall, and the recently opened LG Art Hall. In addition, these are multipurpose venues, while the government facilities must accommodate countless private and public activities. This means that a musical play cannot run for more than two weeks, even if it becomes a big hit. In particular, this makes it extremely difficult to recover the significant production costs 19

during such a short period.

However, the recent trend toward privatization is affecting theaters as well, while theater management steadily adopts corporate practices, thus enablipg the lease term for boxoffice hits to be extended, but still only for another two weeks. The LG Art Hall recently created a stir by agreeing to a long-term lease of six months with the domestic producer of the popular British musical Phantom of the Opera, who is paying royalties to the original creator.

However, it will be difficult for Korean musicals to become commercially successful until private performing venues designed exclusively for musicals are available so that a play is able to run indefinitely, depending on its popularity. It will likely take another 10 years before such theaters become available.

Performing Artists

Despite the fact that a musical, as a business venture capable of generating significant revenues, relies heavily on hardware, its success ultimately depends on human software: screenwriters, composers, songwriters, producers, choreographers, actors, and stage designers. A musical is created by combining capital and technology 20

with human software. And while the musical is a highly refined form of entertainment, it is especially difficult to capture its essence through movies or TV, because the performers rely on direct contact with a live audience to. ~nhace their performance.

Although Korean musicals are experiencing various growing pains, the problems of capital and technology, including the availability of performing theaters, will be overcome in due time. But it will require far more time to resolve problems related to musical performers, or the human software, no matter how hard the dramatists may struggle with undaunted passion and resourcefulness to pursue their dreams. Similarly, in Japan, which could have overcome the problems of capital and technology much more readily, is still not successful in producing creative musicals, despite occasional ,attempts. Shiki, a Japanese theater company specializing in musical plays, still relies on direct importation of Broadway musicals or adaptations, which mainly involve replacing the actors with Japanese performers.

Korean theatrical artists, despite their lack of experience with musicals, have been quicker and more impulsive in pursuing the production of creative musicals, as compared to their

Japanese counterparts; however, they have yet to enjoy much success. Korea is still at a stage of paying handsome royalties to foreign concerns for local adaptations of foreign musicals, especially well-known Broadway musicals.

The most serious problem involves the dearth of skilled playwrights, composers and songwriters. Korea relies on general playwrights to write musical plays and general music composers to compose the related music and songs. As for songwriting, this is not even recognized as a specialized field, but rather a role to be assumed by the playwright It is no exaggeration- to say that Korean playwrights and composers sorely lack expertise in creating musicals, with the extent of their training often being limited to the viewing of several musical plays.

Moreover, due to the still- undeveloped level of Korean plays overall, the ¡ capability of playwrights has much room for improvement Naturally, it would be umealistic to expect these individuals to produce a successful script without the benefit of additional training and experience. Composers are an even bigger problem because they tend to regard composing music and songs for musicals as being an affront to their profession of composing general music. Nonetheless, they

indiscreetly take on the challenge of composing some 20 songs for a musical, simply on the strength of having produced one or two popular hit songs. Above all else, a lack of understanding about drama is their most serious shortcoming. Accordingly, the nurturing of composers who specialize in musicals is a most urgent task There are also similar problems with Korea's producers, choreographers and set designers. In general, a person engaged in the production of plays happens to receive an offer to work on a musical play, and then after working on several musicals, this individual is considered an expe1t. Of course, tl1ere are competent producers, choreographers and set designers.

However, their expertise is typically limited to a respective area, while they lack sufficient understanding of the fact that a musical is produced through a carefully integrated relationship among its many components.

Even though musicals have enjoyed relative success in recent years, they still have not become firmly established as a cultural industry, and thus the compensation and working conditions for performing artists remain substandard. Consequently, this adverse environment makes it impossible for musical performers to reach

their full potential. For instance, since a theater can be leased for only a short period, tD.e producer is forced to minimize up-front costs because of the need to recover production costs from only a limited number of performances. Accordingly, a stage designer has to complete all the sets in merely two or three days. The lighting and sound effects have to be installed in even shorter time, with the musical being performed for the public after just one or two dress rehearsals. Under such circumstances, it is virtually impossible to produce a highly polished musica~ no matter how talented the personnel involved may be.

But Korean performers, even though their number remains far too low, boast skills and talent. Even though they lack the opportunity to undergo advanced training, their inborn talent and enthusiasm take a back seat to none. It is the ability of Korean performers that Japanese theatrical people are most envious of. It is recognized that among China,Japan and Korea, Korean performers are particularly gifted in singing and dancing. Future prospects are even brighter, thanks to the increasingly growing exposure of plays and movies in recent years, which has led to some 40 colleges and universities

across the nation having established performing arts departments. However, college education currently focuses not on basic fundamentals, but rather highbrow theories, and is thus failing to produce immediate results. The cause of this lies in Korean education's chronic preoccupation with academic achievements, even in the arts, reflected in a tendency of recruiting professors with a doctorate degree from an advanced country. This propensity has contributed to an anomalous situation in which the number of drama critics exceeds that of producers by threefold; about 150 people serve as drama critics while there are only some 50 producers. In any case, one of the key factors behind optimism for the advancement of musicals in Korea is the growing ranks of talented performers and related personnel.

Outlook for Korean Musicals Thus far, the current status and problems of Korean musicals have been discussed. In looking ahead, it can be s.:'lid that its future is quite promising. The musicals produced in Korea might be criticized for superficially imitating Western musicals, while relying on conventional as well as unorthodox methods, but they have neve1the21

less succeeded in arousing widespread public interest dming a brief period of less than 20 years. Korea can look forward to a bright future in that popular interest in musicals is definitely on the rise. Moreover, Korea managed to escape from the ranks of the poorest nations in the world in record time, and became a member of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Devlopmn~ despite being a divided nation. Whether its formula for economic growth can also apply to its cultural development may well be an entirely separate issue But the growth attained by and expected of Korean drama, an area perceived to be the most underdeveloped of all cultural areas, is still worthy of world attention.

Out of all the major cities in the world, some 40 performances are staged during the course of a single evening in perhaps less than 10 cities.

Seoul and Tokyo are the only Asian cities among these 10. In some ways, this may represent even a greater miracle than Korea's remarkable economic development. The government has played a considerable role in this situation. Back in the early 1970s, the government established the Korean Culture and Arts Foundation, a manifestation of its commitment to the enhancement of Korean culture and 22

ruts. Last year, the government raised the share of the cultural budget to the total budget by one percn~ thereby fulfilling a long-held desire of the cultural community and paving the way for the government's major cultural policies to be focused on project impiementation. As such, the government is now undertaking multifaceted efforts to in1prove the public's quality of life while placing greater emphasis on the important role of the performing arts, including drama. A good example of this is the successful "sarang ticket" system introduced in 1991. This system, which involves government support equivalent to about 30 percent of the ticket prices for performing arts, will be expanded to all parts of the nation starting this yem¡.

The administration, recognizing that musicals are enjoying ever increasing popularity, has extended comparable assistance to musical productions as well. 'For musicals, the government offers benefits in the form of production subsidies and favorable terms for theater leases. Throughout the entire world, the production of musicals is being actively pursued mainly in the United States and Britain, and in Japan in Asia. Furthermore, all musicals are produced as strictly commercial ventures without relying on government

Korea has recently seen the establishment of specialized companies that invest in the production of musicals, mainly because the downward trend in interest rates has motivated investors to seek out alternative investments.

But the participation of such an investment partner means less profits for the producer.

In such case, the producer will often end up with just enough money to launch the next project.

assistance, and especially not direct subsidies. The Korean government, however, perceives locally produced musicals as a valuable cultural product A case in point is its decision to provide substantial support when the original musical The Last Empress staged performances on Broadway several years ago, and when the nonverbal musical play Cooking, which attracted keen interest during last year's Edinburgh Festival, conducts an overseas tour.

If the performers' almost foolhardy sense of daring and challenge can be combined with govemment assistance (of course, Korean artists always complain that the government is too miserly when it comes to cultural investments), and public support, then the Korean musical has a chance to develop to a world-class level within the next 10 years. Certainly, it seems unrea1istic to foresee it becoming a large-scale cultural industry on a par with Broadway or Blitain's West End, but it may at least develop into a refined cultural product highly enjoyed by Koreans and foreigners alike. It is also possible to look forward to the time when Korean musicals are no longer a stepchild to Westem musicals, but instead feature truly unique Korean characteristics. + 23

The Seoul Metropolitan Musical Company and the Seoul Perfonning Arts Company Performance Groups Specializing in Korean Musicals Kim Moon-hwan .

Professor of Aesthetics, Seoul National University

t is not possible to explore in detail all the groups, performances, producers and performers involved with modern Korean musical performances in this article. Therefore, the following will focus on a comparison of two publicly funded theaters and their groups as well as a discussion of related issues. The Seoul Metropolitan Musical Company and the Seoul Performing Arts Company are the most prominent performance groups which currently perform musicals in Korea, the latter of which is operated with funding from the Korea Broadcasting Advertising Corporation.

The Seoul Metropolitan Musical Company will be examined first because of its longer history.

I

The Seoul Metropolitan Musical Company The Seoul Metropolitan Musical Company traces its roots to the Yegreen Musical Troupe, the first of its kind in Korea created in 1961, under the motto "To the past, present, and future." The Yegreen Musical Troupe changed its name to the National Entertainment Group of the National Theater and later came under the management of the Seoul Metropolitan Government as the Seoul Metropolitan Entertainment Group. The timing of its involvement 24

The Seoul Metropolitan Musical Company and the Seoul Performing Arts Company are the most prominent performance groups which currently perform musicals in Korea.

with the Seoul metropolitan government coincided with the opening of the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts in 1978. The group's name was officially changed in November 1977, but the first performance under its new name was the special concert "The Great Progress," which marked the opening performance for the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts, in November 1978.

After staging a total of 46 musical productions (2-3 productions annually), starting with Don Quixote (May 25, 1979), in 1998 the group again changed its name to the Seoul Metropolitan Musical Company. Among these productions were adaptations of foreign works

such as Don Quixote, Po1gy and Bess, and Fiddler on the Roof; however, most were written and created by Korean artists. The performance of Fiddler on the Roof (March 11, 1994) is particularly noteworthy in that it was a joint production with the Lenkom Theater of Russia.

Songs included in foreign musicals such as The Fantastics and A Midsummer Night's Dream were adapted by Korean artists as was the case with children's musicals including The Beauty and the Beast, The Little Mermaid, Alice in Wonderland, jungle Book, and Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves With a few exceptions, most performances of Korean productions were never rerun, a huge waste of valuable resources. Nevertheless, much knowhow about the staging of musicals has been accumulated through the production of such musical plays.

Productions based on historical ¡events or folktales include The Story of Huh Saeng, The Tale of Seong Chunh yang, Embracing the Sea, The Satire of Yangban, I Am a Swallowtail Butterfly, Hanne, and The Wedding Day I Am a Swallowtail Butteifly, based on The Story of Yi Chun-pung was successful to a certain extent in terms of entertaining theatergoers. However, it often went overboard with excessive sexual content, much to the audience's

embarrassment. For example, in the second act, village women describe Yi Chun-pung philandering and sexual prowess in graphic detail. Moreover, the inclusion of a chastity belt in one of the scenes was perhaps anachronistic since the use of such belts in those days is questionable. The production and performance were more or less unremarkable, although there were efforts to include both modern and classical rhythms. The production nonetheless failed to produce any tune worth remembering, which represents the paramount challenge of a musical performance.

Considering the difficulty of integrating traditional Korean cultural elements into a musical framework created in a Western country such as the United States, the second production of The Satire of Yangban in 1987 was considerably more polished compared to its 1986 debut performance. Much of the excessive dancing and scenes that resulted in a series of meaningless segments, which only pleased the eyes, were eliminated while the overall quality of the performance was greatly enhanced. All in all, the performers demonstrated high-quality singing, dancing and acting, further bolstered by the passionate performance of the cast's veteran performers as well as newcomers. The set successfully created a space for high-energy dancing and performing as well as effectively expressing the atmosphere of the setting. The practicality of using mostly background curtains is all the more understandable since overseas performances make use of such curtains as a convenient and effective stage tool.

It is recommended that the primary colors used in the costumes for the gisaeng (geisha-like entertainers) be toned down to create a more harmonious atmosSijipganeunnal (Wedding Day), 1978, Seoul Metropolitan Entertainment Group Don Quixote, 1980 Tl1e Tale ofSeong Chun-hyang, 1986 (top to bottom) 25

phere while the songs should be rearranged to better suit the characters.

Furthermore, a fundamental change in the script is necessary in order to enhance the overall quality of the musical. Although Bak Ji-won, the original author of The Satire of Yangban, was able to clearly convey his message, that the yangban needed to take a step back and reflect upon themselves through the characters he created, the musical failed to get this point across. In the musical version, the lead characters, two lovers belonging to the lower class of society, attempt to challenge the existing social order, but their roles fail to make a meaningful impact. More active and progressive characters are needed. And instead of two characters, perhaps one would be more effective to further consolidate the structure of the musical.

Such adjustments would help prevent the second half from lagging behind, compared to -the first half. The conflict between the two concubines of the older son in the latter half of the play appears to be overly drawn out.

The Dandelion of My Hometown, The Dancing City, Over the Hills and Ridges, Yanbian Popcorn, Seoul People, Gando Arirang, and Victor Choi are among the musicals with story lines related to modern society. Of these, Yanbian Popcom deserves comment.

Yanbian Popcorn is the first musical written and produced by Oh Tae Seok, although he had been expanding the involvement of music in his productions. Having Kim Do-hyang as the composer added to its appeal. The abundance of props and seemingly chaotic scenery, typical of Oh's works, were in harmony with Kim's experience as a commercial songwriter. Oh's ability to convey the play's message amid the seemingly confusing set and Kim's meditav ~ music created an effective synergy. Another positive aspect was that the The Satire ofYangban, 1991 The Beauty and the Beast, 1993 The little Mennaid, 1994 (top to bottom) 26

structure of the production made it suitable for small-scale theaters rather than large performance halls. The musical also succeeded in balancing the lighter side of the story, a satire on life in Seoul as seen through the eyes of ethnic Koreans from Yanbian, and the more serious aspects of this subject. The overly anti-establishment stance of the play, however, is a shortcoming. Since these ethnic Koreans came to Korea to earn money in an urban environment, and returning to nature in Rousseau style would be unrealistic, it might have been more persuasive to have the play present a more humanistic urban culture.

Moreover, the finale is anticlimactic compared to the opening, with the curtain call suddenly appearing before the musical even had a chance to blossom and make a strong impression on the audience. The choreography is also licking in vivid depiction of the setting and characters. The set and costumes, however, managed to camouflage such shortcomings. Kim, the composer, enjoyed a successful debut by captivating the audience with delightful songs and theme music of beautiful melody.

Performances designed to commemorate special events are another form of musical widely produced in Korea. The members of the Art Performance Group, who represented South Korea at the first performance group exchange program in 1985, were mainly comprised of members of the Seoul Metropolitan Musical Company. Congra-tulatory performances commemorating the 1986 Asian Games and the 1988 ¡seoul Olympic Games, as well as the 1987 America Continent Tour and the 1991 Japan Tour, all purported to "contribute to the national interests by publicizing the richness of Korean culture worldwide through musical performances."

The basic objective of the Seoul Metropolitan Musical Company, which

YanbianPopcom, 1993 (top) A Midsummer Night's Dream, 1997 (left) 'l1

changed its name from the Seoul City Musical Theater in 1998, has remained unchanged through the years. As such, Fiddler on the Roof and Po1gy and Bess have been rerun while The Moonlight of Silla, an adaptation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, was performed outdoors in front of the fountain at the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts.

Meanwhile, children's musicals such as Dinosaur Adventure and The Little Prince continue to be performed. The Maniage of Pi Gal Ho, The Leopard of Kilimanjaro, and Carmen Cita from Cmmen are some examples that reflect

the recent trend of adapting Broadway musicals.

The Maniage of Pi Gal Ho, in particular, takes full advantage of its characteristics as a small-scale musical production. Adapted from The Marriage of Figaro, it is a musical comedy set in modern Korea that satirizes the rampant materialism o( Korean society.

Including Mozart in the musical would not have been a bad idea. As if showing a determination to sever all ties with Mozart in an effort to ensure independence from the original piece, The Maniage of Pi Gal Ho has no music by Mozart, though a parody of Mozart is included at the beginning, which the musical could do without The musical pieces written by Choi Jong-hyuk, who has much collaborative experience with the Seoul Metropolitan Musical Company, comfortably filled the musical, supported by the repeated use of the theme melody throughout the play.

Cmmen Cita is a small-scale musical already performed by Maekto, a private performing arts troupe. Carmen Cita shares common ground with The Maniage of Pi Gal Ho in that it is an adaptation of the classic Carmen by Bizet. However, unlike The Maniage of Pi Gal Ho, which does not include Clockwise from the top left: The Marriage ofPi Gal Ho, 1998; Porgy and Bess, 1999; Cannen Cita, 2001 28

music by Mozar~ Ca.tmen Cita includes the music of Bizet. Carmen Cita also seeks to introduce the world of theater by employing the play-within-a-play technique. The original performance drew positive reviews, showing the potential for touring abroad The reproduction adopted Fosse-style choreography, thereby eliminating the simple aspects of early musicals and creating an overall powerful and spectacular impression. Perhaps this was an attempt to accommodate the contemporary tastes of audiences.

The recent productions that appear to be trying too hard to imitate the musicals on Broadway are another issue that warrants further discussion. This trend has reached a point where one wonders whether classical productions would better suit the Seoul Metropolitan Musical Company rather than modern musicals.

The theater has been instrumental in producing top-class male performers including Song Yong-tae, Nam Kyeongeop, Park Cheol-ho, Gwak Eun-tae, and Kim Beop-rae, as well as female performers such as Kim Yeong-ja (Kim Mijung), Kang Hyo-seong, and Lee Hyegyeong. Aside from popular guest performers like Lee Duk-hwa and Yoon Bok-hee, screenwriters such as Park Man-gyu, composers such as Kim Hee-jo, Choi Chang-gwon, and Choi Jong-hyuk, and producers like Lim Young-woong and Lee Jong-hoon have all worked together with the company, contributing much to the development of Korean musicals.

The Seoul Performing Arts Company The establishment of the Seoul Performing Arts Company is closely linked with inter-Korean exchanges. Its public relations material states that the Seoul Performing Arts Company was "established on August 1, 1986 to spearhead active cultural exchanges between North and South Korea and to promote to the world the creativity and excellence of our arts as the performance 29

New Fire, 1987, Seoul Perfonning Arts Company (top) The Han River Flows, 1987, Seoul Perfonning Arts Company (bottom) When the Day Comes, 1991, Seoul Perfonning Arts Company (opposite page)

group representing Korean culture."

After its debut of New Fire in March 1987, the center "divided its activities into dance and musical productions in 1988. The dance troupe's performances focus on singing and dancing, traditional dance and dance dramas using mainly percussion instruments. The musical productions are mostly modern adaptations of classical works." Among the 26 musical productions it has staged, a few have been modern. Although reorganized into a foundation, the basic philosophy of the Seoul Performing Arts Company has remained more or less constant.

The productions presented by the Seoul Performing Arts Company clearly support its founding ideology of "subliming everyday Korean life into an artistic form to provide a true reflection of our lives based on traditional culture and the wisdom of our ancestors, thereby solidifying our national identity as a people and consolidating the basis for a culture of a united nation." The theme of

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New Fire-the advent of a new fire to ~

brighten our future through devotion, unity, unconditional love and sacrificewas all-encompassing. However, the musical content was too unfamiliar for general understanding and lacked audience appeal.

Such experience, however, provides an opportunity to learn from mistakes.

That is, the need to maintain certain standards was essential. The essence of art lies in its creativity. Sacrificing communication with the audience for the sake of creativity, however, leaves room for criticism, especially for a group supported by public funding. On the other hand, a performance relying totally on common sentiments without including original interpretation or

structure is also a waste. The audience's reaction to the second act of The River Han Flows (July 1990) is a good example. The first act, which has a solid story line, is based on a scenario written by Yu Chi-jin about the life of the people in Seoul who failed to cross the Han River during the Korean War. The leading character is wanted for stealing from a U.S. military camp. While being pursued, he prevents the leading female character, who has learned that her fiance was killed in battle, from committing suicide and then crosses the river with her. The second act, however, is overly simplified, focusing on "the miracle of the Han River." As a result, the

second act fell short of arousing the emotions of the audience.

Arirang, Arirang (November 1988) depicts the pain of separation and the desire for unification. A third:generation Korean who lives in Tashkent, Russia, where he works as a reporter, fulfills his grandfathds wish by visiting Korea to cover the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games and to find his long-lost relatives. In Korea, the reporter learns of his parents' tragic fate: his mother is buried on the Jeongseon Arirang Hill and his father was a leader of the independence movement against Japanese colonial rule.

Arirang, Arirang risks being overly sentimental by having the leading character

... fall in love during his brief visit.

Although based on common emotions, When the Day Comes (April1991) can be hailed as a success for aesthetically distancing itself from sentimentality.

This production was the first for the Seoul Performing Arts Company after it was changed into a foundation. When the Day Comes is not simply a musical adaptation of a play but attempts to recount the story of Princess Nangnang and Prince Hodong to provide an opportunity for the audience to reflect upon themselves.

When the Day Comes was a success in that it effectively elicited the intended emotional response by harmonizing

the music, set, and choreography with the story line. The producer is well known for his ability to achieve a powerful impact at the right place at the right time, which was evident in the production of When the Da y Comes.

For example,, he used two choreographers with different styles to prevent the overall choreography from becoming monotonous.

Most of the modern productions staged by the Seoul Performing Arts Company have received relatively favorable reviews, although its classical pieces have fallen far short of expectations.

Rad1er Ambiguous (June 1989) is a gocx:l example. The production was based on

the classical The Story of Ong Go-jib.

Whether the production succeeded in expressing the satire of the original story or was simply a critique of modern life, that is the question. The audience might have expected more than a superficial satire or critique since nowadays we live in an ideologically diverse community. The production, however, focused on "performing to achieve laughter throughout the play in a serious, stifling, and unstable society." In other words, the writer targeted "overcoming irony and vanity by discovering our inner self" as the essence of the play, which was totally different from that expected by audiences.

The productions of the Seoul Performing Arts Company demonstrate that musicals, like other theatrical productions, require well-written scripts.

The favorable reviews and rei¡un enjoyed by Typhoon, based on Shakespeare's The Tempest, are evidence of this fundamental principle.

Typhoon was produced after Sin Sun-hi, who has a background in stage arts, was appointed president of the center in 1998.

Zdenek Bartak from Czechoslovakia was invited to compose the musical score for Typhoon, which was promoted as the "musical of the millennium."

His music is based on American-style music while at the same time including elements of traditional East European music. Despite the variety of rhythmic changes throughout the play, large-scale symphonic orchestral music dominates the overall atmosphere. The unity of sounds creates a depth that at times seems burdensome. The fusion with Korean traditional music, however, is effective. The production breaks away from the usual format of combining Korean music with musicals-spontaneous and obligatory insertion of traditional folksongs such as samulno1i (percussion quartet music). Through the use of court music, the production effectively escaped from settling for the commonplace. Overall, the collaboration of 31

Bartak and Kim Dae-sung was truly innovative.

The set designed by Sin Sun-hi also contributed much to creating memorable impressions of Korean theater while the costumes and lighting were superb.

As in the interpretation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, the theatrics of prcx:iucer Lee Yoon-taek led the audience to a totally different point of view of our lives, thus earning high acclaim.

Conclusion From the perspective that publicly funded theaters should contribute to ensuring the public's right to cultural emichment rather than engaging in campaigns that promote national interests or the views of the govern~ the eff011s of the two companies have not always been positively assessed. The success of the small-scale musical performances are much acclaimed compared to those of large-scale productions since the latter are often staged for the purpose of promoting political and/or social interests. ¡Large-scale productions can only elicit the hoped-for emotional responses from audiences when they succeed in presenting artistic performances of high quality and when such efforts are adequately supported. The seemingly excessive overlapping common ground of the two institutions is another issue that needs to be addressed. It is necessary to differentiate the two such that, for example, one specializes in traditional plays and the other in modern works. In this regard, the productions the National Opera of North Korea have staged since 1990 could serve as a reference. The National Opera of North Korea's productions, combining the five known pansori works with popular songs is considered experimental, that is comparable to the musical plays recently being revived in South Korea. +

The Seoul Performing Arts Company's production Typhoon earned high acclaim 32

33

sculptured dragon produced at a kiln in Gwangju, Gyeonggi-do, Korea was sold for $7.65 million at a Christie's auction in 1996, the highest price ever paid for a ceramic piece.

The production of Joseon white porcelain came to an abrupt end in the 1920s during Japan's colonial rule, when cheap factory products from Japan overwhelmed the Korean market. Efforts to revive the Korean ceramics tradition were initiated in 1945, the year Korea was liberated from Japanese colonial rule. Thereafter, full -fledged revival attempts were pursued in the 1960s centered around Icheon. However, since the secrets to producing traditional ceramics had not been passed down, modern day potters had to endure seemingly endless trials and errors.

Due to the unwavering dedication of these ceramists, Icheon, Yeoju, and Gwangju were reborn as centers of traditional ceramic production. The areas surrounding the three towns abound in firewood and clay. Japanese tourists, 36

who were quick to recognize the excellence of Korean ceramics, became the biggest buyers, fueling a boom in Korea's ceramics industry.

Korean ceramics are distinct from the ceramics of China, Japan, and other Asian countries. Korean ceramics exude a scholatJs spirit while Japanese ceramics reflect the samurai culture. Chinese ceramics are large in size and rather gaudy in style, deeply rooted in palatial influences. Traditional ceramics originated in China and later spread to Korea, Japan, Europe, and the United States.

Japanese ceramics, in particular, were introduc;ed to the world early on and then dominated the world ceramics market in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Whereas Korean ¡ potters favored white and blue for porcelain, Japanese potters used diverse colors and developed a wide variety of products for everyday use. The ceramics of the two countries are quite different in their form, design, and usage as well as aesthetics. Japanese bowls, for example, are

perfectly round whereas Korean bowls purposely incorporate imperfections.

Japanese ceramists acknowledge that such asymmetry can be extremely difficult to create. Outsiders hailed Korean ceramics, which displayed a post-modern design and form well ahead of the times.

lcheon Since the 1960s, Icheon has been the Mecca for potters specializing in Korean traditional-style ceramics with a concentration of approximately 350 kilns in the area. The World Ceramics Center, which was built in Icheon to serve as the main event venue for the Expo, will host a variety of events including exhibitions and conferences. Toyaland, a theme park related to ceramics, and Gombangdae, a full-scale model of a kiln, have been constructed in the area along with a ceramics center, performance hall, theater, and ceramics sales center. The World Ceramics Center includes a studio where there are ceramic-making demon-

strations, workshops conducted by ceramists from around the world and children's ceramics exhibitions. There is also a traditional kiln for holding kilnlighting events. Meanwhile, the World Ceramics Civilization Exhibition will showcase world-class ceramic masterpieces including some 340 works of art "' from the Gugong Bowuguan of Beijing, China, the Museum of Oriental Ceramics of Osaka, Japan, and the Sevres National Ceramic Museum and the Louvre, both of Paris, France.

In addition, the first World Ceramic Biennale, which is being held in conjunction with the Expo, will feature a ceramic competition, invitational exhibition, International Ceramic Conference, and International Ceramic Workshop.

Lawson Oyekan of Nigeria was awarded the Grand Prize in the competition for his work The Healing Being Thirtyeight leading ceramic artists of the 20th century including Rudy Autio, Nino Caruso, Claudi Casanovas, Bernard Dejonghe, Kimpei Nakamura, Peter

Entrance to the main venue of the World Ceramics Expo 2001 in Icheon (top, opposite page) The World Ceramics Center (bottom, opposite page) The approach to the Expo site (above) Gombangdae-gama, an exhibition hall in the shape of a traditional smoking pipe (top right) Street performances (middle and bottom right)

Voulkos, Yao Yongkang, and Maria Kuczynsk are participating in the invitational Modern Ceramic Exposition.

At a nearby village of potters, visitors can see firsthand how ceramics are produced and try their hand at creating their own works. Visitors can also stop by the Haegang Ceramic Museum, known for its traditional-style ceramics.

Icheon is also popular for its hot springs, an add itio nal treat for visitors. The Icheon ceramic village has gained recognition for its artistic value from Japanese tourists whose visits to the area have steadily increased since the normalization of Korea-Japan relations since the

mid-1960s. The ceramic village has been enjoying notable success as an international tourist attraction.

Yeoju The Yeoju area, where 60 percent of all Korean ceramics is produced, has been renowned since ancient times for top-quality white clay. At a hall created for the Expo near the Buddhist temple Shilleuksa, visitors can view ceramics for everyday use from all over the world.

The Ceramics Exhibition of Native Tribes features ceramics created by the native tribes of the Americas, Oceania, and Africa.

The Korean Pottery Exhibition displays everyday crockery with a dark brown glaze while the World Ceramic Scenes from the World Ceramics Expo 2001 venues in Yeoju: the International Practical Ceramics Hall (above, top left); a traditional kiln (middle); a commercial ceramics hall (below); the 250-meter-long Mist Plaza (opposite page) 38

Design Exhibition includes the works of 20 influential designers of the ceramic design industry. Earthenware from ancient China, ranging from the Neolithic era to the Han Dynasty, can be seen at the Chinese Ancient Earthenware Exhibition.

Visitors to the Hangul Nara Theme Park near Yeongneung, the tomb of King Sejong, can learn about the Korean alphabet Hangeul, which a group of scholars created under the direction of King Sejong. The park features a 150meter-wide exhibit of the 28 letters of . the alphabet that are each 1.5 to 2 meters in height.

Yeoju is home to Silleuksa, a Buddhist temple on the shores of the Namhan River, as well as the Moga Buddhist Museum, which houses a collection of about 6,000 Buddhist works of art, including paintings and sculptures. The birthplace of Empress Myeongseong, the wife of Emperor Gojong (r. 1863-1907) who was killed by Japanese assassins, is also located in Yeoju.

Gwangju Gwangju is home to Saongw on, a kiln that produced white porcelain for the court for some 500 years during the Joseon Dynasty. The Joseon Gwangyo Museum was built to provide a glimpse of the area's glorious ceramic history. A 4-meter-long, 60-meter-wide fresco entitled "Images of Time- Earth and Fire" has been installed at the museum along with a video/laser work by video artist Paik NamJune.

The Dokkaebi Nara Theme Park, a sculpture park, tea ceremony hall, natural studies site, and computer game hall

Korean ceramics exude a scholar's spirit while Japanese¡ ceramics reflect the samurai culture.

Chinese ceramics are large in size and rather gaudy in style, deeply rooted in palatial influences.

have also been completed for the Expo.

Th e Dokkaebi Nara Theme Park is designed to create a uniqu e illusion thanks to its sloping terrain and flowing wa ter. The North Asian Ceramics . Exchange Exhibition includes displays of some 200 ceramic items that highlight the ceramic exchanges between Korea, China, and Japan.

The Korean Modern Ceramic Exhibition features works by 54 contemporary ceramists, w hile the Korean Traditional Ceramics Exhibition shows traditional items such as Goryeo celadon, and Joseon w hite porcelain and buncheong (porcelain characterized by slip decoration). The High-Tech Ceramics 40

Scenes from the World Ceramics Expo 2001 venues in Gwangju: a park where children can create their own pottery works (top, opposite page); a video work by Paik Namjune (below, opposite page); entrance to the Gwangju site (top); an overview of the Gwangju site (middle); an outdoor sculpture park (bottom)

Exhibition introduces the vast potential for ceramic materials applications in such high-tech fields as aerospace, electrical engineering, and bioceramics.

There is also an exhibition featuring the works of descendants of the Joseon pot- ters who were abducted to Japan during the Japanese invasions of Korea.

Tourist attractions around the Gwangju Expo site include a pottery village, Namhansanseong Fortress, Cheonjinam, a shrine to Catholics in Korea who were persecuted in the late 19th century, and Paldang Lake.

In addition to its role as a cultural exposition, the Expo seeks to strengthen the link between art and industry as the facilities built for the Expo will continue to be ¡used for this purpose. The World Ceramic Biennale, a festival for ceramists from all around the world, will provide an opportunity for Korean ceramics to gain worldwide recognition. .....

Influenced by modern art, ceramics is undergoing dramatic change. The .,_ boundaries of painting, sculpture, and ceramics have become blurred, opening the way for ceramics that do not fit any particular form of art. Ceramic materials also have myriad industrial applications including heat-resistant spacecraft surfaces, artificial bone China, automobile engine parts, superconductive materials, and water purifiers.

Ceramics is a form of art that vividly reflects the spirit of the artis~ so much so that it could be said that the fifth element of ceramics is "spirit." Visitors to the World Cet:amics Exposition 2001 Korea will be able to experience all that potters have created since the beginning of civilization as well as the ceramics used for high-tech industrial products. + 41

Jongmyo Jerye is the ancestral rites held to honor the Joseon Dynasty royalty enshrined in Jongmyo, the royal ancestral shrine of the dynasty. Jongmyo Jerye-ak is the music performed during the rites.

ground orchestra, in the courtyard; the way the music begins and ends; and the way the passages are constructed. On the other hand, the main feature of the songs, their melody, is based on new arrangements of traditional Korean works such as the Goryeo gayo. King Sejong composed the 15 songs in 'jeongdae-eop" to praise the military feats of 44

his ancestors in establishing the Joseon Dynasty, with the 11 songs in "Botaepyeong" meant to glorify the cultural advancements that his predecessors achieves:! in leading the nation to order and stability in the years following the founding of Joseon.

King Sejong was able to create such epic music compositions about the establishment of the Joseon Dynasty because he actively participated in the musical theory research that he initiated, from which he gained an intimate understanding of the fundamental form and content of the ritual music genre. It

is important to note that Sejong's efforts did not stop at acquiring knowledge of abstract musical theories but went on to devise a broad vision of bringing the standard of ritual music to new heights by seeking a harmonious fusion of Asian musical traditions with the Korean musical traditions passed down from previous kingdoms and dynasties.

One can gain an appreciation for Sejong's vision from his following observations during the a-ak reform project: ''It does not seem right that though our ancestors listened to Korean hyangak while alive, we play Chinese a-ak for their memorial rites." "Although we cannot say that all Korean music is good, we should be ashamed to compare it with that of China, as not all Chinese music is good." Perhaps these thoughts motivated Sejong while he was composing ''Botaepyeong'' and 'jeongdae-eop."

King Sejong's support of Korean music w ent only so far as to have "Botaepyeong'' and 'jeongdae-eop" performed at official state banquets but not for royal ancestral rituals. Instead, in his efforts to leave behind a permanent record of his composition, Sejong invented a unique music notation method. A type of mensural notation called jeongganbo, it represented a major improvement over existing methods of music notation that indicated only the high and low of the notes. In particular, it was devised to record the characteristics of Korean music, which is very different from Chinese music in that the duration of each note is irregular. In light of the fact that in the West, mensural nota. tion methods first appeared in the 12th century and the notation methods used today were developed in the 15th and 16th centuries, and that such methods came into use in Japan in the 16th century and in the 18th century, this clearly demonstrates just how innovative an invention that Sejong's jeongganbo method was at the time.

King Sejong also had all the new compositions of his era, including ''Botaepyeong'' and 'jeongdae-eop," care-

fully documented, involving a total of 520 pages that were later included in the offi5=ial record of his reign as an individual chapter. These efforts were critical to the transmission of "Botaepyeong'' and ')eongdae-eop" to future generations, as these records paved the way for King Sejo to further build on Sejong's enthusiasm and vision for music.

King Sejo did not accept the conventional practice that a-ak was the best choice for accompanying royal ancestral rituals. He ordered that the rites for his ¡ ancestors be performed to the accompaniment of ''Botaepyeong'' and ')eongdae- eop," while resolutely declaring that the a-ak performed at rituals should be replaced with sok-ak, or folk music. He also ordered the court musicians to refine ''Botaepyeong'' and ')eongdae-eop" into a form suitable for accompanying the ancestral ritual rites. As a result, the originalll songs in ''Botaepyeong'' and 15 songs in 'Jeongdae-eop" were restructured into 11 songs each, along with the . length of the pieces being adjusted to better suit the ancestral rituals. For their fmther refinement as ritual music, a new movement was added. The movement highlighted the piece's role as ancestral ritual music with the inclusion of phrases such as: "We should not forget if we are ¡~ blesd by our ancestors;" "May our ancestors help and witness our descen"' dents flourish;" "Please bless our pious descendents with good fortune and long lives." These were taken from a passage in the Chinese classic jungyong "To support and protect the fate of one's descendents by performing ancestral rites at Jongmyo."

In addition, King Sejo also left behind records of his rearrangements of "Botaepyeong" and "Jeongdae-eop," based on the 16-jeonggan 6-daegangbo method, an improved version of Sejong's 32-jeonggan jeongganbo, which were later included as part of the chapters on music in the official records of Sejo's era, thus permanently endorsing "Botaepyeong'' and 'Jeongdae-eop" as the official musical compositions for Jongmyo

Jerye-ak. These efforts helped establish a uniquely Korean ancestral music tradition that is different from that of China! i one that follows the classical methods in terms of cerewonial formalities, but also vividly reflects distinctive Korean traditions in its music.

"Botaepyeong" and 'Jeongdae-eop" have since been recognized as Korean masterpieces, a most honorable and precious offering to the Joseon royalty.

These works are generous and fulfilling, clear and gentle, in harmony with the accompanying rituals ti a remarkable example of how the musical ideal of

"Botaepyeong" and '1eongdae-eop" are largescale musical works that accompanied the Jongmyo Jerye, which combined elements of Chinese and Korean traditional music.

appeasing both humans and the gods has been realized. Jongmyo Jerye-ak as we know it today, came to concentrate on control and acceptance, simplicity and fluidity, instead of relying on excessive solemnity and technical artistry, thanks to the vision and dream of "music for ruling'' reflected in the course of its development as a musical form. + 45

INTERVIEW

1bree-decade Journey of the World ofArt

Park Myung Ja of Gallery Hyundai KimHan-soo Staff Reporter Culture Desk, The Chosun Ilbo

n April 4, 1970, a small storefront opened on a corner of Insa-clong in the Jongno-gu district of Seoul. The proprietor was a young 29-year-old mother of two, her second child born only a year before. Back then, the streets of Insa-dong were lined with antique and stationery shops, but there was no place that actually exhibited paintings available for sale to the general public.

During the Japanese colonial period (1910-1945), there were "galleries," as they were called, at places such as the Hwasin Depattment Store, but these spaces were mainly rented out by stores as exhibition halls. Painters and sculptors, therefore, struggled to show their ar~ seeking every opportunity to display their works at such places as the Newspaper Center or the Central Information Agency. The commercial sale of works of art was an unfamiliar concept in those days, when paintings were offered as gifts and the recipient would later "show his appreciation" based on his assessment of the value involved. So naturally, opening an art gallery that buys and sells art was seen as an utterly preposterous idea, an event worthy of media coverage. A newspaper reported on this curious "event" under the headline "Att for Sale."

The success of such a venture was something no one could predict, somewhat like the start-up tech companies of today.

Now, 31 years later, the date April 4, 1970 can be clearly recorded in the histo-

0

46

at the Bando Gallery, then the only ry of Korean modern art as the day when the country's first gallery was gallery in Korea. The Bando Gallery was opened. And that young housewife is not a private commercial gallery but rather a quasi-government enterprise that now recognized as a prominent figure in received significant financial support the history of Korea's galleries and modfrom the U.S.-based Asia Society while ern art Park Myung Ja, Korea's first art dealer. being operated by the artists themselves.

"I really didn't know anything about In those 31 years-long enough for mountains and rivers to change three art It seems I'm a very optimistic person, times, as Koreans say-the original 66because I simply thoug~ 'I can learn.' I worked very hard to learn everything I square-meter exhibition space in Insadong has since evolved into Korea's leadcould. Back then, the Bando Gallery was ing gallery housed in a four-story buildmore like a hangout for artists than a gallery. People like Park Soo Keun, Yu ing across from Gyeongbokgung Palace under the name Gallery Hyundai. Young Kuk and Ucchin Chang would During this time, Park raised her two stop by before heading out for a drink." sons who now have families of their Exhibitions organized by curators were non-existent in those days; paintown, while also making the name ings were simply mounted onto a Gallery Hyundai !mown in the international art world. A song by the group crowded wall, as is done in frame shops.

ABBA goes, "Thanl< you for the music"; No painting was properly displayed, but artists would come by and complain: for Park, it would be fitting to say, "Why is mine hung in the corner?"

"Thank you for the att" She has presentMoreover, painter Lee Dai Won, who ed more than 300 shows in 31 year¡s and displayed more than 10,000 works on the was managing the Bando Gallery, landed walls of her gallery. An oil painting by a teaching position at Hong Ik University Park 5o? Keun, which she sold for 3,000 ¡ only a year after Park statting working at the gallery. And Park suddenly found won, is now worth an estimated 300 million won. The history o( the Gallery herself responsible for all the day-to-day Hyundai is now considered synonyactivities of the gallery, from exhibition mous with the history of Korean modand sales to managing artists. Overwhelmed by the pressure of trying to ern ar~ which owes much to Park's piobalance a tremendous workload and her neering accomplishments. home life, Park left the Bando Gallery in It was in 1960 when Park was introduced to the gallery business. A braided 1969 while she was pregnant with her girl just out of Sookmyung Girls' High second child.

But the art world would not leave SchooL she got a job as an office worker

Park Myung Ja has presented more than 300 shows in 31 years and displayed more than 10,000 works on the walls of her gallery. An oil painting by Park Soo Keun, which she sold for 3,000 won, is now worth an estimated 300 million won.

The history of the Gallery Hyundai is now considered synonymous with the history of Korean modern art, which owes much to Park's pioneering accomplishments.

. Park alone. The artist couple Kim Kichang and Park Rae-hyeon encouraged her to open a gallery. Kim Ki-chang was insistent. He told her: ''In other countries, most gallery owners are women. You will be good at i~ since you have good intuition and good taste. I will help you.

Don't let your talents go to waste."

"Thanks to his encouragement, I got up enough courage to open a gallery of . my own," Park said. It was in April 1970 that she opened her gallery in Insa-dong, with money pulled together by her husband from various sources. Sung Jae-Hu suggested the name Hyundai Gallery while Kim Choong Hyun did the calligraphy for the signboard. Practically every ¡~ established artist in Korea lent a helping hand, which shows how eagerly Korean artists desired to have a bona fide gallery "' in Korea.

"Young as I was, I worked very hard from the time I opened the gallery to put on as many shows as possible. That year I held a Park Soo Keun show and in 1972, an exhibition of Lee Joong Sub's works. It was a great moment for me when Park Soo Keun's wife told me how happy she was with the catalogue for the 1970 show. She had lived with much regret because Park had never seen a proper book of his works while

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Park Myung Ja, recognized as the first and foremost art dealer in Korea, is a pillar in Korea's modem art community.

47

he was alive. It made me proud that I had opened the gallery."

As the works of Park Sao Keun, who had passed away in 1956, had nearly all been sold by the time of the Hyundai Gallery show, the exhibition consisted mainly of paintings on paper with the exception of three oil paintings. Professor Yu Hong-june of Yeungnam National University, who later became wellknown with his book My journey through Cultural Relics, bought a painting on paper at the show. This purchase marked the beginning of a relationship that would develop beyond that of a collector and dealer of a1t Since then, the Gallery Hyundai has remained an oasis for Korea's modern artists. Many of Korea's renowned modern and contemporary artists held their first solo shows at the Hyundai Gallery, including Yu Young Kuk, Rhee Seung:Ja, Nam Kwan, Suh Se Ok, Kim Tschang Yeul, Lee Ufan, Chun Kyung-ja and To Sang-Bong.

The same goes for the masters' final exhibitions. Kim Ki-chang's retrospective was held here last year, while Pyeon Kwan-sik, To Sang-Bong, Choi YoungLim, Ryu Kyung-chai and Nam Kwan all held the last shows of their lifetime at the gallery. Park continues to organize 48

posthumous exhibitions of many a1tists.

Park still recalls the 1972 Lee Joong Sub posthumous exhibition with a rush of emotion. "We were having trouble getting works together and the press helped us a lot with our search. We ended up with 70 works on display and visitors lined up for hundreds of meters outside to see the show. I bought the painting Husband and Wife myself for 200,000 won, which was a large amount of money back then, and then donated it to the National Museum of Modern Alt." Park continued to hold exhibitions that spurred the interest of the public as well as the art world, all the while gaining fame. She arranged the 1973 show by Chun Kyung-ja, which drew huge crowds to Insa-clong, with people queuing up for blocks. She also organized the Kim Whan-Ki retrospective in 1977; Park . Soo Ke,un 20th memorial anniversary show in 1985; Kim Whan-Ki 15th, 20th and 25th anniversary shows in 1989, 1994, and 1999; and Lee Joong Sub special exhibition in 1999. The 1999 Lee Joong Sub show introduced the only self-portrait that the artist ever painted, adding to the aitist's mythic reputation. As can be seen from the list of artists, most of the representative figures in modern Korean art have passed through the Gallery

Reporter Kim Han-soo of The Chosun llbo interviews Park MyungJa at the Gallery Hyundai in Seoul's Sagan-dong.

Hyundai, which ranks as the premiere gallery of choice for today's artists.

Although it has been 31 years since the gallery first opened and numerous galleries have opened in that time, the Gallery Hyundai's absolute preeminence has yet to be challenged. What is the secret of this enduring success? Above all, it has to do with Park's management style. "Even in times of financial difficulty, I always make sure that the artists get paid first," she said. "Altists do not have a steady income. I knew this from my days of working at the Banda Gallery.

So when I sold a work, I would pay the . artist in full, even if the buyer was paying in installments. Even when all the works in a show didn't sell, I paid the artist for all the exhibited works. It was like buying the unsold works with my own money. For decades, that was how I managed my business and I think the artists came to appreciate this in the end."

Another significant contribution Park made to Korean modern a1t is that she helped shift the country's art scene,

which was then dominated by Oriental painting, toward Western-style painting wh_ile expanding its horizons as well.

"Around the time I opened my gallery, Korean-style paintings made up 80 to 90 percent of the sales. But most of the artists, maybe 70 percn~ were actually trained in Western-style art It occurred to me that it was only a matter of time before they would take over the art scene. My husband also advised that I should 'go with the artists.' So for some time after I opened, I held Western paint. ing exhibitions with the profits I made from selling Oriental paintings. Then in the late 1970s, with the boom in the construction of apartment buildings, the concept of the living room was introduced to Korean homes, which boosted interest in Western art" Because art collectors in Korea mostly belonged to the affluent class, Park came to know many of the country's elite through her work. During the late President Park Chung Hee's rule, Park . Myung Ja was responsible for selecting gifts for the president to present to the foreign dignitaries he met on trips abroad.

"Once President Park sent someone to me for paintings to take to the United States and Germany. I took ten paintings ¡¡ by Lee Sang-Beam and Noh Soo-Hyun to the Blue House for the president to see.

He didn't seem to like a thatched-roof <. house in Lee's painting and decided to take it to Germany, but just then First Lady Yuk Yeong-su said, 'I have to say I prefer the painting by Lee.' In the end, Lee's painting was given to America and Noh's to Germany."

Park added that it seems like no other presidents since Park Chung Hee have had much interest in art. No president since has attended any of her exhibitions except former President Kim Young-sam, who attended the opening of the Park Sao Keun 30th anniversary show in 1995.

Looking back on Park's three decades of dealing in art, her successful career definitely appears to be that of the consummate professional in Korean society.

Behind that glamorous success, however, lie many hardships that she has had to endure. After all, as a married woman, Park managed the gallery while at the same time fulfilling her responsibilities as a wife and mother and caring for her mother-in-law for 20 years. It is easy to imagine the pressure that she was under. She said: "I always tried my best never to let anyone think that I was neglecting any of my duties as a wife, mother or daughter-in-law. I make it a rule to cook rice for them myself every single morning." Every morning for the past three decades, she has gotten up at 5 a.m. to prepare breakfast and send everyone off to work or school, then spend over 10 hours at the gallery and pick up groceries on her way hom ~ from work This rigorous schedule leaves her no time for herself. ''I even have to sneak out to get my hair done," she says. She has never owned a red suit or an outfit with bright patterns because it can distract from the art. She has also maintained the same short hairstyle for 20 years. As for her female employees, Park advises them to wear "pants instead of skirts, so that they will always be ready to run wherever a client needs them to go." Asked how she was able to suppress even her personal desire, she replied: ''How can you expect to accomplish more than others when you're having as much fun as everyone else?" At the same time, she is grateful to her family for always being supportive of her career, instead of complaining.

"My husband has never made a negative comment about my work On the cont:J:ary, he bas always gone out of his way to find financial help when I needed it, even getting loans, never asking exactly what I needed the money for," she said "Since 1995, I have been opening the gallery on Sunday. My son persuaded me to do this. He said that we should give the weekend visitors to Gyeongbokgung Palace a chance to see quality art since we are located right across the street"

Park has overcome several crises in her career over the years, including the serious financial crisis that swept the entire nation in 1998, but she says she "never lost confidence." She had confidence when she first opened the gallery, and has never lost this self-assuredness through the years and through the different shows that she has held The same can be said of the exhibition titled ''Light and Movement in 20th Century Abstract Art," which was held from June 27 to August 15. ''When I first mentioned that I wanted to hold a show of 80 abstract pieces from the collection of legendary French art dealer Denise Rene, everyone said: 'No, not now, you will end up losing money.' But I believe that our society is also ready to understand abstract art.

Wait and see. This show will be a success, too."

Park says that "confidence is an essential trait for an art dealer." The work requires you to deal with people who have all the power and money in the world and once you lose your nerve, you cannot do the job. She also stresses that she has "never begged to sell an artwork" In this sense, Park seems to have the confidence of Denise Rene, who once said: "No matter how much money they offer, I do not sell to collections that do not meet certain standards. I cannot send the works that I have loved and supported to just any old place."

Perhaps Park was so insistent about putting on the ''Light and Movement in 20th Century Abstract Art" exhibition, despite the warnings of others, because it featured works collected by Denise Rene herself, with whom Park shares a similar fierce confidence and pride.

"I can still remember every single work that I have ever sold, down to the details of the sale itself, no matter how long ago it took place." The unrelenting drive that has made Park Korea's foremost art dealer no doubt comes from her keen eye and love of ar~ along with her professional pride and confidence as an art dealer. â&#x20AC;˘ 49

Traditional Artisan

Bojagi Craftswoman

Kim Hyeon-hui Lee Hyoung-kwon Head , Cultural Properties Research Institute

ntil not so long ago, we could enjoy watching our sisters do embroidery, making countless stitches, one after another, each with painstaking care. We used to watch our mothers turning the wheel of a worn-out sewing machine to make clothing for all the family. We watched the pants and jack.ets gradually take shape each time the bulky cast-iron scissors were used to snip and cut. With loving pride, we watched our mother's hands expertly handle a needle and thread.

When our sistetJs pile of embroidery began to spill over, it was time to arrange her marriage, which made our mothers busier than ever. The green jackets and red skirts traditionally worn by new brides, along with padded socks, aprons and quilt covers, which are now available at retail stores, were produced by the women of the house. They also created bojag~ colorful cloths of various size and color used to wrap wedding attides.

It was especially fascinating to watch the bojagi being made from odds and ends of leftover fabric, a process that resembled a work of art in the making.

Bojagi are not used much today and a museum is practically the only place they can be readily seen, but these cloths were once indispensable in Korean daily life. All Koreans, regardless

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Kim Hyeon-hui has given the traditional Korean bojagi a modem look and appeal.

of social rank, used them extensively for a variety of purposes. Apart from their practical uses, bojagi are fashionable ansi artistic, as well as being a popular folk craft among foreigners.

Bojagi are rectangular pieces of doth used to wrap, cover, or decorate objects.

In documents from the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), bojagi are referred to as bok, meaning "good fortune," a reflection of the folk belief that good fortune could be preserved within a carefully stitched bojagi. A typical illustration of this is the use of bojagi to wrap wedding gifts.

Traditional bojagi can be generally categorized as gungbo and minbo, depending on the user. Gungbo refers to the bojagi used within the confines of the royal palaces to wrap and store various items. They are distinguished by their refinement, which reflect discriminating aristocratic tastes. Among its various types are hotbo, unlined bojagi made of a single sheet of doth for storing bedding, including quilts and mattresses; gyeopbo, made of two sheets of doth sewn one atop the other used to store all manner of articles used in court ceremonies; sikjibo, made partially or entirely of oiled paper for handling food during court events; nubibo, quilted bojagi; norigaebo, used to store norigae, pendants worn on women's jackets; and dangchaebo, bojagi decorated with patterns of lightening.

Minbo refers to the bojagi used by . commoners. In contrast to gungbo, they are more a part of everyday life, such that their uses and material are more varied. They include jeondaebo, a beltlike bojagi for carrying documents and money; bobusangbo, larger-size bojagi used by bag merchants to carry their goods; huribo, worn around the shoulders while traveling; sangbo, used to cover a table; ibulbo, for storing away bedding items; hambo, to wrap a ham, a box of wedding gifts; and bandigeureut-

bo, to store sewing items. There are also special bojagi used for weddings, such as

gireogibo, to wrap a pair of ceremonial geese traditionally placed on the wedding altar; sajudanjabo, to carry a mes¡ ~ sage containing the "Four Pillars"-the year, month, day and time of birth-of . ,_ the bridegroom-to-be; yedanbo, for wrapping the gifts from the bride's family for members of the groom's family; and pyebaekbo, used when a newlywed couple performs ceremonial bows to members of the husband's family.

There are also bojagi for special purposes such as to cover the official record of the deeds of the deceased during a funeral, myeongjeongbo; to enshrine a portrait of the deceased, yeongjeong bonganbo; and to carry off a widow in a practice derived from an implicit social consent to their remarriage, bossambo.

Some people point to the compact size of ordinary Korean houses as the reason for the bojagi's development as such a widely used essential of every-

day life. Living in a small space as Koreans traditionally did, perhaps it was only natural for them to use bojagi so extensively, since they could be used for wrapping and storing even large bundles, and yet, when not in use, could be easily folded up for storage, taking up very little space.

But above all, bojagi can be said to have developed from the conscious effort of people to duly respect the objects they exchanged with others by wrapping them in beautiful cloth created with loving care. They also embody a superstitiol}s aspect as they were produced in the hope of bringing good fortune to the user. It has long been a belief of Koreans that something produced with great effort can contribute to good fortune. Today, bojagi attracts interest as much for its practical use as for its aesthetic and artistic value.

Koreans did not acquire new cloth for making bojagi. Because fabrics were not readily available in the past when

Kim's bojagi on exhibit at the Forum Space of the Gana Art Center in June

weaving had to be done by hand, Korean women kept all the odds and ends of fabric left over from dresses and quilts and used them to create exquisite wrapping cloths and covers. In essence, bojagi, a manifestation of the ingenuity of Koreans, whereby even odds and ends are pieced together to create elegant works, can be said to have been the forerunner of objets d'art that rose to prominence in the 20th century.

Because of the decorative motifs that are simple, yet abstrc~ bojagi are said to be reminiscent of the paintings of Piet Mondrian. But since bojagi were not created by attists or formally trained professionals, but rather ordinary people, they are all the more refreshing and truly unique. Being made from small pieces of fabric, there is generally no planned color scheme. Their makers demonstrated 51

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exceptional aesthetics in using subdued colors to contrast with brilliant, primary colors. As such, bojagi exemplify the creativity and artistry of Korean women who ingeniously made the most of their limited resources and repressed life.

Kim Hyeon-hui, a 55-year-old bojagi artisan, has created modern types of bojagi by adding contemporary motifs to the traditional bojagi's simple beauty and versatile function. Her bojagi are not simply everyday articles. A handicraft

Kim Hyeon-hui's silk patchwork bojagi (above) Kim Hyeon-hui teaches the basics ofbojagi making at the hnportant Intangible Cultural Property Training Center (right).

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demonstrating the sewing skills and refined aesthetics of Korean women, her bojagi are cultural works much admired by people from all over the world.

Her sewing skills, which she learned from her mother nearly four decades ago, have been her constant companion, helping her to overcome the loneliness

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often associated with middle-aged women and to actively pursue her dedication to bojagi. Rather than Kim Hyeon-hui's personal fortune, this is indeed the good fortune of Korea.

Bojagi have failed to receive due recognition for their artistic beauty because they have been so closely associated with the life of commoners, but their subtle elegance has been brought to life by the hands of Kim Hyeon-hui, while nowadays attracting global recognition.

Kim's bojagi are regarded as masterful works of art because they take the traditional elements one step further by incorporating contemporary artistic aspects. The Japanese were among the first to appreciate the value of her bojagi. Bojagi came to the fore after she held an exhibition in Japan, with her bojagi, demonstrating an exquisite harmony based on natural dyes, generating keen interest as superb fine art works, which transcend traditional patchwork cloths.

Today, her works are exhibited not only in the National Folk Museum of Korea, but also in the Seattle Asian Art Museum in the United States. Of late, some foreigners come to Korea primarily to admire bojagi and visit Kim's house to view her works. In addition, the cover of a Japanese home economics textbook features one of Kim Hyeonhui's bojagi, while a collection of her works was first published in Japan.

Perhaps it is a matter of course for the Japanese, known for their partiality to small pretty things, to find her bojagi so endearing. Nonetheless, it seems a shame that foreigners were the first to appreciate the value of this aspect of our traditional heritage which we have in large part overlooked Kim Hyeon-hui first became aware of the inherent beauty of bojagi, passed down by word of mouth by handicraft collectors, from her late teacher Yun Jong-sik, who had been carrying on the embroidery traditions of the Joseon Dynasty. Yun graduated from the Tokyo Special Art School during Japan's colonial rule of Korea, and then worked

as a crafts teacher in Gaeseong, North Korea and came to Seoul during the Korean War. She then managed a home fo ~ ¡ war orphans in Changjeon-dong, Seoul, while also teaching traditional embroidery to skilled seamstresses in her neighborhood. Kim Hyeon-hui, who was an excellent seamstress, began to study under Yun immediately upon her high school graduation, and systematically learned traditional handicrafts.

They shared a lifelong relationship as teacher and student, while working together to promote Korean handicrafts.

Yun highly praised Kim Hyeon-hui's . intricate needlework, saying: "I have never seen anyone of greater skill." Kim learned traditional embroidery and also crafted norigae, and then became fascinated with bojagi. She began to seriously study bojagi and later established her own unique world of bojagi, while giving up her work of embroidered folding screens and norigae, for which she had demonstrated outstanding talent.

The magnificence of Kim Hyeonhui's bojagi comes from her unique color sensibilities and painstaking needlework Her bojagi are all made of fabric dyed with natural ingredients, a practice that developed from her particular fondness for flowers. At first, she ¡ ~ wanted to re-create the colors of her favorite flowers on the patchwork bojagi. She did not find the colors of syn"' thetically dyed fabrics satisfactory, however. Although attractive, they did not compare with the more subtle colors of traditional bojagi. So she began using traditional dyeing methods.

"I personally dye all the fabrics I use.

I procure all the necessary ingredients, including mugwort sap, gardenia seeds, flowers of all colors, marsh snails and bugs, to dye the fabrics in my own way. I obtain the colors of nature with the natural dyes I prepare. For me, this process of producing natural colors is as intriguing and fulfilling as completing a bojagi. Many funny things have happened because of the natural dyes. One day, an employee from the water com-

pany came to see me. He thought the water meter at my house must be broken because my bill was too high for a household But I had just used so much water because I was working day and night dyeing fabrics. I have a tendency to stick to the end once I become engrossed in something."

Kim Hyeon-hui's close friends maintain that her bojagi are not mere works of art, but a manifestation of herself, reflecting her very soul. Never married, she has dedicated her life to bojagi.

Unlike other women who meet someone, fall in love, get married, and raise children, she married bojagi, while living with the single goal of creating ever more beautiful bojag~ with all the love of a mother for a child. In effect, her bojagi are_her cherished children. + Kim Hyeon-hui's handiwork (from top to bottom): a gossamer cover; bojagi with embroidered floral pattern; bojagi with pomegranate design

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/

ince the days of long ago, Mt. Gyeryongsan has been known as the place to go to pray for your dreams to come true.

The mountain looks like a dragon with a cockscomb on its head, with the Chinese characters of the mountain's name gye and ryong meaning chicken and dragon, respectively.

Reaching 845 meters above sea level, Gyeryongsan's height is not particularly noteworthy. But at its summit, where intriguingly shaped rocks are found, is an altar once used for worshipping the mountain gods, and from here you can enjoy a panoramic view of the entire area surrounding the mountain. On clear days, the cityscape of Daejeon is visible in the distance beyond Ssalgae, the cockscomb-shaped ridgeline from which the mountain got its name. Along with this scenic vista, the sunrise viewed from Cheonwangbong peak is a grand showpse of nature's beauty, a symbol of new hope.

Koreans have long held a deep affection for this mountain shaped like some kind of a dragon and chicken hybrid. In the old days, Koreans would put up paintings of chickens, tigers or dragons to greet the New Year, in a belief that these animals had the power to keep evil spirits away from their homes.

When there was an outbreak of a contagious disease, people would smear chicken blood on their gates or walls in the hope of scaring away the evil spirits that brought the sickness. A rooster is thought to have the ability to foresee future events while its crowing helps to keep track of time.

Before there were clocks, on cloudy days or at night, people would rely on the roostetJs crowing to tell time. Since a rooster crows at regular intervals, people were able to tell whether it was the middle of the night or the break of dawn.

They believed that with the rooster's crowing at the crack of dawn, the ani-

The valley ofDonghaksa Temple 56

mals that had wandered down to the village during the night would return to the mountains while the ghosts and evil spirits that ruled the night would disappear. This belief spawned all manner of superstitions regarding chickens such as it is a bad omen if a rooster does not crow on time as this indicates that something bad will happen. During the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), scholars studying to become senior government officials would hang a painting of a rooster in their study because the headgear of a high-ranking civil servant was shaped like a cockscomb. Similarly, tradition calls for placing a live chicken on the traditional marriage altar and sprinkling chicken blood on the ground after an ancestral memorial rite. On the other hand, dragons were believed to live in the deep waters of a pond, river or the sea, with the power to create rain or wind Therefore, in agricultural societies dragons were revered as gods who provided rain for the crops as well as guardian spirits. For Koreans, a farming people for eons, dragons were symbolic of authority and supernatural powers.

Unlike the terrifying monster-like dragons of Medieval Europe, in Asia dragons were identified with power and virtue, a notion that originated in China, and was later transmitted to Korea and Japan.

This belief led to the widespread use of

dragons in the paintings and sculptures of palaces and temples.

Even today, dragons still symbolize aspirations and achievements. If a pregnant woman has a dream about a dragon, it is believed that she will give birth to a child destined for greatness.

Fishermen fly a dragon ban.ner on their boat when heading out to sea in a belief that the dragon will bring them good fortune. When a man has a dream about a dragon, he might do well to invest in the stock market or buy a lottery ticket.

Because Gyeryongsan is shaped like a dragon with a cockscomb, the mountain has become a place where people in despair go to pray ardently at makeshift altars they set up themselves. There was a time when the mountain became the center of numerous religious cults, with its valleys crowded with men and women holding all kinds of worship rituals, prompting much social concern.

When things began to get out of control, the authorities stepped in to clean up the mountain, allowing Gyeryongsan to return to its natural state.

Gyeryongsan is surrounded by Buddhist temples including Donghaksa to the east, Gapsa to the wes~ Sinwonsa to the southwest and Yonghwasa to the southeast. Among these, Donghaksa and Gapsa are especially popular with tourists. In spring, the view of the val-

leys and mountain ridges from Donghaksa is truly spectacular, as is the . vista in autumn from Gapsa, situated at the northwestern base of Gyeryongsan which abounds with mature pine and zelkova trees.

If you stop at Gongju and climb the ridgeline that leads to Gapsa, you will come across the Nammae (Brother and Sister) Pagoda. A legend surrounding this pagoda tells of the love between a member of the royal family of the vanquished Baekje Kingdom and a woman from Sangju who was brought to Gyeryongsan by a tiger. About 1.7 kilometers from the pagoda is Donghaksa, a monastery exclusively for Buddhist nuns. Occupied solely by women, every corner of the temple grounds is clean and neat, wrapped in a calm serenity.

Here the nuns walk without having their heels touch the ground. The tranquility makes it seem as if you could even hear the footsteps of little birds.

The silence is so overwhelming that visitors from the city, constantly inundated by urban cacophony, are often mesmerized by the quietness. South of Gyeryongsan, around the Yongdong-ri and Bunam-ri villages in Duma-myeon, Nonsan-gun, is a unique site called Sindoan. This is where Yi Taejo, the founding king of the Joseon Dynasty, attempted to build a new capital in

Top to bottom: Inside one of the halls of Gapsa Temple; the main hall of Donghaksa Temple; the Gongju Museum in downtown Gongju 58

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February 1393, but had to abandon the project after a year due to the area's inaccessibility. Traces of the capital project still remain, including the foundation stones for the planned royal palace.

Whether you start from Daejeon and hike the mountain to Gongju, passing

by Donghaksa and Nammae Pagoda on the way, or you begin in Gongju and hike the mountain to Daejeon by way of Gapsa, Nammae Pagoda and Donghaksa, the trek will take no more than five hours. However, to fully appreciate Gyeryongsan and its attractions, it would be advisable to first stop by the museum in Gongju for an understanding of Baekje culture at its finest, and then head up to Gapsa and Donghaksa and finally Daejeon, an ideal final destination thanks to its Yuseong hot springs resort.

The Yuseong hot springs have been popular since the Baekje era. There is a legend that a mother who had observed a crane dipping its injured wing in the hot water used the spring water to heal her son who returned home wounded ¡from the war. But it was after Yi Seonggye, the founder of the Joseon Dynasty, stopped by Yuseong while searching for a site to build a new capit~ that the springs became popular. Two years after conquering Goryeo, Yi changed the country's name to Joseon. He first

60

had his eyes set on Seoul as the site for the new capitaL but two years later he became interested in the Sindoan region near Gyeryongsan. On his way to Sindoan to plan the construction of the new capital, he stopped by the Yuseong hot springs to relax. The hot springs became famous throughout the country after Yi's visit and even today remain one of the most popular hot spring resorts in Korea.

The Yuseong hot springs is legendary for its ability to cure people who suffer from pain and constant discomfort without any specific diagnosed illness. For these people, visits to the hot springs provide welcome relief to their suffering.

Yuseong, the hot springs resort area of Daejeon (opposite) The 1993 Daejeon Expo site (above) The Expo tower (left)

Other tourist attractions in the Yuseong area include the Expo Science Park, the site of the 1993 Daejeon Expo, and the Daedeok Research Complex, which has been dubbed Korea's Silicon Valley.

Within the 528,000-square-meter Expo Science Park are exhibition halls built for the '93 Expo by various corporate sponsors that feature state-of-the-att displays which are periodically updated as well as an amusement park with the latest in rides and entertainment facilities. + 61

MARKETS

ne of the things I remember most fondly about my childhood is accompanying my mother to our town market that opened every fifth day.

On market days, Mom would buy food and whatever else we needed. It was also the day when I would get some-

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thing new. For this reason, market day was a big deal in my early years. What excited me was getting a glimpse of things I couldn't see everyday and mixing with people in the bustling marketplace. Mom would walk way ahead of me as I lagged behind, stopping to look at all the alluring things displayed for sale. I would notice how far I was behind and rush to catch up with her, only to fall behind again.

Keeping in touch with the past by remembering the good old days is not as easy as one would imagine, as everyday events do not allow such luxury.

Market ,day, therefore, does not appear to have much meaning for people nowadays whether they live in the city or in the countryside. Waiting for the market day to arrive has become meaningless with products readily available anytime, anywhere. Nonetheless, a nostalgic sentiment unique to the market of bygone days still remains, for this is where the life of ordinary people can be observed

I recently visited the Gangjin marke~ a place that exudes a feeling of warmth, if not exactly the familiar market atmosphere of the past.

Gangjin, along with Haenam, is a major tourist attraction in the southern region of the country, known for its warmth and southern hospitality.

Located at the tip of Jeollanam-do province in the southwest of the Korean peninsula, Gangjin is known as one of the areas that enjoys the best sunlight year-round. It is also the birthplace of the world-renowned Goryeo celadon ceramics.

Given its location in the deep south of the Korean peninsula, Gangjin is among the first regions in the nation to be visited by spring. With Mt. Wolchulsan to its north, Gugang port and the ocean to its south, Gangjin is home to a wealth of picturesque scenery including islands, tidal flats, beaches, rivers, and plains.

Together with the Seomjin and Yeongsan rivers, the Tamjin River,

which flows from Mt. Wolch ulsan thrOLigh Byeongyoung and Jangheung to Gangjin Bay, is the pride of the local residents. The Tamjin River is of special significance as evidenced by the fact that Gangjin residents as well as the residents of Jangheung claim the Tamjin River to be their place of origin.

The name Gangjin oiiginated from Dogang, an earlier village where a military base was located, and the Tamjin River that flowed through the area.

Gangjin Bay, located between Doammyeon and Daegu-myeon, stretches to the center of Gangjin county, which surrounds the town of Gangjin. The Tamjin River flows into the bay whose shoreline extend s some 79 kilometers.

Although the salinity of the bay is low compared to other areas in the southern

region, the average water temperature is warm, providing a favorable environment for marine plants and shellfish.

Designated a Clear Water Zone in 1978, Gangjin Bay abounds in seafood products including littleneck clams, pike eels, laver, ark shells, prawns, clams, oysters, octopus, and gray mullet.

The water of Gangjn Bay is ideal for littleneck clams, while Gangjin ark shells, renowned for their great taste and size, are produced in the sea off Chillyangmyeon, Doam-myeon, and Daegumyeon. Gangjin eels, a traditional gourmet item, are found at the mouth of the Tamjin River where the water depth

The Gangjin traditional market that opens every fifth day (above) Shoppers browse casually on market day (opposite page).

Part of the permanent Gangjin market (right) 65

and temperature are optimal for their cultivation. Grilled eel covered with barbecue sauce is a pure delight. Another popular delicacy is eel porridge made with eel bones, sticky rice and garlic.

One of the best ways to experience Gangjin is to enjoy its local specialties.

The market that opens regularly in Gangjin is where all this unfolds.

Although much of the market's past glory has since faded, it still opens on days numbered with four or nine. The market includes a pottery section and fish section which are still popular among customers.

The market first opened in 1935 when Gangjin county was the center of an area that included five adjacent counties. With its convenient transportation system and wide variety of agricultural and fishery products, Gangjin was the region's commercial hub. In 1976, as retail trends shifted toward permanent markets, the county created a marketplace for both a permanent and a traditional market. At the time, a 1,419-square-meter 66

permanent market was built in addition to the traditional market site. The GangjiQ market, however, cou ld not escape the trend of traditional markets being consolidated into permanent markets and steadily declining. As a result, the commercial area of the Gangjin market has been reduced to the size of a country market.

Recently, Gangjin county has been making efforts to restore and reinforce the commercial vitality of the Gangjin market by reorganizing the traditional market. A campaign to this end was undertaken from September 1999 to July . 2001. The Gangjin traditional market, which operates alongside the permanent market, still features elements reminiscent of the past.

As with other traditional markets operating elsewhere, vendors with agricultural and fisheries products raised or caught by themselves are laid out on the wrapping cloths in which they were brought to the marketplace. The vendors seem to hardly notice the summer

heat, as they negotiate and hawk their wares to passersby. The bargaining and the small talk of the people engaged in the negotiations exude a sense of familiarity.

The famous Gangjin Toha salted seafood is available at bargain prices at the fish market. Here women with a Jeolla accent sell live octopus and Wando laver from seafood stands, making the visit well worthwhile.

A quite different atmosphere exists at the permanent market located next door.

The market seems to be closing up by . three o'clock as the seafood stalls, which account for most of the business, wind down for the day. The seafood stalls in the permanent marketplace, which sell fish caught in Gangjin Bay, open at dawn and close by early afternoon.

Although the scale and appeal of the Gangjin livestock market was once unrivaled, the up-and-coming Jangheung livestock market has since surpassed it.

The sense of loss and anxiety on the part of Gangjin residents is evident in

their eager explanation that even Wando people would travel to Gangjin by boat to visit the livestock market while cows from Jangheung would all be sold here. This is a loss not only to the Gangjin residents but also to visitors ¡ ~ who happen by, as they miss the opportunity to experience the prosperity of the past, as the nearby Haenam and '<.

Jangheung markets have come to dominate the traditional Gangjin market. As children holding their mother's hand curiously looking around the market are rarely seen these days, I sincerely hope that Gangjin market will be able to regain its vitality as a result of the reorganization efforts and thus attract more visitors and customers. +

Stalls full of fi¡esh fish at the traditional market (above) Produce vendors (top right) and clothing stalls (middle) at the traditional market Some of the nearly ammged stalls at Gangjin traditional market (right)

CUISINE

Koo Chun-sur Director, World Food Re search In stit ute

uring a visit to Korea, the world-renowned American writer Pearl S. Buck (18921973) was invited to a meal.

On the table was a beautiful wooden container embellished with an attractive flower motif. Curious, Ms. Buck asked: "What is this?" The host 68

replied, laughing: "Why don't you open it?"

When Ms. Buck lifted the lid adorned with floral patterns, she found a dish divided into nine sections containing different meats and vegetables arranged according to color-green, white, red, black, and yellow- and a stack of small,

thin pancakes in the round section at the center. The host explained: "You wrap a little of each of the fillings in the pancakes." However, Ms. Buck, delighted at being served such a lovely looking delicacy, said that she could not destroy its beauty by eating it.

From the ancient past, the people of

Gujeolpan, meaning nine-section pan, is not named for the food, but rather the dish it is setved in.

zero and ending wit nine, in repetitive cycles. This is why they believe the number nine is propitious.

The Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) observed a custom of limiting the number of side dishes served according to social rank, as an effort to discourage extravagance and prevent the waste of food. During its Shogun era, Japan also regulated the number of side dishes prepared for people of different social classes.

Korea, Japan, and Vietnam regarded rice as their staple, with the accompanying side dishes being complementary to the rice. The three countries restricted the number of side dishes served during official functions to three, six, or nine based on social rank Soy sauce, bean paste, and other condiments were not counted among the side dishes, however.

Society treated people in accordance to the class into which they were born.

For this reason, people tried all means to appear to be of a higher social status than they actually were, and also took care not to insult a guest by not extending an appropriate level of hospitality.

In such a society, the nine-section gujeolpan would have been an excellent way to treat guests.

Gujeolpan is not named for the food, but rather the dish it is served in. As for the term gujeolpan, "gu" means nine while "jeol" and "pan" refer to the nine divided sections. Regardless of how it originated, gujeolpan was an ideal means of serving food in a class-conscious society. In contrast to the majority of Korean food that is served in ceramic or brass containers, the gujeolpan dish is usually made of wood.

Basically, it was made with wood, and then coated with lacquer, while more elaborate versions were inlaid with mother-of-pearl.

Of the nine sections in a gujeolpan container, eight are used for the fillings, with the round section at the center being used for pancakes. Gujeolpan is a type of hors d'oeuvre in that it usually

Of the nine sections in a gujeolpan container, eight are used for the fillings, with th"e round section at the center being used for pancakes in which some of the fillings are wrapped to eat with a mustard or vinegar sauce (below).

the Orient, like their Occidental counterparts, have been fond of conferring meaning to numbers. To many Westerners, seven is thought to be a lucky number. In the same vein, Asians consider nine to be a lucky number and to represent a good hand in card games. Asians perceive the basic num69

precedes the main meal, with guests being free to pick and choose among the fillings to be wrapped in the pancakes.

The eight fillings can vary. Gujeolpan is so named for its serving dish, without regard to the particular kind of food served or the method of cooking.

Sinseollo, which is another Korean dish named after the serving receptacle, is a savory combination of meat, fish, and vegetables simmered in beef broth over

/

70

a charcoal brazier at the table. Like gujeolpan, it was named for the vessel in which it is served, rather than the food itself.

The fillings for gujeolpan are usually dry and prepared beforehand, and then arranged in the dish and served with tea or alcoholic beverages. Proper preparation involves paying considerable attention to the color arrangement of the fillings and achieving harmony between

yin and yang. The preparer should thus use ingredients that best represent the five different colors so that the colors create a pleasant harmony.

Only experts, however, will attempt to achieve a balance between yin and yang, with ordinary people mainly focusing on color. Because it is difficult to perfectly re-create the five colors, it is enough to use ingredients that best resemble the five colors.

The pancakes, which are white, are placed in the center section of the dish, while the black, blue (or green), yellow and red fillings are arranged in the outer sections.

Manna lichen, a type of mushroom, is most commonly used for the black color. When unava ilable, dried sea cucumbers are used instead For yellow, thin strips of fried egg yolk or yellow pimentos are most often used. Fried egg

white, bellflower roots or lotus roots are used for the white color.

Cucumbers, spinach or zucchini are used for blue/green, and red pimentos or carrots for red.

These raw ingredients are mostly sauteed or giilled, and then cut into a size that fits the pancakes, and arranged artfully in the individual sections. It would be all the better if a nutritionally balanced mix of mea~ fish, egg, green vegetables, and mushrooms can be attained.

According to Oriental ideology, health can be maintained only when the hot and cold qualities inherent in various kinds of food harmonize with one's body. This point should also be a major consideration during the preparations for the fillings to be served in g ujeolp

an

.~

.

_ ,_

+

Sauce Soy sauce: 2 tablespoons Sugar: 1 tablespoon Minced green onion: 4 teaspoons Chopped garlic: 2 tablespoons Sesame oil, ground sesame: 2 teaspoons Pepper to taste

Pancakes Add a pinch of salt to the flour and slowly add water. Stir well, and pour the batter through a sieve. Add oil to a heated frying pan. Drop in tablespoons of the batter to form thin pancakes to fit into the round center of the gujeolpan. Or use a round shape of appropriate size to cut the pancakes to size. Grill the pancakes on both sides.

Sprinkle the pancakes with ground ginkgo nut, fried bean powder or ground peanut, and stack the pancakes on top of each

Recipe

other in the center of the dish .

. lriged~nts Pancakes

(four servings) '

Flour: 1 cup

Preparing Basic Ingredients Beef and mushrooms: Slice the meat into

Salt: 1 teaspoon

strips 2-3 centimeters in length. Soak the

Water: 1Y.I cups

mushrooms in water until soft, remove and discard the stems, and cut the mushroom

Fillings

caps into fine slices. Season the mush-

Meat: 120 grams (preferably from the hip-

rooms with the prepared sauce.

bone)

Cucumber and bamboo shoots: Peel the

Dried mushrooms: 5 (medium-sized)

cucumbers and cut into 4-centimeter-long

Carrot: 100 grams

lengths. Cut into fine slices. Cut the bamboo

Manna lichen: 15 grams

shoots into thin slices.

Bamboo shoots: 150 grams

Manna lichen: Soak in hot water until soft,

Eggs: 3 (medium size)

drain, and cut into fine slices.

Ground gingko nut: 2 tablespoons

Eggs: Separate the white from the yoJk, add

Salt, pepper, oil, and sesame oil to taste

a pinch of salt and mix well. Fry and cut into 4-eentimeter-long strips.

Seasoning: Season cucumbers , carrots, bamboo shoots and manna lichen separately with sesame oil, salt, and pepper.

Sliced meat, green vegetables, mushrooms, thin strips of fried egg yolk and egg white, and other ingredients are placed in the eight sections in a colorful arrangement with the pancakes for wrapping them in the center section. It is visually appealing as well as being nutritious.

Saute the vegetables in oil and put aside to cool.

Arrange the fillings in the gujeolpan dish in alternating colors, placing similar colors opposite one another.

71

LIVING

Galjung-i, Jeju Work Clothes Kim Chong-du Poet, Principal of Jeju Bonggae Elementary School

arot refers to the traditional

G

work clothing worn by Jeju islanders involved with the farming, fishing, and livestock industries. It is made of cotton fabric that is dyed with the juice of unripe persimmons. The people of Jejudo call these work clothes galjung-i.

With the growing interest in natural dyes these days, man y people have come to prefer garments dyed with natural ingredients, and as a result, garot is attracting keen interest. Thanks to the development of diverse designs reflecting modern sensibilities, garot is being increasingly transformed fro m work clothes into clothing for everyday wear.

Given the a bsence of historical records or extensive research, there is no way of knowing exactly when the people of Jejudo started to use garot as work clothes, but it seems to have been after they started to wear cotton garments, while its use gradually developed into today's form. For instance, it may have been a process someone accidentally came up with while trying to find a way to make cotton clothing more d urable. Ano ther factor behind the development of garot may have been the abundance of persimmon trees in Jejudo, which produce a puckery tasting fruit with small seeds that is ideal for dyeing.

Making Garot Three things are needed to produce garot: cotton fabric, the juice of unripe persimmons, and direct sunlight. In 72

Cotton fabric dyed with the juice of unripe persimmons is dried under the scorching sun Qeft).

Nowadays, machines are used to squeeze the juice from unripe persimmons (top).

Persimmon juice for dyeing (above) 73

order to obtain the beautiful color and stiffness unique to garot, the juice must come from native Korean persimmons, which have a strong puckery taste due to their high tannin content. From midJuly to mid-August is optimal for dyeing garot when the sun is at its summer peak By mid-July, the rainy season is usually over and the sunlight is intense, causing the fabric to be sunfast dyed with the persimmon juice. When still not ripe, the persimmon seeds are not mature, so the fruit is filled with juice.

There are two ways to dye garot with persimmon juice. One is to dye the fabric before making it into a garment and the other is to dye the garment after its completion. Of the two, Jeju households have traditionally used the latter method of making the garment first and then dyeing it.

The dyeing process involves the following steps.

1) Pick as many unripe persimmons as needed to dye the fabric or clothing.

Remove the stems, and cut the persimmons into two or four sections so that they can be ground.

2) Place the pieces of persimmon in a mortar for grinding or process in a blender.

3) Place the ground persimmon in a cloth bag and strain the juice. Add some water as needed and squeeze out every drop. If using a blender, strain the juice through a filter.

4) Put the fabric or clothing in the persimmon juice, and stir so that it is evenly colored.

5) Smooth out the wrinkles of the dyed garment or fabric and spread out on a rack, or on a flat, sunny spot to dry. Keep rotating the dyed article so that the color fades uniformly.

6) Once the dyed article is completely dry, sprinkle it with water once or twice a day and keep out in the sunlight. Repeat the process for seven days. The final result is a reddishbrown garot as stiff as if it were starched.

A purse made of cloth dyed with persimmon juice (top) Persimmon dye has different effects on different kinds of fubric (left).

74

Shape of Garot Garot is modeled after the hanbok, Korea's national costume, though modified somewhat to make it more comfortable for work The jackets for both men and women are in the shape of the traditional unlined summer hanbok jacket, while the pants are of the hanbok style. Because garot was intended to be worn when working, not much attention was given to its style. In addition, since housewives made garot for their own households, the shape differed according to the artistic flare and needlework of the individual makers.

Advantages of Garot Why is garot favored as work clothes? Why do the people of Jejudo continue to wear garot when working even today? The answer involves the advantages of garot. First of all, garot does not soil easily. Because it is stiff and coarse-as a result of being dyed with persimmon juice-dust and other impurities tend not to cling to the fabric, making frequent washing

unnecessary. Second, the persimmon juice stiffens the fabric so much that there is no need to starch or iron the clothing after laundering. And because the fabric is porous, it is cool to wear and does not stick to the body even when it is damp with rain or sweat.

Third, it is long-lasting as the persimmon juice makes the fabric especially durable.

The persimmon juice also acts as a disinfectant such that the material will not rot even when left unwashed for a long time with sweat stains. Fourth, it is economical because persimmons, unlike today, were cheap and easy to come by in the pas~ and could be used as a dye without straining the household budget.

For these reasons, garot has been po~­ lar with the residents of Jejudo in the past and tgday as well.

Cho Chang-yun is busy all swruner long dyeing fabric with persinunon juice (above).

A woman's suit made from persinunon-dyed cloth (below)

A New Fashion Innovation Interest in garot is on the rise today in keeping with the growing preference for natural dyes and distinctive styles.

The demand for garot featuring modern designs continues to grow steadily. In response to such trends, Jejudo is producing and selling not only traditional galjung-i made of high-quality fabrics, such as cotton and hemp, but also jackets and pants with a modified hanbok style. Today, a wide range of ready-made garot in diverse contemporary styling is available, as well as shirts, dresses, vests, and hats.

The demand for garot incorporating design elements from Westernstyle attire is expected to increase. But one of the, problems that need to be addressed in order for garot to become more popular is the limited range of colors available. The current dyeing process is also influenced by climatic factors, while native persimmons with a high tannin content are also becoming less common, making it difficult to obtain suitable persimmons.

Another problem is that the color tends to fade over time. + 75

he pine is Korea's representative tree. In particular, the pine has influenced various spheres of Korean life, such that Korean culture is often referred to as "pine tree culture." The reason for this is the lifelong affinity that Koreans harbor for the pine tree. The people who made Korea their home in ancient times maintained an intimate connection with the pine from the moment they were born Amid the fragrance of burning pine branches and dry pine needles, they grew up in houses constructed of pinewood, while becoming familiar with tools and farm implements made of pinewood, and even consuming parts of the pine as part of their diet And when they passed away to the next world, they were entombed in a casket of pine planks and then buried in the pine forest behind their home. Having lived a life dependent on pin~ trees-being born, raised and dying among them-the Korean people's culture is intertwined with the pine and can thus rightfully be . described as "pine tree" culture.

78

Buryeong Valley in Sogwang-ri attracts visitors with its scenic beauty (above).

Warning against the illegal felling of trees, stone markers were used during the Joseon Dynasty to protect forests of high quality pine trees reserved for Use by the royal household (below).

Accordingly, the pine is often called minjoksu, or "tree of the people."

The pine is Korea's most common tree, with Sogwang-ri being the area where original pine trees are best preserved. Hence, it would be proper to describe the forest there as Korea's representative forest. In spite of today's extensive roadway network, the Sogwang-ri forest is not so easy to visit, for it is nestled in a valley in the far north of Gyeongsangbuk-do province, surrounded by the Taebaek mountain range.

Until just a few years ago, the road leading into Sogwang-ri was narrow, unpaved and difficult for passenger cars to traverse. The road is still unpaved but it has been widened and compacted to accommodate vehicles. It would be easy to rush right past the valley running along both sides of the Sogwangcheon Stream, the source of Buryeong (Buddha Reflection) Valley. It would indeed be a pity to hurry by an area of such picturesque scenery.

The pines surrounding the valley do not differ significantly from those with-

in it I would recommend that you stop here for a moment to take in the marvelous landscape. If you are blessed with the opportunity to visit this valley during May or October rather than the crowded months of summer, you should park alongside the roadway and enjoy the trees stretching out as if to embrace the valley. Spring's freshness, visible in the glistening reflection of the crystal clear rivulets cascading over large, flat boulders, or the radiant forest basking in the autumn glow, reveals a truly unique natural beauty. Gazing at the streams reflecting the deep blue sky and - pines, one realizes that the realm of the divine hermits, often mentioned in traditional Korean stories, is not necessarily so illusory after all.

The only village in Sogwang-ri Valley is located about four kilometers from National Road No. 36. Those who have not arranged for food and lodging elsewhere should stop¡ by the village store, which doubles as a homestay. Slash-andburn farmers used to live here and there throughout the valley, but after armed communist guerrillas infiltrated the Samcheok-Uljin area in October 1968, everyone had to reside in one area, which became the village.

At Sogwang-ri hidden away in this remote mountain valley, you can see, in addition to the splendid forests, many cultural relics related to 1he pine tree.

The pines near the ancient forest-preserve marker, the shamanic altar, and the traditional Korean house built from the wood of a single tree are good examples. The latter catches your eye immediately upon entering the village. Built of timber from a single tree, this house vividly demonstrates the traditional relationship that the village has maintained with pine trees. Providing enough timber to build an entire house, the original tree must have been truly magnificent Another site worthy of attention is the village's sacred tree, which has long been associated with shamanic traditions and beliefs. What makes this tree noteworthy is the light it can shed on the

Korean people's philosophy toward nature. Rising skyward as if to pierce the heavens, it stands some 300 meters to the north of the village. Situated on a hill to the left of where the Sogwangcheon Stream merges with the Taegwangcheon flowing in from the right, this sacred tree with a taboo cord wound around its trunk is the village's tutelary deity. One should pause before this tree for a moment to appreciate its majestic splendor.

One other place to stop on the way to the pine forest is the area next to Sogwangcheon Valley where the forest preserve marker, or hwangjangbongpyo, is located. This is the most recently discovered h wangjang bongpyo::

Three others had previously been found at the entrance to Guryongsa Temple on Mt Chiaksan in Wonju, Keunjeorgol at Hangye-ri, Inje, and Hwangjanggol Valley at Dusan 2-ri, Sujumyeon, Yeongwol, all in Gangwondo province.

A hwangjangbongpyo, also known as hwangjanggeumpyo, is an inscription made by order of the royal court on a rock face which states that the adjacent fores~ due to its exceptionally high-quality timber, was to be protected and nurtured, while being off-limits to unauthorized cutting. During the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), whenever there was a death in the royal family, fine tan-colored pinewood was used to produce double coffins in which royal family members were buried. This kind of pine was

called hwangjangmok. Hwangjangbongsan were protected as royal forest preserves in order to ensure a ready supply of hwangjangmok for the royal coffin craftsmen known as jaegung.

Mountain hwangjangmok preserves were called hwangjanggat or hwangjangsan in Korean. The latter term referred to mountains with stone inscriptions designating the areas as offlimits to the public to protect hwangjangmok pines that had already reached maturity. The hwangjangbongsan system was initiated in 1680, the sixth year of the reign of King Sukjong.

To reach the hwangjangbongpyo, follow the road from Sogwang-ri toward the Taegwangcheon Stream. After crossing four bridges and then going up the road some 200 meters, you will find the inscription on the mountain slope between the bottom of the valley and the road. This hwangjangbongpyo has stood here for centuries, practically unnoticed, in silent witness to history.

The inscription is carved onto a natural rock with a single line of four characters on the left and five lines with 19 characters on the right The four characters on the left are eight centimeters in height and three millimeters in depth, reading 79

A 500-year-old red pine tree stands at the foot of the trail to Seokpo (above).

A well-crafted sign of Sogwang-ri forest (below) /

"Sanjik Myeonggil" (The mountain keepeJJs name is Myeonggil). The four rows of 19 characters on the right read: "The border of this hwangjangbongsan extends from Saengdal Hill to Mt. Anilwangsan to the Daeridangseong Fortress."

Sogwang-ri is therefore the only location where a visitor can see, in one place, a traditional hanok (Korean wooden house) built -from a single tree, a sacred pine tree with the village's shamanic spirit altar, and an inscription marking a forest reserve whose trees were used for making coffins for the royal family.

However, our main interest is the pine forest, which serves as a poignant symbol of the unique Korean character.

If you walk about three kilometers along the forest road alongside the Sogwangcheon Stream up from the hwangjanggeumpyo, you w ill come across groves of geumgangsong, the original Korean pine. I wou ld recommend :taking the national forest road that cuts through Satgatjae Ridge at 1,119 meters above sea level on its way to Seokpo for a breathtaking view of the pines, especially when visiting in early or late summer, before or after the summer vacation season. As a fire-prevention measure, this area is off-limits to the public from late autumn until spring, when the first buds appear.

At the entrance to the forest road where it heads sharply upward toward Satgatjae Ridge, a 500-year-dd pine rises majestically with a commanding presence. You should stop and get out of your car at this point. To fully appreciate the essence of the Taebaek mountain rauge pines, one sho uld cross Satgatjae Ridge on foot.

The Yangbaek region (northern Gyeongsangbuk-do province and southern Gangwon-do province) situated be tween the Taebaek and Sobaek mountain ranges has been revered from ancient times as an area of especially high-quality pines. For two decades from the mid-1950s to the mid-1970s, the local Chunyang Train Station was well

known as a collection and transport point for the area's timber. The pinewood transported from here to places across the peninsula was known to consumers as chun yangmok, or Chunyang timber. Even today, the pines from this area are more often referred to by this name rather than geumgansong pines.

In the past, anyone passing through the Buryeong Valley area between . Bonghwa and Uljin would have been und oubtedl y awed b y the st raight geumgangsong pines reaching toward heaven. These extraordinary pines, with trunks over 30 meters tall, are the source of dense, tan-colored wood that was unrivaled as a high-quality building material from ancient times.

The geumgangsong pines, nestled between the Yangbaek mo untain ranges, were famous even beyond Korean shores. The Koryuji Temple in

A walking path through a dense grove of red pines

Kyoto, Japan, is home to a famed wooden sculpture of the Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva (Goddess of Mercy) sitting in a crossed-legged contemplation pose.

This statue, which is considered to be the grandest artistic masterpiece of Japan's Asuka Era (c. 7th century) was designated National Treasure No. 1 by the Japanese government. Indeed, this masterful work is said to be comparable to Rodin's Thinker and the Venus de Milo. However, resembling the giltbronze Maitreya Bodhisattva image (National Treasure No. 83) in a similar posture that was produced during Korea's Three Kingdoms period, the statue is believed to have been created in the Silla Kingdom and then transported to Japan. This hypothesis is based on the fact that a significant number of giltbronze and stone contemplative figures (those sitting with one leg crossed over the other) have been found around

Bonghwa, Gyeongsangbuk-do, such that it can be assumed that many such figures were also created from wood in this area. At any rate, this hypothesis is certainly worth further consideration.

If this hypothesis can be proven, it would be reasonable to assume that the wood used to create the Japanese sculpture was from the geumgangsong pine forest. Even though this contemplative figure is the treasure of another nation, it certainly enhances our appreciation of Korean pin&s when we consider how our ancestorJs creativity went into fashioning this wood into something that became an invaluable cultural heritage of the entire world.

Pinewood from the Taebaek mountain range was thus used to create a leading national treasure of another country, yet when we look at these pines, there arises a perplexing question that cannot be easily dismissed. The trees of the

Taekbaek range grew straight upward for more than 30 meters. Why then do the pines of more densely populated areas in the central, western and southern areas have curved or crooked trunks? This question is even more intriguing when you consider the pine forest growing around Gyeongju and the nearby areas of Cheongsong, Bonghwa and Uljin. Compared to the pines growing in the Cheongsong and Chunyang areas with their straight trunks and tapered crowns, the Gyeongju pines have crooked trunks and slightly flared crowns. The explanation can be found in the way in which the Silla people utilized their forests.

For more than 1,000 years, for firewood and timber to build their homes and palaces, the Silla people in the Gyeongju area selected only high-quality pines with straight trunks from the forests around them. With the straightest and best trees constantly being cut down, the trees of inferior quality were left to propagate offspring. The process was perpetuated with the best of these trees being cut and the crooked ones left to grow and reproduce. After over 1,000 years of this selective process, the only trees in the area now are crooked and unsightly.

Those who research cultural history related to forestry often point to Rome's penchant for hot baths as a major cause of its downfall. In order to assuage the public's growing discontent with the political situation, the Roman authorities continually provided hot water to the baths free of charge. As a result, not only the forest areas around Rome, but even the distant forests of its sprawling empire were cut down for firewood to heat the baths. Such indiscriminate destruction of forest areas for maintaining the baths resulted in the degradation of soil quality and vital farmlands, causing decline in production and eventually leading to the fall of the Roman Empire.

81

Trucks loaded with red pine logs (above) Chunyang Train Station was renowned as a trading center of pinewood from the Yangbaek area. The wood that was distributed to across the country from here was called chunyangmok after the train station of its departure (right).

From my perspective as a forestr y scholar, I would like to go out on a limb and suggest that Silla may have followed a path similar to Rome, by wantonly destroying its forests and exhausting its resources to the point of ultimate collapse. In Gyeongju, the Silla capital, there existed over 40,000 tile-roofed houses at the time of the kingdom's heyday.

According to ancient records of that period, a royal edict required that residents use only charcoal for cooking and heating, so as to save pine branches and firewood for other purposes. The impact of needing such vast quantities of firewood to bake roof tiles for houses and produce charcoal for over 40,000 households, as in the case of the Roman baths, would have inevitably led Silla down a destructive and irreversible course. It thus seems reasonable to speculate that over time, the forests around Gyeongju became barren, which led to the degradation of the area's arable land and the decline of the nation's fortunes. In support of this theory, scholars believe that the flowering of Silla's Buddhist culture relied on the availability of extensive forests.

Numerous Silla monasteries created large temple bells such as the Divine Bell of 82

King Seongdeok, or Emilie Bell as it is popularly known (National Treasure No. 29). ¡.To cast such a bell, copper would have to be smelted from copper pyrites, requiring temperatures of over 1,000; £ Celsius for this process, thus consuming tremendous quantities of firewood from surrounding forests.

The pine forests in the Gyeongju vicinity, which fueled the creation and maintenance of such a vibrant culture, eventually fell into ruin. As a result, even the pines around the royal tombs, which would have been generally preserved, are now, like those around them, bent and twisted. As such, it is not surprising that the pines of the Taebaek mountain range-an area not far from Gyeongju but highly inaccessible prior to the 1~50s-remain high-quality specimens even today.

It is a pity that the Sogwang-ri forest no longer enjoys the fame it once did.

There are stories about how trees, an arms-span wide, were felled and even after being cut into three or four pieces, ox carts still struggled to transport the logs. However, such massive trees are no longer found in the area. It is thus remarkable to hear stories passed on by

local elders, who will tell you: "The trunk was so wide that after cutting the tree down, six people were able to sit on the stump and have lunch."

The pines of this area did not escape the plunder of Korean forests during the Japanese colonial occupation, and likewise, during the era of the Syngman Rhee government. Then in the 1970s, they were further victimized by the sorip hokpari, a parasite that afflicts pine trees.

The good news is that the government, recognizing the value of the area's pines, is continuing efforts to preserve and manage the forest by having it designated a protected area. We should all do our part to protect this natural treasure. Although it will take years to regain its former majesty, if nurtured and preserved, there is no reason that it should not, in the near future, develop into a magnificent forest of unsurpassed splendor. With this in mind, last year the Forestry Department, along with the Citizen's Movement to Grow the Forests of Life, designated the Sogwang-ri forest "a beautiful forest that must be preserved as we move toward the 22nd century." +

MASTERPIECES

The Masterful Calligraphy of

Gitn Jeong-hui Yu Hong-june Professor of Art History, Yeun gnam University

im]eong-hui (1786-1856, sobriquet Chusa) was among the most distinguished calligraphers of the late Joseon Dynasty 0392-1910). He is frequently cited as one of the four greatest masters of calligraphy of the Joseon Dynasty, or even oL the entire history of Korea. Whatever the case, among all of

G

Gim Jeong-hui's calli9.raphy was of such a truiy exceptional style thatlt is most difficult for others to emulate.

Korea's prominent calligraphers, Gim Jeong-hui by far ranks tops in terms of his artistic consciousness and spirit, as well as the prodigious volume of work he produced. Even from a broad perspective of viewing Korean calligraphy as part of Asian art, in comparison to the calligraphers of China and Japan, he was the foremost master of calligraphy of his

The inscribed name plaque of this archives at Bongeunsa Temple in Seoul is the work of GimJeong-hui, a renowned calligrapher of the Joseon Dynasty known by his penname Chusa.

83

time, enjoying both international fame and recognition as well as an acclaimed historical evaluation.

Gim Jeong-hui was born to a distinguished family of the Gyeongju Gim clan. He was the great-grandson of Gim Han-sin, a son-in-law of King Yeongjo (r.

1724-1776). In 1809, when 24, he accompanied his father Gim No-gyeong on a trip to Beijing. A government minister, his father: had been designated to lead an envoy to China. Gim Jeong-hui returned after making friends with many of Beijing's leading scholars and artists, including Weng Fanggang (17331818) and Ruan Yuan (1764-1849). After his return, Gim continued his exchanges with Chinese scholars, and further raised the level of his learning by studying the classics of the Qing Dynasty, in addition to devoting himself to bibliographical studies of old documents and epigraphic materials of ancient times. His scholastic excellence is ~;eadily evident in his representative essays ''Discussions on Inquiry into Truth Based on Facts" and "Study of Monuments Built by King Jinheung of ¡the Silla Kingdom."

Gim Jeong-hui also experimented with development of a new form of calligraphy based on such learning, while eventually establishing a highly individualized form of calligraphy that came to be known as the "Chusa style."

At that time, Chinese scholars were also carrying out diverse experiments with seal characters and the bold and simplified square-style calligraphy found on ancient steles. This resulted in the development of a form called "Zhuan script" or "seal character script," which became widely popular and in time replaced the forms introduced in Beopcheop, a book outlining the styles of prominent calligraphers that was considered the quintessential textbook Li Bingsui and Deng Shiru (1743-1805) are generally recognized as the founders of the stele research movement that led to the extensive propagation of the Zhuan script, inspired by the inscriptions on ancient stone tablets. There were sever84

a! reasons they modeled their calligraphy style based on epigraphic materials.

During the Qing Dynasty, the calligraphic style developed by Dong Jichang (1555--1636), a notable painter, calligrapher, connoisseur, and critic of the Ming Dynasty, was popular in and around the imperial court; however, the literati of southern China pursued individual styles.

In particular, these involved Jin Nang (1687-1763), one of the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou, and Zheng Xie (16931765). However, their search for more individual styles took them down a path of extreme eccentricity, which made it

difficult to establish legitimate schools of calligraphy. Deng Shiru and Li Bingsui, the next generation of calligraphers, broke away from this eccentricity to pursue individualistic forms based on classical styles.

At the time, the motto of Chinese calligraphy was "Entering classics and exiting to a new world." Such calligraphers as Deng Shiru and Li Bingsui diligently replicated the inscriptions on ancient tablets, while developing their angular and square style of writing into a modern calligraphic form.

This form of calligraphy displayed a

distinct strength and discipline as a result of having "entered the classics."

However, it was not as successful in achieving sufficient creativity for "exiting to a new world." It was Gim Jeonghui who masterfully overcame this impasse in Qing calligraphy. In his day, Gim was the foremost master of calligraphy in East Asia, who faithfully and successfully completed the task of "entering classics and exiting to a new world."

Gim Jeong-hui's calligraphy was of such a truly exceptional style that it is most difficult for others to emulate. One evaluation of his calligraphy points to

"an extremely dynamic rhythm, with even a single character of Gim Jeonghui's writing showing strokes as thin as a single strand of hair and others as thick as a rafter." Others describe Gim Jeong-hui's calligraphy as "being faithful to the rules of calligraphy, yet demonstrating a free spirit to unexpectedly break the rules." This is the unique appeal of the Chusa style, and the secret of its artistry.

Gim Jeong-hui produced countless masterpieces with his calligraphic style.

One of the most noted is a panjeon, an inscribed name plaque for a building,

which was his very last work Gim created it for a new building that Bongeunsa Temple in Seoul was constructing as a depository to preserve the wooden printing blocks of various sutras, including the Avatamsaka Sutra. At that time, Gim was 71 years old and was living in Gwacheon. He made frequent visits to the temple during the last days of his life. The pen name he used at the time was Chilsip-il Gwa, meaning a 71-yearold resident of Gwacheon.

Gim completed the calligraphy for the signboard on October 7, 1856, three days before his death. In a corner of the plate, he wrote in small characters, "Written by an ailing 71-year-old resident of Gwacheon," and stamped his seal.

The calligraphy fully demonstrates the natural elegance representative of the inscriptions on ancient stone monuments. The characters are written: so free! y that it is difficult to decide whether they reflect exceptional or inferior calligraphy. Among the engraved seals Gim Jeong-hui used was one that read Bulgyegongjol, which means "it is impossible to distinguish between the excellent and the mediocre." This so aptly applies to his calligraphy.

Some attribute Gim Jeong-hui's artistic accomplishment to his bibliographical study of Chinese classics, whereas others say that it is the product of Zen thought. A scholar who lived during the days of Gim Jeong-hui said that Gim's artistic excellence was the product of human suffering and the training he underwent while spending nine painful years in exile on Jeju Island at the age of 55.

Perhaps these all contributed to the essence of Gim Jeong-hui's exquisite art, whose masterpieces still reign supreme, not just from the perspective of Korean art but Asian art as well. +

This inscribed name plaque is especially valued among GimJeong-hui's masterpieces because it was his last work.

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IAr t Review;

The Beauty of Gold''

11

Exhibition at Hoam Gallery LeeYoonie Lecturer of Art History

he color gold can be said to fall somewhere between color and light. The difference between gold and other colors such as blue and red is that it reflects light, the color itself becoming part of that light. Because of this trait, gold has

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been revered as a symbolic color since ancient times, a color that promises all manner of mysterious and metaphysical value. Gold has long been an object of human desire. By adorning themselves with ornaments of gold, ancient people wanted others to know that they were

of noble status, while enjoying the gold's beautiful radiance. This was the reason for objects such as shoes oc harnesses being made of gold, which, though cerA 10-panellongevity folding screen, artisuUcno~, 19th century

tainly decorative, are highly impractical and limited in function. Surplisingly, not only in Korea but all around the world, it is a common phenomenon that gold embodies religious or metaphysical significance while symbolizing secular authority.

"The Beauty of Gold" exhibition held recently at the Hoam Gallery in downtown Seoul provided an opportunity for viewers to see for themselves the significance that gold has played in Korea throughout history. Gold ornaments made up the lion's share of the exhibit. Two gold crowns exhibited near the entrance of the exhibition hall, from the Gaya and Silla kingdoms, respectively, demonstrate the integration of a wide range of gold crafting techniques from those times. Compared to the Silla crown, the Gaya crown is truly unique in that it is simple in form and at the same time notably extravagant in decoration. It is displayed together with various gold ornaments that were used on the crown, giving viewers an idea of its original magnificence.

There was also a wide variety of gold ear pendants from the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-AD. 7th century), from large, luxurious and majestic ones to small, delicate and cute pieces.

Particularly noteworthy are the decOI¡ations at the tip of the pendant chains that are shaped like objects of nature such as flower petals, leaves and fruits.

The designs are more free-spirited and versatile than the earrings favored by young women today.

One can clearly see from the relics of the Unified Silla period (668-935) just how extravagant the gold culture of the upper class had become with gold having been used for even the most mundane everyday objects such as, door handles, mirror stand fittings and needle cases, with delicate and elaborate ornamental patterns. Especially eye-catching are clam shells decorated with gold and silver. Simple in form and off-beat in spirit, they are assumed to be buttons.

There is something humorous about

the odd asymmetrical shape of a small and plump tightly-shut clam.

The use of gold in Korean art took an important turn with the arrival of Buddhism. This foreign religion was introduced to China and Korea via the Silk Road and it brought with it new forms of art such as Buddhist sculpture and crafts, solemn creations of golden hue. Because Buddha's body is said to have glittered with gold, the use of this color was emphasized in the creation of Buddhist statuary. In Korea, from the Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla periods through the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), gold-leafed copper Buddhist statues were popular. Not only statues

''The Beauty of Gold" exhibition held recently at the Roam Gallery ' in downtown Seoul provided an opporf:Unity for viewers to see for themselves the significance that gold has played in Korea throughout history.

but all sorts of utensils used in Buddhist worship, including incense pots, candleholders and bells, were also covered with gold. ~he gold color of these religious instruments carry an entirely different meaning from that of the luxurious secular objects mentioned earlier.

From the top: A gilt-bronze seated Buddha (17th-18th century Joseon), a gold crown (5th-6th century Gaya), a gilt-bronze crown (5th-6th century Silla) 87

The subtle golden hue that emanates from within a dimly lit worship hall is a representation of the transcendental world that Buddhism strives to attain.

This exhibition is impressive in that it includes not only jewelry, crafts and sculpture which use gold, but also other genres such as painting, calligraphy and embroidery. The form of painting that makes the most liberal use of gold is Buddhist painting. The use of gold in Buddhist painting differed from its use in sculpture, as it was used to highlight the Buddha's image on a built-up surface. If the Buddha image was painted all gold, it would not stand out. To solve this prob-

!em, Buddha's body was painted yellow while such details as patterns on the robe and other ornaments were painted with gold. The background in Buddhist paintings is always subdued to allow the gold colors to stand out vividly.

With the start of the Joseon Dynasty, the use of gold or gold-colored paint in art declined dramatically. Among the various reasons behind this, the major factor was the emergence of Confucianism, which emphasized moderation and frugality, leading to the decline of Buddhist culture. Another factor was that mining gold was prohibited in Korea in order to avoid paying tribute

to China, which required tribute be paid for newly mined gold. Thus gold was used mostly for objects that symbolized the authority of the state and the royal court such as ornaments and furnishings for the royal family, clothing for high-ranking court officials and utensils for stately memorial services, while being severely restricted for other uses.

In painting, we can find several instances of the use of gold paint in decorative paintings of the royal court.

"Sun, Moon and Five Peaks," which was placed behind the king's throne as a backdrop, and "Ten Longevity Symbols," placed on the queen's side of the throne, both on display at the exhibition, are typical examples of such works. The blue and green landscape in these folding screens is outlined in gold, revealing a restrained sense of elegance. Toward the end of the Joseon Dynasty, when exchanges with Qing China were active, imported goods included gold-flecked mulberry paper, which was used for painting and calligraphy. This type of paper, which was originally used for paintings done by court painters or for the king's calligraphy, was later used by the literati class. At the exhibition, Gim Jeong-hui's calligraphy is an example of this.

As can be seen, gold has always been an object of worship and affection through the ages. The point to focus on, though, is the fact that the meaning which gold had for people differed according to each period and user. At times it represented desire and extravagance in excess, a fantasy that transcended the mundane, or an unattainable object. In the past, gold was an integral part of everyday life, crossing many different boundaries of meaning. In that sense, gold is indeed one of the most ubiquitous precious metals, but it seems that our admiration for it is much less fervid today. +

Headpiece with gilt-bronze openwork 88

JOURNEYS IN KOREAN LITERATURE

ImChul-woo 89

Im Chul-woo Literary Accounts of Painful Reality and Quest for Truth WuChanje Literary Critic , Professor of Korean Literature, Sogang University

iolence and oppression, madness and despair-these are what make up the river that flows beneath Irn Chul-woo's fiction. This darkened stream, an eloquent teller of history that originates with the Korean War of 1950, flows throug~ the Gwangju Uprising of 1980 and eventually arrives at the present day. The undercurrent of Im's fiction is utterly dark and brimming with .pain. But he is a talented writer who is able to extract the beauty of the literary spirit and the human soul from that river of pain. In essence, Im's works are painful but beautiful. They are painful in that the reader has to experience and confront extreme situations such as violence and oppression, madness and despair, murder and torture. But they are also beautiful as the reader can appreci~ s lyric prose that weaves ate the write those situations together and the humaneness of his writing.

Writer Im Chul-woo exemplifies the circumstances and emotions of Korea in the 1980s. Born in a fishing village on Wando Island, Jeollanam-do province, in 1954, right after the Korean War, Im grew up in Gwangju from the age of 10.

He attended Jeonnam National University in Gwangju, served in the military for three years and returned to college as a senior. That year was 1980. That May, Im was in Gwangju when the newly established military regime ruthlessly

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gunned down the citizens of Gwangju who were fighting for democracy.

Whereas many of his colleagues and friends were wounded and even lost their lives in protest efforts, Irn survived.

He survived, but his survival was the source of even worse torment for himunbearable guilt. The Gwangju Uprising, which Irn experienced at the age of 27, critically impacted his life, both personally and in a literary sense. He decided to write about what went on in Gwangju and the pain that followed to soothe his own guilt.

Im Chul-woo's fiction, which spans some 20 years since he made his debut in 1981, can be categorized into two groups. One group examines the division of the Korean peninsula, while the second seeks to dramatize the Gwangju Uprising. Before Irn, Korean writers portrayed the Korean War through: personal stories of the tragic catastrophes of the war (1950s), observations of the ideologies that tore the nation apart (1960s), and chjldhood memories and descriptions of the pain and trauma wrought by the war (1970s). Irn went a step further and with keen insight, shedding new light on the Korean War with his historical perspective and literary imagination, as evidenced in such stories as 'land of My Father" and "Ghost Games" and the novel Red Mountain, White Bird Stories such as "A Shared Journey," "A Straight Line and Poison Gas" "A Period

of Sterility," "The Summer of Miscarriage" and "The Scarlett Room" as well as the novel Spring Day are all related to the Gwangju Uprising. Whether they take the form of lyrical prose, allegory or reportage, these fictional works all center on the Gwangju Uprising as an archexperience. It is evident that among the myriad events that took place in Korea in the latter half of the 20th century, the Korean War and the Gwangju Uprising were the most devastating and tragic. As mentioned earlier, these two events form the pillars of Irn's fiction, but actually, the two incidents eventually come together, creating the universe of Im's fiction.

Especially in the novella "The Scarlett Room", the novel Red Mountain, White Bird and the short story "A Shared Journey", it can be clearly seen how these two tragedies intertwine and become one. This is because the writer makes conscious connections based on the cause and effect of historical . inevitability. In other words, Im has observed that the confrontation and conflict between the left and right following national division and the subsequent Korean War laid the groundwork for chronic political strife and a history of violence in South Korea.

This point emerges more vividly if we look at Irn's fiction from a perspective of time. In his stories and novels, the plot always unfolds within a dialogue crossing over between the past and the

â&#x20AC;˘

present. Even when he does not deal with a specific historical event, he remains within a historical context.

Consequently, in his works the past is never merely a backdrop but a vivid progenitor of the present, a necessary and sufficient condition that provides the source of historical causes. This is especially true of the Korean War, which could be defined as the genesis of Im's literary realm; a tumultuous past that casts its shadow on not only historical events (such as the Gwangju Uprising) but even the most mundane happenings that occur in the narrative present This continuity of distorted historical time functions as the cause for an individual to experience a hopeless sense of alienation from the real world This is the narrative situation that the characters in Im's fiction are faced with.

Im's 1984 work "A Shared journey" recounts a journey the protagonist takes with a friend, who is wanted by the authorities for subversive activities, to the friend's hometown. Their travel is conveyed to readers through direct and indirect dialogue between the narrator "I" and a second person "you," but because of a gap between "I" and "you," the narrator is at a loss. Although it is not so stated, "you" has been on the run for over a year because of his involvement in the Gwangju Uprising, and "I," though sympathetic to his friend's plight, is afraid of the trouble he might get into because of "you" and at the same time is burdened with the guilt that he is leading a relatively comfortable life compared to his friend. Accordingly, while on the surface they are traveling together, internally they are going their separate ways. This story is noteworthy for its deep exploration of the existential and political dimensions of a situation in which two people traveling the same route are nevertheless headed in different directions.

Im has depicted the Gwangju Uprising, which he has described in his story "Tourists" as "the primitive hours in which men and beasts were tangled

together as one," in subsequent works as well. It seems "the shadows of nightmarish memories" will never leave. This is true even in stories such as "Treading on Moonlight" (1987), which deals with uneventful everyday life, far removed from Gwangju. What pity and reconciliation symbolizes in this story reverberates with meaning. There is a scene in which the husband goes looking for his wife who has betrayed him, seeking revenge with a knife, but decides to forgive her and throws away the knife of revenge.

This signifies regression of violent intentions, of a violent reaction to a violent incident. But in reality, the authOI0S hope for and pursuit of sympathy and forgiveness are nevertheless betrayed. That is why the writer inevitably returns to contemplati_i'lg the violence of reality through his fiction.

"The Scarlett Room," a winner of the 1988 Yl Sang Literary Award, was written right before Im began his ambitious two-part serial novels, Red Mountain, White Bird and Spring Day It is a painful account of the violence within our often heartless existence, born of the wounds of national division. The story is also significant as "a literature of torture," an inevitable theme of the 1980s, when Korea experienced an era of torture and unabated political injustice. Here, we can witness the depth of Im's political and historical observations, along with his compassionate struggle to confront the extreme aspects of violence. And we can readily confirm what a bright light Im Chul-woo, a writer struggling to overcome chaos and make his way out of those dark days, has shed on the extraordinary fabric; of his writing with his literary talents.

The plot of his 1990 novel Red Mountain, White Bird juxtaposes an absurd espionage case in May 1977-the present-with a tragic and bloody piece of history that occurred 27 years earlier during the Korean War. The numerous conflicts, deaths and acts of vengeance among three generations of the postwar era are depicted through shifting

viewpoints. Through a dialectical process of revisiting the past while putting the present on hold, Im repeatedly links the chains of history, reminding us of the tragedy of our history and the wounds of the contradiction rooted in national division. It is also a novel of forewarning, suggesting that those wounds contributed to the 1980 Gwangju Uprising.

Spring Day (1997/ 1998) is a novel on a larger scale, which depicts the events of the Gwangju Uprising more directly. Ten days spent in the midst of the Gwangju events with all the fear and pain, anger and affliction, violence and madness experienced both individually and collectively, being portrayed as real-life experiences within a situation of existential extremes. The work reveals the author's belief that realistic portrayal of these experiences can lead to unrevealed truths about human nature. That quest for truth does not end at revealing facts about the Gwangju Uprising but goes on to explore the historical reality of Korea and ends in a search for the truth that might get us on a track toward a more humane future. And this is the significance of Im's truth-seeking efforts.

When Im published his first anthology of short fiction Land of My Father in 1984, a critic described him as an "outstanding lyric poet." That comment likely referred to Im's skillful visualization of inner emotions as well as his lyrical writing. His underlying emotional perspective and prose style can definitely be categorized as lyrical. But his personal experience in Gwangju -did not allow him to remain a lyric poet. Was it Bertolt Brecht who asked if lyrical poetry was still possible after Auschwitz?

This was probably why Im Chul-woo, whose career as a writer began after the Gwangju Uprising, shunned lyrical poetry. The lyric poet who could not write lyrical poetry became a writer of fiction while pursuing both the epic and the poetic in his writing, which captures the painful as well as beautiful aspects of human existence. + 91

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fhe World Ceramic Expos~in

2001 in Gyeonggi Province

The exposition gets underway in lcheon, Yeoju and Gwangju from August 10 through October 28, 2001 • Expositions : There are 15 theme expositions, including the Civilization of World Ceramics, Modem World Ceramic Culture, International Contest for the World Ceramic Biennale and Northeast Asia Ceramic Exchange Event

Anew ceramic world of the future made by soil comes to you.

The best and greatest world ceramic exposition in the 21st century reveals the essence of mankind's ceramic culture. ..,,.....'"'!li!Jii!'\.(

• Performances and Events : The Special Image Display of "Ceramic War", Invitation to Soil-Making Events, World Folk Culture Stages, White Porcelain Horse Fighting Games, Ceramic Games and Video Art of Porcelain by Paik Nam-joon

You are invited to a fantastic world with the state-of-the-art image of the "Cerrunic War" and the "White Porcelain Horse Fighting Ganne" The cerrunic marketplace and the auction also present you the greatjoy.

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rThe Sang Am Millennium City I We Have a dream. We Have the will and the strength to create the city of your dreams, the SangAm Millennium City, where humanity and digital technology are successfully interwoven.

Here, the first Football World Cup of the 21st century will be held.

We will present the fans worldwide with a World Cup to remember; an renvironmental World CupJ, arcitizens' World CupJ, and arcultural World CupJ.

We, at Seoul, are.prepared for The 2002 FIFA World Cup r

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