Koreana Spring 2003 (English) by The Korea Foundation

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A Korean traditional pouch which is supposed to bring fortune and wealth.

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BEAUTY OF KOREA

Gilt-bronze Seated Maitreya Kim Seung-hee Curator, National Museum of Korea

His right foot rests on his left knee. His finger gently touches the

that of India or China; the lean

cheek of his subtly tilted head. The posture, symbolizing the tran-

straight nose, and the gentle smile on its lips represent the look of a

sience of life, is the same as

Baekje atistrocrat.

shape of the Maitreya's eyes, the

that of Gautama Siddharta in

The robe enveloping the graceful

India before achieving enlightenment, and the statue is also

body is rippled with waves as if to depict . many thoughts at the end of deep meditation. The

called the "Statue of the Prince Thinking." In Korea, it took the shape of

young man's meditation is in fact the incarnation of the long-awaited

Bodhisattva Maitreya, the future

Maitreya among the Baekj__e

Buddha, and the posture expresses the meaning: "attain the highest state

people. If the tumultuous reality is represented by the wavy robe of the Maitreya, the nonetheless peaceful and profoundly contem-

of enlightenment while delivering mankind." It shows that the

plative look of the figure sym-

Maitreya is sitting in his paradise in preparation for future birth in our world for the salvation of all living things. Devotion of the Baekje

bolizes the Baekje people's dream. The smooth lines flow without the slightest deviation from the

people to the Buddha during the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th century) was

crown on its head to its fingertips and toes, where a new form of life is being born , quivering with

ideally expressed in this posture, quite different from

excitement. Ll.t

Height 93.5 em, Early 7th century, National Museum of Korea, National Treasure No. 83

-<.

eddings raditional and Contemporary

Ji Geun-hwa Koreana

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Korean Animation

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publication may be reproduced in any

Painter Lim Ok-sang

Kim Jeong-hwan

form without the prior permi ssion of the Korea Foundation. The opinions expressed by the authors

ARTISAN

do not necessarily represent those of

Engraver Kim Cheol-ju

the editors of Korean a or the Ko rea

Choi Tae-won

Foundation. Koreana, registered as a quarterly magazine with the Ministry of Culture

ON THE GLOBAL STAGE

Painter Lee Ufan

and Tourism (Registration No. Ba-1033,

Lee Dong-seok

ON THE RORD

Wando and Bogildo

dated Aug. 8, 1987), is also published in Chinese and Spanish.

Editor's Note

Kang Woon-gu

After receiving various suggestions and comments from readers as well as our editorial board about the publication 's contents and format, Koreana

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has adopted design revisions from the

Kim Jang-geun

2003 Spring issue (Vol. 17, No. 1) to enhance its visual presentation.

Cover: The Wedding, painted by Kim Ki Chang between 1930 and 1940, depicts a bride getting dressed in traditional wedding attire for her marriage ceremony (Woonbo Foundation of Culture).

Published quarterly by The Korea Foundation 1376-1 Seocho 2-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul 137-072, Korea PUBLISHER Lee ln-ho EDITORIAL DIRECTOR Park Kyung-tai EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Park Jeong-yeop ART DIRECTOR Kim Sue-hwa DESINGNER Han Yoo-mi, Park Hyun-jung ASSOCIATE EDITOR Yoo Meoung-jong, Park Ok-soon EDITORIAL BOARD Han Myung-hee, Han Kyung-koo, Kim Hwa-young, Kim Moon-hwan, Lee Chong-suk, Shim Jae-ryong, Yu Hong-june

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A New Interpretation of Human Relationships The Relationship Translated by Sol Sun-bong

Kwon Young-min

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Korean a I Spring 2003

In traditional times, marriage was regarded as the union of two families with different names. So, although the bride and groom were the focus of the marriage ceremony, the elders of the two households supervised the wedding. Thus, a wedding was not only a happy day for a man and a . woman, but the greatest festival of one's life, a festival that united parent and child as well as two families. Lim Jae-hae Folklorist, Professor of Korean Studies, Andong National University Lee Dong-chun Photographer

ean ÂŠ Suh Jai-sik Spring 2003 I Koreana

wedding is a social ceremony by which an

parents, not between the bride and groom themselves.

adult man and an adult woman publicly bind themselves together as husband and wife. On

This is because the elders of the two families were the

the individual level, it is a rite of passage

ones who contracted the maniage.

through which the man and woman enter adulthood,

Marriage was considered to be a "union of two names"-that is, of two households with different

while on the family level it is a ceremony uniting two families and extending their networks of relationships.

names. It was not a question of uniting a man and woman in love, but of uniting two families. This attitude

Socially, it is a ceremony by which a new family is born.

was strongest in the yangban, or aristocratic, households,

Thus, although the bride and groom were the focus of the marriage ceremony, the elders of the two households

where the family's lineage or status was considered more important than the character of the bride and groom. As a

supervised the wedding.

marriage of two families rather than two individuals, it

Today, the bride and groom play the leading role in their own wedding, not to mention the actual decision to get married in the first place, but in traditional society

was only to be expected that a traditional wedding was complex and took a considerable time to complete.

everything was decided by the parents and grandparents of the couple. Elders from both households arranged the

Before the Wedding Day

marriage without any regard for the desires of the bride

uihon, whereby the elders of the two households

and groom. Matchmakers may have made the initial match, but they acted as intermediaries between the

discussed the possibility of a marriage. Marriage proposals were exchanged, and if the heads of the two

Koreana I Spring 2003

The first step toward a traditional wedding was the

_..,_

The wedding begins with the groom bowing before a wooden goose, a symbol of marital fidelity (left).

households were in agreement they decided to carry out the marriage and confirmed this with an exchange of documents. First, the groom's family sent a letter

After bowing to each other, the bride and groom sit facing each other across the altar (center).

Attendants serve wine to the bride and groom (right).

Once a marriage was agreed upon, the bride's family decided on a wedding date and informed the groom's family . To choose a wedding date, diviners were

officially proposing marriage and giving their son's saju, that is, the year, month, day and hour of his birth. In

consulted to determine the napgi, an auspicious year,

return, the bride's family sent a letter consenting to the marriage and giving their daughter's saju. After this

was chosen by the bride's family because her menstrual cycle had to be taken into consideration. After the

exchange of letters and saju, the marriage was officially

wedding date was decided, the groom's family sent

settled, and this stage was called napchae.

presents to the bride's family, a procedure known as nappye. A few days before the wedding, fabric for the

month, day and hour for the wedding. The wedding date

Because marriage proposals were relayed between the two families by matchmakers and the bride's family knew

bride ' s clothing, material for blankets, personal

little about the groom, or vice versa, the only way to determine whether or not the two people were fated for

ornaments and other gifts were put into a chest and sent to the bride's family. This marked the end of uihon, the

each other was through their saju, by which a person's

first stage in the marriage preparations. Next came the

identity' may be known and his or her fortune divined. Engagements could be broken off before the exchange of

actual wedding ceremony.

marriage letters if the gunghap , the process of comparing

The Wedding Ceremony

the saju of a young man and woman to see whether their married life would be a happy one, did not turn out well.

Because getting married was such a great event in a person 's life, the wedding ceremony, or daerye (great Spring 2003 I Koreana 7

ceremony), became the basis for all other ceremonies. It was held in the yard of the bride's house, and the groom

remain faithful to their mates, they symbolize a proper

and his family elders had to set off early in the morning.

marital relationship, and hence the groom stood before the goose on the table to swear his fidelity to the

They traveled to the bride's village by horse or

heavens. This observance shows how much importance

palanquin, but before entering her house they stopped briefly at a neighbor's house for the groom to change

the ancient Koreans attached to moral character. After the jeonannye, the main wedding ceremony was

into ceremonial attire.

held in front of the ceremonial table . As the person

A ceremonial table was laid with a number of symbolic articles: rice representing abundant wealth,

officiating over the ceremony loudly announced each procedure in tum, the bride and groom would follow his

jujubes for long life, chestnuts and a chicken wrapped in silk for fertility, pine and bamboo branches for

instructions. The groom stood waiting on the east side of the table until the bride came out after dressing and stood

unswerving fidelity, and blue and red threads for marital

on the west side. The bride wore a splendid outfit over a

bliss. First, the groom performed jeonannye, placing a

green jacket and red skirt, and on her head she wore a jokduri, a bejeweled coronet, with red dots on her cheeks

wooden goose on a table located between the front gate

and forehead. Attendants stood on either side of the bride

and the ceremonial space, and then bowing twice. Meanwhile, the bride's mother threw another wooden

to help her. Next, in what is called gyobaerye, the bride and

goose toward the room where the bride waited. If the

groom bowed to each other. First the bride bowed twice

goose landed upright, a son would be born; if it fell otherwise, a daughter. Because geese, lik;e lovebirds,

and the groom bowed once in return. This was repeated and then the bride and groom sat down and exchanged

+-'==

Wedding officiant presides over the formal proceedings (left). The bride and groom share a cup of wine (below).

8 Koreana I Spr ing 2003

cups of liquor, a phase known as hapgeunnye. The bride

clothes or just satisfying their curiosity. After the first

and groom drank the first and second servings from their own cups, but the third cup they exchanged with each

night, the groom was served rice cake soup or a porridge of rice and pi'nenuts or sesame seeds-foods good for

other. The groom filled his cup, wrapped the blue thread around it and gave it to the bride. Then the bride filled

keeping up one's energy. Then he offered his first greetings to the bride's family.

her cup, wrapped the red thread around it and gave it to

The groom slept at the bride's house for one more

the groom. The exchange of cups symbolized the fact

night, and on the third day he traveled back to his own house with his wife, a journey known as ugwi. In the

lhat the man and woman had become one flesh. With this ritual, the wedding ceremony was concluded. That evening, the bride and groom spent their first

past, though, a more complex custom, muksinhaeng, was observed. The groom would return alone to his own

night together. After drinking another cup of liquor

house after the ceremony, not going back to the bride's

offered by the bride, the groom took off the bride's

house until the new year. He had to travel to the bride's

clothes. He first took off the jokduri headpiece and then the coat, skirt and socks. Then he extinguished the

house three times before he could bring her back with him: once for the initial ceremony, once again at a later

candles. It was said that good fortune would be lost if the

date, and a third time to bring her home.

candles were blown out, so the groom used his fingers or

This delay in returning with the bride showed how courteous the groom was to her, and also served to soften

a blanket to put out the candles before getting into bed with his bride. In a custom known as "watching the new room," young married women peeped through holes in the door, telling the groom how to take off th~

bride's

the transition to life in her in-laws' house. The groom was not allowed to return immediately with the bride just because the ceremony had been performed. During his

The bride and groom exchange "four pillars"the year, month, day, and hour of birth (right above).

The groom's family packs wedding gifts in wooden chests that are delivered to the bride's family (right below).

Spring 2003 I Koreana

The parents toss jujubes and chestnuts to wish for the couple's happiness and bearing many sons . .I

Âˇ-

second trip to the bride's house, the young people of the

day, with the elders of the household and the baggage

village would gather to test the groom's wisdom and

carriers forming a procession in front of the bride's

strength. They would ask him difficult questions and harass him as a thief who had stolen one of the village

palanquin. Inside the palanquin was a small chamber pot

maidens, tying his ankles with a rope, hanging him upside down from a crossbeam and beating the soles of his feet with dried fish or clubs. They would relent when they were offered a generous helping of liquor and side dishes. It was customary for the mother-in-law to bring out a table laden with liquor and food and act as a peacemaker. This was the most severe trial that a groom would have to face in his life, but through it he would become fast friends with the young people from his wife's village.

for the bride's use. Cotton was placed inside the chamber pot so no sound would ~e heard when it was used. When the procession reached the groom's house, salt was sprinkled on the palanquin, and when the groom opened the palanquin door, the bride jumped out over a straw fire in a ritual aimed at preventing evil spirits from following her. After fixing her makeup, the bride greeted her parentsin-law. Then the foodstuffs that the bride had brought with her were unpacked for the ceremony known as pyebaek. The bride bowed to her parents-in-law and

offered them liquor. After receiving the bride's greeting, The Bride's New Journey to the groom's house

the mother-in-law tossed chestnuts from the table onto

The bride's first trip to the groom's home was called ugwi by the groom's family but sinhaeng (new journey)

the bride's skirt, with the wish that she may bear many sons. The mother-in-law also offered taffy to those

by the bride's family. It took place on a predetermined

members of her household who may be in a position to

10 Koreana I Spring 2003

Because marriage proposals were relayed between the two families by matchmakers and the bride's family knew little about the groom, or vice versa, the only way to determine whether or not the two people were fated for each other was through their saju, by which a person's identity may be known and his or her fortune divined. Bedding for the newlyweds' first night

scold the bride later, and she ate the taffy herself as well.

wedding, taking with her liquor and rice cakes (tteok)

The taffy was supposed to seal shut the mouths of those who ate it so that they would not be able to scold the

made with newly harvested rice. The purpose of this ceremony was for the bride to let her parents know that

new bride.

she had adjusted well to life in her new home. The

From the next day, the bride greeted her parents-inlaw each morning ana evening, inquiring solicitously

groom customarily accompanied her, and he was usually invited to a household close to the bride's family for

after their health. Three days after arriving at the groom's home, she entered the kitchen for the first time

dinner. This was an opportunity for him to get to know

and prepared breakfast. It was then that everyday life

this visit by the bride to her parents, the long marriage procedure was over.

began for her in her new home. For a few days, families close to the groom took turns inviting the bride to their

the elders of the btide's family and their neighbors. With

There are four basic meanings to be found in the marriage rituals. First, the bride and groom must

homes for dinner. This was an opportunity for the bride to get to know the groom's household and the elders of

carefully adjust to each other's family as the two

neighboring families, for the bride was not just one man's wife, but had been incorporated as a member of

households are joined together in a blood relationship. Second, the couple will remain faithful forever as they

the family.

grow old together. Third, the couple are expected to love

The final ceremony in the wedding sequence was the bride's first visit to her parental home. After the groom's

each other as one flesh. Finally, it is hoped that they will bear many children and their descendants will prosper

family completed its first farming season, the bride was

and multiply. ~

sent to visit her parents for the first time since the Spring 2003 I Koreana 11

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Korean a I Spring 2003

Dressing Up for the Day of a Lifetime

Traditional edding Attire

Koreans of different social classes had to wear different clothing made with different fabrics and dyes, and the restrictions were particularly rigorous for ceremonial garments. But an exception was made for one of the most important events in a person's life: their wedding. Hong Na-young Professor of Clothing and Textiles, Ewha Womans University Lee Dong-chun Photographer

orean society under the Joseon Dynasty (1392-

usually worn by young boys and Confucian scholars.

191 0) was class-oriented, with a strict dis-

The groom's clothing included the baji, baggy pants,

tinction maintained between the ruling class, or

and jeogori, a short, vest-like jacket, of the Korean

yangban, and the lower classes. Accordingly,

traditional costume hanbok. He also wore a dopa, a long

Âˇ- people of different classes had to wear different clothing

topcoat, and over all of this the dallyeong, a blue or maroon

made with different fabrics and dyes. The restrictions were

robe with a patch on the chest embroidered with two red-

particularly rigorous for ceremonial costumes. However,

crested white cranes. Cotton was always sewed into the

an exception was made for one of the most important events in a person's life: their wedding. Even among

waistband of the groom's baji, regardless of the season, to

commoners, the bride was allowed to wear the kind of

like cotton plants. He wore beoseon, white padded socks,

dress normally worn by a princess, while the groom

mokhwa, ankle boots, and around his waist a gakdae, or

appeared decked out in the finery of a royal son-in-law.

belt. He went to the wedding with his face veiled.

symbolize the hope that his family fortune would multiply

Such a costume, commonly known as samogwandae, The Groom's Wedding Attire

was the everyday dress of government officials who had

Irrespective of social rank, the groom was allowed to

passed the gwageo, the state-administered examinations

don the ceremonial costume worn by the sons-in-law of

for higher civil office. But a man need not hold a

kings. His hair was put up in a topknot, a manggeon, a

government post to wear samogwandae for his wedding.

horsehair band tied around his forehead, and a samo, a

The chest patch of the dallyeong was embroidered with

stiff cap with wings on the sides, placed atop his head.

white cranes if worn by a civil officer, and with tigers if

Many grooms chose to wear the samo over a bokgeon, a

worn by a military officer, but a groom without an official

hat with a black triangle of cloth trailing behind it,

position would also sport the white crane patch. Spring 2003 I Koreana

Groom's wedding garment, sash, and chest emblem with embroidered turtle design (left to right)

The Bride's Costume

into her old age. On the other hand, widows and women

A bride had to go through elaborate preparations for her wedding. Normally, the only Joseon women who

in mourning for their parents or grandparents could not wear a red jjokdaenggi, no matter how young they were.

wore heavy makeup were the courtesa.ns known as gisaeng. For her wedding, however, a bride would

The basic undergarments worn on the wedding day were no different from those of ordinary days. Korean

powder her face. A few days before the wedding, she Âˇ would remove any fine facial hair to ensure a better

women wore dari sokgot, a white diaper-like form of

surface for the powder. While leaving the fine hair

underwear made of a piece of cloth folded and worn with a tie around the waist. Over this, they wore soksokgot, an

around her ears, she would remove some hair from her

inner petticoat, and bloomers. They wore a pink

forehead, because the Joseon ideal of feminine beauty mandated a straight forehead and long hair at the temples

undershirt, sokjeoksam, and a short pink jacket,

and ears.

for the bride to wear a light ramie under-jacket even when

sokjeogori, beneath their outer garment. It was customary

The bride also wore an assortment of ornamental

the wedding took place in freezing weather. This custom

headgear, which she could put on only after pulling her hair back tightly and knotting it at the back of her head.

was said to help the bride feel less constricted while living with her stern, demanding in-laws.

To give her hair more volume, she used a gache, a switch of braided hair, and a dari, a large braided wig,

Brides from noble families sometimes wore several

producing a big chignon, or nangja ssanggye. Ssanggye was the term for hair plaited into two braids, a Chinese symbol of unmarried status for both men and women. Nangja ssanggye designates a pair of braids tied side by

-Âˇ

additional sets of undergarments, including extremely wide bloomers, neoreun baji, a petticoat similar to the Western type, mujigi chima, and a wide, starched petticoat, daesyum chima. Unlike Western petticoats with

side at the back of the head. The bride wore nangja

their conical shape reaching down to the ground, the longest mujigi chima was only knee-length, and it

ssanggye during the wedding, but after the nuptial night, she. plaited her hair into a single braid. After putting up

created a billowing contour below the bosom, like a te1pple bell. The daesyum chima was worn to make the

her hair, a married woman would tie it with a simple red

lower part of the outer skirt puff out.

hair ribbon, or jjokdaenggi, and as long as her husband was alive, she would go on wearing the red jjokdaenggi

On top of these undergarments, the bride wore a red skirt and a green or yellow jacket. Unmarried women of

14 Koreana I Spring 2003

Groom's headpiece, shoes and a pair of wooden geese, symbolizing matrimonial bliss

Joseon usually wore a yellow jacket, while a green jacket

ladies was longer and had much wider sleeves than that

was customary for newly married women. For the wedding, the choice of jacket color was determined by

worn by commoners, and was decorated with gold. The

family custom. Commoners wore a two-layered .t:_ed skirt, but brides from noble families wore seuran chima, a

shorter wonsam worn by commoners had striped sleeves in many colors. A daedae, a long belt of red woven silk,

/ long and wide skirt with gold stamped decorations, and

was wrapped around the wonsam or hwarot and tied at the back. Gisaeng or dancers tied the belt in the shape of

instead of a plain yellow or green jacket, they wore samhoejang jeogori, a jacket with purple trim on the

a butterfly when they wore wonsam, but for court ceremonies and weddings, the belt was tied loosely twice

collar, ribbons, and cuffs. The collar on the bride's jacket

and allowed to hang down behind.

was lightly padded with cotton, again symbolizing the hope for flourishing family fortunes. _.,_ Wonsam and Hwarot

Sometimes, the daedae was decorated with knotted pendants called norigae, or with small purses, folding fans, or other ornaments. U~ualy, upper-class women wore norigae on their jacket ribbons or at their waist, but

Brides also wore hwarot or wonsam, robes with the sides split from the armpits, the back being 20 to 30

for their wedding, they wore a samjak norigae, one with three strands of knots and three ornaments, on the

centimeters longer than the front and the cuffs lined with

daedae. Daesamjak norigae, a knotted pendant \Vith a pair of jade butterflies and ornaments of amber and coral,

white or rainbow strips. Hwarot, a crimson silk robe with embroidered decoration, was worn by princesses. Wonsam, a court costume worn by the queen and noble women, differed in color and pattern according to the

was worn by court and noble ladies and passed down as a family heirloom. Even a simple norigae with three silver ornaments made a stunning accessory, but poor

social rank of the wearer. For example, only the empress

commoners could not hope to wear a norigae even on

or queen could wear a yellow or red wonsam decorated with gold and with phoenix and dragon designs.

their wedding day. Whether the bride wore a wonsam or hwarot

Brides wore the green wonsam of the princess. Those from noble families wore wonsam with gold-stamped

depended on family tradition or wealth. Brides from noble families sometimes wore wonsam for the marriage

floral patterns, while commoners wore green wonsam

ceremony and changed into hwarot for pyebaek, the

without the gold stamping. The wonsam worn by court

subsequent ritual in which the bride offers gifts to her Spring 2003 I Koreana 15

Bride's wedding garment and footwear

parents-in-law. A hwarot might be decorated with a

long life, and good fortune, or lined with jade or coral

phoenix and nine phoenix chicks, a small child holding a lotus flower, fertility symbols such as pomegranates and

plates engraved with butterflies and bats. The fiÂˇont was decorated with pearls and col01ful tassels, which came

bats, longevity symbols like waves and rocks , and peonies or other symbols of wealth. It might also be

down almost to the bride's forehead. The hwagwan was made of stiff paper, with open

embroidered with Chinese characters representing good Âˇ fortune, health, and happiness, as a way of wishing for

sides revealing its inner structure. The outside was covered in black silk, the inside in red. Like the jokduri,

these boons. Lotus patterns and Chinese characters of

it was decorated with various gems, though some

Buddhist significance were also used. The gold stamped decorations on daenggi, skirts, and wonsam also

hwagwan, such as those worn in Gaeseong and

included images of bats and pomegranates as fertility symbols, along with various Chinese characters

Pyeongyang, had artificial flowers of silk instead . Although they looked different, the hwagwan of

representing good luck and happiness.

Gaeseong and Pyeong~ were alike in being covered entirely with these beautiful floral ornaments.

Hair Ornaments

Into her hair, the bride inserted a long pin, or binyeo, and a number of smaller hairpins and flowers. Binyeo

On her head, the bride wore jokduri or hwagwan, two types of ceremonial coronet. The jokduri tended to be

and with a dragon or phoenix head were for r~yalt could not be used by other women except at their

worn with wonsam, and the hwagwan with hwarot. Depending on family custom, the bride might wear a

wedding. Whatever the design, the binyeo used for a wedding had to be as long as the bride's shoulders were

jokduri in the form of a small box covered in black cloth,

broad in order to suspend an apdaenggi, a strip of red

or one lined with cotton. The top of the jokduri was adorned with various precious stones. Usually, jade,

silk about 6 centimeters wide and 120 centimeters long, from each end. The apdaenggi were wrapped around the

coral, and pearl beads were sewed on in order of

binyeo, starting at the center, and left to hang to the

size to form a peak, and a gilt butterfly or bird was attached on a spring, causing it to flutter whenever the

shoulders . The ends were decorated with ornamental tassels sewed with pearl or coral beads.

bride moved her head. The front, sides, and back of the

A larger strip of silk, variously known as the keun-

jokduri were embroidered with symbols of happiness,

daenggi, dwitdaenggi, or doturak daenggi, was attached

am~er,

Koreana I Spring 2003

Although all classes

Red circles are pa inted on the bride's cheeks (above left). Wedding dress pendants (above center) Ornamenta l hairpin decorated with jewels (left) Elaborately decorated coronet (above)

wore essentially the .same wedding attire, it was not easy for commoners to acquire

to the back of the head,

beeswax and sesame oil was applied to her eyelids to

the necessary garments.

hanging down the back. It was made by folding a piece of

keep them closed. She was led to the wedding witli her

purple cloth, about 11 centimeters wide and

socks and silk shoes similar to those worn in daily life. The only major difference between the wedding

keep their ceremonies

2.5 meters long, in half, so that the upper

costumes of the ruling class and of commoners was that the ruling class was able to use expensive materials like

simple, and at times

part formed a triangle,

silk and jewels, which commoners could ill afford.

then sewing the folded

Noble families considered it vulgar to hold extravagant

halves together into

weddings, even if they had the financial means. Out of

one piece. The cloth

consideration for the poorer commoners, they upheld the wise and beautiful custom of holding simple, modest

Accordingly, high-ranking families who could afford to hold /

extravagant weddings considered it a virtue to

they even provided wedding clothing for the use of common villagers.

-'\

was stamped with gold patterns and decorated

with various jewels . Some regions used brilliant embroidery threads molded into the shape of flowers, while others favored decorations of the "seven treasures"

face covered by a myeonsa, a large purple cloth veil decorated with gold patterns. She wore white padded

ceremonies. Some families even kept ready -made wonsam, which they lent to relatives and villagers. In the past, there were great variations in wedding dress between different regions of Korea. For example,

(gold, silver, lapis, crystal, coral, agate, and pearl).

the wedding attire of Jejudo Island and the coastal areas of the Jeolla-do provinces included the jangot, a long

Yeonji and Gonji

hood worn by women when they went outdoors, while

After powdering her face and penciling her eyebrows, the b1ide adorned her face with three red spots the size of

that of Pyeongyang added a baeja, a fur vest. Korea's wedding culture lost much of its diversity in

a small ' coin: one on each cheek, yeonji, and one at the

the process of Japanese colonization, the Korean War, and iqdustrialization. Today, we would do well to

center of the forehead, gonji. The red spots were formed either from rouge or from circles of red paper. Because it

rediscover the wisdom and aspirations of the Koreans of

was considered taboo for the bride to keep her eyes open

old as embodied in their traditional wedding clothing. ~

during the ceremony, sometimes pomade made of Spr ing 2003 I Koreana 17

A Medium

for

Harmonizing the Tastes

of Two

Families

Traditional orean Wedding Food During the Joseon Dynasty, as marriage was brought into conformity with Confucian teachings, a wedding was not so much a union between bride and groom as between two families, and greater importance was attached to the ties between in-laws.

Yoon Sook-ja Director, Institute of Korean Traditional Food Lee Dong-chun, Suh Jai-sik Photographer

arriage, wherever and whenever it occurs, is a rite of passage. As befits its pivotal position in a person's life , a wedding incorporates the ritual aspect of giving

greet the bride). These procedures were later simplified into four: uihon (marriage negotiations between the two families), napchae (combining the original napchae and munmyeong), nappye (combining nap gil, napjing, and cheonggi), and chinyeong (the wedding ceremony itself).

thanks to ancestors and the festive aspect of thanking relatives and friends. For this festive occasion, Koreans

These simplified rituals , modeled after the Chinese

traditionally prepared special types of food which form

Family Rites of Zhu Xi, were introduced to Korea in the

an important part of their culinary culture.

book Sarye Pyeollam (Handbook On Four Rituals) ,

Since time immemorial, Korean weddings have followed their own unique procedures. Because of the

written by Lee Jae (1680-1746, pen name Doam) during the reign of King Sukjong (r. 1674-1720), the 19th king

crucial role of marriage within the structure of the all-

of the Joseon Dynasty. Each wedding procedure was always accompanied by special types of food.

important family system, Koreans regarded a wedding as the most important ritual in the life cycle. At one time, Korean weddings consisted of six formal procedures: napchae (issuing a wedding proposal) , munmyeong (requesting the bride's name and date of birth), napgil (divination of a propitious match and its notification to the bride's family), napjing (sending ceremonial gifts to the bride as a token of the marriage's confirmation), cheonggi (sending a letter from the groom's family to the

bride ' s with a statement of the wedding date), and chinyeong (the groom calling on the bride's family to

In the past, weddings usually took place in the evening. Indeed, honin, the Korean word for marriage, incorporates the Chinese character hon, meaning evening. Over the centuries, the Korean marriage system underwent many changes. During the era of Buyeo (2nd century B.C.-A.D. 494), monogamy was the norm, but in practice, polygamy was not unknown . In Okjeo, an ancient chiefdom located on the coast of the Hamgyeongdo provinces in today's North Korea, parents would send their daughter to the family of the future groom when she Spring 2003 I Koreana

was only ten years old, bringing her home when she had grown up, and holding the wedding in exchange for a certain amount of money. During the era of the Three Han States, several couples would form a single household, a custom thought to be based on primitive forms of communal living. During the Goguryeo Kingdom (37 B.C.-A.D. 668),

saju or "Four Pillars"- the year, month, day, and hour of

his birth-to the bride's family, with a request that they choose an auspicious date for the wedding. When the bride's family responded with a letter agreeing to the marriage, the groom's family in turn replied with a letter wrapped in red cloth formally proposing the maniage

after a marriage was agreed upon, the bride's family built

and requesting the bride's saju. Upon receiving the groom's saju, the bride's family divined the fortunes of

a small house in their back yard where their daughter and her husband would live and raise children after the

the potential couple, selected a wedding date, and announced it to the groom's family. Next, usually on the

wedding. Not until after the children were grown did the

day before the wedding, the groom's family sent a chest

husband take his wife to his own family home, a practice

of bridal gifts, nappye, which included bolts of blue and

suggesting that Goguryeo society was matrilineal. During the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), as marriage

red silk for the bride's costumes, enough for two jeogori (jackets) and one chima (ski1t). The bolt of blue silk was

was brought into conformity with Confucian teachings, a

wrapped in red paper and tied with blue thread, while the

wedding was not so much a union between bride and groom as between two families, and greater importance

red silk, conversely, was wrapped in blue paper and tied with red thread. In the final procedure, chinyeong, the groom Âˇwent to

was attached to the ties between in-laws. Weddings by this time comprised the four procedures

the bride's home for the wedding itself. Chinyeong

mentioned above. When a person reached ~arigebl age, the family began to search for a prospective spouse with the aid of a matchmaker. This process was called

consisted of three rituals: jeonannye, gyobaerye, and hapgeunnye. Jeonannye was the groom's anival at the bride 's house, where he presented the bride's mother

"uihon. Because Koreans laid great stress on family

with a pair of geese, considered a symbol of conjugal

background, the parents enlisted a go-between to gather comprehensive information on their prospective

bliss because the goose mates only once and remains

daughter-in-law or son-in-law, including their social

faithful to its mate throughout life. In the succeeding gyobaerye, the bride and groom met each other for the

class, education, character, and family lineage. Only after divining that the match would be a harmonious one did

first time in the hall where the wedding was to take

the two families agree on a maniage. The second procedure involved sending the groom's

known as geunbaerye, involved pouring wine into a cup and a gourd and drinking it. The first cup of wine

place, and bowed to e_ach other. Hapgeunnye, also

Dasik and rice cookies (left)

20 Koreana I Spring 2003

Dried seasoned beef (right)

Steamed sea bream decorated with the Yin Yang symbol and the five directional colors

symbolized the bride and groom's union as a married couple, while the wine in the gourd symbolized their

Three measures of glutinous rice and seven jujubes are

marital harmony. A gourd was used because, even Âˇ if it

used because the numbers 3 and 7 symbolize good luck.

breaks in half, it has only one perfect match in the world

The jujubes and chestnuts on the cake are saved for the bride to eat the day before the wedding.

and becomes whole when the two halves are united.

two layers because a marriage comprises two people.

The wedding table is known as daeryesang, literally a Symbolism of Wedding Food

table for the grand ritual, bu~

it also goes by many other

Bongchaetteok or bongchitteok is a type of rice cake

names: choryesang, gyobaesang, dokdaesang,

served by the bride's family during the ritual of receiving the bridal gifts and letter of proposal from their future in-

haengnyesang, honnyesang, orjiamsang. Its tall legs are

laws. To make this rice cake, three measures of glutinous

Gukjo-orye-ui, a book published during the reign of

rice and one measure of red beans are placed in separate layers in a steamer, with the beans forming a topping,

Seongjong (r. 1469-1494), the ninth king of Joseon, the

upon which are placed seven jujubes and chestnuts in a circle. The rice cakes are then steamed in time for the arrival of the wedding gifts. Once the chest of gifts arrives and is accepted, it is placed on top of the rice steamer 'and opened after bowing twice toward the north. Glutinous rice, being sticky, is used as an ingredient to wish for a harmonious and loving marriage, while the red beans are believed to ward off bad luck. Jujubes and chestnuts symbolize abundant progeny, and the cake has

painted red. According to the sumptuary regulations in

number of dishes on the table must not be more than seven for the ruling class and five for commoners. The exact foods placed on the daeryesang differed slightly according to region and family custom, but there was generally a vase containing bamboo on the east side of the table and a vase of pine fronds on the west side. Chestnuts, jujubes, white beans, and red beans were placed in a separate dish with a tall base. White rice cakes molded in the shape of two dragons, one painted yellow and the other blue, were also placed on the table: Spring 2003 I Koreana

the yellow dragon on the east side and the blue dragon on the west. A red candle was placed on the left side of

Pyebaek food is wrapped in a two-layer cloth of blue and red. The mound of jujubes is wrapped with the red

the table and a blue candle on the right.

cloth outside, and the pieces of dried meat with the blue

In the post-nuptial ritual called pyebaek, the bride

cloth outside. Instead of tying the four comers together,

offered her in-laws special foods prepared by her family. To her father-in-law, she gave daechugoim, a mound of

they are gathered and inserted within a band of paper marked geunbong, meaning "carefully sealed." The band

jujubes strung together, pine nuts, and chestnuts wrapped

of paper is used to make it easier to unwrap this food that

in a piece of red cloth. Her mother-in-law received yukpo, dried pieces of marinated beef, pyeonpo, baked marinated

celebrates the forging of a union. Pyebaek food differs according to region. In Seoul,

beef, gomyeongdak, steamed chicken with trimmings, and squid cut up in the shape of roses or dahlias, all

along with the dried beef and jujubes, brides prepared fish eggs, boiled octopus or squid, pickled abalone, fried walnuts, skewered gingko nuts, In preparation for a wedding, the two families exchange various pine nuts strung with pine needles, foods in accordance with established procedures. Through this process, the groom's mother is able to form an idea of her in-laws'

raw chestnuts, and lotus roots preserved in honey. In Gyeonggi-do

tastes, while the bride learns to harmonize the tastes of the two

province, it was customary for a

families. Wedding foods arose from the desire to promote a closer

bride to offer skewered chicken or

union between the two families through exchanges of food.

beef to her mother-in-law and daechugoim as well as wine to her

wrapped in a piece of blue cloth. Since drjed slices of .I

meat and jujubes were not considered appropriate to eat during the ritual, the bride's family would demonstrate Âˇtheir culinary skills by preparing a variety of snacks and placing them in a dish with nine sections. The jujubes in daechugoim represent fertility and preservation of the

father-in-law. In Gangwon-do province, the bride offered glutinous rice jelly to her mother-in-law and chicken to her father-in-law. Although the jelly was mostly made from glutinous rice, kaoliang jelly could also be used, depending on the family's circumstances. In the Gyeongsang-do provinces, the bride prepared jujubes,

family line because of the reproductive characteristics of

glutinous rice jelly, and dried slices of beef.

the jujube: almost every flower germinates, almost every

In Gyeongsangbuk-do province, the bride offered her mother-in-law chestnuts and glutinous rice jelly, the

flower bears fruit, and the plant is even more fertile when the wind blows hard, unlike other trees whose seeds and

former to keep her busy peeling off the shells, and the

saplings tend to be blown away. The chestnuts symbolize chastity and longevity because chestnut trees have a

latter to stick her lips together in case she had too much to say. In the Jeolla-do provinces, the bride offered

single root, and they die if replanted. The father-in-law, after receiving a bow from his new

jujubes and a pheasant, or sometimes a pair of chickens,

daughter-in-law, hands her some jujubes and chestnuts with the wish that she may have many sons. Unlike today

one wrapped in a blue cloth and one in red, jujubes and rice pastry, wine and chestnuts, squid and chicken, dried persimmons, and fruits preserved in honey. In Jeju-do

when the father-in-law tosses the jujubes and chestnuts into the bride's apron, in the past he would hand them to a

province, brides offered their parents-in-law wine, boiled pigs' feet, steamed white rice cake, rice cakes with

bridesmaid to give to the bride. The mother-in-law, while

imprinted flower patterns, jujubes, and glutinous rice

caressing the dried pieces of beef, would advise the bride on how to serve her in-laws, maintain harmonious

flavored with jujubes. Pyebaek food was generally not of~red in the northern areas of Korea, apparently as a

relations with siblings and relatives, and raise children.

result of the influence of Goguryeo wedding customs, in which it was considered a disgrace to receive gifts from

Touching the beef was a vicarious expression of her love and protection toward her daughter-in-law. 22

Koreana I Spring 2003

the bride's family.

Table laid out for pyebaek, with stacked jujubes, liquor, and taffy (above) Pyebaek foods wrapped in colorful cloth (below)

Modern Wedding Food

After the wedding, too, the bride's family sends food, called ibaji , to the groom ' s family. This gives the groom's mother an idea of the tastes and cooking skills of the bride's family, as a reference point for training her new daughter-in-law. The groom's family also prepares a meal for the bride when she first arrives at her marital home, as a reference point for the bride to bridge the

dishes, most people now rely on professional chefs

difference in tastes between the two families. Nowadays, the groom's family also sends food to the bride's family

specializing in wedding foods. The word "ibaji" means to serve. It also embodies the meaning of coordinating

in return for the ibaji food .

the different food tastes of the bride's and the groom's

Today, however, ibaji food is losing much of its original meaning, under the pretext of simplifying

'families, and of the bride serving her in-laws. Korea's

wedding procedures and not being bound to formalities.

traditional wedding food culture and its original meanings should be passed on to the younger generation

Some families prepare food so extravagant that they impose a burden on each other to reciprocate. With

and carried on through further development. Prospective brides should think about the meaning behind traditional

changes in social climate and awareness of tradition,

wedding procedures and foods , that their wedding may

many people provide traditional wedding food without understanding its true meaning. Of course, there are still those who value traditional

preserve the precious integrity of custom. The pyebaek and ibaji food customs are an integral part of Korea's

customs and take trouble over their ibaji food. But

wedding culture and deserve to be maintained judiciously, without being bound to rigid formalities, by

instead of the bride's mother personally preparing the

adapting them to the current times. ~

Spring 2003 I Koreana

Searching for the Self Through Love

Modern Korean Views on Marriage Marriage in Korea is going through a time of change. People are getting married later and later, and the percentage of people getting married is continuing to drop. Up until the previous generation, marriage was regarded as a natural process in everyone's life, but young people today see it as a process of finding true love by their own free will.

Hahm ln-hee Professor of Sociology, Ewha Womans University

ove is essential , marriage is optional!

women and 0.4 percent for men. In Korea, it is easier to

Employment is necessary, marriage is a choice!

get married than not. Regardless of what people say in opinion polls, it is clear that Korea remains a "marrying

These slogans clearly show the values of

today 's younger generation. In a recent opinion poll , 900 male and female college students were asked

marriage is a choice" reflects the desire of women, not

about their views on marriage and employment. When asked, "Do you plan to get a job after graduation?" over

necessarily to opt out of marriage, but to have more freedom and independence in choosing when to get

98 percent of the respondents answered "Definitely yes."

married. It might also reflect women's desire to impress

On the other hand, to the question, "Do you plan for

men, who once asked "is she pretty?" but now ask "what does she do?"

cettain to get married?" only 56 percent of male students and 30 percent of female students responded "Yes."

nation." Thus, the cry that "employment is necessary and

However, the fact that they are shouting "employment is necessary, marriage is a choice" does not mean that

New Ideas on Marriage

they are choosing not to get married. According to a

evident all around us. Above all, we are seeing a clear

1995 UN report on percentages of single people worldwide (measured by the percentage of the

trend toward late marriage: the accepted age for marriage is continuously increasing, and in 2002 the average age

population aged 45 and above that have never been married), Korea was near the bottom of the scale in

for first marriages was 29.6 years for men and 26.8 years for women. The marriage rate itself is dropping, too.

international terms, with figures of 0.3 percent for

Approximately 20 years ago there were 10.6 marriages

Korean a I Spring 2003

Significant changes in the realm of marriage are

Cho Deok-hyeon's Remembering the Twentieth Century, a work on the theme of marriage

The exchange of wedding rings is a common practice nowadays (left). With the popularity of Western-style weddings, the bouquet has become a ceremonial icon (below). @

"'c: 0

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per 1,000 people, but by 2002 this figure pad decreased dramatically to 6. 7. Last year alone, the humber of

58 percent to 39 percent, while love marriages have increased from approximately 36 percent to 55 percent.

marriages decreased by 14,000 from the previous year,

In a survey of how people met their current spouse, for every ten people three to four were aided by their family

which in tum saw 29,000 fewer marriages than the year before. This shows a clear tendency for people in their

network of relatives, parents, brothers and sisters,

late twenties and early thirties to avoid marriage. Quite apart from the changes in these external indices,

whereas four or more drew on their personal network of friends, work colleagues and classmates. This shows that

the road to marriage looks very different from the way it

true arranged marriages are becoming very rare and love

did in the past as significant changes appear in attitudes and values concerning marriage. First of all, the

marriages almost universal.

motivations for marriage are changing. Until recently, people married "as a traditional custom," "because

the choice of a spouse. The influence of parents and relatives , traditionally very strong, has markedly

everyone else does," or "to have sons to continue the

decreased. However, it has been revealed that few

family line." Nowadays, more people give reasons like

marriages are made from such purely personal feelings as "love at first sight." Together with love, more practical

"to gain independence from my parents," "to gain psychological and emotional stability," or even "because I met someone I loved." When it comes to ways of finding a spouse, arranged

Both traditional and modern elements play a role in

considerations such as the socioeconomic status, property, level of education and religion of the prospective spouse and parents-in-law are usually taken

marriages, in which two people meet with the objective

into account. This shows that the ideals of romantic love

of a possible marriage, are gradually giving way to love marriages, whereby two people date for a certain time and get married if they fall in love. According to the

have subtly merged with the demands of compatibility. According to the British family historian Laurence Stone, "Over the past several thousand years, the concept

Korea National Statistical Office, in the last ten years

of proper matchmaking has consistently evolved through

arranged marriages have decreased from approximately

the following four stages. In the first stage, marriage is

Koreana I Spring 2003

carried out in accordance with the will of the parents,

KOREAN ATTITUDES TOWARD SEX, LOVE AND MARRIAGE

without considering the wishes of the children. In the second stage, the parents choose the spouse, but the

children have the right to refuse. In the third stage, the

children gain the right to choose and the parents are left only with the right to refuse. In the final stage, not only do the children choose their own spouses, but they do not even recognize the parents' right to refuse." This pattern has been played out in Korea, where great changes are under way as to who has the final say in the selection of a spouse. As late as the early 1960s, one out

unit: percent

31 .6 30 20 13.6 10 2.8

1.1

love

sex

marriage

sex

marriage

love

marriage

sex

love

marriage

sex

marriage

love

sex

of ten people said they would "wholly follow the will of (their) parents," but today such a view is hard to find. In the past, one-third of all marriages was agreed to by the bride and groom after being arranged by their parents, but recently the proportion has become much lower. Instead, the overwhelming majority asked theirparents'

they "got married after having sex with the person they love" at 31:6 percent. (This figure reveals that approximately one couple in three had sex before marriage.) In addition, among couples who had

consent only after arranging the marriage for themselves.

traditional arranged marriages, 13.6 percent said that they "fell in love after getting married and having sex"

The Changing Meaning of Love

and 5.9 percent said that they "had sex after getting married and then fell in love." The highest percentage of

Noteworthy among the changing views on marriage is / the attitude toward pre~ marital sex. Although there is still

women gave the order as "love-marriage-sex," but the

sonie adherence to the traditional idea that "women must remain pure before marriage," more and more people are

highest percentage of men answered "love-sexmarriage." The younger the respondents, the higher the

accepting that "it is natural to have sex before marriage if

percentage who chose "love-sex-marriage," while a

it is with someone you love." Even as late as the mid-

1980s, almost everyone advocated celibacy before

remarkably high percentage of those in their 50s and 60s chose "marriage-sex-love." The survey suggests that the

--<.

marriage for women. By the mid-1990s, however, the ratio had dropped to one-third, and more than twice as

younger generation is goi~ called a "sexual revolution."

many people said they would approve of sex before marriage if the two people loved each other or were

Views on marriage are becoming more flexible and varied. This can be seen in the relatively tolerant attitude

going to get married. Interestingly enough, significantly more women than men approve of sex before marriage.

toward practices that were considered taboo in the past, such as international marriage, marriage between people

As has been seen in the West, more tolerant attitudes

of different social standing, marriage in which the woman is older than the man and marriage in which one

toward pre-marital sex are soon followed by changes in actual behavior, so it is to be expected that Korea will soon experience more thoroughgoing changes concerning sex before marriage. As seen in the illustration, different couples do not always experience sex, love and marriage in the same order. Couples who responded that they "had sex after marryiug the person they love" formed the largest group at 45 percent, followed by couples who responded that

through what might be

of the partners has been married before. Furthermore, there has been a notable weakening of stereotypes and biases against divorce, remarriage, and living together before marriage. Kor~an society traditionally took a dim view of premarital cohabitation, a practice that was considered to belong to low-income families that could not afford a marriage or social outcasts who did not have proper Spring 2003 I Koreana

morals. Recently, though, attitudes have changed to such an extent that six out of ten university students see pre-

with the more egalitarian values of women, a growing number of women are initiating divorces due to a

marital cohabitation as a prerequisite for a successful

difference in the pace at which the spouses have adapted

marriage. It is also reported that 5 percent of college

to social change. That being said, divorce does not bring everyone a

students have actually lived with a member of the opposite sex.

second chance at life. After divorce, single-parent families often face increased economic and psychological difficulties. Children as well as their

Rising Divorce Rates

Values and attitudes toward divorce are changing even more dramatically. Last year alone there were a recorded 13,500 divorces, 10,500 more than the previous year. The divorce rate for Korea, which saw a sharp rise in the

parents can fall victim to the social stigma of the "divorcee." And yet the divorce rate continues to rise, and a wide range of divorce types is coming to be recognized, including "newlywed divorce," "mid-life

latter half of the 1990s, ranks even higher than that of France, which is among the higher divorce rates

divorce," "retirement divorce" and "twilight divorce."

internationally.

increase in the number of people marrying a second time. And as that number increases, attitudes toward

Until recently, divorce has been viewed as the dissolution of the family and a tragedy for the individual. Today, however, more and more people see divorce as an appropriate solution to an unhappy marriage. The reason most often given for divorce is personality differences. Recently, as the paternalistic values of men have clashed

As the divorce rate rises, it is not surprising to see an

remarriage are becoming more tolerant. According to information released by the Korea National Statistical Office, 3.5 percent of marriages are between men remarrying and women marrying for the first time, 4.7 percent are between women remarrying and men marrying for the first time, and 9 percent are between men and women both remarrying. When a woman

remarries, her children will have a different family name from their stepfather, and the difficulties this causes them have recently been raised as a social issue. A satisfactory solution should be possible with the amendment and supplementation of problematic articles in the Family Law. It would appear that marriage in Korea is undergoing transformation from "institutional marriages" of the past, where the roles of the family and familial relationships were considered most important, to "companionship marriages," which Âˇplace the stress on the sentimental bonds and intimacy between spouses. However, the Korean family still has some qualitative Young couple enjoy a quiet moment

Advertisement of Duo, a matchmaking agency in Seoul (opposite page)

Koreana I Spring 2003

differences from the couple-centered families of the West. The parent-child relationship remains just as important as the spouse relationship in Korea, as can be seyn from the way parents do not hesitate to over-extend their resources or to live apart from the family for the sake of their children's education. There is a strong tendency toward "family utilitarianism," in which the

family becomes a single entity and unites for the joint success of the husband (or wife) and children. Caught Between Custom and Reality

The Asian economic crisis of 1997 shook the very roots of the "family head" ideology, according to which the family head was responsible for the livelihood of the family. Since then, double income families have been gradually becoming the norm. Traditional couples, in which the husband goes out and earns money while the wife stays at home and takes care of household duties and child rearing, .are slowly decreasing in number as couples try to share the responsibilities of work and home life together. Still, the paternalistic ideology that "household duties and child rearing are the woman's role" is firmly entrenched, giving rise to discontent among family members. In the search for a balance

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was more than a meeting of two people: it was a meeting of two families.

of German sociologist Ulrich Beck, who claims it is

To modern Koreans, on the other hand,

precisely the romantic script equating love and marriage that has plunged modem human beings into "an intense

marriage is a union of two individuals

Although modern human beings have attained greater freedom from predetermined social standing and from

J•!

In traditional society, marriage

marriage. We should give some thought to the assertion

- yet exceedingly normal chaos."

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unanticipated burdens of marriage and a rapidly decreasing birth rate loom as future issues. Serious reflection is now required on the meaning of / romantic love, which has emerged as a prerequisite to

founded on love. It remains to be seen whether a point of compromise can be found between these conflicting traditional and modern values.

traditional and natural conditions, with this freedom has come uncertainty through the proliferation of choices. As a result, the traditional bonds and duties have been shaken off as the spouse has been transformed into an emotional helpmeet and the family into a place of refuge. Meanwhile, in the Korean family, there has emerged

world of uncertainty as whole individuals. It is under these conditions that "love" emerges as the last stronghold for affirming the individual's true self.

no external support system to bind spouses together. Thus, we must recognize that there are no rules as to

In Korea's unique cultural and historical context, the meaning of marriage is qualitatively different from that

how two individuals who desire equality and freedom

of the Western spouse-centered family. How can we find

should establish a joint foundation of love. Released from traditional bonds, we may have gained an

a compromise between tradition, which regards that marriage is the meeting of two families, and modernity,

opportunity for introspection, but we have lost the

which emphasizes the union of two people in love? To

certainty of a secure foundation. Having shaken off tradition and group affiliations, we must set out into a

search for these answers is to grapple with an intriguing riddle. IA.t Spr i ng 2003 I Korea n a

The New Generation of Rebels With a Cause

Wedding ustoms In Our Time Marriage, which the older generation considered so essential, is now becoming a matter of personal choice. An unmarried person is no longer afraid of being called an "old maid" or a "crusty old bachelor," and there is even a growing number of committed single people who regard getting married as a crazy thing to do. Ji Geun-hwa Freelance Writer

he older generation believed in arranged marriages between people who had never set eyes on each other before the wedding, but who would then live the rest of their life

Western values has transformed many elements of marriage. As befits a leading Internet nation, the Web now plays an important role in the weddings of young Koreans.

together "until their black hair turned as white as scallion

The new look of wedding customs has become an index of the broader changes and developments of our time.

roots." When people remained single even a little past

The driving force behind these changes in marriage

the usual marrying age, others would constantly tell them -"; to hurry up and get married, or look askance as if

customs has been the rise of pragmatic values and of equality between the sexes. Young people increasingly

wondering what was their problem. But today's young people pay little heed to such

demand value for money in everything from the choice of wedding venue to the household goods and the

meddling . Marriage, which the older generation

honeymoon destination. This trend can be seer1 as a

considered so essential, is now becoming a matter of personal choice. An unmarried person is no longer afraid of being called an "old maid" or a "crusty old bachelor,"

consequence of the financial crisis that struck the country a few years ago. The Âˇcrisis exposed the vanity of

Âˇ-

and there is even a growing number of committed single

conspicuous consumption and created a wedding culture of less extravagance and more real value.

people who regard getting married as a crazy thing to do.

Great changes have also come to the practice of engagement ceremonies and the giving of the ham, a

Choosing Pragmatism Over Tradition

wooden chest containing red and blue fabric along with the groom's date and time of birth, which the groom's

Not only marriage itself, but the process of getting married, has undergone a radical rethinking. The wedding customs associated with the traditional view of marriage have taken on a modem aspect, while the infiltration of

family used to send to the bride's family before the wedding . In a survey of 1,000 newlywed couples conducted by a wedding arrangement firm last year, it Spri n g 2003 I Ko rea n a

was found that only 34.9 percent had used the ham, while no more than 3.8 percent had held an engagement

used to be provided by the bride and her mother. In their

ceremony-figures much lower than in the past. In

effort to impress the groom's family, it was common for them to over-extend themselves buying more expensive

addition, yedan, the traditional gifts of blankets or cloth

things than they could afford. Today's young people

by the bride to the groom's family, was replaced by monetary gifts in 76 percent of cases.

have shown the yellow card to this wasteful custom. They do not believe in buying things that they don't need

Customs such as the engagement ceremony, ham, and

just for the sake of appearances. Nowadays, the bride and groom decide for themselves how much they need,

yedan, have declined as they have come to be considered unwieldy formalities. The change from expensive jewelry to a simple gold ring, too, reflects a new

buy the furniture together, and spend more on goods related to their own interests. Thus, the popularity of audio sets, home theater systems and camcorders as

utilitarianism that cares less for showing off one's wealth to others, than for using it carefully to provide a

wedding goods reflects the tastes of a generation

comfortable home and furnishings. The young

oriented to the moving image.

generation today no longer judge the success of a

The rapid growth of Internet shopping malls provides further evidence of the young generation's utilitmianism.

wedding by the amount of valuable jewelry received, for they know that showing off to others is not the key to a happy marriage. Instead, they aim to obtain the greatest value for the least expense. The things needed for setting up a new home always

32 Korean a I Spring 2003

Through the Internet, they can buy their household goods cheaply by auction or joint purchase, or get in touch with a "wedding goods consultant" who can advise Âˇthem on choosing items within their budget.

Honeymoon habits are changing too. Instead of package tours that keep them moving around on a bus with a group of strangers, more and more couples are turning to resort holidays which, though more expensive,

In their search for something special and unique, it is not unusual nowadays for couples to forsake the stuffy indoor halls and opt for an open-air wedding. Charging

allow them to spend more time alone together. This is a

little or nothing for the use of their space, such venues as the Olympic Park, Namsan Park, Citizen' s Forest of

good illustration of the values of the young generation with their desire to enjoy their own freedom to the full.

Yangjae-dong, Nakseongdae Park , Yongsan Park, Gwacheon Race Track, and Children's Grand Park are

But the stress on freedom and individuality can

becoming so popular that one is lucky to reserve a date several months in advance.

conflict with the young generation's utilitarianism. This point becomes especially clear when it comes to choosing a wedding venue. The familiar wedding halls

Women's Voices Raised

that charge an e?<-orbitant sum to conduct a uniform

Another important source of change in wedding

ceremony are losing favor with the young. Instead, more weddings are taking place in social welfare centers or Âˇdistrict office halls, or even in free open-air wedding

customs is the growing acceptance of equality between

grounds. In the wedding halls, each party must make way for the next as soon as the ceremony is over, and

years ago, only 4-5 percent of marriages were proposed

young people are no longer content with a wedding as hurried as a meal of instant noodles.

the genders. Traditionally, Koreans firmly believed that it was the man who should propose marriage, and even ten by the bride. Today, the percentage has entered double figures. This reflects a change in the traditional view of the female role as a passive and yielding one. To the

--<;

Guests enjoy the reception after the wedding ceremony (opposite page). Seemingly countless photos are needed for the wedding album (below). Typical wedding album (right)

Spring 2003 I Koreana

Koreans of old, who held that "if a woman's voice is heard beyond the garden wall, the house is ruined," the

married life. As a result , men who believe that a

change would surely seem shameful. But today, it is hard

woman's place is in the home are gradually finding it harder to get maried ~

to find a young person who holds such outdated ideas. Women's self-assertion has been encouraged by the

Women today have grown up with an eye on the inequitable married life of their mothers' generation, and

increasing participation of women in the workforce and their attainment of economic power, with the consequent

have realized the importance of self-fulfillment and the pursuit of their own happiness. Instead of the old model

emergence of a figure known as the "High Miss." Working in some highly paid specialist field, the "High

of the "wise mother and virtuous wife ," they have embraced the "joint Chief Executive Officer structure"

Miss" expects to continue working and pursuing self-

as the ideal division of roles in marriage.

fulfillment after marriage rather than retire into family life. She asserts her rights and is wary of male-centered

Corresponding to the altered view of marriage, in weddings we increasingly see the bride and groom

34 Korean a I Spring 2003

considered the ruin of a woman's reputation, are becoming increasingly common. Like a new edition of Jean-Paul Sartre or Simone de Beauvoir, the trend reflects an altered view of sex and marriage among young people in the last few years. So far, cohabitation still carries a stigma, but it is winning increasing acceptance as an effort to reduce the abuses of marriage, and taking its place as one more aspect of the new marriage culture. The Advent of Marriage Arrangement Firms

Among the many changes in marriage customs, some traditional elements have taken on a modem appearance. There is a saying that "Good matchmaking is three cups of wine, but bad matchmaking is three slaps in the face," and in traditional Korean society, most marriages were arranged. Known by different names in different eras, in the 21st century the matchmaker has changed into modem dress, becoming the marriage arrangement firm. There are now more than 100 of these firms in Korea, arranging marriages by computer.

making their entrance together. In the past, a wedding began with the father-in-law leading the bride down the aisle and handing her over to the groom. Many people now condemn this custom as a hangover of male chauvinism. But that is not all. The role of wedding officiator, long considered an exclusive male prerogative, is now breaking the sex barrier and being conferred on women: The advent of the female officiator, like the simultaneous entrance of the bride and groom, clearly implies that a woman is not a subordinate being to a man, but a vital member of an equal partnership. Contract marriages and unmarried cohabitation, once

Newlyweds enjoying themselves in a field of rape flowers on Jejudo Island (above) An open-air wedding at Namsan Park (right) ÂŠ Kwon Tae-kyun Spring 2003 I Koreana

The marriage arrangement firm is a product of the

certificate, and family register, before entering the data.

information age. Using computers in their daily life,

This provides an easy and reliable method for finding a

young people have come to rely on computers to find their marriage partners as well. As late as the 1970s, the

member of the opposite sex with similar values and outlook and a compatible social and cultural

majority of marriages were arranged, and it is only since

background. The ability to cast the net wider for a potential partner is probably the main reason that young

the 1980s that love marriages have been on the rise. Yet today, anyone who makes an arranged marriage is considered behind the times. This being the case, why are so many people seeking to meet their future spouses through marriage arrangement firms?

people put so much tlust in marriage arrangement firms. Another significant change is the increasing number of marriages between older women and younger men, or between women who have been married before and men marrying for the first time. In the past, there was a

The answer lies in the firms' use of computers with their scientific principles and credibility. The advantage

custom in Korea of manying child grooms to adolescent

of computerized matchmaking is that it becomes

brides , and the modern couples in which the wife is

possible to know practically everything about the

older than the husband can be seen as an adaptation of this custom to the changing times. What makes older

identity of one's opposite number. Someone seeking a partner, after a discussion with one of the firm's consultants, reveals all-education, occupation, interests, family background, and criteria for a marriage partner___:_and is registered as a member. The firm then conducts a thorough identity check, .using such documents as the member's graduation diploma, work

women attractive to younger men is probably their economic power and social position as well as the sense of security they can bestow. Growing numbers 'of men seek a woman who can understand and comfort them like their mothers and older sisters, and some say this is because men are becoming proportionately weaker. But

A group photo of friends is a must to commemorate the couple's special day (left). Marriage arrangement firms use computers to bring couples together (opposite page).

Korean a I Spring 2003

As befits a leading Internet nation, the Web now plays an important role in the weddings of young Koreans. The new look of wedding customs has become an index of the broader changes and developments of our time.

it can also be seen as a product of the freedom of thought

communication. That is why they are called the N or

that rejects the old ideal of an older man with a younger

"Net" Generation. It is perhaps only natural for them to use the Internet as a vehicle for marriage too.

woman or a remarried man with a first-time wife. A more direct cause can be found in the de~p-rot /

--<.

Korean preference for male offspring. Efforts to give birth to more boys have produced a sex imbalance, such that the population of marriageable age now comprises

When members of the N Generation get manied, they send e-mail instead of invitation cards. They give monetary wedding gifts by electronic transfer. They broadcast their wedding live over the Internet, something

more men than women. According to data published by Seoul Metropolitan Governments, in 1996 there were

that could hardly have been imagined in the past. Those

slightly more females than males, while in 1998 the

attending the wedding in person can see scenes from it

numbers were about equal, but since 2000 the proportion

on their computer screens. An increasing number of couples want a "cyber-

of males has increased dramatically. The increase in marriages between second-time brides and first-time grooms is also a product of this surplus of males, and the trend is likely to continue.

who are prevented by personal circumstances from

wedding," and these take various f01ms . Some dispense with the wedding ceremony altogether and create their own homepage instead, posting profiles of the bride and groom with their love story and photographs. The

Marriage Among the N Generation

The advent of the Internet has transformed daily life, and it has profoundly influenced marriage customs as well. Instead of taking time out of our busy schedules to tramp around crowded markets, in the digital world we can buy what we need with the click of a mouse button. The Internet has become a convenient and cost-effective tool, not just for buying wedding goods, but for arranging the marriage itself. The young generation of today uses the digital media not only for study and amusement, but for nearly all their activities, including shopping and

advantage of the cyber-wedding is that it can tell the whole story of the coup1e in a manner impossible in the conventional wedding ceremony. But because the cyberwedding can be alienating for the older generation, accustomed as they are to traditional ways, it is more usual to provide a combination of on-line and off-line wedding. As technology develops and times change, new fashions and customs transform everyday life. Korea's wedding customs are actively engaging with these sweeping forces of change. 1..1.t Spring 20 03 I Koreana

FOCUS

Korean Animation Fighting Spectacle with Substance Korean animated movies have a short history and a shaky industry base, and it was not until the late 1990s that they began to enter the world market. However, in June last year Korea's animation industry achieved a major breakthrough: My Beautiful Girl, Mari won the grand prize at the Annecy International Animated Film Festival. This triumph has breathed new life into Korean animation . Park ln-ha Professor of Comic and Cartoon Creation, 'ChungKang College of Cultural Industries /

n June 2002, director Lee

when the International Animated Film Association (ASIFA) was

The Annecy Triumph

formed, it has grown into a global

nature, it is pointless to claim that one festival is better than another.

film division of the Annecy In-

event drawing artistic animations from around the world. At first held

ternational Animated Film Festival.

biennially, it was turned into an

The Annecy festival began in 1956 as a non-competitive sideshow to the

annual event in 1997 in response to

Seong-gang's digital animation My Beautiful Girl, Mari won the grand prize in the feature

Cannes Film Festival. It was moved to the town of Annecy in 1960, and since the fourth festival in 1962,

the rapidly growing number of entries. Today, it is the world's

As every festival is different in

But the Annecy festival is unquestionably the place where the achievements of the animation industry are reckoned up each year.

leading animation festival, drawing

Works presented range from short and feature films to commercial

200,000 people each year.

works and student entries from all over the world. It was at this prestigious animation festival that Korea, hitherto a marginal presence in this arena, carried away the grand prize. The victory was all the sweeter for Koreans because it was won against animation superpower

My Beautiful Girl, Mari The first meeting of Mari and Namoo ÂŠ SIZ Entertainment 38 Korean a I Spring 2003

Japan with its blockbuster movie Metropolis. Moreover, the triumph

My Beautiful Girl, Mari Namoo visits the lighthouse.

came just three years after Korean works were first accepted in the main

My Beautiful Girl, Mari is a man's

History of Korean Animation

reminiscence about his youth in a

Korean animation is different from that of Hollywood. Korean

Elated by the news, I was eager to

seaside village. The young boy Namoo, very much at home in the

know about the response of the

natural environment of the sea,

animators achieve their best work when, instead of striving for

audiences who had seen the film in France. "I guess they liked the

meets a mysterious fantasy girl

spectacle, they make humble but solid works that appeal to the

imaging of My Beautiful Girl,

called Mari. It is the story of how secret and personal experiences

Mari?" But the answer was not quite

overlap with real life in times of

what I had expected . "It scored

crisis. Any adult can share in the fantasized memory that the film

competitive event at Annecy in 1999.

higher marks for story than for imaging. Audiences found it deeply moving, and many cried as they watched it." I was dumbfounded. When the film had premiered in Korea, nearly all the local critics and press had said that the story was

conveys. But the problem is the Hollywood-style spectacles. Korean audiences have become inured to such movies, produced in great number every year, blunting their

emotions. They need not compare their work with the brilliant action scenes of Japanese TV cartoons or the musical fantasies of Disney. The strength of Korean animation lies in the dynamism that has allowed it to survive despite sterile conditions. In Korea, animation was long equated with cartoon films. The focus was on projecting two-

weak though the imaging was strong,

sensitivities. Once the Hollywood blinkers are removed, the beautiful

but at Annecy it had drawn the

story of Mari can be appreciated on

dimensional drawings brought to life by the element of motion. Rather

opposite reaction.

its own terms.

than making use of diverse tools and Spr ing 2003 I Koreana

ÂŠ Mago21

media, the sole preoccupation was with drawing. One or two such

around the country. At the time, Korea had scant resources for the

of the Seoul Olympics inÂˇ 1988,

animations were shown in Korea during the period of Japanese

production of animated movies, and it was little short of a miracle that a

colonial rule, but not until after liberation in 1945 did animation

few pioneering minds had got together and managed to make an

began to produce their own animated films. This was the dawn of the TV animation era in Korea. This third opportunity did bring about some

arrive fully fledged through the

animated feature film. Its success led

lasting changes . On the one hand,

channel of the American forces .

to the production of several other

animation came to be recognized as

Under the influence of Disney films shown in the cinemas, in 1956

animated features , but in the end the industry's weak foundations and

an industry, and on the other, solo artists began to produce their own

HLKZ-TV (today's KBS) began to

inadequate production system

short works in contrast to the tradi-

produce animated TV advertisements

hindered the animation industry

tional production system. This meant

and cinema features. With the experience gained from a few

from developing its potential. Ten years later in 197 6, director

that young and creative new talents were entering the animation field.

animated advertisements, cartoonist

Kim Chung-gi's Robot Taekgweon V,

Shin Dong-heon produced an

influenced by the robot animation boom in Japan , made a huge hit,

Then, in the latter half of the 1990s, Korean animation began its

animated feature film based on his cartoonist brother Shin Dong-woo's popular series Child of the Wind: Hong Gil-dong. The movie premiered

once again showing that Korea had the makings of success in animation.

when local broadcasting companies

advance into the world market. Director Jeong Dong-bee's OPEN and Lee Myung-ha's Existence won awards at the Hiroshima International

on January 21 , 1967. Crowds lined

But in the late 1970s, robot animations offered limited scope as they

Animation Festival. In 1999 Lee

up to see it at the Segi Theater and Daehan Theater in Seoul , the

were targeted only at children on vacation from school.

Seong-gang' s Ashes in the Thicket became the first Korean work to be

Munhwa Theater and Dongbo Theater in Busan, the Civic Hall in

The second opportunity for

accepted in the main competition of

development thus lost, a third chance came along around the time

the Annecy Festival. Every year since then, new Korean works have

Gwangju, and leading cmemas 40

Korean a I Spring 2003

competed in the festival, and at last, in 2002, a Korean took away the

working on Oseam ; Odolttogi,

Animation Festival), and represent

which produced Dolmen and Park Jae-dong's TV Criticism; and Seoul

an area of great potential for growth.

As of 2003, the Korean animation

Movie, which was the first Korean

Story Before Spectacle

sphere can be largely divided into three groups. The first is the

animation company to operate a planning department. The last group

Apart from standard cell animation techniques, Koreans had

traditional animation industry group

consists of solo artists with a do-it-

nowhere to learn animation skills

that includes producers who are members of the Korea Animation

yourself spirit who produce their own short animated films. Early

and no one to learn them from. As a result, young artists studied copied

Producers Association and animators

works in the short film category include Lee Yong-bae ' s Lying

videotapes on the making of animations and used them as a basis

Buddha and Billboard Sign and the

for building their own unique artistic

creative companies that produced

Hongik University animation club Nemorarni's Alice in Wonderland and

worlds. To such mtists the computer came as the bearer of good tidings.

commercial works in the 1990s .

Bad Man. These days , short

Without systematic education or

These companies include Margo21, which produced the TV series White

animated films are presented

support, Korea's young animation

through events such as SICAF (Seoul International Cartoon &

artists began to create images on the computer and give them moti"on,

grand prize for best feature film.

who belong to the Korea Animation Artists Association. The second group contains the

Heart Baekgu and is currently

White Heart Baekgu Animation feature about the affection between a boy and his J indo dog (opposite page)

Oseam Animation film based on a children's story (above, left)

Spring 2003 I Koreana

Legend of Blue TV science fiction animation (left) Taengguand Ullasyong TV animation (opposite page)

42 Korean a I Spring 2003

only short films and the works of

shared what they had learned and

amateur artists, but commercial

experienced. They established

works as well, are brought to the public on paid animation sites.

independent studios and began to show their works in the various

The most important change is in

festivals that appeared in Korea from .the mid-1990s on.

the creators themselves. Young artists have begun to tum away from

Thus, from the mid-1990s both

the spectacular toward humble narratives that reflect their own

artistic and commercial animation began to grow in Korea with the

lives. Since the 1980s, most Korean

emergence of new. young artists who

animators have either adopted

began to introduce their works to the

Hollywood-style spectacle or looked to Japanese-style narratives for their

public in the many film festivals that

benchmarks. But with a weak cOm-

Young artists are exploring film,

mercial base for animation in Korea, their works were mostly failures and

new media and cyberspace while

formation technology infrastructure that came with it, led to an upsurge in

helped produce a temporary depres-

effects tools to produce

sion in the commercial animation

works quickly and distribute them

domestically produced animation. Artists used the computer to create characters and give them life,

market: The new young artists who emerged in the late 1990s, on the other hand, began to produce works

instantly through the Internet.

and introduced their works to the

based on their own stories, leading to a diversification of narratives.

sprang up around the same time. Meanwhile, Korea's information revolution, and the growth of in-

and consumption of animation. Not

thus creating animation. They had to learn everything from scratch, and

public through the Internet. Simple

using imaging and visual

No sooner has a social issue arisen than it becomes the subject of new flash animations.

Lee Seong-gang's grand prize at

flash animation pieces like The Story of Mashi Mara in the Forest, Zola

the Annecy International Animated

minister's award at SICAF in

Man , Woobi Boy, and Pucca, were

Film Festival was the first great fruit

August that year, bringing Lee great

passed around via e-mail and

of that change. Lee had first been

acclaim for his first feature film. The

bulletin boards and gained huge

nominated for the grand prize at the 1999 Annecy festival, when his

main character was changed from an

popularity in the cyberspace domain. In 2003, Korean animation is forging ahead. Young artists are exploring film, new media and cyberspace and using imaging and visual authoring tools to produce works quickly and distribute them instantly through the Internet. No sooner has a social issue arisen than

Ashes in the Thicket announced the

advent of a new star in the animation firmament. While making this film in 1998, he had begun planning an omnibus work that would connect three stories, The Flying Monkey, Flowers and Dream of Wings , under the title of My Beautiful Girl, Mari.

adventurer, as originally planned in 1999, to a boy called Namoo, and the setting from a forest to a fishing village, but the basis of the film has always been a simple story about the relationship between fantasy and reality. Today, Korean animation is still going through its formative process. Many young people at school, work

it becory,tes the subject of new flash animations. The speed of creation, coupled with Korea's comprehensive

In March 1999, when the first part of the trilogy was released, Lee joined up with the production company SIZ

and home are dreaming of becoming the next Lee Seong-gang. The future

high-speed Internet resources, pres-

Entertainment and went into full production. The film won the culture

of Korean animation is in their hands. l;t

ents a new forum for the production

Spring 2003 I Koreana

INTERVIEW

LIM

K-SANG

A People's Artist Mediating Between the Everyday and the Monumental Kim Jeong-hwan Poet, Art Critic Photographs by Lim Ok-sang Art Institute

Âˇ-

im Ok-sang is an artist

return to take part in those events, I

them something different. The other

who has been very active

would gladly give up my art ... " stud~n

thought me strange at first,

in the campaign for full

Strong words-but he was at heart

but they gradually started to nod

democratization. After

an artist. His artistic spirit, something

their heads and seemed to feel a

completing his undergraduate and

close to an instinct lodged deep

powerful attraction. Perhaps it was

graduate art degrees in Seoul, he

within his body, could not be denied.

that after searching for a new

attended the Angouleme Art School

"There is a beautiful little chateau

direction in contemporary art

in France from 1984 to 1986, the

on a hill, and below it stretches a

through problems of form and

first Korean to study there.

broad plain with a river running

technique, they were overwhelmed

"While I was studying abroad, the

through it. What had been a cigarette

by this Third World content and the

waves of democratization were be-

factory was remodeled into the

strength of form that it produced."

ginning to wash over Korea, leading

Angouleme Art School, and that is

A Modern History of Africa was

toward far-reaching changes though

where I painted A Modern History of

approved by the Academie Fran<;aise

suppressed by President Chun Doo

Africa." (This work is a masterpiece.)

and subsequently exhibited in the

Hwan's military regime. I felt sad and

"The French tradition in art is of

United States . Lim recalls that a

frustrated to be absent at such a critical

course superb , but having come

curator or critic involved in organi-

time. I thought that if I could only

from Korea , I felt I had to show

zing the exhibition wrote more or

44 Korean a I Spring 2003

Since starting out as a painter, Lim Ok-sang has been active as an installation artist, arts administrator, and a host of other roles. He is an artist who uses art as evidence of his own position in history. In this interview, Lim Ok-sang talks with Âˇpoet and art critic Kim Jeong-hwan.

A Modern History of Africa, Part 1: The African Continent, 50 x 150 em, 1984

'- less as follows: "Many Third World

"I have a memory about the

became the scenes of Lim's barley

artists try to gain exposure in the

Korean War and my family. When I

field painting series (pitting nature

. . West by choosing subjects of 'social activism,' but Lim Ok-sang's A

heard that someone had given birth

against civilization, hometown

Modern History of Africa does

to a stillborn child, I fell under the illusion that I was ill. And I thought

against the memory of war, insecurity against impulse, realism

something different. Although this

that being ill was really beautiful. I

against modernism, desire against

work does indeed depict the modem history of Africa, it achieves a beauty of form that transcends its subject."

was a timid and well-behaved child. When faced with the dark or the

repulsion, and the shapes of primary colors against the primary colors of

unknown, I must have felt torn between curiosity and fear, or even

shapes), or his family series in paper relief (whereby the depth of time is

artist retains in his memory a scene

terror."

deftly though paradoxically ex-

from the time he first viewed the world in' artistic terms. A scene that

Let's stop the story here for now, because I am more interested in the

pressed by the thinness of paper, the eternity beyond the tragedy of

the artist saw is condensed in a process of "scene=story," and when-

"scene=story" equation th?n in the story itself. It is through this equation

history by a deathlike dilution of life), or his Maehyang-ri series

ever the artist recalls it, the original

that the scene or scenification of war

(whose human forms, assembled

pleasure will return.

and family and the stillborn child

from the scrap iron of spent bomb

It is my belief that every great

Spring 2003 I Koreana

shells gathered from the American Air Force firing range at Maehyangri, transcend their "Anti-American" theme through an opera buffa aesthetic of death-cum-laughter). And the "scene=story" is all the more interesting for being more

as a great herd of galloping deer ... the corpses in the Elbe River ... " These lines from Wolfgang Borchert's DrauBen vor der TUr (The Man Outside), a play that starkly portrays the despair and alienation of the defeated soldiers

artistic than narrative. When it comes to the mixture of curiosity and fear, even terror, toward

returning to Germany at the end of World War II, culminate in the

the unknown, the "scene=story=

Beckmann: You who affirm, where are you

following cri de coeu by the hero

"Yusin" dictatorship, he avoided surrendering to pessimism by doing just what he was to do in later life in whatever field he turned his hand to: he did not so much make art out of dramatic subjects, as he made the dramatic aesthetic the very life and blood of his art. For the dramatic aesthetic is the most constructive, corporeal, and optimistic. To this day, in Lim's art, even the smallest and most static element is at the same time dynamic, and this

aesthetic" that th~se three series _ embrace, though historical, mobilizes

now? Answer me! I need you, you

a deepening and enlivening of history to attain the universality of "art=

who answer! Where can you be? You've disappeared all of a sudden!

being." It is at this point in art that the

Where are you, you who forbid me to

traditional drama. It was probably because of this quality that Lim,

everyday and the monumental come to coexist, become interdependent,

die, where are you? Where is that

even while moving from his

old man who called himself God? Why doesn't he answer? But the

beginnings as a painter in the Korea of the 1970s to an increasingly

com. / Now let's listen to the rest of the story. How does a scene get scenified?

answer! Âˇ;Why are they silent? Why? Then, is there no answer? No answer at all? Then is there no answer, none at all . ..

activist stance, was able to avoid the dogma of "minjung (the people)

"My elementary school was on a

In his college days, Lim was

hill in the upper reaches of the Baengmagang River, and below the

heavily involved in theater. He was a

and heighten each other, ultimately appearing as two sides of the same

hill the river flowed. I had to walk 3

good actor, too. During the dark years of President Park Chung Hee's

dynamism is the very core of

=subject" and create a form appropriate to "minjung=contents." "Until I read all those books in preparation for writing my graduate thesis, I must have been suffering from the modern disease: I was

kilometers to school on mountain _.. ,_ paths, and the river and hills changed strikingly with the seasons. I have a vivid memory of going on a picnic when I was in first grade. It was April, and a haze hovered over the ploughed fields, and although the trees had been cut short by bombing , they were starting to put out new green shoots." This scene of nature's regeneration overcoming the wounds of war, of the moist earth becoming one with life,

Kim 's Family Before the Korean War, paper relief with paint, 131 x198 em, 1990 (opposite page above)

leads us to a dramatic speech that despairs, to the contrary, of the death

Kim's Family After the Korean War, paper relief with paint, 131 x198 em, 1990 (opposite page below)

latent within this burgeoning of life: "The hills in May are as healthy

The Earth-Mother, iron, 335 x 210 em, 1993 (right)

Spring 2003 I Koreana

installed public art works in such locations as Gwanghwamun Station on Seoul's subway line No.5; Gurim Village in Yeongyang, Jeollanam-do province; Maehyang-ri in Hwaseonggun county, Gyeonggi-do province; Conference Table, shell casings from Maehyang-ri, aluminum, steel, g lass, 70X90X210 em, 2002 (left) Dream of Steel/, scrap steel, spoons, knives, 130x230 em, 2001 (oppos ite page)

and the Suwon World Cup Stadium. Since 1999 he has conducted a weekly popular art program, You're an Artist Too, in Insa-dong and Yeouido Park. Lim has so far worked mainly in the media of clay, paper, and iron. What is his artistic perspective on these materials?

always experimenting with new

outside of rut. Or to be more accurate,

forms. But ultimately, these new

I was excited to be working together

"Clay is soft, with a caressing quality. It feels comfortable, offering

forms were not mine: they had neither nationality nor individuality.

with other people and other artists. Meeting, organization- I liked these

the widest surface area for us to touch... It has the admirable prop-

And so I decided I must start again from scratch. I would not produce

w<;nÂˇds. I had a great time getting together with Kim Yong-tae, Ju Jaehwan, Min Joung-ki, and Kang Yo-

erty of absorbing everything. Paper is organically related to clay. It might even be called a sort of

bae, to give rein to our 'hamming vein."'

purified clay. It's also related to the colors white and ivory, and although

What he created as a means of

This "hamming vein" (ttanttara

its possibilities are limited, that is

sharing these thoughts and putting

gijil-is this not a pure Korean

them into practice was Twelve

equivalent of the Sino-Korean )ieongeuk mihak or "dramatic aesthet-

part of its charm. I probably wouldn't have adopted iron had it

abstract paintings. I felt I must portray Korea's past and present, and not lose touch with our tradition."

Months Ago. It was around this time

that the first politically critical artistic movement since the Korean War of the 1950s, Facts and Words, was founded in October 1979, shortly before the assassination of Park Chung Hee, when his Yusin regime

ic?") continued over the next 20 years through all Lim's activities (including his participation in the environmental movement, the Korean unification movement, and the broader movement for world peace) as well as his

no~

been for Maehyang-ri. At college, when I saw the sculpture

students using oxyacetylene torches, I thought it was scary.. . But after all, I think it was my_inevitable destiny to work with iron, although Âˇ I'm now trying to come up with a

was reaching its peak. Lim played a

works, deepening the dialectic

strategy for the post-Iron Age .. ."

leading role in establishing the group. "Before Facts and Words, any

between the two. And under the new presidency of Roh Moo-hyun, it is

social criticism was expressed in

likely to be enlisted in a large-scale

Does not his use of iron signify a pursuit of modernism, a modernism that includes the realism, not of the

symbolic terms, but subsequently it became more direct. I believed that

public art project. Indeed, Lim's attachment to public

communication with society was the

art is something very special. It has

most important function of art, and I became more involved in activities

produced diverse fruits stretching way back in his career. He has

Koreana I Spring 2003

past, but of the future? "Perhaps. But there is no need to label it modernism. Sometimes I think it must be my temperament and my destiny to be always seeking

Lim Ok-sang has so far worked mainly with the media of clay, paper, and iron. Last year he put on an exhibition using the outer casings of Âˇartillery shells from the U.S. military firing range at Maehyang-ri. Yet he is also at the forefront of public and popular art programs. His is an art that springs from everyday life, an art that memorializes the present .

_.._

out something new: a temperament

conference desks made chiefly from the

of temporal compression. It 's the scene

and a de stiny that is always despairing, yet always seeking."

outer cases of bombshells. In the hands

that transforms the capitalism of the

of the artist, the heavy metal body of an

bomb, again through the unexpected

When set against his artistic feeling for clay, paper, and iron, how

air-to-swface missile warhead, split in

mediation of the bombshell, into the

half lengthways, becomes the case of a

socialism of art. Thanks to these works,

fascinating the artistic "scenification=

sexy black hi-fi system with the

the product of a qualitative fulfillment of

story" of Lim's life becomes! But

sophisticated beauty and old-fashioned

the above processes, we can find

what about the terror of the unknown? At the end of a piece called "Chamber Music of Shattered

elegance of traditional wooden furniture

something more than a slogan in the

(the conference desk); or four shards of

socialist motto, "Let us melt down our

splintered bombshell show their

swords to make ploughshares."

Bombshells" which I wrote for

unaltered yet perfectly balanced

Lim's recent exhibition "Thinking

contours beneath a glass top, as graceful

After the Iron Age," I put it like this:

as slender feminine limbs (the tea table). That's it. It's the moment when the art of

But the highlight of this exhibition

What is this if not an equation between the everyday and the monumental? L;.t

spatial compression, through the

must surely be the "ultra-modern"

unexpected mediation of these

furniture : tables, chairs, tea tables, and

bombshells, becomes a chamber music Spring 2003 I Koreana

ARTISAN

Carrying on the Engraver's Art

ol-ju Following in the footsteps of his father, Kim Cheol-:ju carries on the time-honored tradition of engraving. As if he has somehow learned the secret of evading the passage of time, this gray-haired artist still pours his heart and soul into the metal as he chips away with his tiny hammer and chisel. Choi Tae-won Freelance Writer Choi Hang-young Photographer

t 70, Kim Cheol-ju is still

Kim Cheol-ju (professional name

furniture. According to Daejeon-

engraving the Cheonjamun (Thousand Chinese

Beomsa) is an engraver. Engraving is the technique of decorating a

hoetong (Comprehensive Collection

Character Classic), which

metal surface using small hammers

he must have learned as a young boy. His straight back and neatly

and chisels, and the practitioners of

1865, during the late Joseon Dynasty, the Ministry of Industry

combed hair gives him the look of a scholar, but beneath the old watch on

this decorative art are often called engraving artists. But when did

of National Codes) published in

employed as many as 255 artisans of --

55 types. Among these, 80 artisans belonging to 12 different types

his wrist, his rough hands show him

Koreans first start carving on gold, silver, bronze or blackened copper?

to be a seasoned artisan. The arrival of a reporter did not seem to come to

Engraving first appeared on reliquaries and crowns during the

him as a welcome break. On the contrary, he looked a little irritated at

Three Kingdoms period (1st century

havl.ng to stop his work even for a moment. Designated holder of Important

Goryeo Dynasty (918:-1392) it was predominantly used in metal decoration of lacquerware and later to

gyeongjang (mirror artisan) , and

Intangible Cultural Property No. 25,

decorate the metal fittings of

jogakjang (sculpture artisan).

Koreana I Spring 2003

B.C.-A.D. 7th century). During the

worked exclusively in engravingrelated fields, an indication of the importance this art form had acquired. Depending on their specialty, they were classified into types such as okjang (jade artisan), mukjang (ink stick artisan),

Kim works on a text with an engraver's hammer and chisel (left). A set of engraved tea cups (below)

"'\

In the late 19th century, the

name Baekha), an artisan who studied

Cultural Property when the elder Kim

J ongno and Gwanggyo areas of

painting and calligraphy with Lee

passed away in 1988. "Because my

Seoul formed a dis-trict of silver

Haeng-won at the art workshop of the

father worked mostly in gold and

shops and became a mecca for

Yi royal family established by the

silver," reports Kim, "I have no idea

engravers, a tradition that continues

Japanese colonial government. Kim

how many of his creations remain, or

today. Silver shops were classified as

earned such a reputation in the field

where they are. Art collectors are

large-scale and small-scale. The

that he was eventually designated

reluctant to admit they own any

large shops produced such articles as

holder of Important Intangible

because they're so expensive. My

tobacco and cigarette cases and

Cultural Property No. 35 in 1970.

only motivation behind devoting my

kettles, while the small ones turned

A masterful Prajna-paramitasutra

life to this work was to preserve the

out ornamental hairpins and rings for

by Kim Jeong-seop hangs in the

honor of my family name." Kim

women. These silver products were

studio of his son, Kim Cheol-ju, at the

cannot help feeling disappointed that

engrav'e d with texts or designs by

Intangible Cultural Property Heritage

his own son has chosen to pursue a

highly skilled artisans.

Center in Samseong-doJ?.g, Seoul.

different course in life rather than

The tradition of the late J oseon

Kim Cheol-ju displays the work as a

carry on the family tradition.

Dynasty silver shops was carried on

tribute to his father, from whom he

When asked which of the many

by Kim Jeong-seop (professional

inherited his position as Human

specific techniques of engraving is Spring 2003 I Koreana

the most difficult, Kim answers: "Well, none of them are easy, but the

characters for long life and happiness) and the Four Gracious

trickiest task of all is probably inlaid work on gourd-shaped bottles or incense burners." Inlaying is the

Plants (plum, orchid, chrysanthemum and bamboo). The quality of the

technique of inserting gold or silver

level of sophistication and skill in handling the chisel, especially in

threads in grooves engraved on a surface of copper or other metal.

engraving depends on the artisan's

twisting it in just the right way.

piece. It takes total concentration to focus only on your work. That's the most difficult aspect of the job." When asked what awakening he has acquired as a master, Kim answered: "I still have a long way to go." As for how many works he completes in a year, he said "I can't really tell." To make a three-part

Since around the mid-J oseon Dynasty, steel threads have also been

Engraving includes many different techniques in addition to the

reliquary usually takes an artisan

used.

aforementioned inlaying. The

five or six months.

On the worktable where Kim is

chotjeong is used for engraving lines

Kim and his art were given some

carving Chinese characters on

and the dajiljeong for flower patterns. Other methods include

media exposure recently when a brass dinnerware set with seven side

electroplated cofored aluminum stands an array of chisels each about

gogak, which is used in

5 centimeters long. About 250

making silver ring s or

chisels of different shapes and sizes are used for highly specialized

belts, tugak, which is used for making holes,

purposes. In addition, the atelier is filled with polishing tools, compasses, small hammers, carving

and yukgak, which is used for embossing. Once the engraving

frames and hundreds of other pieces

is done, a burnishing

of equipment.

chisel is used to make the surface shiny, or a

Holding a chisel in his left hand and small hammer between the thumb and index finger of his right,

moraematchi to give it ,

dish containers made by Kim and Lee Bong-ju (holder of Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 77) was featured in the TV drama "Sangdo (The Principles of a Merchant)." Sitting still for long periods of time carving letters and designs in metal is a lonely task, one

Kim carefully engraves dangcho

a matte finish. "One small mistake,

that would be impossible

(arabesque patterns), subok (Chinese

and you blow the whole

without an extraordinary

Korean a I Spring 2003

Reliquaries decorated with rel ief carving (opposite page left) Silver incense burners Âˇ (opposite page right) Silver flower vase inlaid with paulownia wood (opposite page bottom) Tiger engraving demonstrates Kim's exquisite craftsmanship (right).

level of patience. Time permitting, Kim takes trips to relieve his stress and restore his energy. He also likes to share a drink with Park Yong-gi, an old friend and a specialist in making traditional accessories, 1

knives and sheathes, although these days they get together less frequently due to Kim's failing health. Kim has eight students and

Âˇ-

apprentices under his guidance. He teaches them that the only way to carry on this exacting task without making even the slightest mistake is to be completely devoted to one's art. Kim's left thumb is hard and disfigured from holding a chisel for most of his life. The years have gone by as he strove to honor the family tradition. Kim has participated in several group exhibitions but has never had a private exhibition. He hopes to hold an exhibition of his work as well as works by his father some time in 2004, something we shall all be looking forward to. ~

Spring 2003 I Koreana

ON THE GLOBAL STAGE

A Dot Opens Up a World

Painter Lee Ulan Lee Ufan is skeptical of the artificial emphasis on national qualities in art. Tradition and national identity are not created artificially, but flow naturally from within the work and from the world outside. Nation and tradition are not fixed entities formed long ago and handed down unchanged ever since. Rather, they are open and flexible concepts, constantly redefined with the changing times. ~ Lee Dong-seok Art Critic I Curator, Susan Metropolitan Art Museum

):,.

Korea is best represented by Lee Ufan and video/conceptual artist Paik Nam June .

Constantly crossing national and

cultural boundaries at will, Lee calls

has spent the last 40 years in Japan, his work is better known in Europe.

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himself a "wandering soul." Although he is a citizen of Korea and

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n the world of modern art,

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However, a life of constant wandering, without a resting place,

Europe, devoting all his energy to

full. He was the driving force that

can lead to unease. National biases

his work . Observing the steady

inspired Monoha, a leading avant-

and cultural differences produce

recognition he has received from

garde art movement in Japan, as well

regrettable misunderstandings and

distinguished overseas art galleries

as the clear-thinking theorist who

friction. Lee reflects that living on

and the high praise bestowed on him

provided that movement with its

the edge of a precipice has given

by international critics, one feels that

philosophical foundation. His essay

him a heightened artistic urge as

his name has already been written

" From Object to Being ," first

well as a feeling of tension. Even

indelibly in the pages of art history.

presented in a 1969 competition, is a

today, he is always traveling back

Lee has shown himself a man of

difficult text that applies profound

and forth between Korea, Japan and

many talents who lives life to the

philosophical principles to modem

Koreana I Spring 2003

From Point Glue on canvas, 182X227cm, 1977 (opposite page)

Correspondence 92 x73 em, 1997 (left) Correspondence 92 x73 em, 1997 (right)

--'\

art; yet it is counted as one of the major critical studies that opened up

At the same time, he shows a deep

University. A bookworm by nature,

love and knowledge of traditional

a way for Japanese modern art to

Korean culture. His interest in folk

he read extensively in a wide variety of fields, including philosophy,

move forward. The year after that essay appeared, Lee published a

paintings contributed greatly to the

culture and art. When he again took up the life of a painter, he did so on

collection of critical pieces, In

widespread research and rediscovery of early Joseon folk painting in the

Search of an Encounter, which was

1970s . The folk paintings he

fervently embraced by young Japanese artists while sparking off a

collected during that time were exhibited in France's Musee Guimet

"Lee Ufan fever" in Korea.

under the title, "Nostalgie Coreenne."

Lee has won recognition as a writer, not only for his profound

Born into a Confucian family in Haman, Gyeongsangnam-do prov-

front of modern art, constantly

critical essays, but also for more

ince, Lee studied poetry, calligraphy and painting from an early age.

His works could not be aligned with either Korean sentiment or Western

Although he had always favored

rationality: they blended the two, offering a cogent critique of the

casual pieces that elaborate on random thoughts and insights gleaned from everyday life. Such gems as '"Snake" and "The Acropolis and the Pebble," which appeared in his essay collection The Swift Current of Time, have been included in Japanese high school textbooks.

literature over painting, he began to

the foun?ation of the philosophical understanding and knowledge of art he had developed during the intervening years. After this, Lee shot to the forehighlighting the most burning issues.

study oriental painting at Seoul National University's College of Art. Before long, however, he stowed

aesthetic standards of both East and West, which intersected in his art.

away on a ship to Japan, where he

and contemplative ethos and their stress on the so-called blank space,

graduated in philosophy from Nihon

Because of their transcendental

Spring 2003 I Koreana 55

Lee's works have sometimes been equated with "Eastern mysticism."

side. Nation and tradition are not fixed entities formed long ago and

But the artist himself is critical of

handed down unchanged ever since.

this. He complains that the term "Eastern" is vague and unclear,

Rather, they are open and flexible concepts, constantly redefined with

shifting its meaning with the time

the changing times. In the forward to The Art of the

and place, the region, and the context. He is saddened when such a

Blank Space, a book that has

term threatens to deprive him of his

recently been translated and

individuality. Lee Ufan 1s skeptical of the

published in Korea, Lee asks the question: "In this age when art is

artificial emphasis on national qualities in art. Tradition and national

bankrupt, when humanity bows out,

identity are not created artificially, but flow naturally from life within the work, and from the world out-

just how much novelty and necessity is there in expressing oneself with a few dots on a canvas or a few iron plates and rocks in a gallery?" In this

Relatum, ir on and stone, 70 X 150 X 120 em, 1990 (below) Relatum, iron and stone, 40x200x100 em , 1986 (opposite page)

Koreana I Spring 2003

question can be seen the artist's starting point and the intense speculation on modern art with which he has grappled. The issue in modern painting is no longer what one paints, but what makes one an artist. Lee seeks the .answer to this question not within the work itself, but in the relationship between the work and the outside world. His rejection of the work as a closed structure and his focus on its relationship with the outside world represents a breakthrough in modem art. He criticizes Western contemporary art for its

total absorption in realizing the

For Lee, the work is

subjectivity of the artist. A work

a place where endless

created solely by subjectivity leaves no room for a relationship with the outside world. For Lee, the work is a

encounters with the wQrl;d begin,

effect. Similarly, to appreciate Lee's

a passage connecting mind

place where endless encounters with theÂˇ world begin, a passage connect-

and matter, self and other,

works aright, you must open your mind and sense the blank space

ing mind and matter, self and other,

implied by the dots. Only then will you begin to feel the "outer frame" of

interior and exterior. This view of art has earned

the work and gain a new awareness

interior and exterior. This view of art has earned him the name "Artist of Encounter."

_...,

Lee's paintings may be perplexing to those unfamiliar with modem art,

which these dots are positioned, we

drawn , empty and full: these

consisting as they do of diminishing dots, traces of rapid brushstrokes, or

are able to perceive a world infinitely wider. The few dots that

opposites set up mutual relationships that open up new and limitless

even an unframed canvas left completely blank except for a few

Lee has drawn do not comprise the "painting;" they are merely the

worlds. This is what Lee means by

small dots. His sculptures are

minimal marks required to make us perceive the blank space that is not

formed solely from heavy iron plates and stones either piled up or jux-

him the name

of the space in which you are viewing the painting.

"Artist of Encounter."

Seen and unseen, drawn and not

the "aesthetics of encounter." Through the blank space, he emphasizes the world outside the work over the work itself, the other

drawn.

over the self. That world, which

taposed. However, it is these few dots or objects that hint at Lee's

We might compare these isolated dots with a big drum. When the drum

"endless encounters ." If we focus only on the dots, we cannot see the

is struck, its sound resonates in the surrounding area. Ultimately, the

world surrounding them. But if we

space into which the sound spreads is the "blank space." The larger the

relationships stretching out into

blank space, the greater the resonance

infty.~

open our eyes and minds to become aware of the blank space within

values differences and discourse with the other, is a world of possibilities opened up through the "encounter," a vast panorama of

Spring 2003 I Koreana 57

An ox and camellias on the shore of Wando

he Korean peninsula, as

has often been said, has

while the northern part of the country is still deep in snow. The

peak 130 meters high. Drawn by the lure of extremes and the romance of

four distinct seasons, each

south luxuriates in evergreen forests

its name, tourists swarm to the peak

bringing marked changes in the look of the land. After the

ahd camellias that blossom in winter.

at "land's end" to seek the excitement of setting foot on the mainland's

perishing northerly winds of winter, spring draws warming currents from

An Emerald Isle

southernmost tip. The view to the south, east and west extends over a

the south. Despite its small size, the

daegan stretches the length of the peninsula, from Baekdusan Mountain

Korean peninsula has very different weather at one end than at the other. While the north is shivering at temperatures below -20Â°C, the southern coast rarely experiences anything below -1 oc to -2Â°C, and the

A mountain ridge called Baekdu-

at the border of North Korea and China all the way down to the ocean at Songho-ri in Songji-myeon, Haenam-gun, Jeollanam-do, at a

seascape dotted with islands large and small. On a foggy day, the name "land's end" may carry an air of gloom, but when the sun is out it seems to

latitude of 34 degrees, 17 minutes 38

enhance the grandeur of the scenery. Among the many islands scattered

seconds north. This is the southernmost tip of the Korean peninsula,

across the sea, the largest is Wando, away to the southeast. Wando is surrounded by as many as 203

result, the southern coast and its

known appropriately enough as "land's end."

islands are garlanded with flowers

Right at the tip stands a small

islands off the southern coast are even milder, hovering around zero through most of the winter. As a

Koreana I Spring 2003

islands, 60 of them inhabited. The shortest crossing between Wando

and the mainland is a mere 700

the fishery products harvested on

meters, and a bridge was built at this

the island.

location in 1969.

About 170 meters off the coast of Jangjwa-ri is Janggunseom, a small

At 385 square kilometers in area, Wando is the sixth largest island off

on this island that the legendary Jang Bo-go, who held tight control of sea

p_opulation of 69,431, most of whom

commerce under the Silla Kingdom in the early ninth century, estab-

coasts and hills of Wando are covered with dense evergreen forests such as can hardly be found on the mainland. Just offshore, laver and other edible seaweeds are cultivated in the clean waters around

-~·

, ...

... ·

island also known as Jangdo. It was

the Korean peninsula. It is home to 23,367 households, with a total live by farming or fishing. The

lished his base at Cheonghaejin. Jang had traveled to Xuzhou, China (then under the Tang Dynasty) and become the rear admiral of Muryeonggun. Indignant at the

Wando. Most Koreans know Wando

miserable life of the Silla people working as slaves in China, J ang

for the superb quality of its dried

resigned and returned home. He

laver, and seaweed and algae products make up 94 percent of all

proposed to the king of Silla that a marine force of 10,000 be mobilized

Seaweed drying is a labor-intensive process . (above). The islands around Wando yield an abundance of seaweed (below).

to form a base at Cheonghaejin,

The islands surrounding Wando

from whence they would quell

form part of the Dadohae Haesang National Park, widely known for its

pirates and secure peaceful marine commerce throughout the region. Evidence that Jang Bo-go actually lived was recently found through the excavation of a Buddhist temple built

many of the islands can be as still as a millpond.

outstanding natural beauty. Boats

Bogildo, Retreat of an Exiled

bound for these idyllic islands depart regulary from Wando harbor,

Politician

People are drawn to famous places not just for their beauty, but for their stories. Bogildo, an island

by him. In May each year, the local

and ferries also reach the islands from "land ' s end. " As the boats

government sponsors a Jang Bo-go Festival in Wando to commemorate

glide among the variegated forms of the islands, a panoply of magnif-

the accomplishments of the local hero and attract visitors to the area.

icent scenery unfolds. When the

island served as a retreat for Yun Seon-do (1587-1671) , a poet and

wind is down, the water around

politician of the mid-Joseon Dynasty.

Koreana I Spring 2003

near Wando, is a case in point. The

With their mild climate, Wando and Bogildo usher in the spring earlier than their neighbors. Red camellia flowers bloom and evergreen trees sprout fresh green leaves as early as February. City dwellers who have weathered the cold of winter rush to the southern coast to greet the spring . Their hearts are melted and their spirits lifted by the splendid effulgence of greenery.

Yun spent his last days writing

Most Koreans remember Yun's

poetry in Bogildo, away from the

name as that of a talented poet . Something of a failure as a

conspiratorial politics of the capital. The island became his private kingdom, where he could cultivate garden_s and give them fanciful poetic names. After first setting foot on Bogildo in 1637, Yun went back and forth seven times, spending a total of thirteen years on the island.

Camellia flowers, all the more beautiful blooming in winter (above left) Yellow cabbage blossoms announce the coming of spring (above right).

pivotal figure in classic Korean literature. Although most Korean poetry of his day was written in Chinese, Yun wrote his "Eobusasisa" in Korean. This extended poem comprises 40 verses of fixed form

He died there in 1671 at the ripe old age of84.

depicting the life of the fishermen

Yun lived a long life by the

that celebrates the beginning of

standards of his day. But he was condemned to exile many times

spring b~gins: "Ahead, the mist is clearing; behind, the sun peeps over

because of his unwillingness to com-

the hill I Sail the boat, sail the boat, the tide is rising I Jji-geo-deong, jji-

promise with his opponents amid Seyeonjeong Pavilion on Bogildo Island, where Yoon Seon-do spent the last years of his life (left)

politician, he was nevertheless a

fierce political conflicts. He was widely recognized for his scholarship and eventually appointed to one of the highest positions in the government, even acting as tutor to the crown prince who went on to become the king. Yet despite his achievements, he was exiled no fewer than 3 times for a total of 20 years. Add to that the 19 years that he chose to live as a hermit, and it becomes apparent that his life was anything but comfortable.

through the four seasons. The verse

geo-deong, eoyeocha! (Th(! poet

transcribed these nonsense syllables using Chinese characters of similar pronunciation) I Lovely are the flowers in the faraway villages." The poem was written at Bogildo. Haenam, Yun's hometown, is also close to Bogildo. Nogudang, his 'I

house in the Yeondong district of Haenam, remains a well-preserved example of rnid-Joseon architecture. Designated for government protection Spring 2003 I Koreana 63

as Historic Site No. 167, Nogudang is

garden also contained Seyeonjeong,

Yun Seon-do once compared

where Yun 's manuscripts are preserved, and its historical importance

a pavilion where Yun would spend much of his life, sheltered from

Bogildo's seashore at springtime to the smoothness of flowing oil. The

makes it a natural tourist attraction. The story of Yun's hermitage at

complicated wordly affairs. The house where Yun lived no longer

island's major marine products are dried laver and other seaweeds.

Bogildo goes something like this . When the Chinese, under their new

stands, but the pond and garden remain, and the pavilion was

During the summer, many visitors

Mongol rulers, invaded J oseon

recently restored. Though modest in scale, the garden remains one of

come to Yesong-ri, a village by the beach. Instead of sand, the beach is

Dynasty Korea in 1636, Yun Seondo was living in Haenam. The

Bogildo's best known tourist

covered with tiny stones rubbed smooth and shiny by the endless

founder of Houjin in China had

attractions.

action of the sea. The evergreen forest of Bogildo is a designated

proclaimed the new Qing Dynasty

natural monument, and the camellia

with himself as emperor. He now demanded that Joseon accept a

Camellia Blossoms in Winter

subordinate relationship to Qing, as

spring, some city dwellers travel to

opposed to the brotherly relationship

Wando or Bogildo in February to welcome the season that much

however, the petals already lie

earlier. The milder climate of the

which many find more beautiful than when they are actually in

agreed upon in the wake of the previous invasion by Houjin in

Impatient for the coming of

groves produce red flowers from winter to spring. By February, scattered around the bases of trees,

attacked Joseon and eventually forced King Injo to kneel down in

southern coast makes camellias bloom in the middle of winter and evergreen trees sprout shining

submission.

leaves. Having weathered the bleak

In despair at this humiliation, Yun Seon-do decided to leave for Jejudo

midwinter in the city, urbanites experience an instant thawing of the

Island. However, a storm forced his

spirit at the mere sight of the new

boat to stop at Bogildo. Yun was

green growth. Located about 12 kilometers off the tip of "land's

modern transport was developed .

breathtaking scenery and resolved to settle down there. He tilled the land

erid," Bogildo is 2 kilometers wide

then_, many of the islanders still

and 8 kilometers long with a total

and built himself a home, a pond fed by a mountain stream, and even an

land area of 3,298 square kilometers. It is home to 1,065 households and

dream of living on the mainland one day, while, ironically, mainlanders

artificial island in his garden. The

3,413 residents.

1627. When Joseon refused, Qing

immediately captivated by the

bloom. To the passing visitor, the life of a Bogildo fisherman may appear as romantic as it does in Yun's poem" Eobusasisa." But the islanders once lived a hard life, especially before Although things have changed since

yearn to escape to a faraway island as Yun Seon-do once dig. Though visitors may cherish the memory of a short trip to the isolated island,

An island near Wando and Bogildo (left) Yesong-ri, the most beautiful stretch of coast on Bogildo (opposite page above) Going home at sundown (opposite page below)

64 Koreana I Spring 2003

long-term residents tend to see it differently. Nonetheless, those on the mainland have the comfort of knowing that these remote islands on the wide blue sea will always be there for them to visit when they can

. ~

MARKETS

Giant Bookstores For More than a Good Read The giant bookstores of Seoul have easy access to transportation, with basement-level doors opening directly to the subway, and their specialized management strategies, generous floor areas and vast inventories attract swarms of customers. No longer just a place to buy a book, the bookstore has become a complete cultural complex offering a wide range of stimulating experiences. Kim Jang-geun Freelance Writer Seo Heun-kang Photographer

S and

eoul's major bookstores are

Gwanghwamun, first opened its

general supplies store. A direct

clustered into three main

doors in 1980. Its floor space of

business districts: Jongno, dominated by the Kyobo

8,910 square meters and inventory of 2.3 million books makes this the

underground entrance from Gwanghwamun Station on subway line No.

Youngpoong

bookstores;

Gangnam, dominated by Youngpoong's Gangnam branch and

5 gives Kyobo the advantage of

largest bookstore in Korea. It is estimated that Kyobo is visited by

extremely easy access. The Youngpoong Bookstore

60,000 people a day during the peak

opened in 1992. With a floor space of 10,560 square meters and an

_smaller stores around the Gangnam Station area; and Samseong-dong,

season and 35,000 when business is slower. Of this number, 30-40

dominated by Bandi & Luni's. Each

percent make purchases. Compared

store has a different customer base and specializes in different types of

to the other large bookstores, Kyobo has a wide customer base ranging

30 percent buy a book. Its main

books according to location. Together, they can be regarded as a barometer

from young children to senior citizens, and in terms of sales it

customers are young people in their 20s, especially young women, and it

of Korea's book reading trends.

accounts for more than 10 percent of

sells a large volume of non-fiction

the Korean book market. In addition

books appealing to that group. Its first floor is connected underground

Easy Access and Good Service

The Kyobo Book Centre, in the basement of the Kyobo Building in

to the bookstore the complex includes a music store, fast food restaurant, stationery store , and

inventory of 1 million books, the store draws an estimated 15,000 to 30,000 visitors a day, of whom 25-

to Jonggak Station on subway 'line No. 1. Its second floor includes a

Sandi & Luni's bookstore in the COEX Mall .. â&#x20AC;˘

Korean housewives take a great

entire 5,016-square-meter area is

interest in their children's education,

devoted to books, with around

The Gangnam branch of the

and children's books are the top

800,000 in stock. Some 6,000 to

Youngpoong Bookstore is connected

sellers. In fact, the Youngpoong

7,000 people buy books here each

to the Express Bus Terminal Station

Gangnam branch specializes in this

day. The main customers are

on subway line No. 3. It is similar in

area and is unriv alled in sales of

working people in their 30s, because

scale to the main store, though spread

children's books. Its children's

the location is close to Teheran

over several floors. Communicating

catalog includes many books

Valley, where Korea's IT ventures

with the Âˇneighboring shopping malls,

published overseas as well as a full

are concentrated, as well as the

it offers customers the advantage of

range of Korean titles. And those

Korea World Trade Center and the

combining shopping and culture in

who buy children 's books tend to

offices of several big businesses. As

one tJ.ip. Because of its proximity to

buy large sets rather than one or two

a result, the most popular books sold

the intercity bus terminal, travelers

individual volumes.

here deal with economics, manage-

music store, stationery store, fast food restaurant and event hall.

often visit the store, but as the

Opened in 1988 under the name

ment and politics. Bandi & Luni's is

neighborhood is a residential one, the

of Seoul Bookstore, Bandi & ÂˇLuni's

also the first bookstore in Korea to

majority of customers are local

claims to be the largest store in Asia

provide book search services on

housewives.

dealing exclusively in books. Its

PDA (Personal Digital Assistant). Each employee carries a PDA that can be used anywhere in the store to search instantly for the book required. Bookstore to Cultural Complex

The distinguishing characteristic of these large bookstores is that they are not just places where books are bought and so ld . In addition to selling books , the Kyobo and Youngpoong bookstores operate music stores, fast food outlets, book cafe's and stationery stores, so that shopping for books can easily include the purchase of other related items. This is equally true of Youngpoong's Gangnam branch and Bandi & Luni's: because these stores are connected to shopping malls, books naturally come to be included in the shopping experience. In addition, all these bookstores Tracking down a book with a PDA (above) Shelves stocked with detective stories and fantasies (below)

68 Koreana I Spring 2003

are making constant efforts to hold events that will draw people into the stores. The Kyobo and Youngpoong

bookstores hold a variety of events every week including book signings, lectures and movie screenings. Youngpoong even has a cultural event hall on its second floor. Bandi & Luni's hosts book signings, lectures, and readings of fairy tales and poetry, and in conjunction with the adjacent COEX Mall, it has held an international book exhibition, a chrysanthemum festival, and classical music performances. Korea's large bookstores are no longer just places to buy and read books, but complete cultural complexes where customers can enjoy a wide range of experiences. The prevalence of cultural events in bookstores reflects changes in Korean reading habits. According to recently published data, the Korean / reading

population has

been

gradually decreasing. A 2002 survey of reading patterns found that Korean adults read an average of 10 books per year. Although this represented an increase of 0.7 books

Bandi & Luni's children's book corner

over 1999, the percentage of people who did not read even one book a year was up to 72 percent, an increase of 5.8 percent over the same

As a result, the smaller bookstores,

Large-scale, Brand Name Stores

three-year period. This means that

squeezed out of the market, have

The big bookstores are. now

although the people who do read are

been closing down one after another.

intensifying their efforts to open

reading more than before, more and

To make matters worse , these

brarich stores . Kyobo has already

more people are not reading books at

smaller bookstores have been unable

opened branches in Seongnam,

all. The various cultural events held

to maintain price competitiveness

Daejeon, Daegu, and Busan, and

by the large bookstores are part of

with Internet malls offering 20-30

plans to open a branch in Gangnam

their efforts to win back the public's

percent discounts. Nowadays, rather

this May. The projected Gangnam

waning interest in books.

than going to a small neighborhood

store will have an area of 11 ,880

With the major bookstores re-

bookstore, people buy books through

square meters covering two under-

inventing themselves as cultural

the Internet or go to the large

ground floors. The lower floor will

complexes, the trend toward large-

bookstores offering diverse cultural

contain a stationery store, music

scale stores has been accelerating.

experiences.

store and children's corner, and the Spring 2003 I Koreana

Youngsters listen to the latest hits at the music section (above). Children 's CD-ROM corner (above right) Recent best-sellers (right) A foreign book section, with a wide variety of works in their original languages (opposite page) /

Âˇ store will also operate a theme book cafe and provide a lounge for Kyobo Book Club members. According to a Kyobo representative, the new store

US$4 million) in a huge fully-

and near Sogang University, and

automated logistics system.

within the next five years is planning to open two more in the capital area.

The Youngpoong Bookstore

The movement toward large-scale

is expected to be the leading book-

began establishing its bookstore chain long ago. It now has branches

and brand name stores is one of the

store in the Gangnam area and will

in Gangnam, Yeongdeungpo , In-

most striking trends of the Korean

offer a unique program of cultural

cheon, Ganseok, Daegu and Bu-

events. Consequently, smaller bookstores around the Gangnam Station

cheon, and most recently opened a branch in Haeundae, Busan. This

book market. Kyobo, Youngpoong and Bandi & Luni's are all well-

area, such as the City Bookstore and

newest branch has been particularly

business. Indeed, it was because of

Donghwa Bookstore, are liable to suffer badly.

successful. Since most of the bookstores in Busan are located in

this trend toward brand names that Âˇ the Seoul Bookstore changed its

As Kyobo plans to advance into the Gangnam area, Youngpoong's

the Seomyeon region, which used to be the downtown area, the posi-

name to Bandi & Luni's in 2000. Strong brand names give the big

Gangnam branch and B andi & Luni's are scrambling for counter-

tioning of the Youngpoong Book-

bookstores a high level of recogni-

store in the new downtown area of

measures to deal with the increased

Haeundae gives it a strategic advantage. Thanks to good timing

tion, and this is a great advantage when opening branches in other

competition. As an indication of what they are up against, with the addition of its new branch Kyobo

and good management, customers have been crowding in. Bandi &

plans to invest 5 billion won (over

Luni's has branches in Mok-dong

70 Korean a I Spring 2003

established brand names in the book

parts of the country as well as the capital. People who find it difficult to visit the big bookstores in Seoul feel a great sense of cultural satis-

With the major bookstores reinventing themselves as cultural complexes, the trend toward large-scale stores has been accelerating. As a result, the smaller bookstores, squeezed out of the market, have been closing down one after another. To make matters worse, these smaller bookstores have been unable to maintain price competitiveness with Internet malls offering 20-30 percent discounts.

faction when one of these brand

novels, books in the area of human-

name bookstores opens a branch in their area.

ities experienced weak sales. But new experiments, such as combining

habits of Koreans, in that all the books

Trends in the Korean Market

humanities subjects with fiction, have been gaining a favorable re-

Statistics show that the steadiest sales growth in Korean bookstores

sponse from readers. Another notable trend in the

sellers. Although the 90-year-old Jongno

has been achieved by the novel.

Korean book market is that book sections in newspapers and book-

Bookstore closed down last year due to outdated management, Korea's

published by Kyobo, sales of novels were up by 25 percent. Last year's

related programs on television are

other large bookstores remain alive

encouraging people to take a greater

book market was also marked by a

interest in books. In particular, the "Let's Read a Book" feature in the

and well. On weekends they bustle with customers buying books or

-..

According to data for last year

large increase in the number of children ' s books published. This

MBC entertainment program "Neukkimpyo!" (which means "ex-

shows that the so-called 386 generation (born in the 1960s,

clamation mark") has generated so

in the 1980s and now in "their 30s) care as much as

much interest across the country that a new term, "Neukkimpyo! Syndrome,"

ever about their children's education,

has been coined . The program is

a factor that continues to influence

credited with bringing people closer to books in a fun way. On the other

coleg

~ educat

the book market. In comparison to

hand, the publishing industry has questioned whether the show is not exacerbating the unbalanced reading appearing on the program are best-

seeking the latest information on new releases. With a law on book pricing to be implemented this year, limiting the--discount offered by Internet bookstores to 10 percent, the forecast is that business in the big bookstores will be as brisk as ever. ~

Spring 2003 I Koreana

CUISINE

72 Korean a I Spring 2003

Flower pancakes made with chrysanthemum petals (left) Chrysanthemum pancakes are prepared with great care (right).

o people really eat flowers? Are flowers even

for that. It is also around this time that two plants indigenous to Korea,

. â&#x20AC;˘. edible? To most people, the idea of eating these

the azalea and the forsythia, come

delicate fragrant plants that flutter so

into bloom. The forsythia is rarely found in the wild, but the azalea is

prettily in the gentle breeze seems to go against common sense. Wild

common all over the country, and for Koreans, the azalea is the flower that

flowers that adorn the boundless

most powerfully evokes thoughts of

plains, cherry blossoms that blanket

home. A little later in the season one

the whole landscape only to vanish

sees cherry blossoms, indigenous to Korea but even more beloved in

like a dream in a matter of days, wisteria blossoms that climb among

Japan. From Seoul to Jinhae and

the vines to form a sumptuous floral ceiling ...

Gunsan, great crowds of these pinkish-white blossoms erupt in a

One thing that impresses the visitor to Korea is that, even though

rousing spring chorus.

this is a temperate and not a tropical climate, in spring the hills and fields

Edible Flowers

are covered with flowers. Winter is

old must have learned that these flowers could be eaten. Perhaps in a

not even over before the apricot blossoms appear, while in the southern

Somehow or other, the people of

time of famine when there was little

coastal regions, spring orchids softly unfold on the floors of broadleaf

else to eat, someone asked himself, "How about eating this flower?"

forests. The Korean spring orchid has

Before all the cabbages had been

none of the gaudiness of Western varieties, but is nonetheless cherished

harvested from the fields, the pistils and stamens of flowers would begin Spring 2003 I Koreana 73

a high regard for hardy flowers that retain some of their green leaves through winter. The buds of the day lily that blooms in early summer came to be considered a luxury food fit for kings. The chrysanthemum, blooming in autumn, was used to make a luxurious tea. The pigments that give color to flowers were thought to contain large amounts of substances beneficial to health. During the Korean War (19501953), the mountains of Korea were despoiled of trees and eroded by heavy rain. Afterward, the govern-

Ingredients of flower liquor: hollyhock and Chinese pink (opposite page)

ment encouraged the planting of acacia trees, and soine time later, acacia blossoms began to

to appear, and rather than throw them away, the farmers would lightly boil the cabbages with their

th~ they are eating' a flower.

Around the

cover the mountain slopes in early summer. Acacia flowers have thick leaves, and inside them

Âˇ flower buds still attached , then

third month of

season them and eat them as a tender

the lunar calen-

and tasty side dish.

dar, when the azaleas

blossoms grow in larger bundles

But among all the flower

are in bloom, their petals are spread

than azalea blossoms, they attracted

foodstuffs, the most widely eaten was the pollen of pine trees. In early spring, these trees sprout new buds, and as the weather grows warmer,

on top of rice cakes to make colorful flower pancakes called hwajeon. leon is a general term for flat cakes

the attention of housewives who had to provide food for the family, and eventually acacia petals too came to

cooked with a little oil in a frying pan, and azalea hwajeon are made

be used for making flower pancakes. Tipplers became fond of this natural

by arranging the petals on top of a pancake and then frying. It was once

organic food as a side dish to nibble while drinking.

the custom all over the country to

Another plant well suited to

make these flower pancakes around the time of Samjinnal, the third day of the third lunar month.

making flower pancakes is the broad bellflower, doraji. Easily found on

the buds grow pouches full of pollen. The pollen contains an abundant supply of good-quality protein along with other nutrients beneficial to human health. It is painstakingly gathered and thoroughly dried, then on special occasions throughout the year, the dried pollen is mixed with

are pouches containing generous amounts of nectar. Because acacia

Pine pollen was the first flower

the shady slopes of Korea's mountains, doraji has a special

honey and molded into little disks. Koreans call these disks songhwa

product to be used as a food. Then came azalea petals, wild roses,

meaning for the country folk. After "Arirang," the most popular Korean

dasik, or pine pollen tablets, and

pumpkin blossoms, rape flowers,

folk song is "Doraji." Beginning

although they are undoubtedly a

and cabbage blooms. It is probably

"Doraji, doraji, white doraji," this

floral product, few people consider

since that time that people have had

song is a veiled expression of

74 Korean a I Spring 2003

heartfelt love. Accordingly, although

grance, and from antiquity they

West, these are made into jam, but

the yield is small, doraji is a popular

brewed maehwaju, or apricot liquor. In spring, in addition to maehwaju,

sweet briar jam has not yet made

item on Korean menus. However, the flowers are not a common part of floral cuisine.

liquor is served to special guests or at ancestral memorial services.

The people of Ganghwado Island,

blossoms, dugyeonju from azalea flowers, and indongju from

home of insam (ginseng), eat the

honeysuckle blooms. In autumn,

.flowers of insam too. Because of the medicinal properties of insam, it is

they made liquor from chrysanthemums, both the domestic and the

widely believed in East Asia that

Siberian varieties.

insam flowers are also good for one's health, and they are used to

Flowers of the rose family have a delightful fragrance and are popular

make salads and other dishes.

wherever they are found. Korea has

more refined and satisfying culinary life. They are turning their attention

several species of wild rose, among

to foods that are good to look at,

Flower Liquor

which the white rose is both the

good to smell, and good for health.

One of the most common ways of extracting the goodness from edible

most prevalent and the most fragrant. In early spring, when the

This is why there is a growing interest in floral cuisine and flower

substances is to make them into

wild roses thrust out their new shoots, country kids break them off

liquors. Flowers grow abundantly in

liquor. This can be done either by fermenting the substance itself, or by /

they made dohwaju from peach

much impact on Korea. The floral

immersing it in ready-made spirits to bring out the nutritious elements. Efforts to extract the essences from beautiful flowers probably began in remote antiquity. The ancients were

and eat.them like asparagus-one of the joys of childhood never to be forgotten. The liquor made from these flowers andÂˇ buds is also well liked, though small in quantity.

After its long history of hardships at the hands of foreign invaders, Korea is at last able to enjoy the pleasures of the table. Rather than simply aiming to fill their empty stomachs, Koreans now aspire to a

both mountains and plains, free from chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and they are increasingly being used as a tasty and nourishing food. I hope you will have the chance to make friends with someone (though there are not many as yet) who cooks

particularly attracted to apricot

The broad petals and colorful plump berries of the sweet briar that

blossoms, which bloom early and

grows on sand dunes beside the sea

the delights of flower tea, flower

abundantly with a delightful fra-

is also good for making liquor. In the

liquor,

There are three main ways to brew flower liquor. First, the flowers can be fermented together with grain. Second , flowers and sugar can be added to ready-made liquor to extract the flowers' essence. Third , flowers can be simply combined with soju, distilled grain liquor. As the first method is rather difficult for laymen, most people choose the second or third technique. The simplest method is the third, which is done as follows:

Example: Acacia Liquor 300 grams acacia flowers, 1 ,000 milliliters soju Put the flowers in a container and pour in the soju, taking care that the petals do not float to the surface and get exposed to the air. Seal the container and leave it in a cool , well ventilated place away from direct sunlight for about six months, then take out the yellowed petals and enjoy the drink.

with flowers, and taste for yourself a ~d

flower pancakes.

DISCOVERING KOREA

hy does our head feel

parties were held at Poseokjeong

finest poets would come to write

clear and our heart at

Pavilion in Gyeongju, where stream-

peace when we walk into the woods? The

water flowing down from Mt. Namsan was diverted into a curved stone

verses inspired by the outstanding natural scenery, with poetry parties

forest seems to soothe a mind weary of daily worries, to impart inner

ch<umel. Each year on the third day

W I

calm and spiritual healing. The facial . expressions of those who come to

of the third lunar month, wine cups were floated down the channel as a

held there all year round. In spring, the azalea blossoms were so dazzling that one arm of the mountain was officially named Azalea Ridge, though the whole mountain was

the forest change from cold and

form of stopwatch, the poet having to complete a verse before the cup

mean to kind and gentle.

arrived, and then drink the wine.

covered with ravishing blooms.

Seoul, the great metropolis and

Even in the Joseon era (1392-1910),

Cultural relics lie scattered all over Bukhansan. Relics that have been

capital of the Republic of Korea, is home to ten million people. Buffeted

most villages of any size would

designated national treasures include

regularly hold poetry parties at which the older men in their horsehair hats

the stupa of the National Preceptor

by the stresses of their busy lives, the people of Seoul have a place in which to seek the comfort of the

would compose and recite verses.

woods. The friendly face of Buk-

only at the pavilions dotted all over the country, such as those at Segeom-

hansan is visible from anywhere in the city, and the presence of this luxuriant forest amid the gray concrete of the capital is one of the city's great blessings. The Cultural Heritage

Korea has a long tradition of poetry parties, at which the literati would get together to compose verse. A thousand years ago, these elegant 78 Koreana I Spring 2003

These poetry parties were held not

jeong, Nakseonjae, Hwagyeonnu, Cheokgeumdae, Gugaam, and Banghojeong, but also at Confucian academies in every province. If the loca-

Bou at Taegosa Temple (Treasure No. 749). Historic remains include the fortifications of Bukhansanseong and the site of King Jinheung's Monument (Historic Site No. 228). (The Âˇmonument itself, designated National Treasure No. 3, is now housed in the National Museum of Korea.)

tion was not suitable, the literati

Including a number of tangible cultural properties designated at the

would gather at a riverbank or valley to enjoy their sophisticated pleasures

regional level rather than the national, the historic remains of Bukhansan

and cultivate their minds by writing amid the beauty of nature. Bukhansan

perpetuate the glory of their epoch. In

was long known as a place where the

the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th century),

Precipitous crags with azalea blooms (opposite page left) King Jinheung's Monument (Historic Site No. 228) (opposite page right) The fortifications of Bukhansanseong are in harmony with the natural scenery (right).

Âˇ'

Buk:hansan was a strategic spot which each kingdom sought to control. King

era, the Japanese invasions of 1592-

Jinheung ' s Monument was set up

1636 heightened the need for northern defenses of the capital, and

around the 6th century when King Jinheung, the 24th ruler of the Silla Kingdom, took possession of the Hangang River region and claimed Buk:hansan as his new frontier. Another important cultural relic is Bukhansanseong (Historic Site No. 162). This fortification was first built as an earthen fortress in the fifth year of the reign of King Gaeru of Baekje (A.D. 132). In the Joseon

1598 and the Mongol invasion of

Bukhansan has long harbored numerous temples . One important example is Doseonsa, built 1, 100 years ago in the late Silla period by the National Preceptor Doseon .

Bukhansanseong was expanded to its present extent in 1711, the 37th

Deeply versed in Buddhist philos-

year of the reign of King Sukjong. Encircling the capital like a horse-

ophy and the subtle principles of astronomy and geography, Doseon

shoe, the beautiful wall was built

made a thorough survey of potential sites before building his temple on Bukhansan, where the hills were

with careful regard for harmony with the precipitous slopes and the natural lay of the land. Because of its outstanding topography and excellent water supply,

exquisitely shaped and the water pure. Another temple, Munsusa, on the flank of Munsubong Peak, is Spring 2003 I Koreana

noted for its clear spring water

known as Samgaksan or " three

National Park is the smallest of

dripping from the roof of a cave, and

peaks, " referring to the principal

Korea's national parks, it is perhaps

for its Nahanjeon Hall housing 500

summits Mangyeongdae, Insubong,

the

arhat statues.

and Baegundae. Two other names,

the view from Bukhansan encom-

Hwasan and Hwaak, were also in

passes a vast panorama of Seoul and

use until the mid-Joseon period. The

the surrounding Gyeonggi-do prov-

Succumbing to the Lure

~ost

prized of all. On a clear day,

Where else in the world can you

name Bukhansan derives from

ince. Whereas the grand r<?cky peaks

find a mountain like Bukhansan

Bukhansanseong, the fortification

of Bukhansan bulge with masculine

within a capital city? Bukhansan has

completed by King Sukjong of

strength, the many valleys that

shared the history and expe1iences of

J oseon in 1711. Referring to the "big

cascade down its steep slopes boast a

Korea. Its original name was Buaak,

mountain north of the Hangang

more feminine beauty of milky white

meaning "the mountain that carries a

River" in contrast to Namhansan-

granite and meandering rivulets. The

child on its back." This name, inspired

seong, the mountain fortress south of

Bukhansanseong, Ui, and Gugi val-

by the shape of the mountain, was

the river, the name was used from

leys are particularly popular summer

used for about a thousand years, from

the early 1900s on.

recreation spots with their broad

the time of the Goryeo Dynasty's

Bukhansan has guarded the capital

King Seongjong (r. 981- 997) to the

through all the vagaries of its long

1900s. The mountain was also

history.

80 Korean a I Spring 2003

Although

Bukhansan

banks and abundant flow of water. Because of the neighboring metropolis with its convenient

. .,.

transportation system, it is easy to get to Bukhansan. With more than

suddenly drops down vertically; gwimyeo njun (ghost's face tech-

highest mountains, its steep slopes and rugged crags make it ideal not

five million visitors annually,

nique) in which the overall shape of

only for hiking but also for rock

Bukhansan is in the Guiness Book of Records as the national park with the

the mountain is made as forbidding as the countenance of a ghost; and

climbing. Even children can climb the highest peak, Baegundae (836.5

largest number of visitors relative to

maajun (horse's tooth technique) in

land area. But what is it that draws

which the shapes resemble the teeth

meters) , while Mangyeongdae (799.5 meters) requires some rock

.these crowds to Bukhansan? Artist Kwak Won-ju started visit-

of a horse. Most mountains can be portrayed using just a few of these

climbing skills, and Insubong (810.5 meters) can be reached only by

ing Bukhansan 30 years ago. He

techniques, but Bukhansan allows the use of the whole repertoire.

seasoned mountaineers.

loved mountains so much that he left the pharmaceutical company that

Every valley seems to hide its own

Among these, Insubong appeals most to alpinists, presenting the rock face of their dreams. This giant

devote himself to painting land-

story behind its enigmatic looks, yet the picturesque scenery creates a

scapes. He wandered all over the

sense of deep psychological security.

country in search of subjects for his paintings, visiting every mountain

This is the charm of Bukhansan. Stretching straight down from

circumference of 400-500 meters at the base, is not to be passed over by

from Hallasan in the south to Seoraksan in the north. But his final

north to south, Bukhansan is in itself

had employed him for 15 years to

choice was Bukhansan. It was the

a great stone fortress. Though not numb~red among the country's

boulder, 200 meters high with a

any serious climber in Korea. Indeed, Bukhansan has always been at the core of the Korean rock climbing scene , and is often de-

unique balance of grandeur and delicacy in the captivating scenery of "Bukhansan that finally arrested his footsteps. The streams that never dried, the contrast of white granite and green pines ... artists can learn a great deal from this mountain, for they can hardly help capturing a magnificent landscape wherever they set up their easel. In Oriental painting, the techniques used for rendering the mass and texture of mountains and boulders are collectively known as junbeop . Among the 20 or so recognized techniques are bubyeokjun (axe-wall technique) for rocks that have a sharp texture as if chopped by an axe; ujeomjun (rain-dot technique) for yellow ochre rocks portrayed with fine dots like raindrops; jeoldaejun (folded belt technique) in

which a long horizontal line

A view of dawn on Bukhansan (opposite page) Summer in a Bukhansan valley (right)

Spring 2003 I Koreana

scribed as the birthplace of Korean

some believe that the Bukhansan

alpinism.

National Park is not very suitable as

areas but also those parts of the interior.

How, then, did the jagged peaks, cliffs, and ridges of this urban

a habitat for diverse wildlife. Like an island cut off by the sea, the moun-

Tough imported grasses such as Kew weed (galinsoga parviflora

mountain come to be formed? Most

tain constitutes a "jumping island"

Cav. ), sweet scabious (erigeron

of the rocks in the Bukhansan National Park belong to an igneous

isolated from neighboring ecosystems, while its location within the

annuus), common ragweed (ambro

intrusion from the late Mesozoic era. Violent Âˇmovements of the earth's

city brings with it a host of environmental problems. In particular,

ragweed (ambrosia trifida), are colonizing an increasing area at the

crust produced fissures and fault

Bukhansan is suffering a drastic

expense of Bukhansan's native

planes that resulted in outstanding

reduction in its mammal population, which requires an adequate land area

species. Common ragweed and great ragweed have been officially

and food chain for survival, and of

designated as harmful foreign

reptiles and amphibia, which need an environment of water and marshes.

species under the Natural Environment Protection Law. Paved roads

rocks impart a gentle feeling to the whole of Bukhansan. The firm, solid

Feral cats and dogs have also reduced

within the park, including military

the numbers of small mammals,

roads as well as those serving

granite of Insubong is safe for climbers, in marked contrast to the

birds, amphibia, and reptiles to an alarming extent.

temples and recreation areas, have not only destroyed natural habitats

friable volcanic rocks of Japan's mountains, and as a result, many Japanese visitors come here to climb.' ÂˇTo experience the thrill of rock

The plant ecology of Bukhansan is characterized by the prevalence of

but created conditions favoring invasion by imported species. If

imported species. These imported species are mostly annual grasses

these imported species continue to increase, the time may come when it

climbing within a city is another of

which spre.ad and multiply rapidly,

is hard to find native Korean trees in

mountain scenery, especially after the rain of centuries had sculpted the rocks into their present baroque forms . The pastel tones of the gray

...

sia artemisii folia), and great

the special attractions of Bukhansan.

and they have had little difficulty in invading an ecosystem. They have

the luxuriant forests of Bukhansan. Last March, however, a rare bird

The Flora and Fauna

already taken over many parts of the

was unexpectedly observed in

national park, not only the outlying

Bukhansan. Nature photographer Jung Bong-yong discovered a black

From an ecological point of view,

woodpecker? dryocopus martius, a protected species designated Natural Monument No. 242. It was the first time in about 20 years that a black woodpecker had been seen in a major city like Seoul. Measuring about 45 centimeters long, the black

Koreana I Spring 2003

woodpecker is indeed black all over except for a red marking that covers

A white-backed woodpecker and a spider web glistens with morning dew (left)

the top of its head (if male) or the back of its head (if female). While

Flowers on Bukhansan (opposite page)

to live in large old trees, and as these trees have been cut down, the bird

not in danger of extinction, it prefers

From olden days,

_..,_

the magnificent peaks and

has become rare in South Korea. Among plants, a designated

melyridae), orchesia imitans Lewis (family melandryidae), and phauli-

endangered species, the crypsinus

mia aberrans Sharp (family anthri-

Bukhansan have called out to

hastatus group, has also been

bidae). Among flora, too, aquatic

poets and pajnters.

discovered j1ecently on Bukhansan. This species of fern lives in the damp; shady gaps between rocks,

plants. have been discovered that were previously unknown in Korea.

The birthplace of Korean much frequented by

and grows fine roots as delicate as silk threads. It contains generous

Bukhansan remains a mountain that embraces possibilities. With a little more care and attention, it could be

the thrill of rock climbing

amounts of coumarin, efficacious as

restored to its former glory.

within the city limits is

a diuretic, detoxicant, antiphlogistic, and blood cleanser, and it has been

Coexistence of City and Nature

widely used as a folk remedy for colds, children's convulsions, and chronic inflammation of the liver. With indiscriminate harvesting by medicinal herb gatherers, as well as atmospheric pollution from arsenic dust and acid rain, the plant had long disappeared from sight. But after 40 years, it has been found once more on Bukhansan. In addition, three species of insects 'have been discovered that had previously been unrecorded in Korea and had been thought to live only in Japan: laius tshushimensis M. Sato & N. Ohbayashi (family

beautiful landscapes of

alpinism, it has also been mountaineers. To experience

one of the special attractions of Bukhansan.

Five million hikers a year use the 77 official footpaths in Bukhansan. With the number of visitors increasing each year, over-use of the national park is causing severe damage, not just to the natural ecosystem, but to the most heavily used part of the park, the paths themselves. As the paths are worn down, rocks and tree roots are exposed, and the ground becomes

perhaps ten times the proper capacity of the park. And the problem of footpaths is becoming ..

more serious with the ever-growing number of visitors. Therefore, there must be a reconciliation between the conflicting goals of usage and preservation. What is most important

eroded. Moreover, as the paths become wider and brancl;t out into

is to understand and accept the limitations of such resources. To give back the mountain as a thing

new unofficial paths, the vegetation

that belongs to nature, not mankind:

around them is heedlessly damaged. The number of hikers is now

that is the first step to a harmonious coexistence of city and mountain. L;t Spring 2003 I Koreana

MASTERPIECES

Gilt-bronze Pagoda, National Treasure No. 213 Man's Dream of Divine Existence Kim Seung-hee ·curator, National Museum of Korea

The gilt-bronze pagoda represents the

epitome of sculptural

with time and place. Egyptian burial

art from the Goryeo

practices strove to perpetuate the

period. Graceful as a

soul of the dead. Christian culture was the first to admit the body of the deceased inside the temple precinct. Cremation was practiced both by

local architectural norms. In Korea, they became multi-story structures reminiscent of local wooden

nomads· and by the Buddhists of ancient India; however, the latter

center of temples. Whereas the Indians and Chinese

built stupas to enshrine the burned

used bricks to build their stupas (or

new life? Here is

remains of the deceased. Originally

expressed earth-

created as reliquaries for sarira, the pearl-like stones reputedly found in

pagodas, as they came to be called in China and Korea), Koreans built

bird soaring aloft, ·iS this monument Of death about to fly away toward rebirth into a

formed into entirely different styles in each country in accordance with

buildings, and were located at the

the ashes of the historical Buddha

them of stone. These stone pagodas were more of a sculptural product as

Sakyamuni, the stupa went on to

they were embellished with artistic

world beyond human

become an artistic symbol of

comprehension.

Buddhist culture. The early Indian stupa was a hemispheric structure like an

touches, and they became one of the most important forms of Korean

bound man's eternal dream of the divine

ivilization has much to do with the way people

inverted bowl surrounded by railings, with the sarira enshrined

handle death. Their burial styles, funerary rituals and

inside the bowl. Although Buddhist culture was transmitted along the

concept of death can have a profound influence on their lifestyle. Like

Silk Road through Cep.tral Asia to China and Korea, the hemispheric

other aspects of culture, practices

stu pas of India are not found in these

concerning the dead vary widely

two countries. Stupas were trans-

C 84

Korean a I Spring 2003

Buddhist art. They began to be made in great numbers during the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.A.D. 7th century). Their prototype is Seokgatap, the perfectly proportioned three-story stone pagoda at Bulguksa Temple, built in the Unified Silla period (668 -935). A pagoda is a type of tower rising from a sturdy, square foundation in

three, five, seven, or as many as nine

Silla became taller, comprising five or seven stories, and more ornately

chimes hanging from the eaves, and other ornaments. Good illustrations

decorated. Pagodas were made not

of the era's decorative arts are found

only of stone but also of bronze or gilt-bronze, though metal pagodas

in the representation of doors and windows on the first story, the

were usually made in small sizes for

Buddhas on lotus seats carved on the

Âˇlittle trace of its ancestry in the

convenience of transportation. The Gilt-bronze Pagoda intro-

hemispheric Indian stupa. A stupa or pagoda is endowed

duced here is 155 centimeters tall and 63 centimeters wide at its square

walls from the second story to the fifth, the orderly furrows of tiles on the roofs, and the arabesque motif of

tapering stories. It is surmounted by a finial decorated with lotus designs, an important decorative motif in Buddhist culture because the lotus blossom symbolizes rebirth. This ornate, symbolic structure shows

with religious significance

The pagoda stands on a two-stepped foundation in the

only when it enshrines sarira

style that prevailed from the

of Sakyamuni. But as it was practically impossible to Âˇobtain these sarira in Silla

Unified Silla era through the early Goryeo period. The representation of columns on

more than a thousand years

the walls and the joints between component p'arts

after Sakyamuni's death, other religious treasures were enshrined instead, such as

mimic the timber architecture

sutras or mirrors inscribed with the Buddha's teachings. /

the railings.

With the rise of Sean (Zen)

of the time. As no wooden pagodas from that period have survived, this gilt-

Buddhism from the end of Unified Silla to the Goryeo

bronze example is especially valuable for its elaborate

period (918-1392), large num-

rendering of the details of

bers of pagodas appeared enshrining the sarira of great

wooden construction.

monks.

il} height from 20 to 60 centimeters, but this one

This

Most metal pagodas range

trend was

doubtless inspired by the fervent reverence for their preceptors characteristic of Sean Buddhists, and also by the more practical consideration that the available sarira of outstanding monks were preferable to the unavailable sarira of Sakyamuni. As the Goryeo period wore on,

stands no less than 155 centiGilt-bronze pagoda at the Ho-am Art Gallery

base. Dating from the 1Oth or 11th century, it is a beautiful monument that well reflects the feeling for

meters tall. A pagoda of such size might not be a mi_niature of a larger structure, but most agree that it is a scaled-down model of a wooden pagoda that existed during

architecture that prevailed at the time. Although most of the decorative

the Goryeo period. Graceful as a bird soaring on its

stupas or pagodas came to be re-

elements are missing, the lavishness

garded _less as tombs of Sakyamuni than as highly visible Buddhist

of Goryeo-period Buddhist art is amply reflected in what remains of

wings, is this monument of death about to fly away toward rebirth into

symbols by which one could readily

the jewel-like ornaments or heads of dragons on the hips of the roofs, the

spot a temple from a great distance. The three-story prototype of Unified

decorations on the ridges, the wind

a new life? Here is expressed earthbound man 's eternal dream of the divine world beyond human comprehension. l..;t Spring 2003 I Koreana

ART REVIEW

The Artistic World of Theater Producer

Han Tae-sook Challenge to Seek New Forms of Art Hur Sook-ja Theater Critic, Professor of Acting, Chungwon University

orean theater would not be what it is without

Baraka's play Dutchman, and a two-

producer Han Tae-sook (b. 1950), whose unique

tha.! included popular musicians, showed signs of her potential to evolve into a producer of rare ability.

vision and creative interpretations "have long been in the limelight. It would be impossible to do justice to Korea's theater industry without

Âˇ ~

part musical adapted from a novel

Han, however, bid a hasty farewell to the theater, forgoing an opportunity to become a part of the mainstream.

examining Han's influence as a

For the following ten years, she

pioneer who has consistently sought

concentrated on writing for the broadcast media. Then, when even

those who remembered her talent had

with Jeong Bok-geun, the author of

"A new departure is always exhilarating" has been her constant motto.

begun to give up hope, she began to make a comeback in the theater.

the adaptation. For this production, Han cast reputable thespians Park

Her intuitions into human nature and her sensitivity toward the ritualistic

After her long hiatus, it did not

Jeong-ja and Son Sook ii1 the roles

take Han long to re-establish her reputation in the theater world. Her

of two sisters torn by jealousy dating back to their childhood. The sisters, who are themselves retired actresses,

new styles of staging and modes of expression in the postmodern era.

and play aspects of theater have enriched Korea's theater scene.

sensitivity and capability as a producer were evident in a series of

st~engh

ever since in partnership

leave an indelible impression by

These qualities inspire confidence in her potential to grow into a play-

plays that unquestionably opened a

wright and producer capable of presenting a riveting synthesis of the

new chapter in Korean theater history. Her creativity, which was

visual and the aural. Han's distinctive voice as a

shown to good effect in 1994 at the Hakchon Theater with an adaptation

made a huge hit by delving into the psyches of a middle-aged woman

producer was first heard at the end of

of H. Farrell's What Ever Happened

the 1970s. Her debut with Amiri

to Baby Jane?, has gone from strength

and a younger man involved in an adulterous relationship.

86 Koreana I Spring 2003

revealing their grotesque psychological motivations throughout the play. Han's next production, Cello,

Gwanghaeyugam scored a critical success in November 2002 (left) Baejanghwa Baehongnyeon, a new interpretation of an old classic (right)

"""

In 1995, Han produced Princess Deokhye, a story about the last

Lady Macbeth is an adaptation of

Shakespeare's Macbeth with a twist.

sensitivity in producing a stage aesthetic that is both mystical and

princess of the Joseon Dynasty, who isolated herself from the outside world in a mental institution in

In this Âˇversion, Lady Macbeth is the protagonist, suffering the guilt of

sophisticated. Her willingness to experiment is well exhibited in the

Japan. Renowned actress Yoon Suk-

having enticed Macbeth to commit murder, and the story is re-created in

four different interpretations of Lady Macbeth she has produced since

hwa shaved her head to play the role

the form of a psychodrama. The

giving the play its debut in 1998.

of the princess, and a powerful staging was achieved using a variety

recent Gwanghaeyugam, a play based on a historical account, shook the

With Lady Macbeth she created a new form of play, the "objet drama,"

of techniques including projected

theater circle. The true story about

that is continuous in its approach.

images. Princess Deokhye was

Gwarighaegun, the fifteenth king of

invited to the BeSeTo Theatre Festival in Tokyo the same year,

the J oseon Dynasty, is fleshed out

Her experiments have received international recognition, too, for

with a fictional conflict between a father and son over a woman.

just last May Lady Macbeth was invited to the International Theater

Considering the length of time Han

Festival Kontakt in Torun, P<?land, a

has been producing, it does not seem that she has a remarkable number of

theater festival for experimental plays. Han's productions are generally

which was ironic in that Japan had been responsible for the tragic fate of the princess. Thus, the wrongdoings of the past were exposed on the home turf of the perpetrator. A Face behind a Face is a mystery

that looks into the mind of a protagonist living a life of deception in order to rise above his social class, eventually leading to murder. I, Kim Soo-im depicts the romantic love of a

woman who was ultimately sacrificed in the name of political ideology.

productions to her credit: about 20. However, since her comeback, she has staged one or two plays every year, and in 1998, after a long career

identified with psychodrama. Genre labels aside, she pays particular attention to analyzing the psyche of

as a freelance producer, she launched her own theater company, Moollee.

a character thrust into extraordinary circumstances, often running up

What attracts audiences to Han Tae-sook's productions? Han has the

against extremes of either purity or

ability to mobilize her potent inner

crime. She has received much praise for her meticulous workmanship, a Spring 2003 I Koreana 87

Han Tae-sook's masterpiece, Lady Macbeth

Han does not shy away

--"\

from putting a twist on

pretations in the service of her own

as well as a challenge to the audience.

traditional interpretations

aesthetic. To that end, she frequently

For Baejanghwa Baehongnyeon, Han

in the service of her own

collaborates with artists from a

turned the stage completely inside

aesthetics. To that end,

variety of fields. Never afraid to

out, a shock for audiences accus-

she frequently collaborates

reinterpret and reshape the original,

tomed to conventional theater.

with artists from a variety

she is often compared with the

Gwanghaeyugam was performed on

of fields, and is never

visually

Lithuanian

a thrust stage with the audience

afraid to reinterpret and

director Eimuntas Nekrocius and

seated on three sides . Despite

reshape the original.

other producers who experiment

criticism that such experiments

with Shakespeare's plays. In order to

detract from the play by indulging in

create a new theater language, Han

formalism , or that attention is shifted

quality not often attributed to today's

breathes life into unusual materials

from the dramatic situation to the

theater circle.

such as water, clay, flour, and ice, or

physical anangement, the audience

uses vocals, live music and move-

experiences a sense of shock at these

ment to stimulate the soul.

attempts to question aesthetic norms.

Han

maintains

the literary

qualities of the script and moves

powerful

between genres with graceful ease.

Han's approach to space has

This winter, Han is working on a

Her vigorous pursuit of a wide range

involved a revolutionary move away

new version of Gwanghaeyugam.

of forms incorporating music, art,

from conventional stage equipment

Perhaps she is conjuring up a

dance, and movement is part of an

Such a move was possible because of

simpler image for the play, another

effort to reinstate theater as a total

her expanded interpretation of the

Lady Macbeth

art form.

text and use of metaphors. A set with

international stage, or dreaming of a

Han does not shy away from

a rising level of water in Lady

"new departure" that will bring its

putting a twist on traditional inter-

Macbeth became a source of catharsis

own exhilaration. l..l.t

Koreana I Spring 2003

aimed

the

JOURNEYS IN KOREAN LITERATURE

YUJAE-YONG

A New Interpretation of Human Relationships Kwon Young-min Literary Critic, Professor of Korean Language and Literature, Seoul National University

u Jae-yong was born on June 6, 1936 in Geumhwa,

stories "Portrait of My Elder Sister" and "Story of a Porter." These are not

Gangwon-do province. He left home after the Korean

mere reminiscences expressing a yearning for home or the grief of

War and made his way to Seoul. Upon dropping out of high school,

being unable to return. Rather, they examine the problems in real life

he decided to pursue a literary career and devoted himself to writing. His

cajlsed by the inability to return home, with the story of lost homes

literary debut came in 1965 with the children's story A Tall Mans Balloon,

forming the backdrop.

binary structure of confrontation, based on "I" as the self and "You" as the other. Of course, when the "I"

This is why Yu's literary works contain no trace of the heavily

and the "You" merge harmoniously as one, a great new world of "We"

sored by the Chosun Ilbo newspaper. A few years later, in 1968, he won

ideological slant apparent in the

can be created. Human relationships,

works of many writers who deal

however, are more often based on

the new artist's award of the Ministry

with national division and the

conflicts and confrontation than on

of Information in the fiction category. Yu Jae-yong's stories use a variety

Korean War. It is not that Yu adopts a passive stance toward political

harmony, and Yu anchors his works

of concrete illustrations to throw new

ideology and national division. On the contrary, he deals in depth with

Through such short stories as "The Life of Others," "Coexistence," "A

the pain of national division intrinsic

Certain Life," and "Method of Survival," Yu suggests that human

Y /

which won a literary contest spon-

light on the issue of displacement from home, based on the author's personal experience. The sense of displacement he depicts is linked to the national tragedy of the Korean War and the division of the country. Many of the characters in his stories have been displaced from their homes in North Korea by the whirlwind of war and national division, which has

his unique way of using literature to overcome the conflicts and distrust among the Korean people, who are leading a bleak life in the era of national division. The Âˇ human relationships he depicts begin from a

in this relationship of discord.

to many phases of everyday life, and with the collapse of community that

relationships are becoming in-

follows on the heels of a loss of home. Through this literary project,

creasingly bleak. Having given up the dream of community to pursue

Yu persistently pursues a harmonious

their individual interests, people use others only to achieve their own

recovery of human relationships. Yu's new interpretation of human relationships can be summed up as an attempt to resolve on a fun-

goals. In human relationships, therefore, the strong always rule and

forced them to seek refuge in the South. This motif of displacement is

damental level the confrontational

the weak are always subordinated. The haves Âˇcommand and the have-

especially prominent in the short

relationship between humans. This is

nots obey. Those with knowledge

Korean a I Spring 2003

always take advantage of the

Depending on each other, at times

ship. Rather, it means that the two

ignorant. Because of these selfish

they appear to have merged into a

men have developed into new beings

human relationships, life is always

single persona. J ang asks Lee to

who now fully share everything they

heartless and the world remains

share his meals, and takes pleasure

have on an equal footing. The story

constantly in chaos. Yu proposes a

in watching him satisfy his healthy

reaches the conclusion that a human

new direction for overcoming the

appetite. One day, Jang declares that

relationship cannot be sustained

savagery of human relationships. At

he and Lee should become one both

properly unless it develops into the

times what he pursues appears to be

in body and spirit, and proposes that

ultimate form of a complete union.

a very unremarkable solution, but it is nonetheless apersuasive one, because it is connected to the most precious realm of human life. "Relationship" is the short story that gives the most concrete shape to the goal Yu pursues in his writing: a new recovery of human relationships.

Yu Jae-yong's stories use a variety of concrete illustrations to throw new light on the issue of displacement from home, based on the author's personal experience. The sense of displacement he depicts is linked to the national tragedy of the Korean War and the division of the country.

With its plain title "Relationship," the

--..

story is told by a first-person narrator. The "I" is a middle-aged man named

Lee go in his stead to meet a woman

This seemingly mundane yet unusual

on a blind date. Lee finds this

story, describing how a physically

Lee Man-bok with no special skill or

awkward, but still accepts the

healthy person and a physically

trade, who hops from one job to

proposal and meets the woman.

handicapped one can unite and

another and in the process experiences

Later, J ang asks him if he liked the

develop into whole new beings, tells

all kinds of hardships. One day he

woman and urges him to marry her,

us plainly what kind of attitude we

happens to land a job through the

saying that all he has to do is "Just

should adopt toward others. The

proprietor of a small real-estate office.

tell yourself that you are J ang

relationship of unity between two

He is to look after a physically

Hyeon-sam incarnated." After much

persons I?erged as one, which can be

handicapped man named Jang Hyeon-

agonizing, Lee consents and marries

achieved only by the have and the

sam. The narrator, who is physically

the woman. When they have a child,

have-not each giving up a part of

healthy but has no money to spend on

they give it Jang's family name.

himself, can seem impossible to

material pleasures, comes to form a

This bizarre marriage, however, is

achieve in real life. But when we

unique relationship with Jang Hyeon-

short-lived. The woman dies soon

consider how humans' altruistic acts

sam, an invalid who is wealthy. Lee

after the birth of the child, and J ang

return to benefit them in the long run,

Man-bok looks after his master well,

urges Lee to take a trip. While Lee is

the conclusion Yu reaches in this

shattering the expectation that he

gone, Jang moves away without

story is a perfectly reasonable one.

would not be able to stick to the job of

leaving an address. Lee receives the

Among Yu Jae-yong's major

caring for a disabled person. He

deeds to the house and also a bank

works are the collections of short

devoted1y meets the demands of his

account in his own name, Lee Man-

fiction Relationship (1981), Portrait

employer, becoming in effect his

bok. He makes no attempt to search

of My Elder Sister (1981), Setting

hands and feet.

for Jang.

Off Into Rain and Wind (1982),

As time passes, Lee and Jang

The conclusion of the story does

develop a close relationship.

not signify an end to their relation-

Midsummer (1986), and The World Only They Dream (1996).

Spring 2003 I Koreana

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