Koreana Winter 2003 (English) by The Korea Foundation

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Seokguram Buddha Kim Seung-hee Curator, National Museum of Korea

As the morning sun cuts

live to see its completion,

through the darkness and

which required a period of

reaches Mt. Toham in Gyeong-

some 30 years. The Silla

ju, it illuminates the Buddha

rulers sought to have Seokgu-

of Seokguram grotto shrine.

ram serve as a spiritual

The Buddha, with its half-

symbol of the Silla populace

closed eyes looking like thin

and to reinforce the political

slits, seemingly emerges from deep contemplation

foundation of the unified nation with the blessing

to tum its gaze on the living beings of the world

of Buddha.

and to exert its influence to bring about salvation.

Created against this historical background, the

The dignity emanating from the statue, which

most distinctive feature of the Seokguram Buddha

stands well over 3 meters tall, reflects the con-

is its imposing presence. The majestic power

fidence of the Silla people, who succeeded in uni-

underlying its compassionate character is a mani-

fying a Korean peninsula that had been ruled by

festation of the staunch faith of the Silla people.

three separate kingdoms. In particular, the face of

The Buddha's hands reflect the Bhumisparsha

the Buddha is that of an ideal Silla man.

mudra, touching the earth and calling it to witness.

Kim Dae-seong, a Silla prime minister, initiated the construction of Seokguram but he did not

It is an ideal mtistic expression of the Buddha's

state of enlightenment. ~

Unified Silla, 8th century, Height: 3.45 meters, National Treasure No. 24

Korea Embraces the Digital Age 4

Digital Culture Baek Uk-in

Korea's Digital Politics Jang Woo-yeong

The Digital Economy of Korea Shin Hyeon-am

Digital Age and Everyday Life Yi Dong-yeon

FOCUS

Korea's Movie Scene

Jeon Chan-il

INTERVIEW

Kim Min-gi: Real-life Experiences Underlie His Success in Drama Choe Jun-ho ARTISAN

Goh Heung-gon: Breathing Life into Traditional Musical Instruments

Koreana

Choi Tae-won

INTERNETWEBSITE

http:/ /www.koreana.or.kr

Â© The Korea Foundation 2003

ON THE GLOBAL STAGE

Immateriality of Art Works: Paik Nam June JeongYongdo

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without the prior permission of the Korea Foundation. The opinions expressed by the authors do not necessarily represent those of

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Yeongdeok

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Kang Woon-gu

Foundation. Koreana, registered as a quarterly magazine with the Ministry of Culture

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and Tourism (Registration No. Ba-1033,

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dated Aug. 8, 1987), is also published in Chinese and Spanish.

Cover: The Digital Age has rapidly revolutionized nearly all aspects of everyday life in Korea, with its influences being readily apparent in today's business,

politics and culture as well as people's lifestyles. Photo: Choi Hang-young

Published quarterly by The Korea Foundation 1376-1 Seocho 2-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul 137-072, Korea PUBLISHER Lee ln-ho EDITORIAL DIRECTOR Park Kyung-tai EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Park Jeong-yeop DESIGNER Park Hyun-jung, LeeKang Shin-hwa ASSOCIATE EDITOR Yoo Meoung-jong, Park Ok-soon EDITORIAL BOARD Han Myung-hee, Han Kyung-koo, Kim Hwa-young, Kim Moon-hwan, Lee Chong-suk, Shim Jae-ryong, Yu Hong-june

LIVING

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DISCOVERING KOREA

Kimchi's Fermentation Process Yields a 'Wonder' Food Kim Soon-dong

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The Bony-Fish That Came Into My Net Translated by Sol S11n-bong

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The digital age, or the so-called third revolution of humankind, is having an increasingly noticeable impact on all aspects of everyday life. With digitalization now being the key cultural code of ~ g presents the current status and the 21st century, the folwi future outlook of Korea's digital culture. Baek Uk-in Professor of Sociology, Seoul National University of Technology Choi Hang-young Photographer

Korea is now ranked first in the world in high-speed Internet connectivity and second in number of users.

orea enjoyed phenomenal economic growth from the 1960s through the 1980s. Although this dizzying pace of growth spawned a variety of negative consequences, it never-

theless enabled Korea to reach the threshold of the

information era. Koreans' impatience to press on at a breakneck speed during this period of such high-speed development resulted in instances of defective construction work but it did contribute to attainment of rapid industrialization. Such expressions as "the world's first," "the world's largest," and "ultrahigh speed" were wantonly bantered about during this period of robust economic development. These labels, reflecting the swashbuckling character of a country that got off to a late start in the pursuit of capitalism, also represented a @

mindset that served as the driving force for; achieving

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rapid economic growth during a condensed tim~frae.

(f)

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Âˇ Er)ergence â&#x20AC;˘:.f the Internet As a result of the Internet's widespread popularity in

Âˇ-

the 1990s, Korea's "ultrahigh speed" propensity has

cellular phones and semiconductor memory chips. In

enjoyed a glorious comeback. A somewhat incongruous

particular, it managed to achieve one of the world's fastest

movement took place to "lead the world in informatiza-

growth rates in the provision of high-speed Internet

tion," despite its late start in the industrialization process.

access while recording

Interestingly, there were those who believed that the

ers. Whenever Koreans talk about their advanced

characteristic hastiness of Koreans would become an

digital culture, they invariably mention the number of

asset in the attainment of an information society. The

broadband service subscribers and the extensive penetra-

highest number of subscrib-

increased mobility of an information society also

tion of high-speed Internet networks. They also_refer to

conjured up a seemingly nonsensical analogy that the

the physical characteristics that favorably influenced

Korean people, whose ancestors were horse-riding

the surge in Internet usage, including the country's rela-

nomads, were thus well-suited to serve as the trailblaz-

tively compact land area and large numbers of high-rise

ing pioneers of the information society. After the

apartment complexes that helped to facilitate the

nation's financial crisis in 1997-98, Korean society's

speedy installation of basic infrastructure.

development focus in the late 1990s emphasized a desire to establish itself as an information powerhouse.

According to a comparison of international statistics cited in the White Paper of Korea s Intemet (2003) re-

Consequently, despite various ill effects, Korea has

cently released by the National Computerization Agency,

been able to gain global competitiveness in a number of

some 552 out of every 1,000 Koreans use the Internet,

information and communication sectors, including

the second highest ratio of the 50 countries surveyed,

Korean a I Winter 2003

with the number of subscribers to broadband service

of becoming a digital power but where weird things

ranking first at 10.4 million.

happen - this is Korea's digital culture as seen through the eyes of an American journalist.

M.:tture User Culture Required The weakness of Korea's digital culture lies in the failure of the user culture to keep pace with such a rapid

This Forbes article provoked a sharp response from

development of the related infrastructure. In Korea, the

Koreans. Most of the letters to the editor criticized the

Internet's development has been dominated by

article for exaggeration and only highlighting various

economic consideration of commercial applications, as

negative aspects of Korea's cyber-culture. Some letters

opposed to the public sector, including universities and

from Koreans said that the article was an extension of a

research institutions, playing a leading role. As a result,

general tendency to disparage Korea, while others

the excesses of commercial pursuits are more prevalent

objected to an implication that the problems related to

than in other countries.

this new technology were unique to Korea. One letter

A recent issue of the U.S. magazine Forbes featured

Deâ&#x20AC;˘..Jelopfilent into .:tn Open ForiJI')

mentioned the low cost of access to broadband service

an article that satirized Korea's Internet culture by

as a factor behind its rapid spread, while noting that the

suggesting that "www," instead of standing for "world

inexpensive subscription rates, though it did help to

wide web," meant "weird wired world" in the 'case of

attract many more users initially, could ultimately lead

Korea. In an article titled "Korea's Weird Wired World,"

to negative consequences.

Âˇ Forbes reporter Benjamin Fulford described various

A reader, who was likely a Korean based on his ID

trends occurring in Korea: "Strange things happen when

(minwoo), noted in an attempt to explain his reaction to

an entire country is hooked on high-speed. This nation

the article: "I don't know whether I should feel proud,

of 46 million people, packed into an area smaller than

envious, or sad. It is a fine example of how such a useful

Virginia, has quickly become the world's most wired

technology as the Internet can go astray in the absence

nation. Politics, entertainment, sex, mass media, crime,

of proper management." ~his

and commerce are being reshaped by a population as

tioned that it might be a good business to sell avatars in

online as it is offline."

Korea. There is no doubt that Korea has been branded

As examples of the online world being reshaped by

reader also jokingly men-

as the representative country where the Internet is used how~ver,

the expansive broadband network, Fulford cited business

for distorted purposes. This phenomenon,

transactions featuring animated characters, or avatars,

probably common to all countries with large populations

myriad computer games played online, actions of the

of Internet users.

youth generation during the last presidential election

Korea aspires to be a wired, digital power; however,

that mobilized support for Roh Moo-hyun, spouses

it cannot be denied that the ability of its Internet culture

who utilize online communication for cheating, teen

to support a digital economy is highly suspect. The

prostitution, online addiction, and surging cyber-crime.

people who dream of reaping a fortune regard the

Korea, a country of ubiquitous broadband access to the

Internet merely as a business opportunity while failing

Internet and a rapidly evolving digital culture charac-

to appreciate the Internet's underlying capability to be

terized by extramarital affairs and excessive commercial-

utilized as a powerful economic tool. While it is ttue

ization, with high-speed Internet networks and dreams

that the Internet functions as a commodity and service

Winter 2003 I Koreana

market, it is also a forum for netizens to exchange thoughts. The Internet is a communications realm with the capability to allow the supposed upper class to interact with the lower class, enable creativity to be translated into execution, and help adults to talk with children. Korea's Internet culture, however, fails to promote communications that transcend traditional barriers. If Korea continues to proceed along its cunent path without taking the time to come up with appropriate measures to deal with this new wired culture, the Internet could well end up as a banier that serves to intelfere with effective communication and widen the generational gap.

A Cul.turl? i.-1 Tr.:.r1sition A distinctive feature of Korea's Internet cuHure is the dynamic use of message boards. Internet users, of /

course, have long presented their opinions in varying Âˇforms through media groups, which could be called the forerunner of digital culture, but it is quite rare for homepages to featme such extensive message boards in other countries. However, message boards are an essential

Âˇ~

feature of Korean homepages, which allow anyone to post their opinions anonymously, with listings that can go on for pages on end. The responses typically reflect support for or criticism of other messages. At the outset, netizens would post advice to help out the less experienced, while everyone was considerate of others. But when the particular subject matter involved politics or some other controversial issue in which opinions differed, responses would be charged with high emotion, including the use of profanity and slander. The posting of responses on message boards is akin to scribbling graffiti in public restrooms. The attraction of posting messages on Internet message boards comes from the anonymity, like the wtiters of public graffiti. Through the Internet, you can create a new identity and freely advocate any

8 Koreana I Winter 2003

The latest developments of Korea's digital industry were showcased at the 2003 Korean Electronics Show held this August at the COEX (above). The Goryeo Dynasty Tripitaka Koreana printing blocks have been reborn after a thousand years in CD-ROM format. One of the wood blocks and a digitized image of its text on a computer screen (opposite page)

Di·~t.:l

cul.ture i::: .:tn e•...•ol.•.... in·~

trend th.:tt

h.:t::: just t.:tken it::: first step::: not oni.IJ in Kore.:t but the 1...1orl.d o•.... er .:t::: I.•Jel.l.. Abo•.... e .:tl.l. .. .:t 1"•"1.:tture .:tttitude i::: required fro!"·~

the

prif•"l.:tfiJ benefici.:trie::: of this net•J cul.ture to ensure it::: proper de•...el.opf·~nt

I thoughts, without regard to the influences of status, age,

of networks based on a non-hierarchical structure.

and customs associated with real society. As long as

Non-hierarchical and open online networks have yet

this does not intrude upon the privacy of others and

to be realized in Korea, however. The roots of family

refrains from the malicious slander of individuals, the

relations, school connections, and regional solidarity

message board culture based on anonymity deserves

remain prevalent and still extend deeply. It is not so easy

active support. Although there are calls for the

to create a non-structured network that develops naturally

mandatory use of real names to prevent profanity and

while enabling the formation of non-traditional

slander, this requires considerable caution since it has

relationships. A closed network confines people within

the potential of reducing today's open cyberspace into a

a narrow framework webbed with connections.

restricted realm of reality.

And this is delaying the formation of a more

This era of Internet networks requires the creativity

horizontal and open community, along with making it

and cooperation of an innovative approach. As a result,

difficult to promote creative competition and coopera-

what was once thought incompatible is now undergoing

tion. However, dming the information era, it is more

a process of convergence. A new society is emerging in

important to utilize an open horizontal network rather

which competition interfaces with cooperation, science

than a closed system based on family, school and

merges with art, and adults communicate and share their

regional connections. Like it or not, now is the time for

thoughts with children. Like the roots of plants that are inter-

us to face up to the challenges of the new Internet

twined and extend outward randomly, an era is dawning

network society. l.l.t

Winter 2003 I Koreana

Korea's Digita Po itics i'-ln111 I '\ l:: liJ

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10 Koreana I Winter 2003

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With the Internet enabling individual citizens to more freely participate in politics, this has created a tidal wave of change for Korea's political circles. However, this era of digital politics involves both positive and negative aspects. Jang Woo-yeong Researcher, Social Science Research Institute, Konkuk University

Âˇ~

bout a hundred years ago, Korea dispatched

ened at the time; but now, some 100 years hence, Korea

a fact-finding delegation to Japan to learn

is on the receiving end of similar fact-fmding tours."

about the ways of modem Western civiliza-

As a result of Korea's unprecedented level of infor-

tion and technology. This marked the initia-

mation networking, meaningful innovation is taking place

tion of contact with a new civilization as a .means of

in Korean politics. Democracy in Korea has not seen any

revitalizing an old feudal society. Along the road to

major developments since the landmark achievement of

modernization, Korea experienced the vicissitudes of

direct presidential elections in 1987. Though Korea had

'colonial rule, modem nation-building, arid bloody fratri-

shaken off 25 years of authoritarian militmy regimes, the

cidal war. Despite these challenges, Korea has achieved

development of democracy did not proceed as smoothly as

rapid political and economic development and has now

expected. Though systems and the groups in power under-

joined the ranks of the world's IT powers.

went change, various political cleavages emerged in regard

to class, region, gender and generation, which created a

C.:.t.:.ly:::t tor Polih:-:.1. P.:.dicip.:.tion

heavy drag on democracy's. continued advancement.

According to various data from Korea and abroad,

This underlying divisiveness exacerbated a crisis of

Korea leads the world in per capita Internet usage. A

representative democracy. After the establishment of a

February 24, 2003 article in the Guardian, a British news-

modem nation and the foundation of representative de-

paper, reported that 5 percent of households in Britain

mocracy, political representatives became

subscribe to high-speed Internet service, whereas the

separated from the grass roots. Moreover, this gap

corresponding figure for Korea is more than 70 percent.

between the representatives and their constituencies

It also noted that Koreans spend an average of 22.3 hours

steadily widened over time. A lack of responsibility to

online per month, and that more than 10 percent of the

the public, on the part of representatives, as well as a lack

country's economic activity is related to the information

of participation in politics, on the part of regular citizens,

and communications industry.

were the critical factors contributing to this situation.

instu~oaly

Meanwhile, an October 22, 2002 article of OhmyNews,

Of note, the technological foundations for surmount-

a Korean Internet publication, noted: "Korea had to clamor

ing this crisis of democracy have been laid, by Korea's

about the importance of industrialization after visiting

first two civilian governments, through the policies they

Japan and Western nations, which were more enlight-

promoted to transform Korea into a full-scale informa-

Winter 2003 I Koreana

tion society. In particular, advancement of the Internet,

(http:// www.ngokorea.org). Through online and offline

the engine of the information technology revolution,

networking, the group maximized the Internet effect.

began to change the way the political representatives

As government agencies came to realize the signifi-

communicated with the people. Since the Intemet is an

cance of this situation, the National Election Commis-

interactive medium that circumvents centralized control

sion began to make public information on individual

of information, it became the driving force behind

candidates, including records of their assets disclosure,

citizens' political patticipation and promotion of public

tax payment, militaty service, and any criminal activity.

consensus. Through the Internet, a highly informed

The vast influence of the blackball campaigning was

electorate emerged, and as increased alternatives

confirmed by the election results. Of the 112 unqualified

became available to the public, politicians found

candidates designated by the Citizens' Alliance, 58

themselves compelled to utilize the Internet in order to

failed to gain nomination from their political party,

remain competitive.

while 59 of the 86 candidates that they campaigned against were defeated at the polls.

CCI.-e Cit I.-u-.(l•.).:tti.:•fl .:tf1d Uphe.:t~)l

In contrast to this example of a negative campaign, a

Duririg the two national elections held in the new

different kind of innovation occurred in the 2002

millennium, the Internet emerged as tl}e core of

presidential elections: an online community was fmmed

innovation and upheaval, which swept away outdated

to support the candidate Roh Moo-hyun, which in

political practices. This was achieved through the

Korean society was known as the Nosamo ("We love

· voluntary participants who came together through the

Roh Moo-hyun") club. Nosamo was a voluntary group

Internet. In the 16th general elections in 2000, civic

movement that demonstrated a new form of Internet

groups re-created in cyberspace the kind of intense

political patticipation. It operated solely on membership

personal commitment to electoral campaigning that was

fees and volunteer activity, while important matters

reminiscent of the widespread demonstrations for

were decided through online surveys.

democracy by civilian society in 1987. The Internet

The existence of Nosamo began to make waves in

influenced voter sentiments by publicizing information

Korean society during the 2002 Millennium Democratic

about candidates and promoting "blackball" campaigns

Party's (MDP) national ptimary election. In this process,

against those who were regarded as being unqualified

Nosamo enthusiastically rallied support for Roh in the

for election. In the past, the electorate and civic groups

series of primary elections, in addition to turning the

were no more than a voting constituency or those who

campaign rallies into celebrations. In overcoming a

clamored for fair elections.

steep uphill struggle thanks to the activities of Nosamo,

But when the Citizens' Alliance for the 2000 General

Roh emerged as the surp1ise winner of the mling party's

Elections, an umbrella organization of more than 400

presidential nomination. Nosamo, which started out

civic groups, made public the personal records of can-

with 500 members and grew to tens of thousands of

didates, on the basis of which it designated some 100

members in two yeat·s, extended dedicated support to

individuals as unqualified for elected office, this brought

Roh, who was an underdog to the opposition GNP

a tidal wave of change to the election landscape. During

presidential candidate. The homepage for presidential

the 91-day campaign against these targeted candidates,

candidate Roh Moo-hyun was far superior to those of

some 856,000 Internet users visited the group's site

other candidates in te1ms of number of visitors and users

Korean a I Winter 2003

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1. The Cheong Wa Dae (Presidential Office) homepage 2. The People's Party for Reform is Korea's first Internet political party. 3. The political chat room of the Internet newspaper OhmyNews. Participants are continually building up a public sphere for political expression. 4. The news section of the Internet portal site Naver provides convenient access to columns from various newspapers. 5. The homepage of Congressman Jeong Dong-yeong, named by netizens as the No. 1 cyber politician. 6. The homepage of the Korean Information Service (KOIS) provides government PR material for domestic and international use, and gathers citizens' views on various subjects.

Winter 2003 I Ko r eana

Digit.:.l. pol.itics is cre.:.ting.:. ne1..J CIJI.tiJre •)f•.)•)liJnt.:.ry dti:::en p.:.dicip.:.tion in searching the site. Moreover, as an unprecedented de-

el.edic•r1 c.:t1(1p.:tigns .. in C•)r1tr.:.st tc• the

velopment in the history of Korean politics, 7.2 billion

ol.d tr.:.diti•)ns th.:.t rel.ied c•r1 big .-(•c•ne•J

won flooded in from over 200,000 supporters through

.:..-.d 1..:..-ge-sc.:.l.e c•rg.:.ni:::ed .:.dh. •itit?s.

an online fundraising effort.

But tht?re is ......_..:h skeptid:::i(l .:.::: to

Rob 's homepage included personal opinions and messages of support posted on cyber bulletin boards. In this process, those in their 20s and 30s, who formed the core of Rob's

~ uport

base, created a solidarity based on

1.•.•hether .:.dequ.:.te deb.:.te .:..-.d proper COI"ISei"ISIJS C.:tl"l be .:tC~de) thf)l.~

onl.ine prc•cesses.

political conviction, as opposed to the unity related to regional allegiance that has been a chronic malady of Korean elections. After his defeat in the 2002 elections, one opposition lawmaker lamented: "I don't even want to look at the Internet," thereby acknowledging the powerful influence of the Internet.

T1...10 Sidt?::: of 1.-.tt?.-.-.t?t Politic::: Indeed, the Internet is transforming the political /

process. The reasons behind this trend and related issues · can be summarized as follows. The first factor is the emergence of a voting public that takes a more active interest in the political process. This large group of people who have the ability to take advantage of today's information and technology resources are contributing to the creation of a new public sphere and the promotion

_..,

of broadened political activity. As a result of their presence, since 2000, an online public consensus, based on age, ideology, and policy, has served to influence voter sentiments while rejecting the deep-rooted regionalism of Korean society. Moreover, it is encouraging to see the emergence of a new election culture rooted not in money and organized activity but voluntary participation of regular citizens. On the other hand, the "adequacy of online deliberation" and "partition of homogeneity" are among the concerns related to the Internet effect. This non face-to-face form of communication encourages hasty expression rather than more deliberate reflection. And in fact, the findings of various studies have raised doubts as to

14 Koreana I Winter 2003

The Internet has greatly expanded public participation in politics. Members of Nosamo ("We love Roh Moo-hyun " club) cheer as they watch the latest vote count in the presidential election (bottom). President Roh Moo-hyun addresses his cabinet from a remote site via video transmission (opposite page).

Âˇ-

whether rational debate and proper consensus can be

an effective channel. From the time of the 16th general

achieved through online processes.

elections, all lawmakers began to launch and maintain

That is, although the online public sphere is dynamic

their own homepages. The big-name politicians, in

in terms of openness, participation, and mutual interac-

particular, spared no expense in the development and

tion, it is also characterized by individual expression and

maintenance of their Web sites. In reality, regular

a fragmented sense of community. Therefore, the forma-

operation and updating of homepages and two-way

tion of a more universal public sphere has emerged as an

communication with the public is generally limited to

important issue, which calls for contributions from the

these big-name politicians. _According to Colin Smith,

cultural, technological and other sectors. For example,

this kind of trend also influences the nature of political

such efforts could include voluntary dissemination of

parties and promotes the creation of an "Information and

standards for debate, expansion of decision-making

Âˇ Communications Technology Leadership Party" that

groups, and homogenization of digital literacy.

transcends traditional party membership.

Another factor behind the changes brought about by

However, individual relationships between voters

the Internet is the response of the political circles, which

and popular politicians can bring about a kind of

suggests the possibility of creating a new type of political

politics centered on private organizations, populism,

party. In the early days, political parties sought to establish

and celebrity status. Therefore, it is necessary to

themselves by developing relationships and identifying

systemize online policies to bring such relationships

with their membership and promoting catch-all election

within the political party framework. The success of an

strategies. But the growing crisis of popular representa-

online party lies not in an expansion of support for

tion democracy has called for expanded grass-roots

individuals through the Internet, but rather using the

participation in politics and closer interaction between

Internet as a systematic channel of communication

parties and voters, for which the Internet can function as

between the party and its constituents. J.;.t

Winter 2003 I Koreana

The Digita Economy l"l

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Koreana I Winter 2003

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E-business, the digital economy based on the Internet, has become a part of people's daily life through such applications as electronic financial transactions and Internet shopping malls. Thanks to the country's extensive IT infrastructure, the digital economy of Korea has enjoyed especially rapid growth.

erms such as "digital economy" and "new

economy" are no longer unfamiliar to most

people. The digital economy is characterized

by a capability to significantly increase retums

to scale. Goods or services can be grouped into two basic categories: infmmational and non-informational. Commodities that can be circulated online would be informa-

of Korea

tional, while those that cannot are non-informational. The economy of the Industrial Age was based on non-infmmational commodities. Manufacturing costs were lowered and added value was enhanced through mass production and process efficiency. On the other hand, most of the commodities in the new economy are informational - intangible commodities based on knowledge, such as software and information. The marginal cost of production for informational commodities is practically zero. The cost of making the first commodity can be extremely high, but it costs almost nothing to produce additional commodities thereafter. This is how the principle of increasing retums to scale works.

Winter 2003 I Koreana

The Digital Age was once recognized as the latest revolution following the agricultural and industrial revolutions. There was a time when, if you announced plans to start up a venture enterprise, you could attract billions of won of investment funds with only a one-page

WORLD

prospectus. And while it is true that the Digital Age has brought about remarkable changes to our lives, there are those

toda~

who question the very existence of the

digital revolution.

All the functions of this Samsung Electronics digital camcorder can be operated by remote control (bottom).

l'-"1o.-e th.;.n Just E-business

Korea maintains a more than 40 pen;~t share of the world TFTLCD market. Electronics presented its leading-edge video displays at the Korean Electronics Show (opposite page).

Digitalization, although it naturally includes Ebusiness, involves a vast array of applications, such as the following examples. First, it is used to introduce new companies, new products, and new services. Through the development of new products related to the Internet, new demands are being created. Household appliances j

with built-in Internet access are now among the Âˇ promising products of the future. New products based on digital technology are being constantly developed. Standard & Poor's, the credit rating agency, provides access to financial information through the Internet. Second, digitalization facilitates direct marketing activities. The value of one-to-one marketing is readily

-"""

Because of their speed and convenience, Internet shopping malls have proved popular among consumers (above).

apparent. For example, at Amazon. com, visitors to the site with a purchase history are automatically advised of newly published books related to the customer's previous acquisitions. This kind of individualized customer service helps to generate additional purchases and company revenue. In December 1999, Shinhan Bank provided access to its credit inquiry system as part of its Internet banking services. Within three months of introducing this service, Internet loans had become so popular that they exceeded conventional offline loans. Third, digitalization enables the reduction of costs related to procurement activities. The U .S. Federal Reserve Board and Boston Consulting have predicted that B2B (business-to-business) will result in produc-

18 Koreana I Winter 2003

advantage in the information age. The IT sector plays a highly significant role in the Korean economy's growth and development potential. The percentage of Korea's GDP related to the IT industry increased from 9.3 percent in 1998 to 14.9 percent in 2002. In terms of total exports, IT export shipments expanded from 13 percent in 1990 to 28.2 percent in 2002. When compared to the export results of Korea's three mainstay industriesautomotive, shipping and steel - which recorded more moderate growth from 15 percent to 21 percent during the same period of time, the IT sector enjoyed a truly remarkable rate of growth. Accordingly, the standing of Korean businesses in the global IT industry has been greatly enhanced, as evidenced by Korea's production of 45 percent of the world's memory chips and 41 percent of TFT-LCD monitors in 2002. There is no doubt that the domestic IT industry has become firmly established as the driving force behind Korea's eco-

nomic growth. tivity improvement of some 9 percent within the next

Notable success stories include the following. The

five years. United Technology considers electronic

mobile phone, for one, has been an extremely successful

transactions to be the most effective way to lower the

expmt item in recent years. While the first- and second-

costs of their annual purchases of $15 billion. The

generation products primarily functioned as telecommu-

restructuring and reengineering efforts that were popular

nication devices, the subsequent generations have

in the rnid-1990s have now reached a point of diminishing

featured a variety of video applications, in line with the

returns. This is because cost-reducing group purchase

evolving multimedia age. After using an analogue mode

pools have in large part already been realized. Under

in first-generation phones, a digital mode was adopted

online auctioning, however, a cost reduction rate of 25

thereafter. Korean makers lagged behind their European

percent is projected over three years, with 16 percent of

and U.S. counterparts in the manufacture of analogue

that coming in the first year. In contrast, under tradi-

mobile phones, but they leaped to the forefront when

tional bidding methods, it is estimated that overall cost-

the CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access, a technology

savings will amount to 15 percent over three years.

that converts audio into a digital format for transmission over a wireless network) standard was introduced in

Driâ&#x20AC;˘.... ing Force behind the Ko.-e.:.n Econofo"JIJ

1996. While combining effmts to popularize the new

"We may have had a late stmt in the Industrial Age,

CDMA standard, develop innovative technology, and

but let's lead the way in the Information Age!" exhorted

improve product quality, Korean businesses established

a newspaper. With speed being of critical importance in

themselves as leaders of the world IT industry. In terms

the

digt~

industry, Korea would seem to possess a key

of global market share in 2002, Samsung Electronics

Winter 2003 I Koreana

Al.though there .:tre tho:::e •}.1ho l..:tck confidence in the di·~t.:l ranked third at 9.8 percent and LG Electronics sixth (3.3

potenti.:tl. for Kore.:t. Inl.ight of recent trend:::

million in 1996 to $11.2 billion in 2002.

of the ·~l.ob:t

DomestiC TV manufacturers were behind Japanese makers in terms of large-screen TVs and image quality

dof··.e:::tic infr.:t:::trudure .:tl.re.:td•J in pl..:tce .. .:tnd Kore.:t ,::: ide.:ti.I.IJ suited cul.tur.:tl. ch.:tr.:tcteri:::tic::: .. the Digit.:tl. Age undoubtedi.•J

ness of Korea'

represent::: .:t potenti.:tl. ·~ol.de-

flat-screen displays, Korean producers

The world market share for Korean-made digital TVs reached 18 percent in 2002, while digital television exports expanded sharply from $220 million in 2001 to $970 million in 2002. Based on their expertise in the display technology sector, domestic companies have emerged as strong competitors in the digital TV market. Samsung Electronics , which has developed LCD production technology for a 54-inch screen- the world's largest - has announced plans to produce over I · million TVs with 22-, 29- and 33-inch screens in 2003. Notwithstanding these exceptional results thus far, Korea's IT businesses have little time to rest on their laurels. Korean IT enterprises are now experiencing various difficulties due to a worldwide supply surplus and ever-intensifying competition. Market conditions remain ·sluggish in primary IT industries such as semiconductors, ,

communications equipment, and computers. In 2002, the rate of world PC shipments decreased by 4.2 percent from the previous year, with the U.S. market experencing a sharp decline of 11.4 percent. PC sales are so fundamental that they serve as a gauge of overall conditions of the IT industry. If recovery in the PC sector is slow, economic difficulties in Korea will be that much more serious. Another looming threat is China, which is rapidly gaining ground in the lowpriced market segment. In a growing number of sectors, China has risen to the top: China's market share in such items as DVDs (54.1% ), desktop PCs (29 .6% ), and cell phones (27.8 %) all rank first in the world.

····•.:trket.. the •JJ€'1.1.-de•.,..el.oped

during the analogue era. But thanks to the competitiveare now dominating the early digital television market.

IT indu:::tr•J offer::: •.,...:t:::t

percent). Mobile phone exports also surged from $400 Large-screen TV s represent another notable success.

de.,lopin·~

•.,..i:::ion.. the f.:t:::t-

Koreana I Winter 2003

er.:t for Kore.:t.

Korea is the world leader in memory semiconductor production (right). The IT industry has emerged as a powerhouse of the Korean economy. The Samsung Electronics booth exhibited the company's state-of-the-art consumer and commercial products at the Korean Electronics Show (bottom).

Digit.:.l. Te.:hr1ol.ogy Is Col···petiti-..Je Po1...1er Korea is experiencing an economic downturn these days. There are those who complain that today's conditions are even worse than the economic slump during the period of IMF oversight. The government envisions a per capita national income of $20,000, while striving to overcome this economic slowdown. Now is the time when Korea needs to effectively allocate its national resources in order to get back on track. Today, the U.S experience offers a lesson. The United States, by responding aggressively to counter Japan's assault of its traditional manufacturing industries, was able to firmly establish itself as

world's leading industrial

nation in the 1990s through its promotion of the digital revolution. In pmticular, the govemment actively supported long-term R&D initiatives, which created an environment conducive to the creation of new venture ente1prises_: Many people have their doubts about the digital era. Of course, we should .no longer expect to see the spectacular growth that venture firms enjoyed in the late 1990s. But if we broaden our view and look at the IT industry as a whole, it is clem· that there is vast potential oppmtunity for Korea. As formation of a global mm·ket continues, the domestic infrastmcture that has already been established and the suitability of Korea's cultural characteristics to digitalization should leave little doubt that the Digital Age holds great promise for Korea.

Winter 2003 I Koreana

The consumer goods of the era have changed the mindset of consumers. A model digital home equ ipped with the latest products made by Sam sung Electronics

Korean a I Winter 2003

Digito Age d Everyday Life n

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Yi Dong-yeon Cultural Critic Choi Hang-young Photographer

Winter 2003 I Koreana 23

hose of us who were born in the 1960s may

find it difficult to discard our analog mindset. When I want to change the FM channel on my car radio, I still twiddle with the dial

instead of pushing the buttons for the preset frequecies.

When I receive a text message from my wife, instead of sending a text message back, I call her on the phone. I do not listen to music on MP3. For myself, I prefer CDs.

Not only the conveniences of everyday life, but also people's ways of thinking and communication have been dramatically transformed by digital technology. Digital culture is more than a matter of the new technology involved, it requires a new mindset as well.

I am more comfortable with a regular camera than a new digital one. When people e-mail me photos that they have taken with a digital camera and saved as a file on their computer, I do not particularly want to learn how to do this. I can only marvel at how amazing it is.

Net·.l Di9it.:tl. t···1indset Nowadays, there is no denying that we are.Gonstantly /

·-

in contact with digital technology and related applica-

camcorders and online games, there would be a huge

tions in everyday life, but its utilization in a truly digital

void in their lives.

· manner requires a certain individual disposition and

Mobile phones are used by people in their thirties

mindset. It does not take much technological know-

mainly for telephoning others. But those in their

how to apply digital methods to eve1yday things such as

twenties are also accustomed to communicating via text

television, video recorders, cameras, mobile phones,

messages. And for teenagers, the mobile phone is an

computers, and financial transactions. Young people

all-encompassing cultural product that is used for

embrace digital technology easily, not because they

playing games, accessing all kinds of information, and

have a particular talent for its applications, but rather

even viewing and recording video images. The term

they are far more comfmtable using it in digital ways.

"emoticon," which refers to the punctuation-based

That is to say, digital culture is more than a matter of

icons (:-) that young people add to text messages to

technology: it requires a new mindset. Accordingly,

express their feelings, demonstrates the mobile phone's

digital technology does not just change the way that

ability to function as a new medium for communicating

technology is utilized, but it does change the mindset of

not only messages but feeling and emotion as well.

its users.

Digital culture is a conspicuous product of the post-

Not just the conveniences of everyday life, but

modern consumer society created by the integration of

people's ways of thinking, emotional reaction, and

digital technology with a digital mindset. No longer an

communication, have been dramatically transformed by

exclusive realm of the Net generation minority, digital

the digital revolution. The so-called Net Generation at

culture is taking fi1m root in the most ubiquitous culture

the core of the new digital culture has taken the reins of

of all, a constant presence in eve1yday life. But what is

a flourishing culture created by the digital revolution.

the cultural significance of this digital culture and

Without mobile phones and digital cameras, 6mm

digital mindset?

Korean a I Winter 2003

The "emoticon," a cluster of letters or symbols used in cyberspace to express a feeling or idea, has become a new form of communication among young people (above left). An "avatar," originally used to symbolize an alter ego or incarnation, is an animated character that represents a user in cyberspace (above right). Digital camera phone: the latest must-have tech device (below)

Ther ll'"ltt?fnt?t in Eâ&#x20AC;˘..Jt?fiJdO:.IJ I_ ift? /

As for the distinguishing features of this digital

culture, these would include everyday conveniences, high-speed processing, perceived solidarity, and freedom of expression. The convenience of conducting

financial transactions over the Intemet without having to go to the bank, or taking photos with a digital camera and then saving the images on your computer for printing or sending out, as needed - everything can be handled with a simple keyboard stroke. The ability to let anyone know where you are and what you are doing instantaneously via mobile phone text service;

th~

soli-

darity that develops when you can interact with others online about your interests and hobbies, or submit a direct response to a pmticular social issue; the freedom of individual expression in which you can combine images and audio in whatever manner you desire; or to have a seemingly real experience in an imaginary space- these are among the possibilities that the digital culture brings to our everyday life. At the heart of the digital culture and its rapid growth, the Intemet has played an essential role. As the

Winter 2003 I Koreana

A multimedia public phone with functions that include video transmission , Internet search and e-mail service (above) The proliferation of Internet chat rooms is a notable feature of Korea's digital culture (below). Advancements in digital technology are making COs and tapes obsolete, as MP3 devices increasingly become the popular choice of tech-savvy consumers (right).

Korean a I Winter 2003

Internet becomes the most fundamental medium in an

Internet community takes shape through the exchange

individual's life, people are developing new f01ms of

of ideas and opinions, strong bonds of solidarity can be

behavior through the various incidents they experience

quickly forged. Whenever a specific social agenda or

in cyberspace, and then extending aspects of this

incident arises, netizens respond immediately and form

behavior to the real world as well. Behavior in the

a community to discuss related issues online. During

boundless realm of the Internet reveals characteristics

the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, when

that differ from those of reality, which is restricted by

American speed skater Apolo Anton Ohno was

space and time

~onstrai

as well as economic, geo-

awarded the gold medal following the disqualification

graphical, and social influences. The most significant

of Korea's Kim Dong-sung, Korean netizens lost no

factor behind the freedom of this style of Internet be-

time in creating a community to launch a cyber-attack

havior is the viitual community.

on the mainstream U .S. media and to organize a

The Internet community has become an indis-

boycott of Ame1ican goods. This was a vivid illustration

pensable venue for interaction that shapes the daily life

of the lightning speed with which an Internet community

of the younger generation. One passionate community

can react.

netizen said that he operates some 30 different

Second, the online community phenomenon exe1ts a

communities himself, while participating as a ÂˇI_Tiember

widespread influence on real society. It is well known

in about 300 others. Of course, viitual communities do

that the everyday social activities of those who actively

not dominate everyone's life to such an extent, but most

pruticipate in Internet commqnity matters include a fair

people under 30 are active as members in at least one or

number of offline community gatherings with people

two online communities.

whom they have first "made contact with" online.

It is because of this burgeoning community life that

According to one survey, people in their twenties who

Internet portal sites such as Daum Communication or

are active in Internet communities said that 30 percent

Freechal have attracted as many as 10 million sub-

of their social activities are based on offline rela-

scribers. Initially, Internet communities were equated

tionships involving school , .church, and family, while

with social groups for the promotion of various

the remaining 70 percent ruÂˇe related to offline activities

hobbies, or fan clubs for teenagers who admired

tied to online communities.

individual pop stars or ente1tainers. But today they have

Finally, not all Intemet communities ruÂˇe open and

become more diverse, as venues for interaction, not just

public-minded: they can also be operated as a closed

for leisure activities but also the exchange of special-

space for people of a ce1tain inclination. This kind of

ized knowledge among enthusiasts, and forums for the

community can also give rise to online social problems,

discussion of social issues. In fact, any kind of orga-

as is the case with suicide sites and those for gambling.

nization that is active offline can expand its influence as

But it is true that the online community has made it

an Internet community.

possible to create a boundless space for free expression

Since the Internet's emergence, the online community

h~s

and interaction.

been the main impetus enabling the Internet to

realize its powerful social influence and pervasive

The Fubxe of Digiti:::ed D.:tii.IJ Life

effects. In this regard, three social characteristics of the

In science fiction films such as Total Recall and

digital culture have become apparent. First, as an

Matrix, the world of the future is mainly portrayed

Winter 2003 I Koreana

through two contrasting types of experiences. One involves an image of living without distinction between the real and imaginary worlds, or between the human body and machines, with all activities and experiences of daily life being digitized. The other presents a view in which the convenience and vast potential of such a world, instead of bringing happiness to people, results

in only despair and pain.

"' :<-

Technology develops so rapidly and ceaselessly that

0 0

::l

we never know for cettain when the scenes of a science fiction movie may become our reality. In fact, most of the things we see in these films will eventually become possible through the advancement of technology. Only a few years ago, we could hardly have foreseen that mobile technology would develop to its present state, while few people anticipated the extent toÂˇ;w?ich the

A child reads a multimedia children's story through an e-book viewer (above). PDA users can trade stocks online, engage in electronic commerce, and enjoy all the capabilities of wireless Internet access (opposite page).

digital camera and high-definition digital television, /

cyber-universities, cyber-stock trading, and high-speed Internet services have since taken root in our everyday lives. Nowadays, the expenses related to digital culture

place a computer chip in a person's body, that indi-

accounts for a sizable portion of a regular household's

vidual becomes subject to extemal mechanical control,

monthly spending.

reflecting the dark side of a world of such sophisticated

In a matter of a few years, the daily life of individuals will und

~ ubtedly

again be revolutionized by

technology. Behind this

digt

lifestyle, in which mobile

digital technology that is much simpler, faster, and

phones can be used for pl aying online games and

more epoch-making than that of today. Technology is

viewing video images as well as communicating, is a

now being developed to automatically control machinery

society governed by the capital that makes such

by implanting a computer chip in the human body, and

consumption possible. If there comes a time _when a

it may not be long before robots can handle our daily

person's identity is established by fingerprints instead

tasks. It will then be possible to bting film, text, and

of ID cards, an individual's personal activities will be

audio together and process input from all the human

that much more documented and subject to monitoring.

senses in a single device, while the capabilities of com-

Society has reached a point in which everyday life is

puters will expand even further.

much more convenient, but by the same token, an

As we look forward to a digital world in which

individual's daily life can be tumed into chaos with the

replace human labor and single processes

single stroke of a keyboard. Thus, digital culture offers

replace multiple ones, attention must be paid to the fact

utopia as well as dystopia, while in this world we can

that as life becomes ever more advanced, the potential

simultaneously experience happiness and pain brought

for manipulation will increase as well. As soon as you

about by digital technology. 1..1.t

hines

28 Koreana I Winter 2003

The Internet co.~lrwnity h.:ts becof•le .:tn indispens.:tble •..Jenue for inter.:tction th.:tt sh.:tpes the d.:tily life of the younger ge.-.er.:ttion. It. serves .:ts .:t f•ledi•.••YJ for enth•.1si.:tsts to sh.:tre their sped.:tli:::ed knot~ ledge .:tnd e~<pri.-cs .. .:ts t.Jel.l.:ts .:t foru(') for the discussion of sod.:tl issues.

Winter 2003 I Koreana

~ ~

'/.

or the past few years now,

domestic films have enjoyed a markedly noteworthy re-

surgence, capturing a healthy

40 percent or so share of the Korean film market. The negative or critical voices, while pointing to a crisis of questionable quality or a bubble effect of quantity, should be heeded; however, in terms of market share - in reality the most reliable industry index - the recent boom cannot be denied. As such, what are the specific factors behind this remarkable success story, which stands in stark contrast to other aspects of the Korean situation, such as politics,

the economy, and overall society? Enter the Image Generation

There are no simple answers to explain this phenomenon. Without a doubt, a multitude of reasons may be cited, with the more significant factors involving the following points. First, it is necessary to have an understanding of Korea's movie audiences. In the 1990s, a transition process accel-

erated under which the older generation, which was more comfortable with printed text, gave way to the younger generation that favored visual imagery. This so-called image generation, which featured a wholly different character, disposition and orientation, rapidly emerged as the mainstream of local moviegoers. The robust growth of Korea's film industry was fueled by these youthful audiences. In large part, the core film viewers comprise young people in their late teens and early to mid-20s. There are of course differences in the makeup of audiences in other countries, but

this is the current situation in Korea.

Korean films. At the time, however,

that they were created by the leaders

This audience group, which was born

there was no guarantee that this kind

of the next-generation film industry,

in the late 1970s and 1980s, spent

of blockbuster success could be con-

such as Shin Chul, Cha Seung-jae,

their teenage years or reached the age

tinued. In fact, prevailing expectations

and Sim Jae-myung. These path-

of 20 in the 1990s. Unlike previous

were that duplicating the Swiri success

breaking films include the most popu-

generations in their mid-30s or older,

would be difficult.

lar film of 1992, Wedding Story (di-

they grew up amid the brilliant linages

Fortunately, though, the best was

rector: Kim Eui-suk), the No. 1 film

and sounds of color TV. Thus, it was

yet to come. Subsequently, director

of 1994, Two Cops (director: Kang Woo-

only natural that they would develop

Park Chan-wook's Joint Security Area

suk), Two Cops 2 (director: by Kang

a preference for image-related media,

broke the record set by Swiri the very

Woo-suk) and Gingko Bed (director:

including films, rather than printed material. Then, it became a matter of whether Korean film producers would

The primary factors behind the recent boom of

be able to capture the interest of this

domestic films include the strategic planning of

new audience.

young filmmakers, new distribution firms that

Wave of Young Directors

In particular, the strategic planning

have concentrated on the promotion of Korean films, and the emergence of multiplex cinemas.

and production efforts have been

Âˇ-

critical to the recent success of Korean

next year. And then the remarkable

Kang Je-gyu) in 1996, Letter (direc-

films. Although there are a few excep-

Joint Security Area record was broken

tor: Lee Jung-guk) and The Contact

tions, such as director Im Kwon-taek,

the next year by Friend, the current

(director: Jang Yun-hyeon) in 1997,

the prime movers in the Korean film

record-holder in terms of box office

and A Promise (director: Kim Yu-jin)

industry are mostly in their fmties or

receipts, directed by Kwak Kyung-

and Whispering Corridors (director:

late thirties. These include director

taek. And although they may not have

Park Ki-hyung) in 1998. Notwith-

Kang Woo-suk, perhaps the industry's

been of a similar magnitude, a verita-

standing their artistic quality, these

most influential individual, Cha Seung-

ble "hit parade" has followed, which

films were all examples that demon-

jae of the Sidus Corporation, Sim Jae-

would not have been possible had the

strated the strategic planning talent of

myung of Myung Films, Shin Chul of

characteristics of audiences and pro-

these young filmmakers who captured

ShinCine Communications, and

ducers not been so perfectly aligned.

the fancy of the young image genera-

director Kang Je-gyu. Clearly distinct

Of note, it should be emphasized

from the previous generation of film-

that the turnstile record set by Swiri

makers and armed with a youthful

was not something that happened

Domestic Distribution Companies

sensibility, these figures created and

overnight. Rather, it was a develop-

In addition, there are other funda-

distributed films in the 1990s that

ment that had been building up in the

mental factors that must not be over-

were able to captivate audiences 10 to

1990s and was finally realized with

looked: the roles of local film distribu-

20 years younger than themselves.

Swiri. There were a number of pre-

tion and new entertainment venues.

The highlight of these effmts was

vious films that helped to build a

Prior to the release of Swiri, the Korean

the mo'numental Swiri (1999), direct-

foundation from which Swiri would

film market had been dominated by

ed by Kang Je-gyu. It set a box-office

eventually take off.

five Hollywood-related direct dis-

tion of the 1990s.

record in Seoul, drawing some 2.45

Though not of equal stature, these

tribution companies, such as United

million viewers, while demonstrating

productions were no less historically

International Pictures (UIP). These

anew the vast commercial potential of

significant than Swiri, due to the fact

distributors were known to engage in Winter 2003 I Koreana

illegal practices such as " block booking" (selling several films to cinemas as a package deal, typically including a hit film and several less popular movies). And it would be no exaggeration to say that these distribution firms were the dominant influence of the Korean film market. Even the movie houses, which had traditionally been the driving force in the film industry, were virtually powerless. Naturally, the Hollywood blockbusters that were supplied by these distributors would be the top boxoffice draws of local cinemas. At the time, it seemed that this situation would last forever. However, this was not to be the case . These creative young filmmakers, who had focused on the strategic planning and production of films, jumped into the distribution sector, the lifeline of the film industry, and were able to bring about a revolution. The forerunners of this movement were Cinema Service and CJ Entertainment. They relentlessly challenged the oligopoly of the five direct distribution firms . Over time, these efforts and the release of popular Korean films combined to erode the market dominance of this cartel. As the competitive struggle versus the direct distributors further intensified, the balance of power slowly shifted. Then, Swiri exploded onto the scene, after which this situation changed dramatically. The stranglehold of direct distribution firms , a dynasty that seemed to be permanently entrenched, was broken, once and for all. In fact, these direct distributors have since been reduced to grousing about their

Major players

r.====t in the Korean film boom are the domestic distribution companies that have taken the lead in distributing Korean films.

inability to sUIVive due to the influence

standing the current situation of local

ble to that of other forms of recreation

of domestic distribution firms.

movie theaters.

and cultural or entettainment activities.

A handful of domestic distributors, /

...., -.;

Nowadays, moviegoers can enjoy

which have been dedicated to the

From "Watching" to

distribution of Korean films, has un-

"Experiencing" Films

royal treatment. Viewing the film is only part of the

doubtedly played an essential role in

Lastly, the development of multiplex

experience; there is the cinema itself

creating an environment that has

cinemas has been just as essential as

to be enjoyed. Of course, the essence

enabled local film interests to enjoy the

the other relevant factors. The multi-

of this experience depends on whether

boom times of the past few years. On

screen complexes, which began to

the film appeals to the viewer's senti-

the other hand, it is also true that in

ride a wave of popularity in the late

ments . But without regard to the

this process these new distributors

1990s, offered a viewing environment

quality of a film, the situation is whol-

have been no less ruthless than the

that perfectly fit the new audiences,

ly different when it is shown at an

direct distribution firms of the past. In

the new domestic films, and the new

unattractive theater in a remote loca-

particular, there is much criticism of

distribution methods. A look at repre-

tion. It is no surprise that these cinemas

the " wide release" practice of the

sentative multiplexes in Korea, such

manage to attract few viewers.

majority of film distributors. Still, one

as Megabox or CGV, would be helpful

As for the future of Korea's film

of the factors behind the success of

in understanding the significance of

industry, it would be helpful to fllither

Korean films today is the wide release

this trend. With tickets priced at a

discuss such matters as the inclina-

practice. Attempting to understand the

basic rate of about 7,000 won, which

tion of Korean audiences to jump on

current state of Korean cinemas, while

is relatively inexpensive compared to

the bandwagon of particular genres,

ignoring the effects of this practice,

the prices in other countries with

including comedy, action, melodrama,

would be like trying to find a fish in a

advanced film industries, and a variety

and most recently, honor, as well as

tree. Thus, knowing that behind every

of discounts available, the enjoyment

the tendency of the film industry to

hit film stands an all-powerful distri-

that viewers get for their money is

cater to these trends, mainly for com-

bution firm is a shortcut to under-

such a tremendous value, incompara-

mercial gain. ~

Winter 2003 I Koreana

KIM MIN-GI Real-life Experiences Underlie His Success in Drama Choe Jun-ho Drama Critic, Professor of Drama, Korea National University of Arts

Active as a singer and songwriter during the 197Qs.t Kim Min-gi has since focused his efforts on the direction of

im Min-gi, the proprietor of Hakchon Theater, is a celebrity known to Koreans of all generations. His notable career has included a variety of vicissitudes and wide-ranging achievements.

musicals. With his Line 1

Singer and songwriter of the biggest hits of the 1970s, such

nearing its 2,000th

as "Morning Dew," "The Little Pond," and "Friends,"

performance, Kim has

which are still popular today, he is also remembered as an activist who stood up to the military regimes. The late

distinguished himself as

1970s and early 1980s fou_nd him working at farms and

an influential figure of the

factories, and then presenting his "song drama" The

local drama scene.

Fact01y Lights. Since the 1990s, he has been active as a

director of musicals, a performer, and a manager of pelformance groups. The changes wrought by Kim Min-gi on the pelforming arts stage have been exceptionally worthy of praise. Though regarded as an archetype activist, he remains untainted by political power, while it has been his dedicated and conscientious efforts in his chosen endeavors that have enabled his fame to shine so brightly. Though reluctant to talk about himself, Kim agreed to sit down with me for an interview. We talked mainly about the experiences that have made him what he is today, and his musical Line 1, which will stage its 2,000th pelformance this autumn. Winter 2003 I Koreana

(

.IUl•lo

I'm curious to know what you were like as a

Choc. At college, you devoted yourself passionately to

child.

painting, and after your graduation exhibition you were

K11n i\lm-g1: The first thing I can remember is when I was

expected to become a leading artist of your generation.

about three. When the grown-ups asked me how old I was

How did you happen to change course and pursue music

between the Solar New Year and Lunar New Year, I got all

instead?

confused. When I was four or five, my greatest fear was

Kim: Before my college days, I had learned classical

death. Death was already all around me, and when I tried to

guitar. Once I entered college, I worked hard at my

understand it rationally, I grew afraid. What about after

painting, and played guitat· just for fun. I loved music, and

death. I kept wondering, and I got worried. That was when

one day, a contemporary of mine from high school, Im

I statted staring at the ground and drawing pictures.

Mun-il, who was a DJ for the Christian Broadcasting

Around then, I had an inspiration, at the house of some

Service, asked me to play guitar and accompany his

sign writers in our neighborhood. In their spare time, the

girlfriend Yang Hee-un, who was a singer. So I embarked

people who worked at the sign writers' had painted a wall

on a musical path just by chance. As I became familiar

black and then decorated it with stat·s and human figures in

with the form of pop songs, I grew more confident and

white. This proved an inspiration to me. From then on, my

started to compose my own songs, which I either gave to

path ih life was decided. As the youngest of ten children, I

Yang Hee-un or sang myself. But the military regime

got much attention from the family, and I ended up

banned the broadcast and sale of my songs, and my

entering the College of Art at Seoul National University to

composing activities dwindled.

learn about what I wanted to do: paint pictures.

Cht lC: Living as a fugitive for so long, you couldn't live a nor-

Koreana I Winter 2003

Âˇ-

mal life in society. What are your recollections of that period?

drama and performance world, I was able to serve as a

Kim: Living in hiding or on the run would have meant too

bridge when the Yeonwoo Theater Company was in the

much trouble for my friends and family, so I never once

process of taking over what is now Hakchon Theater. For

went into hiding. I went as far away as possible, but I

some reason or other, the company itself wasn't able to

registered my new address. I also felt far away from the

take over the theater, and being in the middle, I solved the

people I knew and the world of songs. Since I couldn't get

problem by taking over the theater myself. That was in

a regular job, in the mid-to-late 1970s I spent five years in

1991 , but it also involved an unexpected turn of events.

the countryside doing farm work. After that I got a job at a

Because of the acquisition, I suddenly needed money, so I

factmy under an assumed name, because I couldn't use my

signed a recording contract with Seoul Record Company

own. . . I think I did all this just to make a living. The

that brought me 50 million won, enabling me to take over

production that emerged from these experiences was The

the theater. In 1993, a 3-CD set of mine was released, and

Factory Lights.

to my surprise, it earned me 200 million won in royalties,

Choc: You always speak so modestly, but in fact your acti-

enough to pay off two-thirds of my debts.

vities were of great significance in terms of bringing public

Choc: I bought quite a few copies of that album myself to

attention to factory conditions and the related labor

give to others.

movement. So, what was the reason for your moving into

Kim: Oh, I'm sorry! (laughingly)

the theater after that?

ChocÂˇ But even while operating the theater, you were

Kim: In the late 1980s, I was director of the Yeonwoo

planning something quite different, weren't you?

Theater Company. Having become involved with the

Kim: Knowing nothing but music, the first thing I did was Winter 2003 I Koreana

to organize the "Song Seekers" live concerts. In 1991, Seo

Choc: It may have struted by chance, but the small-theater

Tai-ji was coming onto the Korean pop music scene, and

musical was notable as well for its many contributions.

everything was about media and recording studios. By

Why did you decide to use live music tight from the first

promoting live concerts in small theaters, I helped

pe1formance in 1993?

audiences to realize, albeit belatedly, that the sound from

Kim: It wasn't due to any' particulruÂˇ reason. It was simply

the latest speakers can't match the live sound from the six

a musical consideration. I didn't like the style of singing to

strings of an acoustical guitar. With "Song Seekers" I was

recorded accompaniment, not to mention lip-synching, so

able to make ends meet, and the industry soon found its

although it would cost more, I chose to give the musical the

way to Daehangno Street, where live concett venues began

live feeling that comes from using a single guitai or a few

to spring up.

instmments. Ultimately, I was just producing a work in

In the 1980s, everything had been about either mass

keeping with my own creative style, and if anything about

gatherings or media, and I revived what both of these had

it was different from the past, it was that I had to consider

neglected: the intimate meeting of music and audience.

the practicalities of how to feed my extended theatrical

After this, people like Kim Gwang-seok fmther promoted

family. In a way, I wasn't so much managing a business as

the small-theater live concert, and the theater district was

giving the audience a show that they would enjoy. Line I

swan'lped with "song stmmmers." Besides, it didn't make

has grossed some 5 billion won (about $4 million),

sense to keep renting theaters, and it suddenly occurred to

enabling a large number of cast members and theater

me that if I took the initiative myself I could save some

people to make a living and create new works.

labor costs. And so I produced the musical Line I.

Choc: I believe Hakchon Theater has contributed greatly

Korean a I Winter 2003

Environmental issues have usually been considered from a human viewpoint, but in the rock musical Gaeddongi they are seen through the eyes of insects (opposite page). COs released by Kim Min-gi. Before becoming a theater director, Kim was one of the leading Korean pop musicians of the 1970s (left). In the future, Kim plans to devote himself to youth and children's theater (right).

Âˇ-

"My concept hasn't changed. irst, the schools

taek film that will open this autumn, 80 percent of the cast

plant the seeds of future artists, and then

has acted here.

I bring them here where I provide a seedbed for

Choe: What are your current concerns and plans for the

their talents to blossom That's the concept

future?

behind my theater and its productions."

Kim: While pondering creation and the universe, I've been impressed by Hindu philosophy. I also find the universality of antiquity in folk legends and fairy tales interesting. In this age with such a dire need for creative imagination,

to the musical scene, especially in regard to the training of

when everything is profit-motivated, I'd like to express the

actors and staff members.

world's values as seen by an older person, through a show

Kim: You could see it that way. A number of actors have

for children, like those that used to provide us with

passed through Hakchon. For the last ten years, I have

consolation in difficult times. I have seen how well chil-

insisted that the proper royalties be paid and performers be

dren's and youth theater are being developed in Germany.

selected through open auditions. These practices have

This work was originally scheduled to open in autumn, but

since been spreading through the performing arts world.

I have put off completing it until early next year. Now that

My co'ncept hasn't changed. First, the schools plant the

so many people are rushing to create children's shows for

seeds of future artists, then I bring them here and provide a

the sake of making money, I hope I won't be misunder-

seedbed for their talents to blossom. That's the concept

stood as doing the same thing.

behind my theater and its productions. In the 1m Kwon-

Choe: Thank you for sharing your valuable time.

Winter 2003 I Koreana 41

Breathing Life into Traditional Musical Instruments

He is an artisan who fashions together rough pieces of wood and silk strings to create musical instruments that produce a true, clear sound. Today, as always, Goh Heung-gon is hard at work breathing life and soul into traditional Korean instruments, such as the gayageum and geomungo. Choi Tae-won Freelance Writer Seo Heun-kang Photographer

Âˇ-

nside a wide room, a man can be

wood. Just as people all have cettain

and silk string. However, for the

seen sitting in front of an annfu] of

clothes that are their favorites, the smne

making of a string instrument, wood is

silk strings. It is instmment maker

is true for an instrument: the instrument

the most important material. For a

Goh Heung-gon who has been

maker is tasked with selecting the

front board to produce a true, clear

wood that best suits the musician."

sound, the wood must be from a native

designated Important Intangible Cultural Properties No. 42, a human

As Goh emphasizes, an instrument

paulownia tree at least 30 years old

cultural treasure in the mt of making

requires detailed handiwork for evety

and thef! aged outdoors in the rain and

traditional string instmments, such as

single part in order to assure that it

snow for 5 or more yemÂˇs. The back-

the gayageum (12-string zither) m1d geo-

produces the proper sound, which calls

board is made of chestnut or walnut

mungo (6-string zither). A poet once

for refined craftsmanship. Also, only

wood, while the bridges, or "goose

wrote: "My gayatgo (gayageum) that

the maker can determine which instm-

feet," are carved from pear

cties so plaintively when touched by

ment is ideally suited to a musician,

wood. For the making of stling instlu-

the hand." For Goh, who has dedicated

based on an individual's physical

ments, the wood is first and foremost

his entire life to making instruments that

characteristics and performance style.

in importance.

cry "so plaintively," what significance

apple

During the summer when the

Gob has created some 20 kinds of

humidity is high, Gob weaves together

string instruments, including the geo-

"The making of a gayageum typi-

the silk strings. But the most critical

mungo, ajaeng (7-string fiddle), and

cally involves no more than 10 separate

step of creating a gayageum is making

haegeum (2-string fiddle). Among

parts. However, it is no simple task to

the soundboard. The making of tradi-

these, the gayageum is his primary

attach the 12 silk strings, which are

tional Korean instruments requires

instrument.

woven from thousands of silk strands,

cettain materials known as the "eight

What is the origin of the gayageum,

to a soundboard made of paulownia

tones," which include gold, stones,

which is said to represent the sorrowful

does his work hold for him?

Winter 2003 I Koreana

1. Strings, made from hundreds of silk threads twisted together, are attached to the body of a gayageum.

2. After the strings are tied, they are placed atop a movable bridge shaped like a goose's foot.

and plaintive sound of the Korean

A comparison of the diagram of a

in structure, there are differences in

people? The gayageum is believed to

gayageum in the music text Akhak-

the range, tone, and method of play.

have been created by King Gasil of

gwebeom, which was published in the

The beopgeum is made by hollowing

the Gaya Kingdom, and then intro-

15th. century, with the sillageum, the

out a piece of paulownia wood that

duced to the Silla Kingdom during

gayageum that crossed over to Japan

includes a rounded front and flat back,

the reign of King Jinheung, meaning

and is now preserved in Nara, Japan,

whereas the sanjo gayageum, which

that it dates back to around the sixth

shows little differences between the

is smaller, involves the attachment of

century. Written records indicate that

two in regard to their shape and size.

front and back sides, made from

during the Unified Silla period (668-

However, at the time of the latter

different pieces of wood.

935), the gayageum was part of an

Joseon Dynasty, the gayageum under-

The traditional string instruments

ensemble of three string and three

went change to better accommodate

produced by Gob and his six appren-

wind instruments referred to as

the highly popular pansori, a tradi-

tices number over 200 a year, as a con-

(samheyon, or

tional narrative singing style, and

servative estimate. So how did Gob,

three string instruments, included the

sinawi, improvisational shaman titual

who immerses himself in the task of

geomungo, gayageum, and hyang-

music. With the emergence of sanjo,

handcrafting traditional instruments

bipa, a kind of lute; samjuk, or three

improvised solo instrumental music,

in his workshop, which he established

wind instruments, included daegeum,

the gayageum 's size was modified

in 1997 mound the time of his designa-

junggeum and sogeum , large,

and the space between the strings was

tion as a cultural treasure, start out on

medium and small transverse flutes).

narrowed to enable faster melodies

this path?

Documents also indicate that during

and vmied rhythms to be played more

the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392)

easily.

samhyeon-~juk

3. The finishing touch comes with the tying of the budeul, or " cattails, " thicker strings that enable fine-tuning of the instrument.

Born in Jeonju, Gob was introduced to his lifetime vocation through his

renowned scholars such as Lee Gyu-

"The original gayageum passed

neighbor Kim Gwang-ju, a teacher of

bo (1168- I 241) enjoyed playing the

down from Silla is called pungnyu

instrument making. When Goh was

gayageum, while in Joseon Dynasty

gayageum, jeongak gayageum or

young, he was always running in and

(1392-1910) times it was a favorite

beopgeum, while that from the latter

out of Kim's house that was filled

among scholars and young atistocrats

Joseon Dynasty is known as sanjo

with a variety of tradition<\] Korean

of leisure.

gayageum. Though not much different

instruments. After he graduated from

44 Korean a I Winter 2003

Instruments made by Goh Heung-gon. Top to bottom: geomungo, gayageum for court music with elaborate gold leaf decoration, and haegeum

-..

high school, Goh decided to take up

As Goh admits, even in the case of

in the hands of a performer to which

instrument making. In 1970, he went

a traditional instrument it is difficult

it is well suited. For this reaÂˇs on,

to Seoul to study under a teacher in

not to be influenced by the flow of

during spring and autumn Goh has no

Samcheong-dong, where he spent his

the ti:r11es. Consequently, Goh has also

time for himself as he goes from one

time carving out the insides of instru-

focused liis efforts on creating new

concett site to another. Before a perfor-

ments and weaving silk strings. Excep-

instruments, such as 18-string and 21-

mance, Goh inspects and tunes each

tionally talented with his hands, Goh

string zithers.

instrument to ensure that it is in its

acquired a passion for Korean instru-

Though Goh has spent all his life

perfect working condition. Then he

ments and was such a fast learner that

among musical instruments, he still

revels in his only pleasure: to sit in the

after just a short time he was making

marvels at the fact that two pieces of

audience and drown in the vibrant,

instruments good enough to be

wood, of the same quality and thick-

resplendent sounds of the instrument

stamped with his teacher's seal. In the

ness, will each produce a unique sound.

into which he has poured out his heart

making of traditional Korean musical

Certain pieces of wood will produce

and soul. His only regret is that while

instruments, Goh is said to belong to

the best sound. And, from experience,

making the instruments for all of

a second generation because he has

he has learned numerous tricks such

Korea's masters of traditional music,

developed innovative processes be-

as carving the hard pieces of wood

he has never learned how to play an

yond the traditional methods.

thin and the soft pieces thick. How-

instrument himself.

"In the past, music was performed

ever, each piece of wood has its own

Displayed on the stairs to Goh's

within the main room of a house. So

individual characteristics that in the end

workshop is a replica of the sillageum,

the sound was not loud. But now these

determine the sound of the instrument.

the gayageum that was introduced to

instruments are played on a stage in

Of course, this is true with not only

Japan during the Silla Kingdom. It is

front of an audience, so the gayageum

the wood. The size and touch of the

an exquisite and elaborate old instru-

we make today are different in their

hands of a musician and performance

ment covered in gold leaf. That such

volume-projection. Also, the tone was

techniques all differ among indi-

an elegant cultural legacy has not

sentimental and subdued in the past,

viduals , such that no matter how

been lost and forgotten is all due to the

but these days there is a preference for

finely an instrument might be crafted,

tenacity and perseverance of artisans

a clear sound with high clarity."

it will only produce the optimal sound

such as Goh Heung-gon. ~

Winter 2003 I Koreana

ON THE GLOBAL STAGE

Immateriality of Art Works

Paik Nam June Today, video art has established itself as one of the most revolutionary art forms Âˇin the history of art. As for the world of video art created by Paik Nam June, it is a realm in which communication with the viewer involves a new multimedia imagery. Jeong Yongdo Art Critic Kim Kwang-su Photographer

Âˇ-

aik Nam June's attraction to

Broadening the Horizon of

video art is rooted in the ver-

Artistic Expression

which was developed to effi-

media with humane characteristics.

ciently disseminate information and

Thus, through the structural meaning

be used by the general public. For this

inherent in his works he has broadened

reason, he is far more closely connected

the horizon of contemporary artistic

with the masses than other mtists who

expression and also expanded the

deal with traditional media such as

scope of his own artistic expression.

painting and sculpture. He has created

Paik's works constantly cause viewers

Paik Nam June with one of his works (above)

the new, globalized art form of multi-

to reflect upon the spiritual state of

media art. Paik utilizes commercial

humanity and the nature of mt.

A video art work by Paik Nam June installed in the lobby of the Seoul Art Gallery (opposite page).

satility of electronic media,

Paik Nam June endows electronic

media technology as a tool to create

Paik has endeavored to convey an

his works, but he applies electronic

understanding of electronic media

media technology as a means to create

through a human-centered worldview

a new artistic realm. Therefore, his

by highlighting various universal

artistic creations are intimately related

themes, such as religion and humanity,

to the human condition.

as major influences that shape the

46 Korean a I Winter 2003

Winter 2003 I Koreana 47

-~."'

structural context of his works. He

easily be found in his works, are

also incorporates the potential power

symbolically reflected.

of such fundamental elements as love,

The flowing frames of the individ-

death and nature as structural modes

ual images in his video works play a

in his works. However, Paik does not

role like that of the notes of a musical

seek to dwell on causal relationships.

piece played by a musician. His visual

By putting into practice his aesthetic

music is metaphorically expressed

response to technological media as a

through a dual structure of the simul-

means of developing structure, he

taneous flow of time and the display of

maintains his distance from blind

images. Therefore, if you were to listen

passion, including an linconditional

to modem atonal music or 12-tone music

devotion to artistic pursuit commonly

while viewing the video images of his

seen in "art for art's sake." This is

works, it would not be too difficult to

because the aesthetic concepts often

grasp the similarities between his video

seen in his diverse works can be under-

works and modem Western music.

stood as a search for identity related to

As a first-generation artist to use

his own origins and experiences. It is uponÂˇ this foundation that the inter-

electronic media as a means of artistic

twining of time and space, and the

being responsible for creating a link

blending of past (Korea) and present

between the art of traditional media

(the world) experiences, which can

and this new art form. Paik draws on

Korean a I Winter 2003

expression, Paik cannot escape from

Robot Family: Grandmother(left) and Grandfather (right), 1986 This video sculpture uses old-style television sets, radio receivers, and monitors (above). Sirius, 1990. Through his works, Paik continually varies his own artistic icons and adapts them to new environments (opposite page).

r =

=~-

Through an artistic concept that brings humanity together ith a new world called -.-&.a ..Âˇ~nolgy, Paik Nam June explores harmonious relationships between the human spirit and the contemporary living that have been disrupted by an intensely individualized and fragmented culture.

Buddha, Korean shamans, and related

ular, this can be more readily seen

religious icons for his works and perfor-

when viewed from a context of his

mances, thereby connecting tradition

works-sculptural form - that is,

with modern technology. He contin-

"video sculpture." Through his video

uously varies his artistic icons and

works, Paik presented a new art form

adapts them to new environments

and content, while prominently

through his works. This metaphysical

distinguishing his works as among the

approach to art seems to be a natural

most revolutionary forms in the

outcome based on his choice of televi-

history of mt.

sion and video media.

For example, as a representative work that fundamentally changed art

"Bringing Art to the Level of the

and human perception, Paik's TV-

Ordinary"

Buddha (1974) foretold the emergence

The virtual realm that Paik created

of modern two-way communication.

through his video art heralded the

In this work, Buddha meditates on his

birth of contempormy multimedia mt.

own image, reproduced electronically

He merged imagery created through

on a monitor. Among the teachings of

electronic signals with pure art tradi-

Buddha is this insightful passage: "All

tion. In the context of art history, he

things in this world are forms without

discovered and expanded the aesthetic

substance, but each of those forms

potential of multimedia art. In pattie-

make up the substance of this world; Winter 2003 I Koreana

forms exist only temporarily, and there is no substance." Accordingly, Buddha does not make a distinction between existence and non-existence, and therefore he would not say that the image appearing on the TV screen is not his actual self. This sort of equal relationship between the image of existence imd existence itself implies that there is no difference between image and reality, such that the barrier between aJt and non-art is transcended, while spatially invigorating the area around the work. The space between Buddha and the monitor is transformed into a sphere of dynamic energy, which can be seen as a metaphor for an evolution of modern aJt whereby non-attistic elements 31Âˇe now critical aspects that form the foundation of art. The concept of /

Âˇ-

"introducing commonality into works of art," which became an important

signals not with pure art itself, but

topic of discussion during the time of

with its traditional languages and

Marcel Duchamp in the early 20th

aJtistic concepts. By integrating tradi-

century, can be intetpreted as a more

tional art forms and the new video

positive notion of "bringing aJt to the

media in his video sculptures, Paik

level of everyday living."

brought together existence (sculpture)

However, a more significant point

and non-existence (video imagery).

is that through TV-Buddha Paik was

Because Paik deals with electronic

able to expand the scope of his aes-

media within the aJtistic tradition, the

thetic form. He also advanced the

paradoxical modes which arise - that

possibility of mutual exchange be-

is, the new art form of video rut that

tween the spirit and the matetial, and

becomes possible through the merger

notably extended the epistemological

of technology and human modes such

horizon of his attistic expression.

as love or religion - have become a prototype for 20th century art works

The Art of Immaterial Images

The virtual realm created by Paik

that present a new direction for contemporary aJt.

through electronic media technology

As he boldly omits narrative modes

and applications led to the advent of

from his video works and expresses

modern multimedia art. He fused the

incidental moments , Paik creates

imagety he created through electronic

notewotthy contemporary and avant-

Koreana I Winter 2003

East Gate, 1992. Paik Nam June's video works create highly innovative artistic forms and content (opposite page).

Âˇ-

"The Matrix" by Professor Kirsten Schemel was the winning selection of an international competition to design a Paik Nam June Art Gallery, which is now under construction with completion scheduled for late 2004 (above).

garde artistic modes that dramatize the

The complementarity of existence

artistic situation itself. Along with this

and non-existence in Paik's works is

point of view, he creates the common

the first step toward a virtual reality

sense current in late capitalistic society,

that facilitates the fundamental prin-

which emphasizes self-identity or the

ciple of interactivity in multimedia rut.

importance of non-existence through

That is, the epistemological equiva-

the media and themes of his works. In

lence of image and reality creates

that he envisions such a new hope for

works of art not based on the material,

the future, we may expect him to assume

but rather immaterial aspects based on

a leadership role among artists.

images. Therefore, viewers mÂˇe not just

Paik also demonstrates through, the

passively observing that which is being

artistic expressions which begin with

presented; they pmticipate in the com-

his insight to integrate humanity with

pletion of the existence of a work that

the new nature of technology, that his

represents an environment. And so the

synthesis of technology and humanity

viewer becomes a part of the work,

from a new perspective while his de-

and can also control it. While objecti-

velopment of a hmmonious relationship

fying the work, viewers may also be

between the human spirit and the reality

able to develop a relationship between

of life dismpted by a highly individual-

life and art in ways different from that

ized culture have been possible because

of traditional works of art.

of the artist. Winter 2003 I Koreana

.ON THE ROAD

rom the top of a little hill

from the sea's viewpoint, its waves

because it rises up along the coastline,

shrouded with mist, the

come to an end at the foot of the hill.

when you climb it, it seems taller than

fields below come into view

But from any perspective, the river

it actually is. Atop its summit, which

momentarily as the wind

that flows between the hills empties

commands a sweeping panorama,

subsides, then vanish again, while the

its water into the sea, thereby fulfilling

there is a beacon that was constructed

houses clustered along the banks can

its perpetual mission.

during the early Joseon period (1392-

be seen in the distance. Beyond the ridge

1910). Measming 11 meters in diameter

on the other side of the fields, the sea

Juxtaposition of Analog and

and 2.5 meters in height, it served as a

comes into.view and then disappears.

Digital

communications facility, in which a

The ridge of the hill takes a steep

At 278 meters in height, Mt. Dae-

fire would be lit to relay news from

descent, abruptly ending at the coast-

sosan, in Chuksan-myeon, Yeongdeok-

this distant outpost all the way to

line. Seen from the hill's point of view,

gun, Gyeongsangbuk-do province, is

Seoul, by smoke during the day and

it ends upon reaching the sea, while

not a pruticularly high mountain. But

fuÂˇelight at night. The signals sent from

Yeongdeok is a seaside village with such a moderate climate that it rarely ever snows there. In this remote setting, the residents of Yeongdeok sow seeds in the fields and catch fish from the sea, while living as one with nature. /

Korean a I Winter 2003

Yeongdeok village is situated where the mountains make their way to the East Sea (opposite page). Digital and analog communications coexist on the summit of Mt. Daesosan in the form of a modern-day digital relay station and an ancient signal beacon (above). The local specialty of Yeongdeok, daege, or "bamboo crabs," owe their name to their legs, which are said to resemble bamboo (right).

this site would be relayed by a series

signals are now transmitted in the blink

from where his boat had landed.

of beacons in far-flung locations until

of an eye, suggesting just how much

Having thus become the founder of

it finally arrived at the capital. It likely

busier we supposedly are nowadays.

the Yeongyang Nam clan, Jin Zhong

In the year 755, the 14th year of the

enjoyed a comfmtable life in his new

reign of King Gyeongdeok of Silla,

home, while leaving behind a number

But beacon-to-beacon signaling

when such beacons were yet to be

of descendants. In 1630, one of the

was the fastest means of communica-

developed, a boat landed at Jukdo, a

Nam clan members moved to Goesi-ri

tion in that long ago analog age, well

small island off the coast of Chuksan,

Village in Yeonghae-eup township,

before digital methods. Although with

now connected to the mainland. The

Yeongdeok-gun, nearby the sea, about

virtually instantaneous speed, signal

boat had drifted ashore after encoun-

four kilometers from the site where

transmission in the digital age works

tering stormy weather on its way from

Jin Zhong's boat had come ashore.

in a similar manner. About 10 meters

Tang China to Japan. On board was a

The place name Goesi-ri dates back

below the beacon is a huge digital com-

patty led by Jin Zhong, an envoy of

to the late Gmyeo Dynasty (918 -1392).

munications relay station recently

China's King Xuanzong. A few days

A scholar who lived in the village

installed by KT (Korea Telecom). If the

later, King Gyeongdeok received the

gave it that name after traveling to

beacon, a designated cultural property

news of this occunence via a hand-

Yuan China, where the village of Guishi

(Gyeongsangbuk-do Provincial Monu-

delivered message. King Gyeongdeok

rerninded him of his hometown. After

ment No. 37), were not still there, the

bestowed upon Jin Zhong the Korean

settling in, the Yeongyang Nam clan

digital "relay facility would have been

family name Nam, meaniiW south, the

grew in size in Goesi-ri, which became

built in the very same spot. Where

direction from which he had atrived,

their family base. About 30 traditional

fires were once lit to send signals as far

and provided him with housing at

Korean-style houses remain there to

as the eye could see, electronic digital

Yeongyang, some 40 kilometers inland

this day, several of which have been

required a whole day for a message to reach Seoul from Yeongdeok.

Winter 2003 I Koreana

Âˇ-

designated as cultural properties .

is home to about 53,000 residents in

can gain an understanding about the

Yeongdeok-gun boasts a number of

some 20,000 families, most of which

sentiments of olden-day Koreans.

relatively large villages of Korean-

are farming households, along with

In the transformation from an

style houses, in addition to Goesi-ri.

about 5 percent of the people who rely

agricultural to an industrial society,

This shows that despite its remote

on fishing for their livelihood.

dirt paths gave way to paved road-

location, Yeongdeok has long been a

Although Korea is a peninsula, its

ways. These roads brought not just

desirable place to live with its fettile

people's traditional occupation has

industry but a growing flood of

soil and mild climate.

been farming, with considerably less

visitors as well. As more people were

attention paid to the sea. Every Korean

able to afford their own cars, they

Ganggu Harbor and Yeongdeok

village includes a pavilion or two for

started to drive about on weekends to

Daege Crabs

people to enjoy the scenery. This

mountains, rivers, and seaside sites.

Yeongdeok-gun is a county in the

region along the coastline features

So much so that today it seems as if

n01theastern area of Gyeongsangbuk-

dozens of pavilions, but none affords

no stretch of Korea's entire coastline

do province consisting of one town-

a view of the majestic East Sea. In

is without inns, motels, and "garden"

ship (eup) and eight districts (myeon).

fact, the same is tme in other coastal

restaurants. The naturally scenic coast

It is bounded on the west by the mgged

regions, as Koreans prefer the scenic

of Yeongdeok-gun was no exception

Taebaek mountain range, while the

views of mountains, fields, and tivers,

to this wave of commercial develop-

East Sea forms its eastern boundary. It

rather than seascapes. From this, we

ment. Nowadays, the undisturbed

Korean a I Winter 2003

Although they live on the edge of the East Sea, the majority of Yeongdeok residents are farmers (opposite page). For a traditional tile-roof house like Hwasuru, a thatch-roof structure would be built in the rear for the household servants (above). ; /

Although this statue of a seated Goddess of Mercy at Jangnyuksa Temple is made of papier-mache, the gold-leafed surface gives it a' gilt-bronze appearance (right).

peace of times past can rarely be enjoyed

deok are not sufficient to meet demand,

for several days , have not suffered

in and around Ganggu Harbor. On

they are also imported from Russia

from shock as well.

weekends, the harbor area is too con-

and elsewhere. Naturally, these are not

gested for driving a car.

true Yeongdeok daege crabs, but most

Yeongdeok is widely associated with its regional specialty: Yeongdeok

people will enjoy eating them without worrying about their actual origin.

Cultural Resources

Yeongdeok-gun boasts a rich history, with the villages in its valleys

daege crabs. The dae in daege is not

According to local residents, the

being home to numerous old Korean-

the Chinese character for "big" (::k) but

crabs are so high-strung that they can

style houses. But since these houses

rather the Korean word for "bamboo,"

be startled by their own shadow.

are built of wood, their lifespan is rela-

which the crab's legs are said to re-

Therefore, it is said that crabs caught

tively limited. And with many owners

semble. Daege crabs can be caught

when a full moon is out will be thinner,

being unable to maintain and repair

here only from November 1 through

after being shocked by the sight of

their deteriorating structures, these

May 30, with crabbing being prohibited

their shadow from the moonlight,

houses eventually fall into disrepair.

during the summer months so as not

whereas crabs caught during the new

On the other hand, various houses, after

to intei-fere with their reproductive

moon phase are nice and plump. Still,

being selected as cultural properties,

season. Nevettheless, the tanks of the

no one can say whether the crabs that

have been restored.

local restaurants offer live crabs year-

have been caught elsewhere and

In Galcheon-ri Village, Changsu-

round. Since the crabs caught in Yeong-

brought here, then kept in a fish tank

myeon, Yeongdeok-gun, stands HwaWinter 2003 I Koreana 57

interest in the temples and Buddhist

many have since been restored.

statuary of its valleys. In particular,

At one time, a number of ancient

before dawn on New Year's Day,

temples could be found in Yeongdeok-

thousands of young people crowd

gun. But due to various mishaps, most

onto the beach to catch the sunrise.

have since disappeared or been

While gazing upon the year's first

reduced to rubble. In Geumgok-ri

sunrise over the sea, they make a wish

Village, Byeonggong-myeon, stands

and affirm their New Year resolutions.

Yugeumsa Temple, first built during

This is a new custom of the digital age

the reign of Queen Seondeok (r. 632-

that did not exist in traditional society.

647) of Silla. Devastated by flooding,

As the tising sun breaks the morning

the temple was rebuilt in the late

darkness, people send text messages

Joseon period, only to be destroyed

to their friends: "Are you still sleeping?

again by fire; it for long remained in

The sun is now rising over the sea.

ruins before being restored in 1993.

Happy New Year!" Others take pictures

National Treasure No. 674, a three-

of the rising sun with their digital cam-

story- stone pagoda in a Unified Silla

eras to e-mail to others. The digitized

(668-935) style that watches over one

"Happy New Year" greetings that these

comer of the temple grounds, has been

digital-age youngsters exchange would

witn~s

to the temple's ill-fated history.

traditionally have been expressed on

nately, this building is protected as

In G'a lcheon-ri Village, Changsu-

the Lunar New Year. From this point

Gyeongsangbuk-do Provincial Tangible

myeon, is Jangnyuksa, a temple built

of view, the traditions of the analog age

Cultural Property No. 82. In addition,

in the late Goryeo petiod. Here, too,

seem to have been adopted in a new

its detached thatch-roof cottage has

its main hall burned down and was

form by the digital generation.

been designated Gyeongsangbuk-do

rebuilt in the mid-Joseon era. The

On Lunar New Year's Day, Koreans

Provincial Folk Material No. 2. Large

main hall houses an 87-centimeter-

conduct a memorial ceremony for

tile-roofed Korean houses often in-

high statue of a seated Goddess of

their ancestors , which by tradition

cluded a detached thatch-roof house

Mercy. First made from papier

includes an appeal: "Please bring us

where the servants lived. Thatch was

mache, it was later gilded to take on

an abundant harvest and another year

used not to save on material costs, but

the appearance of a gold statue. Dming

of good health for all the family." It

to mark the social distinction between

its maintenance, a document was

may be the depth of winter, but in

master and servant.

found inside the statue stating that it

their hemts, the New Yem· mm·ks the

A thatched roof does not last as

was created in the fourth year of the

onset of spring for Koreans. And for

long as one built with tile. Yet through

reign of King Taejo of Joseon, or

this reason, they adom the front gate

the 1960s or 1970s, thatch-roof houses

1395. Subsequently, the statue was

or columns of their homes with such

were a common sight. It was during

designated National Treasure No.

phrases as ipchundaegil or songgu-

the military regime of President Park

993, as a noteworthy cultural property

yeongsin . Ipchundaegil

Chung Hee that they virtually dis-

whose exact date of origin is known.

"enter spring, great good") means

The sign on a front gate reads "Sending out the old year and bringing in the new"(above). The Yeongdeok area is a popular site for watching the sunrise over the East Sea (opposite page).

suru Pavilion, built in 1693. Fortu-

remained in the country, although

( /\~:*"E

wishing that with the advent of spring

appeared from this land. Considered a symbol of povetty, the rice or wheat

Sending Out the Old Year and

(Ipchun, around February 4), good

straw roofs were replaced with tile

Bringing In the New

fortune will follow. Songguyeongsin

under government mandate. Thus,

Digital-age visitors who flock to

only a few original thatch-roof buildings

Yeongdeok-gun seem to have little

Koreana I Winter 2003

(!lil{:)J!W Jf) refers to sending out the old yem· and btinging in the new.

Winter 2003 I Koreana

CUISINE

Excellent Source of Nutrients for Late Winter

Ogokbap is made of rice mixed with barley, foxtail millet, beans, and millet, and then steamed. Tradition calls for ogokbap to be served in late winter, on the first full moon of the lunar New Year, since it is an excellent source of various nutrients that people tend to lack in the wintertime. Koo Chun-sur Director, World Food Culture Research Institute Bae jae-hyung Photographer Kim Young-hee Food Stylist

often encounter difficulty when I attempt to explain

Although Koreans will have ssalbap with virually every

Korea's food culture to Westerners. For example, a

meal, tradition calls for ogokbap to be served on Dae-

common difficulty involves when I try to describe

boreum, the first full moon of the New Year, which falls on

the differences betweenjusik, staple foods, and busik,

the 15th day of the first lunar month. Around this time of

supplemental dishes. In the past, staple foods were

the year, the roots of plants slowly begin to stir back to life

common in both the East and the West. Although wheat

underground, though the plants may still appear to be deep

bread was a common staple food, or main dish, in most

in winter slumber above the surface. In the past;Âˇ people

European countries, potatoes were the staple in some. Rice

would often suffer from malnutrition or a lack of sus-

was also extensively consumed, because of its good taste

tenance during the course of a lengthy winter when food

and stable supply. Rice thus became the staple food of

was not always readily available. In response to this

people in monsoonal regions with a temperate climate and

situation, on the first full moon of the year, Koreans would

heavy rainfall.

eat five-grain rice prepared with various vegetables that

Today, rice continues to be the staple food of several

had been dtied in the sun prior to the onset of winter. In the

countries, including Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. In Korea,

evening, people ate walnuts, chestnuts, pine nuts and other

cooked rice is referred to as hap or ssalbap. Rice cooked

nuts, which helped to provide much needed nutrients. On

with beans (kong) is called kongbap, while rice cooked

Daeboreum, regular rice, so essential for everyday meals,

with a mixture of barley (bori) is called boribap.

would be set aside. Winter 2003 I Koreana

4 1. Yaksik is made by mixing chestnuts, jujubes, and pine nuts with cooked glutinous rice flavored with honey and soy sauce. 2. The rice is washed and rubbed between the hands until the water runs clear. 3. The water for cooking is about 1.2 times the amount of rice. 4. Millet grains are added after the rice comes to a boil. Side d ishes served with ogokbap: dried aster, dried radish leaves, dried zucchini slices, bean sprouts, and fern brake (opposite page).

Koreana I Winter 2003

Ogokbap Ingredients

Typically, the grains would be soaked in water for a

The people of Korea, China, Japan, and India referred to

considerable period of time before being mixed with the

the five most commonly consumed grains as ogok, literally

rice and cooked. This was especially the case with barley

"five grains." In India, the five basic grains included barley,

that would be too chewy if not properly soaked. Here

wheat, rice, beans, and sesame; for China, it was sesame,

again, with advanced models of pressure cookers, it is not

barley, barnyard millet, sorghum, and beans, or sorghum,

necessary to soak the grains in advance, such that ogokbap

barnyard millet, beans, barley, and rice. The five represen-

can be cooked in the same way as regular rice.

tative grains in Korea included rice, barley, foxtail millet, beans, and millet.

In Korea, various combinations of diverse grains are available at agricultural cooperative outlets and health food

Ogokbap refers to steamed rice cooked together with

sections of supermarkets. After combining an equal amount

barley, foxtail millet, beans, and millet. However, changes

of white rice with the assorted grains, you can cook the

over time and regional adaptations brought about .variations

mixture in the same way that you would cook regular rice.

of the miginal concept of five grains. Nowadays, ogokbap

The only point to consider is that for a better tasting

refers to rice cooked with any other four grains, without

ogokbap, the grains should be soaked in water for about

regard to the five traditional grains of the past.

four hours before cooking.

Korean winters can be harsh and long lasting. In inaking

In case of regular rice, any leftover portions will not

it through a long winter, people are prone to suffer from

taste as good as when freshly cooked. Cold rice needs to be

some extent of malnutrition. This brought about the prac-

heated to taste better, but can never equal that of freshly

tice of serving ogokbap on the first full moon of the year, as

cooked rice. On the other hand, leftover ogokbap loses little

the dreary winter draws to a close, to replenish people's

of its original:flavmful taste; Accordingly, those who favor

need for diverse nutrients.

the five-grain rice need ndt be concerned about less tasty

Today, there has been a noticeable increase in the number of people for whom ogokbap is now their everyday fare, due to rising incidents of such geriatric diseases as high blood pressure, diabetes, and angina pectoris. Apart from the health benefits it offers to sufferers of hypertenf

sion and diabetes, ever more people enjoy ogokbap as a diet food, thanks to its high nutritional value and low calories. Preparing Ogokbap

Ogokbap can be rather time-consuming to prepare, due to the fibrous husk of the grains that can make for difficult chewing if not thoroughly cooked. These days, however, with the new pressure cookers, it is easy to cook ogokbap and the taste is enhanced as well. If you use a pressure cooker to cook ogokbap, simply follow the directions for cooking unpolished rice (or brown rice in which the inner husk has not been removed) .

leftover ric ~ e while also taldng advantage of its nutritional and dietary benefits. ÂˇL;.t

The elegant si a traditi gnboard of onal tea h reflects th ouse of I e character nsa-dong (left). Korea 's s Âˇlgnboards are dynamÂˇ . IC and ener (opposit get1c e page).

nly shallow people do not

judge by appearanceOscar Wilde said. Upon hearing this phrase,

people are likely to be perplexed by the apparent paradox that it presents. However, it is essentially intended to mean that a person's external appearance serves as a window to the inner self. Therefore, the signs and billboards found on the streets can be said to expose the souls of urban dwellers, and as such can be used to understand

the lifestyle and values of society, much like a single water sample can be used to analyze the seawater of an entire coastal area. Korean signs and billboards can be characterized as follows: a vmiety of

the foundation of a city culture amid an artificial environment based on people's perceptions.

signage set up at each storefront in a manner that repeatedly exhibits the

Uniqueness for Survival

same features; signs and billboards

Signs and billboards are one of the

that are too lmÂˇge in size, and as such

most common marketing tools for

are out of proportion with their building;

storeowners. However, the color, size,

common usage of p1imary colors and

and shape of signs and billboards are

provocative wording; and only minor

also a significant aspect of the urban

variations in their material and shape

living environment, while hinting at

although each sign and billboard

various cultural currents as well. In

seems to have its own chmÂˇacteristics.

particular, signs and billboards also

As such, these characteristics are in

reveal the keen survival instinct of

large pmt centered on "the most, the

Koreans, and reflect the values and

bigge'S t, and the most eye-catching,

attitudes that have been formed through

while retaining a kind of fmniliar same-

their historical experiences and tra-

ness." Neon signs, with their colorful

ditions. As the present is a reflection

lights at night, play a role of exposing

of the past, previous experiences help

Korean a I Winter 2003

shape the appearance of today. As

out. Thereafter, in 1960 Korea found

above all else was a common goal, the

such, what have been the primary

itself under the thumb of military

promotion of harmony with other

factors behind the cultural images

regimes, which again repressed the

people and paying attention to public

currently used in Korean signs and

populace through strict social order

spaces were regarded as secondary

billboards? In essence, the cultural

and mobilization campaigns. During this

concerns. As a result, people were left

images currently found in today's

35-year period of authoritarian rule,

with no time to integrate their lifestyle

signs and billboards have their origins

when all-out efforts were so intently

with those with other interests. More-

in the rapidly unfolding developments

focused on economic development,

over, since small-size stores would

of Korea's past 100 years of history as

the vast majority of the people did not

typically change hands or type of

well as the traditional values that have

have the financial means to pursue the

business every two years or so, there

been deeply ingrained in the Korean

lifestyle of their choosing. With over-

was no incentive to spend on creatively

psyche.

seas travel being liberalized from the

designed signs and billboards. As for

Although it can be said that Korean

late 1980s, and Korea's per capita

the names of stores, maximum em-

signs and billboards are rooted in the

GNP reaching the $10,000 level in

phasis was placed on boldness and

sensibilities of Korean culture, it should

1995, a more economically advanced

directness to attract people's attention

also be pointed out that the particular

society began to take shape. However,

and for ease of recognition. Thus, eye-

circumstances of Korean history have

the Korean economy suffered a debili-

catching and exotic names are es-

heavily influenced the development of

tating financial crisis in 1997-98; the

pecially popular.

these sentiments. Before Koreans

aftershocks from which Korean society

began to discard the feudal system

is still undergoing a recovery process.

The Bigger the Better, but

that had suppressed the masses for

A Korean social scientist has compared

Maintain Conformity

centuries on end and pursue moderni-

Korea's past 100 years of history to all

Of the various values deeply im-

zation 'o f their country, Korea ended

the Korean people riding a giant roller

printed in the mentality of Koreans, a

up under Japan's colonial rule. Then,

coaster, expe1iencing intense fear and

representative notion is: The bigger,

while still celebrating its liberation

exhilaration with every twist and tum.

the better. As such, size is equated

from Japan, the Korean War broke

As attaining economic well-being

with strength, a perception that can be Winter 2003 I Koreana

observed in every aspect of Korean

shouting from the rooftop. However,

society. Most Koreans regard quantity

individuals who do not promote their

as being more important than quality,

own identity or take no special pride

and as a result, such traits as a refined

in their wares, are prone to rely on

taste for att and a discerning eye for

bigger and more eye-catching signs,

quality have yet to be fully cultivated

which in reality only imitate the ideas

within Korean society. Therefore, it

of others.

can be more effective to display more

ordinary rather than distinctive signs

Manisfestation of Korea's

and billboards. In addition, the fact

Dynamic Society

that neon signs can be found in both

In Western countries, b usiness

commercial and residential areas seems

signs are typically limited in number

to suggest that a disorderly jumble

and size, even along major thorough-

underlies Korean society.

fares. In most cases, there is only one

Another notable characteristic of

sign per storefront, which exhibits the

Korean signs and billboards is an

store's particular characteristics and

aversion to express any extreme in-

individuality through creative imagery

dividuality. Today, Korean society is

and design. The governments in most

wrestling with a conflict between the

Western countries, in an effott to main-

variety of new individual values that

tain aJ] orderly appearance of communi-

have recently emerged and the tradi-

ties, stri-ctly regulate business signs.

tional values and virtues that used to

Nevettheless, with most stores having

be so highly regarded in the past. In

their own features and image, individ-

many instances, past virtues, such as

ual and unique signs and billboards

harmony and cooperation, are now

can easily be found. Moreover, there

seen as signs of conformity.

is no overbearing repetition of key

Nonetheless, as alluded to in the

attributes or themes. As such, Westem

popular saying, "Go farther and fare

societies strive to promote diversified

worse," the value of conformity should

yet harmonious communities.

not be taken lightly. In this sense, the

Although there may be much to

trend of keeping up with the latest

criticize about Korea's signs and bill-

fads may be related to the cornfmt that

boards, it is also true that they can be

conformity can provide. The signs and

interpreted as vibrantly blooming

billboards for bakeries, flower shops,

flowers that reveal the survival mind-

pharmacies, and even banks so often

set of the people. Like the varieties of

feature similar materials, patterns, and

flowers that can be seen blooming in

colors. This lack of diversity seems to

the different seasons, the Korean

suggest that any ovett expression of

signs and billboards that illuminate

individuality would be bad for busi-

the streets at night exude an energy

ness. A person who takes pride in the

generated by those who live in a

wares he sells will tend to quietly

dynamic society.

persuade customers of the value being

The Insa-dong area features

offered without having to resort to

traditional store names and Korean-

68 Koreana I Winter 2003

Three basic characteristics can be found in Korean signs and billboards: traditional influences, Western-oriented cultural features, and expressions of a survival instinct. As such, signs and billboards are the visual symbols of people's values and sentiments.

Signboards are a part of the everyday environment that no one who goes out in the streets can avo id (left). The signboards of downtown Seoul are as stylish as those of any Western city (right).

style signs. In contrast, the Gangnam

The energy emanating from our

buildings overflowing with signs and

district of Seoul is home to sophisti-

society can bring a survival instinct to

billboards are now disappearing,

cated and refined signs and billboards

the smface, which would be noticeably

while new signs that complement the

along its ritzy commercial areas. Mean-

less apparent in an advanced society.

surroundings are steadily emerging.

while, the streets of Gaebong-dong

For those who are energized by the

are filled with countless unimaginative

presence of such an instinct, well -

cultr~

and repetitive signs and billboards,

designed streets may very well seem

formed through campaigns like the

like what you would see in provincial

to lack character. In this regard, many

"clean public restroom" initiative. As

towns. These areas are representative

people have stated that Korean

signs and billboards are directly

of three different lifestyles cunently

society's charm is rooted in the dyna-

related to people's survival instinct, it

coexisting in Korean society. As such,

mism of its people.

will be necessary for survival concems

However, this aspect of Korean cannot be so simply trans-

longtime traditions, imitation of West-

Signs and billboards are a visual

to be alleviated in order for Korean

ern societies, and the survival instinct

expression of a society's values and

signs and billboards to change accord-

of the common people are the ptimary

sentiments. Therefore, as more people

ingly. Signs and billboards are a kind

factors influencing the values of con-

attain self-satisfaction as well as a

of visual orchestra. Just as the beauty

temporary Korean society, as evidenced

communal sense of harmony and con-

of an orchestra lies in its ability to

by its signs and billboards.

cern for public spaces, Korean signs

achieve the harmonization of a

These three lifestyles of Korean

and billboards will

unde~;go

gradual

diversity of sounds, the future of

society can be said to be in conflict

change. In certain urban residential

Korean society will depend on the

with each other while also being

areas, as a result of residents' expanded

kind of environment that Koreans

blended together at the same time.

participation in community affairs,

desire to create.

~ Winter 2003 I Koreana

The ingredients of kimchi, including cabbage, garlic, ginger, red chili, and salted seafood, and its fermentation process combine to create a food that has been found to bolster people's

effects of kimchi, currently ..'

in the spotlight following

G01yeo era (918-1392), kimchi was called ji, which likely

the outbreak of SARS,

was derived from the Korean word dihi, written with the

resistance to illness. In particular, the beneficial

result from various

-, --<.

he word kimchi derives from the character jeo (ill), denoting a sour-tasting vegetable. Since this

character appears in the History of the Goryeo Kingdom (Goryeosa, 1454), it can be presumed

that kimchi dates back at least to this time. During the

Chinese characters jeo (ill) or ji

(i ~ ).

In the late 17th

century, kimchi was known as chimchae Ots:R), or "soaked

processes that occur

vegetable," that referred to the moisture that vegetables

during its fermentation.

released after being seasoned with salt, such that they become immersed in liquid. Over time, the name was

Kim Soon-dong Professor of Nutrition, Daegu Catholic University Suh Jai-sik Photographer

changed from chimchae to dime/we and gimchae, and eventually today's kimchi. Koreans of long ago would pickle vegetables with salt or vinegar so they could be preserved for the lean winter months. The earliest method used by humans to preserve their food was drying, with pickling and fermentation being developed thereafter. Unlike grains, vegetables contain a high moisture content, such that their preservation first required a drying or salting process. But the dtying of vegetables was not only impractical, it also resulted in a loss of flavor and nutritional value. Consequently, vege-

A crock buried in the ground provides an ideal environment for the fermentation of kim chi (opposite page). Water kimchi of white radish with its leaves. When the leaves are properly steeped in the liquid, the taste is light and refreshing (top).

tables came to be pickled with salt, while the aging during the fennentation process created a truly distinctive taste. Kimchi's unique, mellow flavor is unlike that of raw or cooked food. The flavor of kimchi is detennined by the Winter 2003 I Koreana

liquid discharged from its ingredients, which plays an

steeping time is extended to 15 to 40 hours and the salt

instrumental role in the fermentation process. Moreover, if

content increased to between 8 percent and 15 percent. The

this liquid dries out, the kimchi will lose its savoriness.

warmer the temperature, the lower the salt content and the

In order to fully appreciate kimchi, it is necessary to

shorter the steeping time. The cabbages are usually cut into

understand the impmtance of the side dish, or banchan, to

halves or quruters. After being salted, they ru路e tinsed with

Korean cuisine. In a culture in which rice is the staple, it

water a few times and the excess water shaken off.

can be served as a main dish accompanied by various side

The flavor of kimchi also depends on its seasonings.

dishes. However, since the taste of rice is rather bland, it is

Basic kimchi seasonings include red chili, gru路lic, scallions,

typically complemented by the five basic flavors: spicy,

ginger, dropwmt, leaf mustard, and salted seafood. Red

salty, bitter, sweet, and sour. And with its subtle combi-

chili powder is used in large amounts to provide a spicy taste

nation of diverse flavors , kimchi makes for an ideal side

that better complements the other ingredients. To bring out

dish to accompany tice. In addition, when kimchi is served

the red coloring of the chili powder and have it combine

with meat, it helps to counteract the greasiness of meat that

thoroughly with the other ingredients, mashed glutinous

some people dislike, while refreshing the palate.

rice or some other sticky substance is added. These ingredients not only enhance the kimchi's flavorfulness, but also extend its shelf life. It has recently been discovered that the

The Secret of Kimchi's Unique Taste

First, the flavor of kimchi depends on the use of good-

bio-active elements of these ingredients, which include

quality ingredients. Second, the cabbage or other primary

anti-oxidants and anti-carcinogens, noticeably boost the

vegetable must be properly salted. Too much salt will

efficacy of kimchi as a health food.

taste. Not

The salted shrimp or anchovy that is added to em路ich the

enough salt, on the other hand, produces an excess of

savory taste of kimchi is also rich in amino and nucleic

liquid, which can cause the kimchi to easily sour. Proper

acids. Salted seafood plays an impo1tat1t role in the fetmenta-

salting depends not only on the tight amount of salt, but

tion process, but if too much is used, the kim chi will have a

also the length of aging time, storage temperature, and

fishy smell while the chili powder's vivid redness may be

rotating of the cabbages from the top to the bottom of the

dulled. The mashed glutinous rice that is added for sticki-

storage container during the salting process. These

ness also contlibutes a sweet taste and aids in the aging of

conditions all affect the final flavor of the kimchi, while

the kimchi. Including a wide vru路iety of other ingredients,

special care is required to ensure that the cabbages are

such as oysters, fresh fish, chestnuts, jujubes, pears or other

evenly salted, including the outer as well as inner leaves.

fruit, and meat, can flllther add to the kimchi's tastiness.

mean a tough texture as well as too salty /

Structurally, kimchi vegetables are composed of count-

For cabbage kimchi, white radish is used as a seasoning.

less cells. As long as the cells remain alive, the salt and

The white radish adds sweetness and helps to blend

other seasonings cannot easily penetrate the cell walls, and

together the flavors of the other seasonings. The combina-

the fermentation does not occur. Pickling the vegetables in

tion of all these diverse seasonings creates the truly unique

salt or salt water breaks down the cell walls and causes the

flavor of kimchi, which is highly distinctive from the

discharge of liquid, which serves as a medium for the

pickled vegetables of any other country.

growth of microorganisms. This is how the fetmentation of

But unless it is properly fetmented, the true flavor of

kimchi gets underway, based on the osmotic reaction

kimchi will not develop. The fermentation of kimchi, in

caused by the salting process.

which microorganisms play an essential role, begins with

In the preparation of kimchi, the amount of salt that is

the salting. As with other fermented food, the time and

used to pickle the vegetables is of critical impmtance. In

manner of the fermentation process will be determined by

spring, summer, and autumn, the vegetables are generally

the temperature, salt content, and exposure to air. The

steeped for 14 to 22 hours in a solution with a salt content

lactic acid bacteria of kimchi does not grow well when the

of from 5 percent to 12 percent, whereas in winter the

salt concentration is too high or the temperature too low,

Korean a I Winter 2003

but fermentation depends not only on bacterial growth but

which becomes the kimchi liquid that provides sustenance

also a host of related factors. Ideally, kimchi that has been

for the growth of microorganisms. As the salt further

prepared at around lS"C should then be stored in an

penetrates the cell walls, the kimchi liquid and ingredients

aittight container at a slightly lower temperature so that it

attain an equal level of salinity.

naturally ferments as the temperature gradually decreases.

As this stage comes to an end, a nutritional balance is

The thoroughly seasoned kimchi is tightly packed, layer

created that enables lactic acid bacteria to thrive in the

upon layer, into an earthenware pot or container that is

kimchi liquid, providing an environment in which the

sealed and either buried in the ground or placed in a

lactic acid aids the fermentation. The lactic acid fetmen-

refrigerator, then allowed to mature for a certain period of

tation stage is when the kimchi begins to take on an aged

time. The storage temperature, salt content, and seasonings

flavor, as the acidity increases to about 0.7 percent through

and other ingredients all affect the aging time and overall

the proliferation of lactic acid bacteria. This bacteria has a

quality of the kimchi. It has been found that when typically

strong antibiotic effect on other microorganisms, thereby

prepared kimchi is stored for 60 days at oÂˇc or for 30 days

preventing the growth of various microorganisms that do

at 1oÂˇc' not only is its flavor said to be the best, but the

not provide health benefits. Through the interaction of

levels of vitamins B2 and C are at their peak as well.

these microorganisms, the fermentation process accelerates, and as the kimchi's sourness intensifies, its distinctive taste

Stages in the Fermentation Process

begins to emerge.

A significant aspect of kimchi's fermentation process is

The flavor of kimchi is at its peak when the acidity level

the distinct stages involved. These phases can be generally

is from 0.3 percent to 0.7 percent. It is difficult to describe

~cid

fermen-

the taste of kimchi in words, but it is a taste that develops

tation stage, high acidity stage, and decaying stage. Each

when the saltiness and the lactic acid and other organic

stage is different in terms of its qualitative characteristics

acids and carbonic acid gases produced during the fermen-

and related biochemical reactions. The major microorganic

tation process are blended together with the flavors of the

and biochemical reactions that occur during the fermen-

seasonings.

defined as a pre-fermentation stage, lactic

tation of kimchi include the following.

Âˇ-

When the lactic acid fermentation stage is complete, the

Because kimchi undergoes a natural fermentation, this

acidity rises above 0.8 percent and the kimchi becomes too

process involves a variety of microorganisms aside from

sour for consumption. This is the decay stage when quantita-

lactic acid bacteria, some of which are detrimental to the

tive reactions of the microorganisms and their fermentation

quality of the kimchi and others that are beneficial. White

activity slow down, while the lactic acid bactetia begin to

radish, cabbage, and the vegetables used as seasonings

die off faster than they can multiply. As a result, the level

contain microorganisms that come from the ground, while

of the lactic acid bacteria declines, causing its antibiotic

the salted seafood include marine-borne microorganisms.

effect on other microorganisms to weaken. Thereafter, the

Some of the microorganisms are removed in the process of

kimchi 's solid ingredients become soggy while its flavor

salting and rinsing, but many others remain.

deteriorates dramatically. As this decay process continues,

However, when the kimchi is packed tight into a storage

the kimchi eventually becomes inedible.

container, the lack of air will inhibit the survival of various microorganisms. This is the pre-fermentation stage, when

Kimchi's Wondrous Health Benefits

acidity is low and actual fermentation has not yet started,

Kimchi is quickly developing a reputation for its

but the lactic acid bacteria are beginning to multiply. This

numerous health benefits. This is because the juice of green

condition results in the production of volatile organic acids

vegetables has been found to possess various beneficial

and gases as well as the oxidation of vitamin C and other

effects, such as preventing cancer, strengthening the body's

organic matter. Moisture and soluble matter are discharged

immunity, slowing the aging process, and preventing

from the cabbage, white radish, and other ingredients,

constipation. The lactic acid bacteria content of kimchi,

Koreana I Winter 2003

The health benefits of kimchi are related to the natural fermentation of its ingredients. The lactic acid bacteria produced during the fermentation process help to improve digestion, cleanse the intestines, and aid weight control by reducing body fat.

which is equal to or greater than that of yogurt, can help to

kimchi contribute to a retarding of the aging process. In

improve digestion and remove waste from the intestines.

addition, ginger, garlic, salted seafood, and by-products

Kimchi can also aid in dieting by reducing body fat. The

related to the metabolism of lactic acid bactetia increase

24 percent of dietary fiber in kimchi can help to counteract

resistance to cancer and strengthen the immune system.

high blood pressure, diabetes, and cancer.

A recent report indicates that lactic acid bacteria can

The lactic acid bacteria in kimchi function as a powerful

destroy cancer cells and resist microorganic infections by

antibiotic, preventing the growth of harmful micro-

activating macrophages cells that wiJI counteract harmful

organisms in the body, while being known to provide anti-

germs or viruses that eriter the body. Also, the bacteriocin

mutation and anti-cancer benefits as well. It has been

produced by the lactic acid bacteria in kimchi has been

found that upon the consumption of kimchi, levels of the

found to provide vatious benefits, including antibiotic effects,

beneficial lactic acid bacteria lactobacillus and leuconostoc

strengthening of immunity, and prevention of colon cancer.

in the body increase, while the level of colon bacilli dimin-

Koreans living abroad often say that when they prepare

ishes, as do the levels of (]-glucosidase and (]-glucuronidase,

kimchi, it does not taste quite right. This is because the kim-

known to be harmful enzymes, in the intestines. Eating

chi ingredients produced in Korea are unique, and thus essen-

kimchi also reduces cholesterol levels in the bloodstream,

tial to producing the best-quality kimchi. In the future, Korean-

thus helping to prevent hardening of the arteties. Moreover,

made kimchi may contribute significantly to deterring

the vitamin C, (]-carotene, polyphenols, and chlorophyll of

illness and contributing to a healthier human race. l.l.t Winter 2003 I Koreana

MASTERPIECES

Celadon Openwork Incense Burner Contrast of Freedom and Restraint Kim Seung-hee Curator, National Museum of Korea

he Gory eo Dynasty (918-

a design, filled in with white clay, and

while intaglio carving is used for the

1392) experienced wide-

then!rred to create highly ornate pieces.

veins of the chrysanthemum leaves

spread social turbulence in

This celadon openwork incense

the 12th century. As brewing

burner, with its complex integration of

Three charming rabbits support a

'conflicts between members of the

separate components, captures the

lobed pedestal made of flat leaves.

ruling class erupted into fierce

underlying character of Goryeo so-

The rabbits, with their ears pricked

struggles to gain political power, the

ciety in the 12th century. The cover,

upright and front legs together, serve

everyday lives of the conunon people

through which smoke from the burn-

as the feet of the burner's base. Their

became mired in misery. Eventually, a

ing incense would escape, comprises

eyes are black dots created with iron

military regime succeeded in seizing

an openwork ball that features in-

oxide_ glaze, a technique known as

power, while the resulting political

tersecting leaves with a seven-good-

cheolhwa. Of note, tllis creates a con-

changes dramatically impacted all

fortune motif. The brazier itself is sup-

trast with the white dots that highlight

segments of culture and society.

ported by a base made up of appli-

the intersections of the leaves on the

Around this time celadon ceramics,

qued pieces of clay that are carved like

openwork cover.

which had attained a sophisticated

overlapping chrysanthemum leaves

The mtistic creativity embodied in

refinement based on modest adorn-

extending outward and the petals of a

this burner seems to be a melding of

ment that at most featured intaglio

lotus blossom.

the freedom and individuality of the

that make up the base.

designs, began to evolve into highly

Precise sections have been excised

military officers and the rigid dis-

embellished forms with an emphasis

from the cover that sits atop a mouth

cipline of the mÂˇistocrat civil officials

on intricate, elaborate decoration.

of carved leaves. On the smface of the

who were previously in power. It is as

Ceramic works became much more

lotus leaves that sunound the body of

though the burner reflects an inte-

diverse in shape along with wide

the brazier, the sanggam technique

gration of textual Buddhism, which

adaptation of the sanggam technique,

has been applied to make the inlaid

emphasized strict interpretation and

in which the surface was incised with

veins of the leaves appear raised,

gradualism, with the newly emerging

76 Koreana I Winter 2003

Embodied in this incense burner is a spirit of the freedom and individuality of the military officers who once ruled -during the Goryeo Dynasty. It is a harmonious composition featuring a contrasting theme of freedom and restraint, yin and yang.

Seon (Zen) school of Buddhism that

The military officers

taught sudden enlightenment through the practice of meditation. This incense burner was created

so abruptly who h~d seized power used cera-

arriid the flowering of a new culture based on Seon Buddhism combined with the unfettered nature of the pow-Âˇ

12th century, Height: 15.3cm, National Treasure No. 95, National Museum of Korea

mics as a medium to satisfy their

shaped feet, are all elegant figures that

desire to validate their leadership standing in a dignified manner.

serve specific functions. As such, the techniques that best

This incense burner well captured

erful families and military officers,

the character of the new ruling class.

suit the various functions have been applied to the creation of each figure

~-.

who seemed able to strike down any

The techniques applied to its creation

in order to produce an ideal finished

reveal the keen attention paid to express their preferences. Several

form.

.....,.

authority or tradition with a single blow. If the intaglio lines represent the character of the aristocrat officials

techniques, including relief carving,

who advocated restraint, the white

intaglio carving, openwork, inlaid

the pedestal, while the body of the burner, which requires roundness, is

inlaid lines, expressed with vivid authenticity, reflect the mindset of the

design (sanggam), and iron oxide glaze (cheolhwa), were incorporated;

composed of lotus leaves de~orat with inlaid designs in relief for added

military rulers. The military regime,

in fact, all the decorative techniques

who purged countless civil officials

practiced in the 12th century were employed. In addition, the incense

depth. Though the pedestal, burner body, and cover involve gradually ta-

and suppressed the populace in order to maintain power, tended to prefer

I~taglio

carving was used for

the arabesque design on the sides of

burner features different figures for

pered forms, applique techniques were deftly used to enhance the body's

various functions. The rounded cover,

fullness. Although the incense burner is comprised of separate composi-

site direction from the developments

the lotus leaves that surround the burner's body, the base of chrysanthemum leaves, the wide rhombus-

tional elements, it is not the least bit disharmonious. Indeed, it conveys a

of the deposed aristocrat civil rulers.

shaped pedestal, and the rabbit-

pleasing sense of contrast.

ornamentation that was refined but elaborate. Ironically, new trends in celadon ceramics moved in a totally oppo-

Winter 2003 I Koreana 77

ART REVIEW

Kwak Duck-j Using Humor and Âˇ~ Irony /

Kang Soo-jung Curator, National Museum of Contemporary Art â&#x20AC;˘ Choi Hang-young Photographer

An exhibition entitled Artist of the Year: Kwak Duck-jun" was presented at the National Museum of Contemporary Art from May 21 to August 31. This exhibition served as an excellent opportunity to assess Kwak's status in the history of Korean contemporary art. JJ

.....

to Satirize the

Koreana I Winter 2003

wak Duck-jun's parents

moved from Korea to Japan at the time when Korea was

under Japanese colonial

rule. They settled in Kyoto, where Kwak was born in 1937. Though he was born in Japan, Kwak grew up as a Korean, an experience that has contributed much to his unique sense of identity. Being separated from his

fatherland, which he could not relate to from his own experiences, his perceptions of Korea were influenced by what he was told by other people in Japan,

a Weight-scale and a Stone suggests that physical measurement is only a fictitious perception (left). Smile at Night. With their inquisitive expressions, the mask-like faces filling the canvas seem to be asking something. Plaster, pigment, resin, and colors on panel, 137 x 182 em, 1968 (top). Ten Weight-scales. Ten scales arranged like a pyramid symbolize an absurdity of measuring devices themselves being measured (above').

an environment hostile to Koreans. Kwak found himself to be a minority in both Korean and Japanese societies. He thus felt isolated and a need to constantly prove the validity of his personal existence and identity at a point of intersection between Korea and Japan, or history and society. Throughout his entire life, Kwak would contemplate about individuals' "identity" and "roots of being" in an effort to "overcome the Winter 2003 I Koreana 79

'~-t;.,

. ,t~

'ito.

"'~Âˇ- ~-ÂŁ'

Presidents and Kwakseries. The artist superimposed his own face on portraits of American presidents from the covers of Time magazine (above). Different Space 74-01, photographs, drawings, 88 x 63 em, 1974-2001 (bottom) Elimination and Representation expresses the inaccuracy of information and the meaninglessness of cognition (right).

oppressive destiny imposed on him through an intensive artistic awareness and expression," while creating variations on diverse themes, such as the relationship between society and individuals and the disparity between perception and reality. Measuring Measurement Devices

Kwak caricatures existential and complex themes from a "bystander's perspective," while using humor and iJ:ony to enable viewers to more easily approach his works. His works of the late 1960s vividly recaprtulate his exposure to Japanese painting and the dyeing techniques he learned in school. One work from this period,

Smile at Night, features mask-like faces that cover the entire canvas, which convey an overall impression of innumerous faces with an inscrutable, inquisitive expression. He applied white powder from burnt seashells and fine grains of sand to the canvas to 80 Korean a I Winter 2003

--<.

produce a glossy finish like porcelain

rate the futility of attempting to apply

representing the existence of a meaning-

glazed with plaster, and then with a

quantitative measurement to that which

less situation.

nail scratched countless lines onto this

cannotbe measured, like history and

smface, rendering a uniquely organic

personal memories.

As Kwak expanded the focus of his conflicts with individual identity to

work. The sense of solitude underlying

In 0 Weight-scale and a Stone , he

include international relations, this led

the humorous human images, and the

placed a large rock onto a graduated

to the "Presidents and Kwak" series he

repetition and constraint of specific

scale that registers a reading of 0. The

created by using Time magazine covers

images constitute a fundamental motif

"0" could mean 0 or 100, which leads

of issues during U .S. presidential

that has been applied to the entire body

to a conclusion of "- and + = 0," or a

elections. Clinton and Kwak and Bush

of his works.

meaningless existence. The graduated

2001 and Kwak utilize incongruity to

In the 1970s, Kwak challenged the

scale used for measurement and instru-

poke fun at the stodginess of the politi-

propensity of society to measure every-

mentation is a product of linear thinking

cal world. In this series, K wak used a

thing in quantitative terms, based on

that attempts to interpret the world

min-or in which half his face is reflected

ever more precise measurements. His

through quantitative values. To Kwak,

to match the top half of the Time cover

"Scale" series expresses the fallacy and

this is fallacious as well, created by

with the face of a U.S. president, that

futility of this trend. The installation

nonsensical notions.

he then captured on film. Kwak chose U.S. presidents because

work Ten Weight-sacles, which is displayed in the outdoor sculpture park

Challenging the Absurdities

they symbolize the world, and Time

of the National Museum of Contem-

The performance work Duck in

because it is cunently among the most

pontry Art, features 10 scales stacked

Duck shows the nonsense of attempting

widely read cunent affairs magazines.

up like a pyramid, which symbolizes an

to link the artist ' s name Kwak to

In this series, he created a composite

absurd notion of "measuring measure-

quack. In this work, the Kwak-ing of

face by combining the face of the world

ment devices." Through photographic

humans and the quack-ing of ducks

with his own. Based on a view that the

works in which he applied tape measmes

reduce the status of humans to a minus

"relationship between the world and

to a phone booth, a hanging lantern,

while elevating the status of ducks to a

myself is nothing but fantasy," he

and stairs, Kwak sought to demonst-

plus, which ultimately results in "0,"

exposed our everyday fallacies, such as Winter 2003 I Koreana

Weathering 921 is a work that questions the meaning of meaninglessness. Acrylic, photographs, plaster, resin on panel, 130 x 246 em, 1991.

Kwak Duck-jun uses humor and irony to express his views of the world and society. In particular, he seeks to expose the deceptiveness and meaninglessness of modern life through diverse works that are marked with an innovative spirit.

the serious discussion of presidential

spread of inaccurate information through

By highlighting "meaninglessness,"

elections and international politics.

a process of"repetition and obscuration."

he revealed the irony of having us reflect upon and discover the "true meaning"

Kwak subsequently broadened his hmizon to depict the meaninglessness of

Finding Meaning

between people, which is the true

"information" through his "Repetition"

in Meaninglessness

"meaning" of the "meaninglessness"

series. In addition, his "Elimination

Kwak's efforts to metaphorically

that he attempts to make known. His

and Representation" series portrayed

reveal the lack of meaning and absurdity

more recent "Weathering" seties recaps

the consequences that inconect infor-

of contemporary life are manifested

his career in multi-panel paintings that

mation can have on people's percep-

more clearly in his "Meaninglessness"

segregate the works from each different

tions, while his ''Perception" seties delved

series. In these works, Kwak divided

petiod of his cm·eer into sepm·ate units

into the disparity between the definitions

the canvas into dozens of small squares,

while also joining them together.

of objects found in a dictionary and the

which he filled with " meaningless"

Kwak has passionately endeavored

actual objects themselves. Time August

human images and symbols. In one work

to define his identity as a Korean born

20, 1984 is made from the torn pages

of this seties, amid a canvas crammed

in Japan. In doing so, he has come to

of a Time magazine. Apatt from a photo-

with cartoon chm·acters, is a comical-

accept both societies as patt of his world

graph, the remainder of the canvas is

looking man carrying a bag, his coat

today, in which diversity is acknowl-

obscured with a coveting of white sea-

collm· turned up. Through the pmtrayal

edged while the trend toward globali-

shell powder, while the white background

of this man's loss of direction, Kwak

zation is being advanced through

features primitive designs from Bush-

sought to satitize the meaning-lessness

networking. It seems rather it·onic that

man murals. This symbolizes the lack

of the world and the fallacy of public

his efforts are now gaining positive

of relevance of global affairs and the

infonnation.

recognition. 1.-'.t

Koreana I Winter 2003

Between the Era of Airplanes and Spaceships Moon Heung-sul Professor of Korean Language and Literature, Seoul Women's University

C 路-

ho Se-hi (1942-) is the

oppressing the latter. The dwarf, a

inside and outside gradually vanishing.

author of three novels: A

poverty-stricken industrial worker

In shott, it is an era without distinction

DwmfLaunches a Little Ball

living in a polluted city, and his family

between the center and periphery, like

(1978), Time Travel (1983),

are depicted as marginal characters in

the Mobius strip and the Klein bottle.

and Roots of Silence (1985). Though

this social structure and victims of the

The era of spaceships, the third stage

he is not a prolific writer, he won

ruthless oppression by the mainstream.

of development, is an era without a

recognition as the leading writer of

cent~

the 1970s with the publication of the

attempt to defy the structural contra-

completely dismantled. It represents a

serial story, A Dwmf Launches a Little

dictions of society in their desire to

world of the moon in a state of vacuum.

Ball, which has remained a steady

achieve a world symbolized by a

TI1e Mobius sl:tip and the Klein bottle,

seller to this day.

Mobius strip, which has only one side

which m路e to be found in the beginning

In the 1970s, Korean society aspired

with no distinction between the inside

and the end of A Dwmf Launches a

to material affluence as it joined the

and outside of the sUiface, and a Klein

Little Ball, are a declaration of the

ranks of industrial societies. It was

bottle, a two-dimensional version of

dwarf and his family's aspiration to

also a time of acute social conflicts

the Mobius strip. In order to perceive

advance into the era of airplanes by

caused by the repression of a militaty

the meaning of this world, it is first

overcoming the society of violent binaty

dictatorial regime and economic in-

necessary to classify the process of

opposition. The dwatf, however, fails

equality, represented by the rich-

capitalism's development into three

in his attempt to enter the society of the

getting-richer and poor-getting-poorer

stages: the era of steam locomotives,

Mobius sn路ip and in the end, he chooses

phenomenon. In the 1970s, the setting of

of airplanes, and of spaceships. Like

the extreme solution of committing

ChoSe-hi's novel with a dwatf as the

the distinction between the inside and

suicide. The reasons are as follows.

protagonist, Korean society was mm路ked

outside of a rail on a flat sUiface, the

An essential component of binary

by binary opposition, whereby the

era of steam locomotives is an era of

opposition is instrumental reason .

rich and the poor, the educated and the

obvious binary opposition. The inside

Accordingly, getting tid of binaty oppo-

uneducated, prosperous apartment

of the rail is the center and the outside

sition is linked directly with striking

complexes and demolition zones, and

is the petiphery, and this era is distinct

out at Iogocentrism that has been

the n'ormal and the abnormal clashed

for the center's relentless ostracizing

reduced to instrumental reason. There

in shat-p confrontation in the process

of the periphery. The second stage of

are basically two ways of attacking

of the derailed indusl:tialization process,

development, the era of ait-planes, is

insl:tumental reason. One is its decon-

with the fmmer constituents of society

an era of the distinctions between the

struction, which is achieved by elimi-

Koreana I Winter 2003

t~s

novel, the dwatf and his family

where binaty opposition has been

ChoSe-hi is an author who exposed the life of the poor laborers through the metaphor of a dwarf. He took a direct approach to deal with the social problems of the alienated classes resulting from - rapid industrialization and contradictions of Korean society in the 1970s.

nating the distinction between subject

abstract alternative that disregarded

state of vacuum - the passage for

and object, and reason and unreason

the contradictions of the reality.

reaching the moon - was just a dream

and thus dismantling the foundation for

When the dwwf finds it impossible

and fantasy. It was a world of dreams

the continued existence of binwy oppo-

to enter the world of the Mobius strip,

that had nothing in common with

sition. This is a sure way of advancing

he suddenly switches his ultim ate

Korea's reality; it was the world of a

into a world of the Mobius strip, where

destination to the moon. This abrupt

faraway country (the United States)

the distinction between reason and

leap C?f logic becomes the key cause

that launched the Apollo spacecraft.

unreason is vague. The second method

that compels the dwwf to take his own

Accordingly, there was no practical

is enlightening instrumental reason

life. The moon, symbolized by a space-

way for the dwwf to reach the moon.

through education and instruction and

ship, is a world where there is no binwy

The only passage available to him

changing it into rational reason. What

opposition. The means of reaching this

was to dream, but then this becomes

is important here is that a thoroughly

world is the possession of decentralized

possible only when he removes the

scientific methodology is necesswy to

knowledge, which is only possible in

reality. Consequently, the dwwf decides

enlighten instrumental reason.

the stage of development following

to leap from a chimney, the closest

Cho Se-hi 's dwwf does not choose

the Mobius strip. There is no possi-

place he could find to the moon.

the former, definite means of reaching

bility, however, of the dwwf, who does

In sh01t, Cho Se-hi's dwwf had no

the world of the Mobius strip but instead

not even know how to reach a world

choice but to kill himself. From the

chooses to enlighten in strumental

of the Mobius strip, possessing decen-

perspective of literary history, how-

reason. In so doing, he calls for the

tered knowledge. It was much later in

ever, the dwwf presents, without even

construction of an ideal society based

Roots of Silence that Cho Se-hi ac-

knowing it, a world where binwy oppo-

on "free reason ," but there are no

quires such knowledge. The "optical

sition has been completely removed, a

scientific ways of achieving this end.

cable" or "communications satellite"

world where the alienated and op-

Attempting to enlighten the center of

that he mentions in this novel can

pressed classes, including himself, can

society through "love" and "liberty,"

become a reality in a decentralized

enjoy a happy life. This is a decen-

despite the lack of scientific ways to

world. Actually, tllis world became a

tralized world called the moon, which

do so, in the Korean society of the 1970s

reality in Korea in the 1990s instead

is the ultimate destination that our

where the social center was wielding

of remaining a mere fantasy.

society strives to reach today by over-

ove1whelming violence in the form of

Based on Korea's reality in the late

coming contradictions . And this is

militwy dictatorship, however, was an

1970s when the author was writing

why Cho Se-hi's dwarf still has a

idealist's impractical dream and an

the series on the dwarf, however, a

powerful impact on us today.

Winter 2003 I Koreana

86 Korean a I Winter 2003

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