Koreana Spring 2009 (English) by The Korea Foundation

Korean art & Culture

Vo l . 23, No . 1 Sprin g 2009

The Royal Tombs of

the Joseon Dynasty ISSN 1016-0744

BeautY oF Korea

Eollebit Traditional Comb

ntil modern times, it was customary for married women in Korea to wear their hair in a chignon. For this, their long hair would be carefully braided and gathered into a knot, which was fastened with a binyeo, an ornamental hairpin. Before marriage, women wore their hair in a long, neat braid. Thus, in the old days, women began their day by combing out their hair, first with a wide-tooth comb, eollebit, and then a fine-tooth comb, chambit . This regular combing helped to keep the hair clean and healthy. For an added sheen, drops of camellia oil might be applied. It seemed that this daily grooming served as a kind of physical and mental discipline. An eollebit made with the hard wood of a boxtree was often preferred, while a chambit would usually be made from bamboo, because the fine teeth needed to be flexible yet durable. With its wide teeth, an eollebit made for easy combing, while there was little chance that the wood might splinter and snag your hair. Birch, pine, and jujube wood were also used to make eollebit. The dark-red color of jujube wood gave it a natural visual appeal.

Combs made with the wood of pine trees from the coasts of Jejudo Island were also prized because it was said that this wood had an ability to promote healing and repel misfortune. During the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th century) and the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392), decorative eollebit, made of turtle shell, ivory, horn, or silver, would be used as hair ornaments. An eollebit crafted in a half-moon shape was a favorite of women of the elite class, especially when tastefully decorated with auspicious symbols. A comb also symbolized faithfulness. During the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), a widow would place her comb into her husband’s coffin as an expression of her faithfulness, even after his death. Moreover, women thought of their combs as precious treasures, such that upon a woman’s passing, she would be buried with her combs. Mourners did not comb their hair to express their sorrow for the deceased. A comb was such an integral aspect of everyday life that Koreans have long said: “Even a poor young lady without a dowry carries a comb.”

Korean art & Culture

Vol. 23, No. 1 Spring 2009

Yeongneung is a double tomb that houses the remains of King Sejong, the fourth monarch of the Joseon Dynasty, and Queen Soheon, in Yeoju-gun, Gyeonggi-do Province. The royal tombs of the Joseon Dynasty, designed with a proper decorum and not a hint of extravagance, are infused with the loving respect of the people. This royal tomb is not encircled with flat stones, but instead conveys a sense of restraint in the carvings of the stone railing. The Cultural Heritage Administration offers a wealth of information on the 500 years of Joseon royal tombs, including an English-language video, at its portal site http://royaltombs.cha.go.kr.

ÂŠ Seo Heun-kang

The Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty 8

Enduring Splendor of Joseon Royal Tombs Lee Chang-Hwan

18 Royal Tombs Exemplify the Joseon Eraâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Resplendent Culture

Kim Lena

24 The Wisdom and Philosophy of the Joseon Royal Tombs Han Sung Hee

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Koreana, registered as a quarterly magazine with the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism (Registration No. Ba-1033, dated Aug. 8, 1987), is also published in Chinese, French, Spanish, Arabic, Russian, Japanese, and German.

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Ingneung was built in 1680 as part of the Seooreung tomb cluster. The stone tiger in the foreground is a symbolic guardian of the tomb site.

The Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty The centuries-old tombs of Koreaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s royalty have attracted considerable attention as green spaces of enduring splendor that offer a natural respite for local residents. Following onsite inspections by a UNESCO survey team, the royal tombs of the Joseon Dynasty are on track for inclusion on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Spring 2009 | Koreana

Enduring Splendor of Joseon Royal Tombs Royal tombs of the Joseon Dynasty were continuously developed during the 500-year period after Yi Seong-gye (King Taejo) founded the dynasty in 1392. The royal tombs include 42 neung (also pronounced reung ), which house 27 generations of the dynastyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s kings, queens, and posthumously designated kings. Let us take a closer look at the architectural characteristics and scenic beauty of these royal tombs of the Joseon Dynasty. Lee Chang-Hwan Professor, Sangji Youngseo College Photographs National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage | Seo Heun-kang Photographer

Gyeongneung, of the Seooreung tomb cluster, is an example of the Joseon tradition that called for a royal tomb to be situated in a remote mountainous area, amid numerous ridges, which contribute to an atmosphere of security and serenity.

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uring the past 600 years, royal tomb sites, encompassing an area of some 5,215 hectares (12,880 acres), have been developed within a 40-kilometer radius of the former city boundaries of Seoul. All this while, royal tomb sites have been regarded as highly sacred grounds, where no buildings are allowed to be constructed. Accordingly, these areas have been preserved intact over the centuries, while today serving as revered green-space sanctuaries. Representative examples include Gwangneung Arboretum, Hongneung Forest, Seonjeongneung, and Heoninneung. Over the course of Korea’s 5,000year history, the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) period has stood at the forefront of Korean culture, especially in terms of the brilliance of its royal culture. Indeed, the royal palaces and tombs of this era are among the country’s most cherished national treasures and cultural relics. The Joseon royal tombs had been meticulously maintained by court officials during the dynasty’s reign of 518 years, along with being overseen by the Cultural Heritage Administration since the founding of Korea in 1948. Although their condition deteriorated somewhat during the Japanese colonial period (1910-1945), they remain in an excellent state of preservation.

To highlight the significance of the Joseon royal tombs, the Cultural Heritage Administration is spearheading the efforts to have the sites registered by UNESCO. In September, a survey team was dispatched by the International Council on Monuments and Sites to conduct onsite inspections in Korea. The Joseon royal tombs are being considered for inclusion on the World Heritage List at the 33rd session of the World Heritage Committee, which is slated to convene in Seville, Spain in July. Ancient Tomb Culture People have long sought to settle down in areas with a mild climate and pleasant environment, along with favoring sites with scenic views. In a similar manner, much thought went into the selection of grave sites, to assure a proper afterlife. As for a country’s royal leaders, the development of tombs for a king or queen was a reflection of the society’s governing institutions and political ideology. For example, the ancient Egyptian belief in the soul’s immortality led to the building of its famed pyramids and cemetery gardens, while India’s Islamic culture influenced the construction of the Taj Mahal. Royal tombs of the Joseon Dynasty were continuously developed during the 500-year period after Yi Seong-gye

List of Joseon Dynasty Royal Tombs The tombs of the Joseon royal family were classified by neung, won, and myo rankings. As such, neung were reserved for kings and queens, as well as any posthumously designated king or queen. Today, 40 Joseon royal tombs (neung) in Korea continue to be meticulously maintained, including the following: Gongsunyeongneung

Donggureung

Jangneung (Paju)

Seonjeongneung

Jangneung (Gimpo)

Heonilleung

Seooreung

Gwangneung

Onneung

Hongyureung

Seosamneung

Yunggeolleung

Jeongneung

Yeongnyeongneung

Taegangneung

Jangneung (Yeongwol)

Uireung

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(King Taejo) founded the dynasty in 1392. The royal tombs include 42 neung (also pronounced reung ), which house 27 generations of the dynasty’s kings, queens, and posthumously designated kings. The Jereung and Hureung royal tombs, from the early Joseon period, are situated in Gaeseong, North Korea. The 40 sites within South Korea have been placed on UNESCO’s tentative list of world heritages. Of note, records of the Korean Peninsula’s tomb culture have long been maintained. Up through the Bronze Age, dolmens were the representative form of burial, while new burial meth-

ods were instituted during the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.A.D. 7th century), when Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla each developed their respective burial and tomb cultures. Upon the advent of the Unified Silla period in the early seventh century, burial mounds were developed that featured a southward orientation, along the placement of stone monuments and statues nearby. Toward the end of the Unified Silla period (10th century), the principles of geomancy (pungsu, feng shui in Chinese) were applied, which called for tombs to be situated in mountainous areas at sites with direct

Wolleung is the tomb of King Yeongjo, the 21st monarch of the Joseon Dynasty, and his queen (Donggureung tomb cluster). It was built as a twin tomb, with separate burial mounds for the king and queen, surrounded by a low wall.

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sunlight, rich soil, and proper drainage. The royal tombs of Korea acquired their basic form during the Unified Silla period, which was adopted by the Goryeo Dynasty, while the Joseon Dynasty gradually developed its own style and type of royal tombs. Ideal Setting The royal tombs of the Joseon Dynasty would be situated in remote areas, removed from the mundane world, often surrounded by an endless series of mountain ridges, which created a sense of layered protection, along with an atmosphere of security and tranquility. In order for the burial mound to enjoy the 12 Koreana | Spring 2009

natural scenery, an ideal site would have an auspicious mountain at its back, with adjacent ridges and a scenic view of the surrounding landscape. Under ideal conditions, the site of a royal tomb would be arranged so that the burial mound was sheltered by a “blue dragon” ridge to the left, and a “white tiger” ridge on the right, whose ridge slopes formed a narrow entrance way. If the natural terrain did not form a narrowed entrance, a grove of trees or pond area might be created. For the burial mound, where the corpse was interred, it would be located toward the end of a ridge of an auspicious mountain, upon a slight protrusion, which

was said to be a reservoir of the mountain’s energy. The various monuments and structures nearby a tomb would be arranged in accordance with Confucian principles, which called for an alignment of the burial mound with the stone lantern, T-shaped shrine, and outer red spiked gate. If the site was not suitable for such an alignment, the structures could be arranged so that they conformed to the natural topography. The burial mound was built higher than the T-shaped shrine in order to emphasize its dignity and reverence, and to distinguish between the sacred and the mundane. This also served to en-

Jeongneung, the tomb of King Jungjong (11th Joseon ruler), is located in the Seonjeongneung complex, along with Seolleung (tomb of King Seongjong, 9th Joseon ruler) in Gangnam-gu, Seoul. Today, the Seonjeongneung complex offers a tranquil green space in the midst of a forest of high-rise buildings in the Gangnam district.

2 The burial mounds of Myeongneung (Seooreung tomb cluster) look down onto its T-shaped shrine and out upon the graceful scenery of nearby mountains, which serve to enhance the dignity of the tomb site. Royal tombs incorporate the Joseon ideals of maintaining a close harmony with the natural environment. 3 Gyeongneung (Donggureung tomb cluster) is the only example of a triple tomb, in which burial mounds of the king, the first queen, and the second queen are aligned in a row and surrounded by a low wall.

hance the burial moundâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to look out at the surrounding scenery and to improve its access to direct sunlight and maintain adequate drainage. The pathway to a tomb would often include twists and turns as it wound its way alongside a passing stream. This kind of circuitous route was intentionally designed so that visitors could not have a direct line of sight to a tomb site, which served to accentuate the solemn nature of this sacred ground. During the early Joseon period, the area of a tomb site would be 100 paces, or about 120 meters, along each side. However, from the time of King Sukjong (r. 1674-1720), the boundaries of a site were defined by a blue dragon ridge on the left, white tiger ridge on the right, auspicious mountain behind, and a mountain across the way, in the front. Moreover, any developments within this perimeter, including village homes or private grave sites, would have to be relocated so that the site could be maintained as an open green space. The royal tomb sites represent wellpreserved historical and cultural spaces, which have been painstakingly cared for by Joseon court officials over the centuries, and more recently by the Cultural Heritage Administration. Representative tombs include Donggureung, Seooreung, Gwangneung Arboretum, Hongneung Forest, and Seonjeong-

Schematic diagram of a typical royal tomb site Main Mountain

Curved Round Wall

Background Forest

Burial Mound

T-shaped Shrine

Red Spiked Gate Right Ridge

Left Ridge Pond

Stream

Front Peak

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Based on the Korean philosophy of respecting nature, any man-made edifice, including a grave site, needed to be carefully planned in order to maintain harmony with the natural characteristics of its surroundings. In conjunction with this, Korea’s royal tomb culture led to the development of a wide variety of tomb styles.

neung. These tomb sites, which are now protected as cultural heritage areas, contribute significantly to the maintenance of much-needed green spaces within and around the capital region. Variety of Royal Tombs According to the principles of geomancy and the Korean philosophy of respecting nature, the scale and location of a royal tomb were carefully determined so as to assure harmony with the mountainous topography and surrounding landscape. This selection process resulted in the development of a wide variety of royal tombs, including types that featured a single tomb, twin tomb, double tomb, “one site, two ridge” tomb, upper and lower tomb, triplet tomb, and triple tomb. A single tomb is a stand-alone tomb of an individual king or queen, while a twin tomb housed a king and queen in separate burial mounds, alongside each other and surrounded by a low perimeter wall. In a double tomb, a king

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and queen are buried together within a single burial mound, while a “one site, two ridge” type refers to a tomb with a single T-shaped shrine and two burial mounds, with the second burial mound being positioned on a secondary ridge. As for the upper and lower tomb style, separate burial mounds of the king and queen are laid out in a vertical alignment on the same slope, with the king’s burial mound being higher than that of the queen. A triplet tomb includes separate burial mounds for a king, queen, and concubine, which are arranged side by side on the same slope and surrounded by a single wall, whereas in a triple tomb, a king, queen, and concubine would be buried together within a single burial mound. Layout of Royal Tombs According to Confucian influences, the layout of a Joseon royal tomb would include three sections, each with a separate function. An entrance section is for the access of visitors, including caretak-

ers from the mundane world, while a ritual section served as an area for the spirits of the deceased to meet with the people who would preside over ancestral rites. The burial section was a sacred ground where the deceased was laid to rest. Each section includes various monuments and characteristics. The entrance area features a red-spike decorated outer gate, ritual shrine, pond area, strip of 1 cleared ground that serves as a firebreak, and bridge. The ritual section includes an inner red spiked gate, visitor walkway, room for tomb caretakers, area for preparation of ritual food, and T-shaped shrine. Within a transitional area, there is a stone pit for burning the memorial address, platform for burning sacrificial money, pavilion to install tomb monuments, stone altar in honor of the mountain god, and pathway to the tomb section. The burial section is a sacred area that only authorized personnel can enter for specified duties. It includes a burial

Hongneung (Seooreung tomb cluster) is associated with a noteworthy story. After the death of the queen of King Yeongjo (21st Joseon ruler), her tomb site was built with a second burial mound to eventually accommodate Yeongjo. However, when Yeongjo came to be buried alongside Queen Jeongsun, in the Donggureung cluster, this resulted in vacant space at Hongneung, which has remained that way ever since.

Myeongneung (Seooreung tomb cluster) is the final resting place of King Sukjong (19th Joseon ruler), his second wife Queen Inhyeon, and his third wife Queen Inwon. The two burial mounds at the highest level are those of King Sukjong and Queen Inhyeon, while a military official statue stands guard over the burial mound of Queen Inwon (not visible).

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Aerial view of Illeung (Heonilleung complex) reveals how closely its layout conforms to the schematic diagram. The Joseon royal tombs have been meticulously preserved as cultural heritages, along with serving as valuable green spaces today. Unlike the imperial tombs of China, which feature high walls around the burial mounds, the Joseon royal tombs are nestled among wooded areas.

Gwangneung, the tomb of King Sejo (7th Joseon ruler), is located in Namyangju, Gyeonggi-do Province. The burial mound of a royal tomb includes a low wall along its sides and back, which delineates its sacred grounds.

mound, tiger and ram stone statues, stone platform where the spirit of the deceased can rest, stone pillars, stone lantern, stone statues of civil and military officials, stone horses, and a low wall. Just beyond the boundary of the tomb site, there would be a temple and designated area for cultivating aromatic plants and wood for charcoal. These monuments and structures of a royal tomb are laid out to facilitate the flow of traffic. To highlight the burial section as the heart of a Joseon royal tomb, its burial mound is surrounded on three sides by a low wall, around which pine trees would be planted to create a kind of enclosed protection for the tomb site. The most essential aspect of a royal tomb is the burial mound, which features a rounded form and is ringed at the base with 12 flat stones, to symbolize the 12 directions, or the 12 earthly branches. The burial section includes three vertical levels, with the deceased being placed on the highest level, above two levels with statues of civil servants and military officials, accompanied by their horses. The three levels are thought to be associ-

ated with Korea’s reverence for its three legendary founders and the Neo-Confucian influences of the Joseon period. A tomb’s T-shaped shrine is designed and built so that the burial mound cannot be seen from the outer gate. This careful placement of the T-shaped shrine seeks to maintain a hierarchical order between the mundane world and the sacred realm, along with reinforcing the tomb site’s sense of being a protected enclosure for the deceased’s sanctity and tranquility. Surrounding Landscape A wooded area of pine trees serves as a stately background and for a royal tomb a vivid symbol of the site’s sacrosanct nature. With the pine tree being one of the ten symbols of longevity, it expresses a desire for the dynasty’s perpetual reign, while the never-fading greenness of its needles symbolizes loyalty. Pine trees, fir trees, and Mongolian oaks would be planted around the tomb’s ritual section, with the T-shaped shrine at the center, along with the planting of Japanese snowbells, royal azaleas, and azaleas. In the case of wet-

land areas, alder trees would be planted at tomb sites, since they thrived in these environments. For the ground covering of royal tombs, zoysia grass was preferred. During the Joseon period, tufts of zoysia grass would be cultivated and transplanted onto areas that needed coverage, along with the sowing of grass seeds in July and August, as necessary. The burial mound of Geonwolleung is unique in that, in accordance with King Taejo’s instructions, it was planted with sedge from his hometown in Hamheung, and never cut. The royal tombs of the Joseon Dynasty are well-preserved sites that offer a glimpse into the pinnacle of Korea’s royal tomb culture, which exemplified the Confucian principles that placed great emphasis on the veneration of ancestors. As cultural monuments built in accordance with the Korean philosophy of respecting the natural environment, they are examples of an exceptional burial culture that is distinctive from that of other societies of the Confucian cultural sphere at that time.

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Royal Tombs Exemplify the Joseon Eraâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Resplendent Culture Geonwolleung, where the Joseon Dynasty founder King Taejo is laid to rest, is regarded as a representative royal tomb of the Joseon era. Although the development of all royal tombs conformed to various fundamental principles, there are certain deviations due to the kingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s final wishes, adjustments adopted over time, and efforts to harmonize the tomb site with its natural surroundings. Kim Lena Emerita Professor, Hongik University Seo Heun-kang Photographer

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ÂŠ Kimchi Gyeonmunnok , Designhouse

Taereung reveals the three levels of a burial site: an upper level for the burial mound, middle level for statues of civil officials, and lower level for statues of military officials.

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1 Stone statue of a military official at Gwangneung. The statues of civil and military officials would be installed toward the front of a tomb, where they stood ready to serve the beck and call of their king. 2 Stone statues of rams and tigers are positioned alongside the burial mound, facing outward to protect the tomb occupant.

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rom ancient times, the tombs of a society’s rulers were built with a unique grandeur that reflected the cultural characteristics, religious beliefs and philosophy of each dynasty. In a show of respect for their revered rulers, the living made concerted efforts, even Herculean at times, to assure a dignified and bountiful afterlife by building magnificent tombs and providing the deceased with a wealth of burial items. The splendor of royal tombs was also an expression of the filial piety of the living and future generations, and a tribute to royal authority. In Korea as well, the vividly detailed murals on the walls of Goguryeo tombs and the exquisite gold artifacts unearthed from Silla tombs provide insight into the status of the ruling class and their beliefs about the afterlife.

After Buddhism’s introduction to Korea in the late fourth century, funeral practices came to reflect Buddhist influences to a certain extent. Yet, the construction of large-scale burial mounds seemed to indicate that people’s fundamental views about the afterlife did not stray noticeably from longstanding traditions. Even during the Unified Silla period, when the prevalence of Buddhism flourished, people continued to build a large burial mound and surround its base with stone engravings of the 12 zodiac animals and the cardinal directions, which were rooted in the ancient burial practices of East Asia, that had been introduced from China, prior to the arrival of Buddhism. Although considerable research has been conducted on the tomb murals of Goguryeo and the resplendent burial artifacts of the Silla period, the royal tombs of the Unified Silla period, Goryeo Dynasty, and succeeding Joseon Dynasty have in large part not been the

subject of formal excavation projects, which means that a vast majority of their burial items are yet to be discovered. Nonetheless, an inspection of the major physical characteristics of these royal tombs can serve as a window into Joseon’s royal culture and the everyday life of its society. Principles of Geomancy During the Joseon Dynasty, in accordance with the prevailing Confucian ideology, it was imperative for funeralrelated rituals to be strictly observed. Of note, much care went into the selection of an auspicious site for a royal tomb, based on geomantic principles, under which an ideal location would typically be a mountainous area that offered natural protection and a flow of life-energy, nearby a stream. The burial mound would be situated on a broad, green knoll with a primary mountain to its rear so that people approaching the tomb site would have to look up at the burial mound and naturally show their respect for the deceased. Below the burial mound was a T-shaped shrine, where royal ancestral rites are regularly conducted. From the shrine, a pathway of flat stones leads to a gate decorated with red spikes. The path is divided into two levels, with a slightly raised central section reserved for the spirit of the deceased king and a lower section for the living. In front of the redspiked gate, water flows across an entranceway, where a stone bridge is built. King Sejo, who was known for his extensive expertise in geomancy, personally searched for a proper tomb site for Crown Prince Uigyeong (1438-1457), the eldest son of Queen Jeonghui, fol-

lowing his sudden death. It is said that King Sejo was so intent on finding an auspicious site that he participated in the inspection of five prospective locations. The development of royal tombs and the performance of ancestral rites during the Joseon period were intimately related to the royal family’s desire to perpetuate the dynasty’s continuous reign. As such, a royal tomb served to preserve the dignity of a former ruler and to assure the good fortune of succeeding generations. State funerals all complied with the procedures and protocol recorded in the official court manuals. For the construction of royal tombs as well, the structure of the burial mound, along with the types, placement, and size of stone monuments and statuary, all adhered to prescribed standards. The location and scale of royal tombs were determined in accordance with the socio-political circumstances, the king’s final wishes, finishing touches incorporated by his successor, and principles of geomancy. Thus, throughout the dynasty’s more than 500-year existence, the basic structure of royal tombs remained fundamentally unchanged except for minor alterations. Layout of Royal Tombs The structure of the burial mound of Joseon royal tombs and arrangement of stone objects are very similar to Hyeonjeongneung, the tomb of King Gongmin, the 31st ruler of Goryeo who died in 1374, and his queen, Princess Nogukdaejang, located in Gaeseong, North Korea, as they followed the royal tomb practices of the late Goryeo period. A representative layout of a royal tomb of the Joseon Dynasty can be seen at Geonwolleung, the tomb of King Taejo, the founder of the Joseon Dynasty. However, rather than grass, the Geonwolleung burial mound is covered with sedge. King Taejo had wanted to be laid to rest in his hometown of Hamheung, but was instead buried © Kwon Tae-kyun

at the Donggureung Tomb Cluster, where his burial mound was covered with sedge from his hometown, and never trimmed, in accordance with his instructions. A single tomb, such as Geonwolleung, separately housed a king and his queen, but there were a number of other tomb forms, including a twin tomb, in which burial mounds of a king and queen are arranged side by side, as well as a double tomb, “one site, two ridge” tomb, and triplet tomb. For a tomb that included multiple burial mounds, the king would be buried on the right. Gyeongneung, in Goyang, Gyeonggido Province, is the sole exception to this rule. A low wall was built around the sides and rear of a burial mound, more to delineate its sacred grounds than for actual protection. The sides of the burial mound are encircled by 12 retaining stones, with cornerstones placed at the intersections. For royal tombs up through the 17th century, which largely conformed to the style of King Gongmin’s tomb, and Geonwolleung, the retaining stones were engraved with images of the 12 zodiac figures, depicted as human figures with animal heads, to symbolize the 12 terrestrial branches, with a background of cloud patterns. The cornerstones of Geonwolleung, as well as those of King Gongmin’s tomb, are decorated with images of vajra and vajra bells, two Buddhist ritual implements. By the 18th century, the zodiac figure images were replaced by peony patterns, while the cornerstones, which had been decorated with auspicious cloud patterns, later featured lotus flower images, as a lingering Buddhist motif that remained popular in the Joseon era. At times, capstones would be installed atop the retaining stones, or 12 pillars were erected and linked together with a stone railing. The 12 terrestrial branches, depicted in the form of zodiac figures around the burial mound of a Joseon royal tomb, served to insulate the Spring 2009 | Koreana 21

A distinctive feature of Joseon Dynasty royal tombs is the installation of stone statues of civil officials and military officers, alongside their horses, in front of the burial mound, where these figures stand ready to heed the beck and call of their ruler.

deceased from the negative influences of time and space. Together with 12 trigrams, which expressed the universal order and heavenly movements, the symbols represented the 24 directions. Later, the terrestrial branches were replaced by engravings of Chinese characters for the 24 directions, which symbolically conveyed a concept of the royal tomb site being situated at the center of its own microcosmic world. In front of a burial mound there was a broad stone platform, supported by drum-shaped legs, where the spirit of the deceased could relax and enjoy the surrounding scenery. A nearby lantern, with a four- or eight-sided body, in the style of a Buddhist lantern, symbolically illuminated the area. Because of a belief that the deceased should be allowed to freely wander about the tomb site, two stone pillars would be placed alongside 22 Koreana | Spring 2009

the stone platform in front of the burial mound, which served as landmarks to assure his safe return. Statuary Figures Pairs of stone tigers and rams, totaling eight statues, were placed around the burial mound to serve as protective guardians. The tiger was revered for its ferocity, while the ram was said to ward off evil and symbolize filial piety. The tiger and ram figures were typically depicted in accordance with traditional forms and modeled after the animal statues at Geonwolleung, but there are also examples of statues portrayed with animated and even humorous expressions. The tigers were often shown in a crouching position, while the ram figures would usually be standing upright, their horns and body realistically

rendered. Certain variations in style emerged over time due mainly to the type of granite used for the sculptures and the individual craftsmanship of the participating artisans. The animal figures were sometimes sculpted with four legs, or otherwise stood on a solid base that would be decorated with plant or flower engravings. At Yungneung, the tomb of Crown Prince Sado, and Geolleung, the tomb of his son King Jeongjo, there are octagonal stone lanterns with elaborate engravings of orchids, chrysanthemums, and the herb of eternal youth, which reflect the brilliant heights of Joseon cultureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s golden age. There are also royal tombs with stone figures and animals standing guard from the Unified Silla period, of which Gwaereung, in Gyeongju, is a representative example. This practice is evident in China as well, where nu-

merous stone figures can still be seen alongside the spirit path leading to imperial tombs from the Tang and Song dynasties. However, Joseon royal tombs are distinctive for their tomb sites in mountainous terrain and the placement of statues around the burial mound. The most impressive statuary figures are those of civil and military officials, each accompanied by a horse, standing in front of the burial mound along each side. The paths leading to the tombs of Chinese emperors are lined with a wide variety of stone animals and official figures, whereas the Joseon royal tombs feature statues of officials in front of the burial mound, which together with their horse stand ready to heed the beck and call of their king. The arrangement of official statues at Joseon royal tombs is similar to that of Goryeo King Gongmin’s tomb, but with one less pair of each official. The appearance and scale of the stone figures are documented in the protocol manual for royal funerals, but the remaining examples show 2 minor differences in terms of expression as a result of the sculptors’ personal stylization. There were also certain changes over time. Many tombs faithfully adhered to the principles of King Taejo’s Geonwolleung, while in other periods there were stone statues of more than 300 centimeters in height, standing twice as high as a normal person. Daehan Empire Tombs The standing of the Joseon Dynasty’s royal family declined in the late 19th century, when the world powers struggled aggressively for territorial domination. In response to this, in 1897, Gojong (r. 1863-1907) proclaimed the Daehan Empire and assumed the title of emperor, instead of king, in an effort to promote political reform. There-

after, the tombs of Emperor Gojong and Sunjong, the dynasty’s final ruler, ignored much of the longstanding Joseon traditions, and instead adopted characteristics associated with the tombs of Chinese emperors. In particular, the stone statues of officials and animals were arranged along each side of a spirit path leading to the burial mound, and a wider variety of animals was included, such as the elephant, lion, camel, Asianstyle unicorn, and haetae (mythical creature of Korean folklore). With the tomb sites being larger and more lavish than previous royal tombs, the two Daehan burial sites stood in stark contrast to their Joseon predeces-

1 Yeongneung, the tomb of King Hyojong (17th Joseon ruler), includes the burial mounds of King Hyojong and Queen Inseon. The burial mound in the distance is the king’s tomb, while the tiger statue in the foreground is a guardian of the queen’s tomb. 2 Following the establishment of the Daehan Empire in 1897, an imperial style was adopted for Hongneung, the tomb of Emperor Gojong and Empress Myeongseong (Hongyureung complex). Flower patterns are carved into the flat stones around the base of the burial mound.

sors. The tiger and ram figures were no longer included, while horses were placed along the sides of the spirit path, rather than accompanying the officials. As for the traditional T-shaped shrine of Joseon royal tombs, in the style of a pavilion, this was replaced with a palacestyle structure. Still, a number of Joseon practices were carried over, including the retaining stones placed around the burial mound, stone railing, and stone platform in front, and the arrangement of stone pillars and lanterns. This was thought to reflect the people’s deeprooted respect for Confucian customs. Whereas the grandeur of the tombs of Chinese emperors were meant to symbolize their vast power, the royal tombs of the Joseon Dynasty are more human in scale and reflect an enduring appreciation for the filial piety of Confucian thought. The tombs of the final two rulers of the Joseon Dynasty were built after 1910, during the period of Japanese occupation. And while Korean artisans worked on the construction of Emperor Gojong’s tomb, Hongneung, artisans from Japan participated in the development of Yureung for Emperor Sunjong, who died in 1926. At that time, Japanese sculptors had already adopted Western-style influences, which resulted in the rendering of stone animals and figures with realistic detail. The royal tombs of the Joseon Dynasty were developed and maintained by the government authorities in order to preserve the tradition of the royal family and to honor their dignity. Today, the Joseon royal tombs continue to be painstakingly cared for by the Cultural Heritage Administration and the descendants of the Joseon royal family, the Jeonju Yi clan, who still faithfully perform ancestral rites at each royal tomb. Spring 2009 | Koreana 23

The Wisdom and Philosophy of the Joseon Royal Tombs During the 518-year reign of the Joseon Dynasty, 42 royal tombs were developed for its kings and queens; however, more than simply being the final resting place of these royal figures, the sites provide a unique glimpse into the dynastyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s political, administrative, and economic systems, along with the richness of Joseon culture. Han Sung Hee Author of Secrets of the Joseon Royal Tombs Seo Heun-kang Photographer

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Ancestral ritual being performed at Wolleung. (Donggureung tomb cluster). In the past, the reigning king would preside over a special ritual. Today, descendants of the Joseon royal family, the Jeonju Yi clan, perform these rituals at each royal tomb.

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he burial and funerary customs of a society are expressions of its prevailing concepts toward death and the afterlife. In the case of Goryeo’s adherence to Buddhism, death meant a separation of the body and life, while people believed that the body should revert to a state of dust. On the other hand, the Joseon Dynasty period was dominated by the Confucian ideals of ancestral rituals, which respected the dead as objects of veneration. Accordingly, the practice of cremation, which had been prevalent during Goryeo, was replaced by the 26 Koreana | Spring 2009

burial customs of Joseon society. With funerary formalities being documented in minute detail, the procedures became increasingly more complex, due to protocol-related issues. National Undertaking Whenever a king became seriously ill, a state of emergency would be declared, during which time he issued his final decree and bequeathed the throne to the crown prince. As a king’s final hour drew near, he was placed under continuous observation so that immediately upon his passing eunuchs would

bathe his body and dress the king in his funeral attire. As the word circulated about the king’s death, the royal family and court officials would initiate the preparations for his funeral. After being notified of the tragic news, the crown prince, other princes, queens, concubines, and princesses would take off their regular headgear and garments, wear their hair in a natural style, and remove all decorative accessories. The royal court would issue a decree that prohibited various activities during the mourning period, while the military office declared a state

2 1

During an ancestral ritual, such as this ceremony at Sureung, the most significant aspect is the offering of wine to the ancestral tablet, which is repeated three times.

2 At Yeongneung, ritual officiants walk along a designated path to the ritual area.

of emergency and mobilized reinforcements to secure the palace grounds and city gates. Court offices forwarded official notification documents to central and provincial governing authorities with information about the pending state funeral. For a five-day period, the retail markets were closed, and essentials could only be acquired through underground channels. For three months after a king’s death, there would be a general prohibition of wedding ceremonies, musical performances, and butchering of livestock.

The Minister of Personnel, in conjunction with the State Council, formed three temporary offices – Office of the Royal Coffin, Office of the Royal Funeral, and Office of the Royal Tomb – to oversee various activities related to the state funeral. Those assigned to the royal coffin made arrangements for the king’s funeral garments, mortuary tablet, and coffin, as well as garments for the official mourners, while the royal funeral officials procured a variety of burial items, such as ceramic wares, furniture, musical instruments, funeral bier, ritual implements, and royal seals. The most significant tasks were undertaken by the Office of the Royal Tomb, which was responsible for constructing the royal tomb. The development of a tomb included preparation of the site for building the T-shaped shrine (for conducting ceremonial rituals for the deceased), pavilion to enshrine the memorial stone, and tomb structure,

with a burial chamber, and areas for tomb caretakers and the preparation of ritual food. The mayor of Seoul would assure the proper maintenance of the roadways and bridges along the path to the tomb site. Pre-burial Mourning After a king’s death, the body would be clothed in formal garments of white silk, which was followed by an additional dressing on the third day, and a final dressing on the fifth day. Thereafter, the body was placed into a coffin, and a coronation ceremony was conducted to install the new king. As a reflection of its status-based society, the length of preburial mourning for Joseon rulers and court officials was determined by applicable protocol. For kings and queens, there would be a five-month period from the time of passing until the final burial. However, it was essential to properly Spring 2009 | Koreana 2

preserve the body prior to its burial, which called for the implementation of special measures, especially during the summer months. Fortunately, for Korea, which had acquired the technology for storing ice from the time of the ancient Three Kingdoms period, it maintained two icehouses in Seoul: Dongbinggo (eastern) and Seobinggo (western). The Dongbinggo facility provided the ice needed for the conduct of formal rituals, while Seobinggo’s ice supply was used for the palace kitchen and distribution to court officials, based on rank. In the middle of winter, ice would be gathered from areas of the Hangang River with clean waters, in slabs with a thickness of at least 12 centimeters, and cut into 1.8-meter blocks for storage. During the mourning period, the coffin of a king or queen would be placed above an ice tray and enclosed with a framework of bamboo that was packed with ice, which provided adequate refrigeration to preserve the body. Over the five-month period, some 15,000 blocks of ice might be required, which could deplete the entire inventory of stored ice. As such, a ruler’s advancing age or an indication of serious illness necessitated measures to assure a sufficient supply of ice. Although the ice enabled the body to be preserved, additional provisions were needed to absorb the moisture that resulted from its melting. For this, an-

other bamboo framework was installed that would be packed with dried seaweed, which provided a dehumidifying insulation to absorb the moisture. Over the course of five months, huge mounds of seaweed would be needed for this purpose. Selection of a Tomb Site In July 2008, a group of European landscape architects, who toured various royal tombs of the Joseon Dynasty, including Gwangneung (the tomb of King Sejo, one of Joseon’s most distinguished rulers) in Namyangju, Gyeonggi-do Province, were highly impressed, as evidenced by their observation: “Such a marvelous harmony of nature and artifice, which is the ideal of the landscape gardens of Europe, had already been attained in the royal tombs of the Joseon Dynasty.” After lying in state, a ruler’s body needed to be buried in its final resting place. For this, the Joseon Dynasty applied the principles of geomancy with the utmost care for the selection of an auspicious tomb site. Today, if you mention geomancy, most people would associate its principles with an attempt to determine a proper tomb site. However, the emphasis of geomancy on natural geography is derived from people’s desire to be born into the richness of nature’s resources and to eventually return to nature for all eternity. Accordingly, in line with the etymology

of geomancy, which in Korean literally means “wind and water,” its principles are considered when selecting the site for a village, home, or grave. Typically, a home or tomb site would have a mountain to its rear, which is said to “hide the wind,” while a nearby waterway enabled a continuous flow of the earth’s lifeenergy. The “wind and water” concepts are known as pungsu in Korean (feng shui in Chinese). After being introduced to Korea during the Three Kingdoms period, geomancy became prevalent from the late Silla period, and was continued through the Goryeo period as well as the Joseon period, when it coexisted with the state’s Confucian beliefs. Notable examples of geomantic principles can be seen in the development of palace buildings and royal tombs. During the Joseon Dynasty, King Sejo (r. 1455-1468) and King Jeongjo (r. 1776-1800) were known to be especially knowledgeable in the intricacies of geomancy. King Sejo instituted various changes to the development of royal tombs, which included having the burial chamber made with plaster instead of stone, replacing the stone coffin with one made from wood, and eliminating the placement of flat stones around the base of the burial mound. These adjustments to the tombbuilding process helped to significantly reduce the manpower that had to be mobilized for a royal funeral. Whenever

1 Ancestral ritual at Geonwolleung (Donggureung tomb cluster). The ritual area is divided into sacred and mundane spaces at the crossbeam of the T-shaped shrine. The site is designed to prevent a direct line of sight to the burial mound. 2 The Manual of the Office of the Royal Tomb documents the formal procedures and protocol for building a Joseon royal tomb. This illustration depicts the procession of the relocation of the tombs of King Sejong the Great and Queen Soheon to their current site at Yeongneung. (Gyujanggak archives)

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a royal tomb was needed, conscripted laborers would be mobilized for twoweek work periods from around the country. During the peak farming seasons, additional manpower was provided by Buddhist monks. According to records, some 7,000 laborers helped to build Changneung, the tomb of King Yejong, while about 5,000 conscripted laborers and 150 artisans, along with 240,000 liters of rice and 7,500 liters of salt, were utilized for the relocation of King Sejong’s tomb. From the dynasty’s outset, the Joseon royal family stressed the importance of developing auspicious tomb sites, in accordance with geomantic principles, so as to ensure its continuous reign from one generation to the next. Among court officials as well, there was a noticeable zeal to acquire expertise in geomancy, which would help with their 4 chance for promotion and contribute to 30 Koreana | Spring 2009

the good fortune of their descendants. In general, based on burial customs, a grave site could not interfere with any existing burial tombs. However, this restriction did not apply to the burial of a king or queen at a propitious site, in which case existing tombs had to be relocated. For example, because of the site selected for King Seongjong’s tomb, it was necessary to relocate the tomb of Prince Gwangpyeong, the fifth son of King Sejong and great uncle to King Seongjong (r. 1469-1494). Moreover, royal tomb sites are surrounded by restricted zones, at times extending over several kilometers, where structures and public access are prohibited. Burial Practices Regulations called for the tombs of commoners to be dug at a depth of 1.5-1.6 meters, while royal tombs were built with a depth of 3.2-3.3 meters. This

depth, which according to geomantic beliefs surrounded the body with an optimal amount of the earth’s vibrant energy, was thought to contribute to the prosperity of the ruler’s future generations. In fact, if a tomb of this depth was built for anyone else, such a violation could be punishable by death. Of note, the development of a royal tomb called for a minimal disruption of the natural topography; no more than 10 percent of the surroundings could be altered which was a demonstration of respect for nature and an acceptance of death as part of the human life cycle. In contrast to the imperial tombs of China’s dynasties, which are enclosed by high walls, the sites of Joseon royal tombs are planted with trees. From a distance, the wooded areas take on the appearance of gently flowing waves of a “green sea.” It is said that the grounds of a Joseon royal tomb emanate a kind of distinctive

1~2

Gongsunyeongneung in Paju. At early Joseon royal tombs, the forested areas have been in place for some 600 years now, which serve as ideal picnic sites for elementary school students.

In contrast to the imperial tombs of China’s dynasties, which are enclosed by high walls, the sites of Joseon royal tombs are planted with trees. From a distance, the wooded areas take on the appearance of gently flowing waves of a “green sea.”

energy, which according to geomancy practitioners is generated by a flow of positive gi (vibrant life-force, chi in Chinese), due to the site’s auspicious location. Nearby royal tomb sites and Joseon palace grounds, people often complain about interference with their mobile phone communication, which is attrib5 uted to the presence of this gi. Grand Funeral Procession Following a funeral service at the royal palace, the deceased ruler’s body would be carried along a designated route to the tomb site. A grand funeral procession, of 5,000 to 10,000 mourners, would include an endless stream of people bearing silk banners that described the king’s achievements; countless palanquins, including the funeral bier; horses adorned with jingling bells; the new king and his court officials; and court ladies and eunuchs, creating a spectacle of magnificent grandeur. Because many of the funeral processions for a Joseon king began at night, 500 people would be needed to bear torches to light the way. A procession would often extend over a distance of 4 kilometers, while commoners in mourning attire assembled along

the roadway to bid their king a final farewell. The funeral procession of Queen Inseon, the wife of King Hyojong (r. 1649-1659), which began on May 28, 1674, proceeded from Seoul to Yeongneung in Yeoju, Gyeonggi-do Province, by way of the Hangang River over a period of three days and two nights, involving a flotilla of 150 vessels manned by 3,690 sailors. For the funeral of Queen Inyeol, wife of King Injo (r. 1623-1649), her procession included 6,770 people, according to historical records. Political Transition A state funeral represented a massive undertaking, which required substantial financial resources and manpower, and the first large-scale project overseen by the newly crowned king. Upon the conclusion of a royal funeral, the king praised and rewarded the officials who had played leading roles. In particular, the officials who contributed to the selection of an auspicious tomb site and the proper application of protocol rules to the funeral procedures would find themselves in line for promotion and membership

in the new king’s circle of trusted advisors. Moreover, through his interpretations of geomantic principles, the king was able to replace any holdovers from the previous regime with his own supporters, thereby fortifying his power base and ruling authority. The royal tombs serve as historical relics that vividly depict the glory and demise of the Joseon Dynasty. From as early as the mid-Joseon period, signs emerged that indicated a shift in royal authority away from the king and toward the senior court officials. Toward the Joseon Dynasty’s latter years, the court ministers had managed to wrest away much of the king’s previous power, which is said to have contributed to its ultimate collapse. Indeed, it is said that the reign of a Joseon king “began with a royal tomb and ended with a royal tomb.” During the 518-year reign of the Joseon Dynasty, 42 royal tombs were developed for its kings and queens; however, more than simply being the final resting place of these royal figures, the sites provide a unique glimpse into the dynasty’s political, administrative, and economic systems, along with the richness of Joseon culture. Spring 2009 | Koreana 31

FoCuS

Korea Hosts 2008 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, a kind of “Environmental Olympics,” is a prestigious international conference dedicated to the promotion of collaborative efforts to preserve wetlands worldwide. The recent 2008 gathering was hosted by Korea (October 28-November 4), under a theme of “Healthy Wetlands, Healthy People.” Choi Man Lim Gyeongnam Ramsar COP10 Task Force Team Director

2 1 Baikal teals, a rare bird species, in flight over Geumgangho Lake, the largest migratory bird sanctuary in Korea. The 2008 Ramsar Convention adopted a measure that called for “promoting international cooperation for the protection of water-bird migratory routes.” 2 Changwon Exhibition Convention Center served as the venue for plenary sessions of the 10th Ramsar Convention, which included the participation of representatives and NGOs from 140 member countries.

he 10th Conference of the Contracting Parties of the Ramsar Convention, an international environmental event, was held in Changwon, Gyeongsangnam-do Province, from October 28 to November 4, with the participation of 2,288 representatives and NGOs from 140 member countries. In conjunction with the formal discussion sessions and informational forums, the event offered a wide variety of cultural programs, along with field trips to nearby Wetland areas-Upo Wetland and Junam reservoir-which attracted some 200,000 participants, including conference attendees, visitors, and local residents. In total, an estimated 500,000 people took part in the various activities.

Ramsar Convention The formal name of the Ramsar Convention is “The Convention on Wetlands

of International Importance, Especially as Waterfowl Habitat.” In a simplified form it is commonly referred to as “The Convention on Wetlands.” The primary goal of the convention is to preserve wetlands all over the world through international collaboration that seeks to publicize the economic, cultural, and environment value of wetlands, and to reverse the recent loss of these vital areas. By facilitating processes essential to a smooth functioning of the ecological system, wetlands are an invaluable source of environmental benefits for humankind. However, a relentless onslaught of development projects in every corner of the world, in the form of farmland development, flood control measures, and land reclamation, have contributed to a drastic loss of about one-half of the world’s wetlands areas. In response to this alarming trend, concerned countries concluded a Spring 2009 | Koreana 33

1 In conjunction with the Ramsar Convention, conference participants and visitors toured the Upo Wetland, one of Korea’s sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance. 2 The 10th Ramsar Convention was noteworthy for its adoption of environment-friendly practices, such as minimizing the use of paper, reducing disposable items, and using environmentfriendly vehicles for transportation.

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multilateral treaty for the conservation of wetlands-the Ramsar Convention-that calls for all signatories to support cooperative efforts to protect their respective wetlands areas. The treaty was initially adopted at a gathering of 18 countries held in Ramsar, Iran, on February 2, 1971. The Convention requires each of its 158 member nations to designate at least one wetlands area within its territory for inclusion on the List of Wetlands of International Importance. As for Korea, which signed on as the treaty’s 101st Contracting Party in July 1997, it has designated 11 wetlands for inclusion on the official list: Yong, Upo, and Jangdo wetlands; Suncheonman Bay, Mulyoungari, Doowoong, and Moojechi wetlands; Muan tidal flats; Ganghwado buttercup colony; and, wetlands of Mt. Odaesan and Muljangori. In accordance with the Conference of the Ramsar Convention, the Contracting Parties convene a session once every three years to discuss each member’s environmental measures and agenda, and to draw up new implementation programs. Following the inaugural conference held in Iran, the subsequent gatherings have

discussed a wide variety of environmental issues concerning the preservation of wetlands.

Changwon Declaration The plenary sessions included the discussion of 33 agendas, along with the adoption of 32 draft resolutions, related to such matters as “enhancing the biodiversity of rice paddies as wetland systems,” “promoting international cooperation for the protection of water bird migratory routes,” “climate change and wetlands,” and “wetlands and bio-fuel.” Of particular note, the resolution on the biodiversity of rice paddies proposed that rice paddies be included on the List of Wetlands to heighten awareness of their ecological value and to enhance their biodiversity through sustainable farming practices. The “Changwon Declaration on Human Well-being and Wetlands,” which was drafted by the Korean delegation and finalized after incorporating the input of various specialists, was undoubtedly the highlight of the conference proceedings. The Declaration called on relevant government authorities to formulate strategic programs for the active management of

wetlands, recognizing their significance as “natural water infrastructure,” and to deal with the consequences of climate change. Moreover, the Declaration also serves as a guide for the international community to systematically undertake concerted efforts to ensure preservation of the world’s precious wetlands areas. During the plenary sessions, special presentations addressed an array of themes, including “Conservation and Sustainable Use of Korea’s Wetlands,” “Wetlands and Efforts to Alleviate Poverty,” and “Integrated Water ManagementProspects and Challenges of the Next Decade.” In addition, 54 supplemental events, such as the “International Forum of Wetlands Governance,” and 19 symposiums on such subjects as the “International Symposium on East Asian Coastal Wetlands” were conducted,

for the purpose of focusing attention on environmental concerns about climate change, biodiversity, and routes of migratory birds.

Environmental Festival On November 2, field trips were conducted to eight destinations, including two of Korea’s designated wetlands areas, Upo Wetland and Nakdonggang River estuary, along with tours of ecological sites and visitor attractions for learning about Korean culture and history. In conjunction with the conference, additional tour programs were organized for the event participants, such as “morning wetlands walk” and “outing for accompanying persons.” At the Changwon Exhibition Convention Center (CECO), the main venue of the conference, the participating countries

sponsored exhibition booths to introduce their wetlands activities and conservation programs. Korea’s booth, entitled “Wetlands and IT Technology,” provided information about its efforts to adopt IT applications for the protection of wetlands. For participants and visitors, a variety of cultural activities, performing arts events, and hands-on experiences were presented at outdoor venues of the CECO. A Wetlands Green Growth Exhibition Hall, adjacent to the CECO, housed myriad exhibitions and displays, set up by local governments in Korea and sister cities of Changwon to make known the importance of wetlands conservation. At the CECO plaza, a variety of Korean cultural exhibitions and performing arts events were staged, which attracted some 20,000 visitors on a daily basis. This included a traditional market area that offered popular

The conference proceedings were highlighted by the adoption of the “Changwon Declaration on Human Well-being and Wetlands,” which called on relevant government authorities to formulate strategic programs for the active management of wetlands, due to their significance as “natural water infrastructure,” and to deal with the consequences of climate change.

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1 The tour program included visits to Suncheonman Bay, in Jeollanam-do Province, a Ramsardesignated wetlands area, where people could observe a variety of birds that seek safe haven on the coastal wetlands. 2 An exhibition of art works by children from all over the world was presented at the outdoor venues of the Ramsar Convention event. A variety of programs was offered for children in an effort to nurture a future generation of guardians of wetlands areas. 3 A Children’s Ramsar Conference was held prior to the official event for children from previous host countries of the Ramsar Convention. Children from Canada, Italy, Costa Rica, and Australia took part in a hands-on program to learn about natural dyeing techniques.

foods and demonstrations of the everyday life of long-ago Koreans.

Sustainability Measures The 10th Ramsar Conference was noteworthy for its adoption of environment-friendly practices. For example, a reusable cup was provided to each participant to curtail the consumption of paper cups, while the volume of paper handouts was reduced by making information available in the form of USB (Universal Serial Bus) devices. At hotels, instead of supplying rooms with disposable items, they would be distributed to guests upon request. Likewise, rather than automatically changing the bed sheets and towels daily, changes were made when requested. In addition, natural gas and hybrid vehicles were used for transportation, while people were encouraged to recycle PET containers. These environment-friendly efforts were highly praised by conference participants as practical measures to promote environmental sustainability. Carbon Offset Fund : The conference also included the launch of a Carbon Offset Fund campaign. This program seeks to encourage people to reduce their carbon

footprint and to contribute to a fund to help curtail global carbon emissions. An exhibition booth provided detailed information about this fund, which will be administered by the Ramsar Convention Secretariat to support the reduction of greenhouse gases in developing countries and the promotion of wetlands conservation projects. Children’s Conference : Prior to the opening ceremony, Changwon city held a Children’s Ramsar Convention in order to educate the future guardians of our wetlands. Students from Korea and previous host countries of the Ramsar Convention (Italy, the Netherlands, Canada, Japan, Australia, Costa Rica, Spain, and Uganda) took part in various informational activities and programs, which helped to explain how the wetlands serve as the earth’s respiratory system.

Overall Evaluation The 10th Conference of the Ramsar Convention was the largest of this event, in terms of the number of participants and draft resolutions (32) that were adopted. Along with being lauded by the participants for its successful implementation, the conference served to elevate the status of Korea as an environmentally

sensitive country, as a result of various efforts to publicize its nationwide “Green Growth” strategies and the general public’s high level of environmental awareness. Moreover, a noteworthy outcome of this international event was its ability to focus domestic attention on the importance of preserving the valuable wetlands in Korea. A key factor behind the event’s overwhelming success was the indispensable contributions of volunteer workers. The conference volunteers attended comprehensive training sessions that included general information as well as technical knowledge related to their particular duties. Over the course of the conference, participants continuously expressed their personal appreciation for the thoughtful assistance and enthusiasm of the event volunteers. Public awareness of the value of wetlands was noticeably heightened by the conference, as evidenced by the widespread popularity of the wetland ecotours. During the conference period, the Upo Wetland and Junam reservoir areas were toured by 4,000 to 5,000 visitors on weekdays, and upward of 130,000 people on the weekends. Spring 2009 | Koreana 3

IntervIew

When filmmaker Hong Sang Soo made his debut with The Day a Pig Fell into the Well (1996) film, he created quite a stir among Korea’s film critics. And though the film was less than a commercial success, this did not deter Hong from proceeding along his less traveled path. Not long thereafter, Hong’s innovative filmmaking earned him global acclaim at the Cannes Film Festival. Shin Gi Joo Journalist, Primiere Film | Photographs Cine 21

Filmmaker

Hong Sang Soo Takes a Less Traveled Path

ong is gradually losing his eyesight. While working on Virgin Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors , he experienced vision problems for the first time. But he did not concern himself with proper care for his failing eyesight; rather, he abused his eyes. Every time he made a new film, his vision continued to deteriorate. He remained indifferent, saying: “Everyone will eventually lose their vision and pass on.” But it does not seem possible for his worsening vision to be overcome by sheer determination alone. Still, he explains: “I’m somehow accustomed to my situation. I can even sense when a problem will arise. Because I can sense its onset, I can also control it, somewhat.” For a film director like Hong, it is difficult to imagine how he could go about his work without adequate vision.

Focus on the Unseen Perhaps Hong’s filmmaking can continue, despite this difficulty, since he does not necessarily rely on his eyesight to see the world. In fact, he will often focus on what is unseen, on the hidden side of reality. For Hong, his films are the result of arranging myriad life experiences within his mind. He notes: “I’m interested in the fragments of life. Writers might have great respect for sources of life and believe that the fragments of life drawn from these sources should maintain their original meaning. So they do not arrange the fragments into various combinations. Or they think that the fragments themselves are meaningful. But I don’t think that way. I think that if someone else arranged the incidents of life from a different 38 Koreana | Spring 2009

Filmmaker Hong Sang Soo’s penchant for resisting mainstream influences is reflected in his independent thought: “I am often asked about the meaning of my films, but such questions can only be asked of those films that deal with unaddressed matters.”

On the Occasion of Remembering the Turning Gate (2002), which depicts an unknown actor who wanders about a provincial area, was a film by Hong that relied on improvisation rather than a conventional script.

perspective, a new interpretation could be created. And that’s how I believe things should be done.” He has never fully believed what he can see with his eyes, while striving to create something new by adding in his own variations of what he might have seen. More often than not, the actors in his cast are similarly surprised by his unorthodox approach. Kim Young Ho, who acted in Kang’s Night and Day film, recalled: “One day, I received the script and found out that it included some of my own experiences. Incidents that I had mentioned to Hong, over drinks, became part of the story.” About this, Hong elaborated: “I use whatever I can from all manner of sources. From those sources, I obtain various ideas, details, and fragments. It doesn’t matter which sources they might come from. I sometimes get ideas from totally unexpected sources.” Hong’s style is clearly distinctive from that of most film directors. Whereas most film directors are concerned with the creation of imagery, Hong focuses on an arrangement of countless fragments of life experiences in order to convey various thoughts. These life experiences do not depend on what you can see, which might explain Hong’s disregard for his failing eyesight.

Artistic Inspiration With his mother being a well-known film producer in the 1960s and 1970s, from early childhood Hong became familiar with the camera and film. As a result of this family environment, he does not think of a film as a commercial product for visual enjoyment; rather, it is a medium for personal expression of the inner self. Later, it seemed natural for Hong to enroll in the Department of Theater 40 Koreana | Spring 2009

Hong spent time with French film director Claire Denis at the 2008 Pusan International Film Festival. As for what Picasso meant to painting, Hong strives to leave his mark on Korean film.

and Film of Chung-Ang University, as if setting out on a predetermined path. But he soon dropped out of school, due to a lack of interest in his courses, and decided to study in the United States, where he learned the essence of film at the California College of Art and Crafts and the School of Art Institute of Chicago. His ten-year-long study in the United States left an indelible imprint on his filmmaking career. He studied the basics of making films that differed from the mainstream style of entertainment movies, along with being fascinated by the modern and post-modern experimental film genres. With the Korean film industry being burdened by heavy-handed censorship in the 1980s, innovative filmmaking was practically impossible except in adult films, such as The Heyday of Youngja and Madam Emma. As such, it was hardly surprising that Hong’s debut film, The Day a Pig Fell into the Well, in 1996, created a considerable stir among Korea’s film critics. At that time, Korean movie makers had been satisfied with their portrayals of realism, which conformed to the prevailing atmosphere. But Hong broke new ground with his unconventional film. Hong remarked: “Andy Warhol showed scenes of the Empire State Building for eight hours, deriving new meaning from simple fragments. My films are similar to that. They present a new arrangement. I would say that with only a simple rearrangement, I pursue something new.” He added: “There are films that consciously seek to convey a certain message. I am often asked about the meaning of my films, but such questions can only be asked of those films that deliberately convey a message.” Rather than merely depicting reality, Hong seeks to reinterpret life experiences. Spring 2009 | Koreana 41

Commercial Debut The film intelligentsia in Korea was highly impressed with Hong’s post-modernism style, which featured processes of destruction and reconstruction. But The Day a Pig Fell into the Well proved to be just a big splash in a small pond, leaving audiences in a state of bewilderment. Along with a lack of understanding, moviegoers were rather offended that its fragmentary scenes did not relate to a storyline or climatic finish. This lack of consumer appeal resulted in a box-office failure that left Hong with no resources for another project. Still, Hong was undaunted: “A film can be a medium to convey a meaning. And in making such a film, you focus on its effective expression. But I have a different attitude toward film. Everyone has their own inclination. However, movie audiences are so used to receiving a clear message that they reject a film if it is not easily understandable. There is pressure for a movie to convey a certain meaning or message through a coherent process. That is always a burden for me.” Due to the commercial failure of his debut film, his second film, The Power of Kangwon Province , was undertaken on a shoestring budget. The movie unfolds with seemingly random scenes of Gangwon-do Province. With no indications of a plot or direction, the film features a man and woman, entangled in a messy love affair, who seem to wander aimlessly around the province. The film, however, provided a huge boost to Hong’s career when it was invited to participate in the “Un Certain Regard” program of the Cannes Film Festival, marking the first time for a Korean filmmaker to be so honored. Although the films of Japan’s Kurosawa Akira and Mizoguchi Kenji had earned international recognition in the 1960s and 1970s, and the Taiwanese films of Hou Hsiao Hsien and Edward Yang were also highly regarded, Korean film remained on the margins. As such, the screening of Hong’s film at Cannes represented a breakthrough for himself as well as the Korean film industry.

Innovative Style Hong’s filmmaking style has also been evolving. Whereas The Day a Pig Fell into the Well and The Power of Kangwon Province reflected his efforts to adapt himself to the film environment in Korea, Virgin Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors enabled Hong to carve out his own niche, in terms of creative style. During the shooting of this film, his eccentric ways were readily apparent. Moon Sung Geun, who has been cast in several of Hong’s films, mentions: “Now, I am used to him, but at that time, it was quite strange. He doesn’t explain anything and there is no script. Only when you see him in the morning, he hands you a script. Then you quickly look over the script and try to act it out. You cannot prepare at all.” Hong explains his unusual method: “I don’t want the actors or actresses to prepare for their roles beforehand. If they do, their acting will be calculated. I give the actors as little information as possible because I want them to react more spontaneously to changing situations, rather than in a predetermined manner.” Hong says that he gathers unfamiliar fragments within an overall framework to create new meaning. The cast’s acting also provides certain fragments for his use. The fragments that he identifies in life involve the familiar as well as the unfamiliar. But simply combining refined fragments will not necessarily create something new. The main character in Hong’s films is always a version of himself. He strives to create new meaning out of unfamiliar fragments of life, while his inner self is the original source of these meanings. Thereafter, the source is the inner self of the audiences. Hong thus determines the principles and rules for his arrangement of fragments. He conceptualizes a film as having a spherical form that allows a viewer to select a perspective of his own. 42 Koreana | Spring 2009

He once described his approach by saying: “I make a film with a spherical form. It is different from a film that serves as a medium to convey a certain message or lesson, in which every element contributes toward its expression. Such a film, I would say, would have a triangular form, with a point at the top. I want my film to integrate numerous contradictions and interpretations so that viewers can adopt a perspective that contributes to their understanding. My film can be used as a means for people to understand themselves. One day, I received an e-mail. This person saw a film of mine and thought it was very sad. But a friend sitting beside her was highly amused. And someone else felt that my film belittled women. Actually, I like that people have different reactions.” Hong is doing with film what Picasso attempted to do with his paintings. Picasso sought to create three-dimensional images to depict all sides of an object, including its backside that could otherwise not be seen. In this way, a viewer would not be restricted by a traditional perspective. For Hong, he seeks to present an all-encompassing portrayal as well. Related to this, his films are typically centered on a love story. Two people in love will tend to face each other, in which case it is not possible to see each other’s backside. But for Hong, it is important to peer into the unseen for a broader understanding.

Outside the Box In recent years, Hong has struggled to maintain his artistic identity while searching for ways to overcome barriers associated with Korea’s film industry, which tended to Whereas most film directors are concerned with resist his non-mainstream thinking. The high praise from the creation of imagery, film critics, which he garnered at the time of his debut, has Hong focuses on an arrangement of countless fragments since subsided. Nevertheless, there are others who have of life experiences in order to convey various thoughts. become ardent supporters of Hong over the years. This He notes: includes actress Go Hyun Jung, a legendary movie star in “If someone else arranged the life incidents from Korea and unabashed fan of Hong, who says she would not a different perspective, a new interpretation hesitate to appear in his films. After taking a 10-year break could be created.” from acting, following her marriage, Go was pleased to revive her cinema career with a role in one of Hong’s films. Go remarked: “Once I felt depressed, so I went to see a movie. All the other films were sold out, but there were still seats for a film by Hong. I enjoyed it. It was about a man and woman, a love story, and it was entertaining, and at the same time made me think. So, then I wanted to see all of his films. Whenever he makes a new film, I would be certain to see it.” Go’s appreciation has come to be shared by a growing number of moviegoers these days. She enjoyed On the Occasion of Remembering the Turning Gate, which received tepid reviews from the critics but was popular at the box office. In 2008, Hong completed two films, a regular-length feature and a short film, which will be shown at this year’s Jeonju International Film Festival. The feature film, You Don’t Even Know, is about a film director and a film-festival organizer. In an interview, Hong explained: “Last year, I would often hear the expression: ‘You don’t even know.’ Somehow this expression stuck in my mind, so I made a film out of it.” His practice of gathering up the fragments of life, from here and there, is what his life is all about. For their roles in You Don’t Even Know, the cast of Go Hyun Jung, Kim Tae Woo, Ha Jung Woo, and Jung Yoo Mee did not accept any compensation for their acting. You Don’t Even Know is likely another variation of an archetypical Hong film, with a story similar to his previous works, related to some kind of spherical form. What might be similar or different can vary according to the perspective of Hong or that of an individual viewer, who can have their own interpretation and understanding. Hong says: “I make a film, but I won’t attach a particular ideology or message. That’s the audience’s part. People can enjoy or learn from what I do with my sphericalform film. It doesn’t actually matter what they do. It doesn’t matter whether they don’t like it or understand its meaning. That’s up to them.”

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artISan

A yundo includes a compass with 24 directions and several concentric circles for geomantic applications. For long, its use has been essential for identifying an auspicious site for a house or grave, in accordance with the principles of geomancy.

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Kim Jong Dae Carves the Order of the Universe onto a Compass The traditional Korean compass, or yundo , is often created with many more functions than simply determining your geographical bearings. An advanced version can thus be used to apply various fundamental concepts of the universe and its natural forces, including the principles of geomancy. Park Hyun Sook Freelance Writer | Joo Byoung-soo Photographer

“I

first learned to make yundo by looking over my uncle’s shoulder. I only really began to actually make my own yundo from 1962, but I have been making them ever since. I am still amazed about how they can contain the principles of the universe and the world’s natural forces. Life is so unpredictable. But a yundo can always help to guide the direction of your life. I don’t pretend to know some mysterious or miraculous way. I just follow the right path. If a way is not right, you should avoid it.”

Legacy of 350 Years For this 76-year-old craftsman, his hands might be calloused from a lifetime dedication to this ancient craft, but he is clearly in his element, steadily working on the myriad tasks that go into the making of an elaborate yundo, such as smoothing out the surface of a wood piece from a jujube tree. Even after 50 years of making yundo, he says that it still excites him when it comes time to position the compass point, one of the final steps. As with any artisan dedicated to a declining craft, Kim Jong Dae, who has been designated Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 110 for his expertise in yundo-making, is motivated by an intense passion and pride of craftsmanship. With a slight grin, he muses: “Time passes by so quickly, doesn’t it? Only two years ago, I had no problem carving these tiny Chinese characters. I had cherished that ability so much, but these days my vision is so weak that I cannot focus clearly enough.

Still, I do the work. For a large-scale yundo, it can take four or five months. In a year, I make about 50 or so different types. After polishing the wood surface, I send the work that requires keen eyesight to my son, who is working as an apprentice in Anyang so that he can become my successor. I don’t feel sorry for myself. Who can complain about the passage of time? After all, I’m also a part of nature.” Looking back, Kim says that he was probably destined to continue the family’s business, following in the footsteps of his uncle and grandfather. Records indicate that the techniques of crafting yundo have been passed down, over the past 350 years, from the Jeon family to the Han and Seo families, and most recently the Kim family. The tradition has been bestowed onto Kim Jong Dae by his grandfather, Kim Gwan Sam, and his uncle, Kim Jung Eui, while his son, Kim Hee Soo (46), is next in line to carry on the family’s calling. Due to his dexterity, while in his mid 20s, Kim Hee Soo had been selected by the family to be the successor of its legacy. Thereafter, he quit his work at the National Agricultural Cooperative Federation to devote his full-time efforts to learning the craft of yundo.

Heungdeok Paecheol Kim’s uncle, Kim Jung Eui, was known far and wide for the extraordinary craftsmanship of his yundo, attracting buyers from such northern areas as Pyeongan-do and Hamgyeong-do, who Spring 2009 | Koreana 45

The 76-year-old craftsman Kim Jong Dae, who has been making yundo for over 50 years, uses wood pieces from a jujube tree that is at least 150 years old.

would wait patiently in his guestroom until their yundo was completed. At that time, a yundo made by his uncle could command a price of 10 seom of rice (1 seom = about 180 liters). People would place an order and then wait for whatever time was necessary for its completion. When Kim first began to make yundo in earnest, there was still considerable demand for handcrafted yundo. “There were always people in our house, from everywhere, including seamen, geomancers, and astronomers. They would use a yundo to track the constellations and to identify auspicious sites for a house or grave. The monks of prominent Buddhist temples, such as Songgwangsa, Geumsansa, and Seonunsa, used a yundo to select propitious locations for a temple site or a member’s residence. In addition to geographical direction, a yundo provides applications related to the principles of yinyang, as well as the Five Elements [陰陽五行], Eight Trigrams [八卦], and Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches [十干十二支]. The number of cheung [circles] determines its various functions. An elaborate yundo can include up to 36 cheung. A basic one-cheung yundo, which indicates the 12 directions, is relatively simple to carve; however, a yundo with 24 cheung requires almost 4,000 characters. The concepts of water circulation and the earth’s various cycles over the past 450 million years can be calculated from a yundo’s cheung.” The area around Kim’s village of Naksan, located in Gochanggun, of Jeollabuk-do Province, was known as Heungdeok in the old days. From over 300 years ago, the area had already earned a reputation for making the country’s finest yundo (at that time called paecheol ), known as “Heungdeok paecheol.” At the base of Mt. Jaeseongsan, to the rear of the village, there is a Turtle Rock, which has been known for its mysterious powers since ancient times. A newly made yundo would be placed in one of the seven cavities of the rock to confirm its accuracy. It is said that a compass made somewhere outside of the Naksan area will not produce a proper reading when placed on the Turtle Rock. There-

fore, people have long said that only a Naksan-made yundo will provide an accurate north-south bearing. This is also probably a reason yundo have been made in Naksan since the Unified Silla period, when geomancy first rose to prominence.

Geomantic Applications 1

A yundo designed specifically for a geomancer is called jinamban, jinamcheol, or nagyung . At the time of the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th century), it was mainly used to identify auspicious sites and for military purposes, while during the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392), the yundo was used in conjunction with astronomical research. During the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), yundo-crafting was overseen by Gwansanggam, a government office responsible for astronomy-related affairs. As for Joseon society, the widespread influence of geomancy was evident from the variety of uses for yundo, including adjustment of a hand-held sundial, while the upper-class carried a seonchu, a small-size, basic version, which would often take the form of an accessory attached to a fan. Meanwhile, women favored myeonggyeongcheol , a kind of yundo-mirror combination, whereas geomancy specialists always carried a highly elaborate yundo. Whereas Kim’s uncle mainly produced flat-surface yundo, along with seonchu and myeonggyeongcheol, Kim Jong Dae has pursued a more artistic yundo that includes a cover engraved with images of sipjangsaeng (10 longevity symbols: sun, mountain, water, stone, cloud, pine tree, mushroom of immortality, turtle, crane, and deer). As for Kim Hee Soo, his son and successor, he is working on a new style of yundo that includes carved images derived from traditional folk paintings and folklore motifs. Every yundo features a directional compass at its center, while an advanced version will have additional concentric circles that are divided into sections by radial lines. At the intersection points, tiny Chinese characters are carved, in a fan-shaped arrangement, to designate the directions, as well as the Eight

1 Upper-class gentlemen of Joseon society would carry a small-sized, basic yundo, often attached to a fan. Kim Jong Dae has pursued a more artistic version that includes decorative elements, like this turtle casing.

2 The crafting of a high-precision yundo involves several

intricate processes, for which some 30 specialized tools and implements are necessary. From the left, tweezers, large doreumsoe, straightedge, two small doreumsoe, chisel, wooden tweezers, and jeonggandae.

Spring 2009 | Koreana 4

“I use the wood from a jujube tree that is at least 150 years old. The wood is supple but durable, making it ideal for carving out detailed characters. I draw a perfect circle, cut it out, and smooth out the surface. From the center, I carve concentric circles, at varying intervals, which are delineated into 360 sections.”

Trigrams, Ten Celestial Stems, and Twelve Terrestrial Branches, in accordance with the principle found in The Book of Changes (周易). Such an elaborate yundo was a prized possession and indispensable instrument of geomancers.

Making a Yundo During the crafting of a yundo, to assure its requisite high precision and durability, the craftsman must focus his full concentration throughout the entire process, from the first step of selecting a suitable piece of wood to the final step of installing the magnetized compass needle, and all the related processes in between. “I use the wood from a jujube tree that is at least 150 years old. The wood is supple but durable, making it ideal for carving out detailed characters. I draw a perfect circle, cut it out, and smooth out the surface. From the center, I carve concentric circles, at varying intervals, which are delineated into sections by radial lines. To make an accurate yundo, the junggan process is crucial, in which the outermost circle is divided into 360 sections, each equal to 1 degree. If this is not done perfectly, the yundo cannot function properly. It won’t give accurate readings.” After completing the junggan process, another daunting challenge awaits—the carving of the Chinese characters. Each character must be individually carved, in proper alignment and without

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a single mistake. Even one minor mistake is enough to ruin a surface, requiring the entire process to be repeated from the first step. For a yundo, east (東), west (西), south (南), and north (北), are designated by jin (震), tae (兌), yi (離), and gam (坎). The intermediate directions of southeast, southwest, northwest, and northeast are indicated by son (巽), gon (坤), geon (乾), and gan (艮) from the Eight Trigrams. The Ten Celestial Stems and four of the Five Elements are also designated: gab-eul (甲乙) for tree (木) and east, byeong-jeong (丙丁) for fire (火) and south, gyeong-sin (庚辛) for gold and west, and yim-gye (壬癸) for water (水) and north. As for the fifth element, mu-gi (戊己) for earth (土), it would normally occupy the center, but is not indicated on a yundo. Because yundo markings are based on the Ten Celestial Stems, Twelve Terrestrial Branches, and Eight Trigrams, Kim’s uncle made him read and understand the principles of The Great Learning (大學) and The Book of Changes, before learning the crafting skills, such as polishing the wood surface. It takes about ten days to carve a yundo with nine cheung, and more than four months for twenty-two cheung. After carving the Chinese characters, ink is applied to the entire surface, and the carved out circles, lines, and characters are highlighted with a white-jade pigment, while the directional markers are colored with a red-sand pigment. In order to fashion a compass needle,

steel must be cut to shape, heated in a coal fire, and hammered into a thin needle. The needle is then placed onto a lodestone, a family treasure passed down over the past 300 years, for about 3 hours in order to be properly magnetized. It is then placed on the compass pivot, made of a copper and tin alloy. The needle will automatically come to rest at a precise north-south bearing. Along with the lodestone, Kim has inherited another family heirloom: about 30 crafting tools, including doldoe (awl), hwalbibi (awl implement), needle tweezers, chisel, doreumsoe (to carve perfect circles), burin, and junggandae (ruler). “The lodestone has to be carefully stored, away from heat and cold, so that it doesn’t lose its magnetic power. The tools have to be maintained in excellent condition, and whenever a steel blade becomes dull, I use a new one. The lodestone and all these old tools of my uncle are my teachers as well as my friends. Just looking at them gives me a sense of comfort. Making a living by making yundo has not been easy. But I think that it was the right choice. A yundo teaches you how to live in the right way. No matter where it might be, a yundo reveals the right direction. Although I have never been rich, I have learned real-life lessons from the yundo.”

1 A piece of wood is selected from a jujube tree that is at least 150 years old. It is cut into a perfect circle and then the surface is smoothed out.

2 From the center, concentric circles are carved at varying intervals. 3 The outermost circle is divided into 360 sections, each equal to 1 degree, a critical process for assuring a yundo’s high-precision readings.

4 When carving the Chinese characters, even one minor mistake is enough to ruin a surface, requiring the entire process to be repeated from the first step.

5 Steel must be cut to shape, heated in a coal fire, and hammered into a thin needle. To be magnetized, the needle is placed onto a lodestone, like this family treasure that has been passed down over the past 300 years.

6 The magnetized needle, after being positioned on the compass pivot, which is made of a copper and tin alloy, will automatically indicate a north-south bearing.

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MaSterPIeCeS

n India, when Buddhist monks ventured about, the few belongings that they might carry along included a change of clothing and a kind of water container. Known in Sanskrit as kundika, this vessel originated in India, and eventually made its way to China, where the name was transliterated into junchi (軍持), or junzhijia (軍雉迦). Initially, the kundika was an everyday article of Buddhist monks, but it later became a ritual vessel for serving pure water to the Buddha, as part of religious ceremonies. As for a Buddha or Bodhisattva image in a Buddhist painting, when depicted with a kundika, this was meant to symbolize their role as a savior and sense of compassion for humankind. Related to this, images of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara might show him carrying a kundika that was said to contain amrita, or nectar of immortality, which was used to alleviate the suffering of the masses.

Basic Characteristics Early types of kundika are described in various ancient documents. For example, in Accounts of Buddhism Sent from the South Seas (南海奇歸內法傳), written by the Chinese monk Yi Jing, who journeyed around India in the sixth century, he described a kundika as follows: “Above a long neck rises a slender tube, the height of two fingers, that resembles a copper chopstick. Attached to the shoulder is a spout as large as a copper coin and as high as two-thirds of a finger. Lest insects or dirt enter the bottle, the two

openings are covered with a cap or bamboo sliver, or scrap of fabric. The bottle can hold about 2 doe (3.6 liters) of water.” Based on this account, unlike an ordinary water bottle or container, a kundika is characterized by its long tube-like neck and separate spout for filling it with water. A kundika was usually made of bronze or porcelain, while in certain instances gold or silver might be used. During the Goryeo Dynasty, which adopted Buddhism as the state religion, kundika vessels, along with incense burners, were essential articles for religious rituals, and thus needed to be available in large quantities. When the kundika was transmitted to Korea, its shape remained similar to the Indian prototype. The Chinese envoy Xu Jing, who visited Goryeo in 1123, during the reign of King Injong, noted in the Illustrated Accounts of Goryeo that a kundika was: “Round around the belly with a short spout. Another spout at the top of the bottle is long with a joint in the middle. Above a diskshaped joint is a slender tube that looks like a woman’s hairpin or a writing brush.” The records also state: “Common people used the bottles in daily life,” indicating that the kundika was used as an everyday household item, aside from its role as a ritual vessel for holding pure water on the Buddhist altar. In addition, certain kundika were decorated with exquisite inlaid patterns, which were also commonly applied to Goryeo celadon wares, suggesting that finely

Treasure of Goryeo Metalwork:

Kundika with Inlaid Design Kundika is a kind of water container that has been closely associated with Buddhism. This bronze kundika masterpiece of the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392), designated National Treasure No. 92, reflects the brilliance of the metal craft culture of that period with its graceful form and delicate inlaid design. Choi Eung Chon Professor of Art History, Graduate School, Dongguk University Photographs National Museum of Korea

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crafted versions had been created as objects of art for the royal family and aristocratic class. The kundika’s significance to Buddhism is evident from its common usage in the ritual practices of Buddhists in China, Korea, and Japan. In China and Japan, earlier forms of metal kundika, produced in the seventh and eighth centuries, are found in large numbers. In Korea, however, there is only one known kundika made with bronze, recovered from Mt. Busosan, in Buyeo, which dates back to the late Unified Silla period. The only other similar artifact is a gilt-bronze sarira container, produced in 751, that had been enshrined in a stone pagoda of Galhangsaji Temple. Being similar in overall style but with differing details, it can give you a rough idea about the appearance of kundika from the early Unified Silla period. Most of the existing kundikas in Korea, which were produced during the Goryeo Dynasty, are made of metal, porcelain, or earthenware. The 10th-century earthenware kundika, discovered in Samcheok, Gangwon-do Province, includes a shorter tube above the neck and a longer spout on the shoulder, which is characteristic of an early-Goryeo kundika. However, more typically, a Goryeo kundika features an oval body, long neck, disk-shaped stopper, long mouth above, and short hourglass-shaped spout on the shoulder, similar to Xu Jing’s account. Originally, the spout on the body was used to fill the body with water, while the long tube at the top was intended to pour out the water. Over time, however, the functions became interchange-

able. Various Goryeo kundika are decorated with tranquil waterside landscapes as well as patterns of clouds, cranes, dragons, leaves, or ferns, with inlaid silver, in which fine strands of twisted silver are laid into the lines engraved on the container’s surface.

Inlaid Design Entitled “Bronze Kundika with Silver-Inlaid Willows and Aquatic Birds,” this kundika is housed at the National Museum of Korea. Acclaimed for its graceful form and intricate inlaid design, this is the only kundika to be designated a National Treasure of Korea. Its typical characteristics include the elegantly flowing lines of its body, a long slender neck, and a squat spout, attached to the midsection. The front of the container is coated with a fine, green tarnish, which seems to have been intentionally applied, while the inlaid silver has been blackened due to exposure. The landscape scenery, somewhat obscured by the green tarnish, creates a sense of heightened refinement, which is quietly elegant rather than elaborately ornate. The inlaid design features islands with dense growths of reeds and water plants, flanked by two weeping willow trees, rooted in a slightly sloping surface. Above, there are ducks in flight, while in the water, ducks are gliding along the surface, nearby a fisherman in a boat. In the distance, there is a low-lying hill, along with tiny geese flying in the sky in the far background. A motif of aquatic birds

As a product of the Goryeo Dynasty, this kundika features a rounded body and long neck topped with a disk-shaped joint, to which a slender spout is attached. Another spout on the body is used to fill the container with water. The delicate inlaid design features a waterside scene of birds frolicking among a thick growth of reeds under the drooping branches of a weeping willow tree. Spring 2009 | Koreana 51

The disk-shaped joint between the neck and spout is covered with a round plate decorated with an exquisite cut-out pattern, enhancing its elegant refinement. This masterpiece well reflects the consummate craftsmanship and attention to detail that went into its creation.

The body of this kundika is decorated with an elegant inlaid design that features an idyllic waterside scene of ducks frolicking among a thick growth of reeds and lotus flowers, under the drooping branches of a weeping willow tree, much like how Goryeo people might envision a paradise land of the next world.

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and plants among willow trees, together with lotus flowers and reeds at times, is commonly found on the porcelain ware and incense burners produced during the Goryeo era. The typical waterside scenes depicted on a kundika consisted of water plants, such as iris, cattail, willow, and reed thickets, as well as birds such as the duck, goose, and white heron. Because waterside landscapes of a similar style are found in ancient tomb murals of China’s Liao Dynasty, there are those who suggest that the kundika designs originated from the Chinese murals. However, a waterside landscape was not a widely used motif in China, but this theme was a more fundamental aspect of Goryeo’s artistic and cultural works. During the 11th and 12th centuries of the Goryeo period, waterscape scenes reached a peak of popularity, which coincided with the time when Zen Buddhism flourished among Goryeo society. Accordingly, it is believed that this motif is a representation of the pursuits of Zen Buddhists to attain a tranquil state of mind, as well as their vision of a land of paradise in the next life. In addition, the willow trees, which are portrayed as a central feature in the waterside scenes, are said to be symbols associated with the worship of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, which had been in vogue at that time. It is possible that the waterside scenes of birds frolicking freely under the drooping branches of lush willow trees were meant to symbolize an abode of the Bodhisattva of Mercy. In fact, depictions of Boddhisattva would typically show him carrying a kundika with a willow twig in its spout. Due to beliefs about its ability to cure disease and keep away evil spirits, a willow branch is often held by Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara in Goryeo Dynasty Buddhist paintings. The design on this kundika depicts weeping willow trees that are indigenous to Korea. Although Chinese tomb murals might have been the original source of waterscape motifs, it was the artisans of Goryeo that adapted this theme into something uniquely Korean.

Realistic Rendering Initially, the kundika’s inlaid landscape might appear to be a basic rendering of scenic images; however, a closer look reveals the aesthetic application of blank space, together with the use of abstraction and contrast. For example, the objects in the distance are depicted in a smaller scale to emphasize a sense of perspective. Around the shoulder and the lower base of the container, the areas are decorated with geometric cloud patterns, giving it a noticeably refined and distinctive appearance. The spout attached to the body is decorated with patterns of lotus flowers and geometric leaves, while the slender neck includes a smattering of cloud patterns. The tube above the neck is engraved with a leaf pattern. The wide round top of the neck is covered with a cut-out silver disk, adding an element of brilliance to its graceful refinement. The sublime elegance of this kundika, the result of consummate Goryeo craftsmanship, makes it well deserving of its National Treasure designation. Moreover, it is reasonable to conclude this masterpiece was produced in the early 12th century, the highpoint of Goryeo’s metal craft, based on its characteristic features: a well-balanced body with a tube of modest length and aesthetic rendering of the inlaid landscape, which provides a counterpoint to the exquisite cut-out silver disk on the top of the neck. Leading up to the collapse of the Goryeo Dynasty, there was a dramatic shift in the design of kundika. With an overly lengthy tube, smaller body, and formulaic, ornate decoration, the kunidka lost its original beauty of proportion and decorative elegance of the previous generation. By the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), the typical kundika features had essentially disappeared. The end result was a kind of hybrid of a kundika and regular water vessel, or a kettle with a long spout and handle. With the traditional kundika having met its demise, this masterpiece is an even more valuable treasure.

Spring 2009 | Koreana 53

art revIew

he World Festival of National Theaters (WFNT), a one of its kind event organized by Korea, was successfully staged from September 5 through October 30, 2008. Following its praiseworthy debut in 2007, the festival organizers sought to present a program that featured representative modern works of the invited theater groups, in contrast to the inaugural event, which in large part was highlighted by classical works.

Korea Stages World Festival of National Theaters

Global Representation

For the second session of this performing arts extravaganza, national theater groups from Norway, France, China, Moldova, Thailand, and Russia were invited to present their works in the official program for overseas groups, in conjunction with performances by groups from Mongolia and Germany as part of a special section. The National Drama Company of Korea, National Dance Company of Korea, National Changgeuk Company of Korea, and the National Orchestra of Korea, which are all affiliated with the The World Festival of National Theaters in Korea is a unique event that National Theater of Korea, participated in invites premier theater groups to stage the representative works of the official program with representative their respective country. In 2008, the festival featured theater groups from repertoires. To further enrich the festival program, various works produced in Norway, France, China, Moldova, Thailand, Russia, Mongolia, and Germany. Korea, which had earned acclaim abroad, Lim Sang Woo Producer for Planning and Programming, The National Theater of Korea were also presented. As a result, the Photographs The National Theater of Korea 2008 festival attracted considerably more attention than that of the previous year. During the preparations for the initial festival in 2007, the organizers were most pleased to receive a confirmation from the National Theater of Greece of its acceptance to participate in the World Festival of National Theaters. In part, this message stated: “We, the National Theater of Greece, have been touring all over the world for a long time, but we have never seen a festival with such a distinctive program, representing national theaters from all over the world, as you are planning. Undoubtedly, we would be pleased to participate in such a unique festival.” At that time, as with any new project of this scale, the organizers were generally struggling to find their way, with matters proceeding in a rather haphazard manner. As such, this message gave us a much-needed boost of confidence that we were moving in the right direction, along with assuring us of the importance of having a unique and well-defined theme. Eventually, the 2007 festival featured performing groups from Greece, England, Italy, Turkey, India, China, Switzerland, and Korea, over a period of two months, making it the largest-ever theater event staged in Korea.

The Three Sisters Almost 20 years ago, when the Bolshoi Ballet from Russia visited Korea in March 1990, it could be said that its performance in Seoul came as a shock to Korea’s relatively insular theater community. In May that same year, Moscow dispatched the State Academic Maly Theater of Russia to Seoul to present The Cherry 54 Koreana | Spring 2009

The Three Sisters performed by the State Academic Maly Theater of Russia. Yuri Solomin, the groupâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s acclaimed artistic director, presented this classic play as the festivalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s opening performance.

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People might not think of Korea as a world-class cultural center, but it could emerge as a home of global culture. These days, the World Festival of National Theaters, along with the National Theater of Korea, is doing its part to move in this direction.

Orchard , by Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (1860-1904), for Korean audiences still abuzz over the Bolshoi Ballet. The audience here, which might have seen an adaptation of Chekhov’s The Seagull performed by a Korean theater group, had longed earnestly to view a more authentic staging of a Chekhov work. Thus, the Maly Theater’s performance in Seoul provided such an opportunity. Thereafter, Korea and Russia normalized diplomatic relations, and in September 2008, just over 18 years since its previous appearance, the Maly Theater, with Yuri Solomin as its artistic director, returned to Korea to stage its new production. This time, it presented a new production of The Three Sisters, a theater classic even more popular than The Cherry Orchard, as the festival’s opening performance. Yuri Solomin, perhaps Russia’s most renowned theatrical figure, had been bestowed the title of “People’s Actor of the USSR,” along with serving as the Russian Minister of Culture (1990-1992). He presented a truly masterful performance of a modern realistic drama through his interpretation of Chekhov’s play script and the group’s superbly talented performers. The Maly Theater is the foremost theater company in Russia, which includes 120 stage actors and more than 700 staff members, and ranks as one of the three most accomplished theater companies in the world, along with the Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC) and Comédie-Française.

Peer Gynt A Harley-Davidson motorcycle and a car with its hood open gun their engines to a thunderous roar as the curtain rises for the play’s second act. Then, amid the familiar melody of Solveig’s Song, the audience is soon immersed in a state of blissfulness, soothed by the lyrical singing. Indeed, such an original performance of Ibsen’s Peer Gynt is a rich experience that should be fully savored. Anton Chekhov completed The Cherry Orchard in 1903, and then died a year later. Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906), who was a contemporary of Chekhov and rose to prominence in Norway and beyond with his now-classic works such as Ghosts and A Doll’s House , has been referred to as the “No. 1 playwright of modern drama” and “father of modern drama.” Peer Gynt , regarded by many as Ibsen’s most creative work, demonstrates the futility of material desires by showing how the pursuit of wealth and power can lead to the ruin of modern society. Peer Gynt, the main character, eventually dies in the arms of his lover Solveig, now a gray-haired elderly woman. Edvard Grieg, a distinguished composer of Norway, composed the musical score.

1~2 Peer Gynt performed by the New Theater of Oslo. Because this work is usually performed at an outdoor venue, various adjustments were necessary for its staging in the Main Hall of the National Theater of Korea.

3~4 National Theater of Odéon, a well-known French comic theater group, 1 3 staged The Young Girl, the Devil & the Mill and Water of Life. 56 Koreana | Spring 2009

Spring 2009 | Koreana 5

Since 1967, the Peer Gynt Festival Planning Committee, an affiliate of Norway’s national cultural institute, has annually staged some 30 events in 15 villages of Gudbrandsdalen, an area still rich in Norwegian tradition. The highlight of the festival, which includes a variety of theater, concert, and cultural arts events, is the Peer Gynt performance that is presented on an outdoor stage at Lake Gala. For the WFNT, an invitation was extended to the New Theater of Oslo, for the presentation of its Peer Gynt production under the direction of Svein Sturla Hungnes, who also played the role of Peer Gynt. This work, usually performed at an outdoor venue, was adjusted for its staging at the Main Hall of the National Theater of Korea. Among Ibsen’s various works, Peer Gynt is the largest in scale. The performance in Korea thus featured an extensive cast of 74 performers: 44 actors and musicians from Norway, and 30 chorus singers from Korea, personally selected by the director Hungnes.

National Theater of Odéon, France As a center of culture, there are five national theaters in France. The National Theater of Odéon, also known as Theater Europe, allocates half of a year to the staging of European productions, while spending the other six months on collaborative projects or performing abroad. For its appearance at the WFNT, it prepared two plays: The Young Girl, the Devil & the Mill (1992), and Water of Life (1999), both adaptations under the direction of Olivier Fy. The original stories are part of the collection of fairytales of the Brothers Grimm, which also includes “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs,” “Hansel and Gretel,” and “Sleeping Beauty.” As a reflection of Olivier Fy’s consummate stage talent, the works include humorous dialogue and witty lyrics, while leading the audience into a world of fanciful imagination and lifting their spirits with a “happily ever after” ending. A kind of French comic play, complete with special effects and zany fanfare, the performance provided an unfamiliar yet amusing form of entertainment, which had many in the audience laughing aloud.

Zhang Yimou China’s foremost film director, Zhang Yimou, brought the 170-member National Ballet Company of China to the WFNT for the presentation of Raise the Red Lantern, whose famous title is enough to arouse excitement. Although a debut performance of

1 Zhang Yimou’s Raise the Red Lantern opened with a sea of brilliant red created by a seemingly countless number of red lanterns. The use of color to create a visual spectacle is a longstanding tradition of Chinese theater.

2 To celebrate the 50th anniversary of the establishment of Korea-Thailand diplomatic relations, the Bangkok Symphony Orchestra rendered a lyrical performance of original contemporary works. 58 Koreana | Spring 2009

this work in Korea, Zhang Yimou was already well known here for his creation of the epic spectacles for ceremonies of the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games. As a result of his reputation as a globally acclaimed artist of film and grand opera, the Zhang Yimou name created a noticeable stir, with even those with little interest in ballet looking forward to see how his film artistry could be applied to a ballet work. Raise the Red Lantern opened to a sea of brilliant red created by a seemingly countless number of red lanterns. The Peking Opera, Shadow Play, and other pageantry, along with the live music of a 70-member orchestra enthralled the audience. While the aesthetic of color is a longstanding tradition of Chinese theater, it was artistically blended with the Western stage culture of ballet to create a performance of exceptional splendor, as might be expected of Zhang Yimou. As the closing performance of the 2008 World Festival of National Theaters, Raise the Red Lantern provided a fitting conclusion to this two-month event, along with enhancing its international standing.

Cultural Diplomacy In 2008, Korea and Thailand celebrated the 50th anniversary of their establishment of diplomatic relations. And among the various celebrations to mark this milestone, the performance of the Bangkok Symphony Orchestra in Seoul was especially noteworthy. With a repertory that included several compositions by King Bhumibol Adulyadej, the melodious orchestral performance, under conductor Usini Pramo, visibly impressed the audience, whose eyes were opened to this little known aspect of Thai musical culture. The World Festival of National Theaters strives to promote cultural diplomacy through the development of global networks, among organizations and individuals, along with facilitating cross-border cultural exchange. Thanks to this event, audiences in Korea have a valuable opportunity to experience top-echelon performances by theater groups from around the world, along with enhancing their appreciation of cultural diversity. Plans for the 2009 festival include the invitation of performing groups from the U.K., Spain, France, the Philippines, and Brazil. A new feature will be the selection of a guest country of honor for the event, and a broad grouping of invited countries based on their cultural and cooperative relations. As compared to such world-renowned festivals as the Edinburgh Festival and the Avignon Festival, Koreaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s World Festival of National Theaters is still in its infancy; however, there are high expectations for its rapid development into a mainstay of international culture. People might not think of Korea as a world-class cultural center, but it could emerge as a home of global culture. These days, the World Festival of National Theaters, along with the National Theater of Korea, is doing its part to move in this direction.

Spring 2009 | Koreana 5

DISCoverInG Korea

Vladimir Saveliev, of Russia, Now Calls Korea His Home Vladimir Saveliev, a specialist in 3D-image technology, has recently acquired Korean citizenship. With a faith in Buddhism helping to guide his life’s pursuits, this Russian-Korean scientist intends to dedicate his career to the development of world-leading 3D technology in his adopted homeland. Lee Soo Jin Freelance Writer | Ahn Hong-beom Photographer

ussian-born scientist Vladimir Saveliev 56, has recently become a Korean citizen, as evidenced by his newly issued passport of the Republic of Korea. Now, when he travels abroad, it is with his Korean passport, which allows him, upon his return, to stand in the immigration line for Korean nationals. Indeed, he is proud to be a Korean, in regard to his legal status as well as his personal sentiments. As for Russia, where he was a successful scientist for more than 20 years, it remains one of the world’s foremost scientific powers. Nevertheless, after spending time in Korea, he decided to remain here permanently. What factors led him to make this decision, even though he had to give up his Russian citizenship, since Korea does not allow dual citizenship? “It was for entirely professional reasons that I came to Korea eight years ago. I wanted to conduct my research in a more favorable environment. Russia is a leader in basic sciences, but Korea excels in applied science. My work involves the application of 3D imagery to consumer devices, and since Korea has such a wealth of related resources, I thought I could expand the scope of my research here.” The number of naturalized Koreans exceeded 10,000 in 2007. Foreigners can become a Korean citizen through marriage to a Korean national or by passing the Naturalization Aptitude Test. In the case of Saveliev, after residing in Korea for at least five years, he was eligible to take a written test to acquire Korean citizenship.

1~2 Vladimir Saveliev works as a senior research engineer at the Whole Image Lab of the Hanyang University Research Institute of Electrical and Computer Engineering where he focuses on the development of commercial applications for 3D imagery.

60 Koreana | Spring 2009

Currently, Saveliev works as a senior research engineer at the Whole Image Lab of the Hanyang University Research Institute of Electrical and Computer Engineering. His research efforts focus on the application of life-like 3D imagery to various commercial products for consumers. As the home of several world-class manufacturers of 3D-display devices, Korea is an ideal market for the utilization of his technical expertise. In particular, over the past five years, his research efforts have started to bear fruit in conjunction with a Hanyang University-Samsung Electronics joint project, which seeks to develop a “high reality” 3D TV display.

Turning Point After graduating from Novosibirsk State University in Russia, with a major in Physics and Applied Mathematics, Saveliev spent the next 20 years working as a research scientist, along with lecturing at his former school from time to time. From 1976-2000, he worked at the Institute of Automation and Electrometry (IA&E), the Siberian Branch of Russia’s Academy of Science in Akademgorodok. Known as the “Silicon Valley of Siberia,” Akademgorodok is a city of science and education, located about 30 kilometers south of NovoAs the home of several world-class manufacturers of 3D-display devices, sibirsk. The most notable Korea is an ideal market for the utilization of Saveliev’s technical expertise. figures in science and matheIn particular, over the past five years, his research efforts have started to matics, from all over the Rusbear fruit in conjunction with a Hanyang University-Samsung Electronics sian Federation, would come joint project, which seeks to develop a “high reality” 3D TV display. to this city to study or work at its universities and numerous research institutes, which formed a center of Russia’s highly advanced scientific technology. In 1999, a key turning point in the direction of Saveliev’s life occurred at an international academic conference held in Moscow, where he met Son Jeong-yeong, then a researcher at the Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), and currently a professor at Daegu University. Impressed by Saveliev’s capability, in 2000, Son convinced KIST to extend an invitation to the Russian scientist in order to tap into the commercial potential of his 3D expertise. And so began the life of Saveliev in Korea, where he and Son remain close friends and colleagues. The scenery of Korea that he viewed from the plane window was noticeably different from that of Siberia. He was immediately attracted to its natural landscape with brownish treetops forming geometric shapes on the snow-covered mountains that surrounded welcoming clusters of red and green rooftops. Visually, this was Saveliev’s first experience with Korea; however, he recalls a previous encounter with Korean culture, when he was introduced to Korean food in Kazakhstan, where an active community of ethnic Koreans still remains, after being relocated to Central Asia by the Soviet Union authorities. He instantly fell in love with Korean food, and still vividly remembers his intense gastronomic pleasure, although he now realizes the food there was a kind of local variation of Korean food. In Korea, his favorite dishes include haemultang (seafood stew), jukkumi bokkeum (pan-broiled baby squid), heukdwaeji galbi (barbecued pork ribs) and pogi (Chinese cabbage) kimchi. Interestingly, his Russian wife favors Korean snack foods, such as twigim (fried vegetables), sundae (Korean-style sausage), and garakguksu (noodle soup).

Buddhism’s Guidance Of particular note, Saveliev’s time in Korea led to his introduction to Buddhism, which he says has aroused his inner being. He had not been affiliated with any specific religion until one day when he happened to wander into a Buddhist temple by chance. At the sight of monks chanting sutras and sitting in quiet meditation, he suddenly found his mind being filled with endless questions about worldly existence. Although he could not understand a word of the sutras being chanted, the monotone intonations gave him a sense of peacefulness. To Saveliv, it was a profound experience. “Even when using a common language, how fully do we actually communicate? But, in the temple, I realized that a new dimension of communication was possible if you open your mind and seek to understand each other, even if we have different languages. Language does not matter. And I’ve experienced this miracle in communication many times over.” Buddhism has thus enabled Saveliev to settle into Korea on a spiritual level. Whenever he had free time, he would make his way to Jeongtosa Temple on Mt. Cheonggyesan, where he received the Buddhist name “Cheonggo” from the chief monk Bogwan. 62 Koreana | Spring 2009

Saveliev credits his faith in Buddhism for providing him with “clarity of mind to focus all my energy on the question at hand.”

“When I chant a sutra, I find that my mind becomes clear and calm. Since my research is a process of continuously dealing with questions and solving problems, clarity of mind gives me the ability to focus all my energy on the question at hand.” Buddhism has influenced his inner self as well. He says that life is like a long journey that you travel while bearing burdens on your shoulders; however, with an enlightened mind you can change your attitude toward life’s hardships. You cannot avoid bearing your share of difficulty, but through the acceptance of a burden you can lessen its weight. That is one of the lessons that Buddhism has taught him. Saveliev marvels at the dramatic changes that he has witnessed in Korea over the past eight years. The subway map is constantly expanding as new lines are added every year or so, while a huge apartment complex might appear out of nowhere. However, rather than the urban development, it is the natural scenery of Korea that impresses him more deeply. In Gwangju, Gyeonggi-do Province, where he lives with his wife Elena, they are surrounded by graceful scenery, which helps him to detect subtle seasonal changes throughout the year. Saveliev dreams of a time when he can be joined in Korea with all his children, who currently reside in Russia, Australia, Hungary, and Germany. As for the unfolding of life as a Korean citizen, he looks forward to attaining noteworthy professional goals: “I hope to contribute to Korea’s development of world-leading technology in 3D-image devices, and I also would like to teach engineering students so that I can share my knowledge in this field.” In addition, he admits to having a personal desire to learn how to play the traditional Korean drum janggu (hourglass-shaped drum), which brings a smile to his face as he wonders about if the residents of his apartment building, not to mention his wife, might tolerate such an incessant drum-thumping.

Spring 2009 | Koreana 63

on tHe GloBal StaGe

Lee Bul

Naturally Provokes a Sense of Unease The works of internationally acclaimed installation artist Lee Bul are being featured as part of the Mobile Art Chanel Contemporary Art Container exhibition, which is touring Hong Kong, Tokyo, New York, London, Moscow, and Paris, from February 2008 through February 2010. Chung Joon Mo Art Critic, Former Chief Curator of the National Museum of Contemporary Art, Korea Photographs PKM Trinity Gallery

64 Koreana | Spring 2009

f life were a voyage, how many people might I be able to encounter and get to know, and how many places could I visit along the way? These are the kind of questions that come to my mind whenever I gaze upon a Lee Bul’s work. The reason for this is that her works lead me to look beyond the physical objects on display.

Unfamiliar Companionship Starting with performances and then constructing a theatrical and narrative space through various installation works, such as a huge construction of handmade advertisement balloons, a rotting fish covered with glitter, disabled cyborgs with damaged appendages, entwined structures and mirrors, Lee Bul strives to express her views of femininity, life, reality, self, language, and existence. The various scenes appear to be unrelated to each other on the surface, or they can be expressions uttered in the process of pursuing an ideal, as if that of a conventional artist. However, based on a careful examination of the entirety of Lee Bul’s works, they can be better understood as a well-constructed novel, or a multi-volume series, rather than as individual short stories. Therefore, interpreting her works can be discomforting at times, as though you are unable to move forward, stuck in place, despite still having a long way to go. Life is full of pressure due to suppressed desire, hidden faith, ambivalence and antithesis that can be found within each individual. Thus, her recent works are disquieting as well as intriguing, like a stranger sitting in the next seat on an overnight train trip, an inconvenient companion upon whom you are somehow dependent. Our lives and experiences make up a miniscule part of the greater world, but our arrogance leads us to believe that we are the all and everything, enabling us to determine, define, and judge the world. Lee Bul’s works are like the tinder that kindles a fire, of our accumulated doubts about life, which when combined with a worldly passion provides motivation for you to continue onward.

Disabled Cyborgs In the 1980s, Lee Bul’s art created a sensational splash that roiled Korea’s dogmatic art community. Her provocative performances shocked the public, unleashing a flurry of questions upon a speechless art community. Hanging upside down while nude, wearing a white wedding dress and wiping her butt with newspaper, and performing a fan dance in traditional Korean attire but as a pregnant woman with a gas mask on her face, she has provoked the suppressed self of each viewer and opened their eyes to a fresh sense of liberation. A series of Lee’s works spurred critics to categorize her as a “feminist artist.” But as an advocate who sought to liberate women from the constraints of patriarchal society and culture, it is short-sighted to simply label her as a “feminist.” Actually, she spews venom on any manner of irrationality, in regard to longstanding traditions, societal influences, or everyday life practices. For Lee Bul, the body is a vital narrator in her continuously evolving work. The body is a source of thought and embodiment of the mind. With life being not the one we live but the one we imagine, for Lee, the body is another object and self. She has thus discovered a new existential meaning of body, which is manifested in the prominent use of cyborgs in her works. For the masses, a heroic cyborg is capable of valiantly defending the Earth as well as rescuing anyone in serious peril. The cyborgs in Lee Bul’s works, however, are disabled. In a defective state, it should be discarded and replaced with a new one. Her cyborg is

1 Lee Bul’s works, which are being shown in an exhibition that will tour Europe, the United States, and Asia, reveal an ongoing evolution in her artistic development. (Photograph:Rhee Jae-yong)

2~3 Crystal objects and aluminum netting glitter brilliantly like a chandelier, as part of Lee Bul’s “On Every New Shadow” solo exhibition at Fondation Cartier pour l’art contemporain, 2007. (Photograph: Patrick Gries. Fondation Cartier pour l’art contemporain)

Spring 2009 | Koreana 65

a remnant of the perfect original. But does it have to be set aside because of a missing part? Can the parts exist only as parts of the perfect whole? Should you simply give up if the body is handicapped? Does the cyborg, which hurtled itself through space so heroically to fend off invaders of the Earth, now have to be abandoned because it is disabled? One becomes an adult through a growing distance from the memories and emotions of childhood, as people might say, but can the cyborg, with damaged body parts, symbolize the maturation process of a child into an adult, and thereby symbolize the lives of people? In this sense, the body is another part of our existence and its present state of being.

Fateful Companion The body is a companion of the mind albeit an uneasy one. In her later works, Lee Bul’s cyborg evolves into a kind of karaoke room, a place where an individual, enclosed and alone, sings to oneself or to forget oneself. Karaoke has since become a popular amusement and entertainment for people around the world. Very rarely do people visit a karaoke place alone; but even with a group, you sing alone. Indifferent to whoever might be singing, the others are occupied with their own doings. Thus, karaoke is where you are together with others but you enjoy yourself individually. The karaoke that she made at first was a capsule for a single person, even though such a karaoke does not exist in reality. But the reality of karaoke is more like her version. Also, it is not very different from 66 Koreana | Spring 2009

1 The cyborg in Lee Bul’s works is no longer a heroic defender of the Earth, but a disabled figure dangling from the ceiling. “Cyborg W1-W4,” 1998. Installation, Venice Biennale, 1999. (Photograph: Rhee Jae-yong)

2 Performing a fan dance in traditional Korean attire with a gas mask on her face, Lee Bul will push the envelope to arouse the audience’s self-understanding. (Photograph: Artoilet installation, 1989)

everyday life, in which neighbors and friends might get together but remain separate, like body and mind. Unfamiliar space can arouse curiosity due to its unfamiliarity. But it can be disconcerting as well. It is a space of freedom because you are alone and do not have to be concerned about others, while its closeness and seclusion can give you a sense of ease. In this space, you can experience “apprehension and curiosity” or “loneliness and security of being alone” at the same time. In the unrestrained state of this capsule, human existence is unstable as a result of emotional states that shift between a sense of freedom from everyday life and an apprehension of having such freedom. Even if you start with a new song, the unstable coexistence of these emotions will remain.

Body Without Organs

Lee Bul’s recent works express an unstable companionship of maximized form through the totality of a complex and organic nexus. It is as if an imposing and heroic cyborg and robot have been integrated, by a command of “Unite!” in order to unleash an unimaginable power. By conveying such chaotic and contradictory messages in a recent installation, with mirrors reflecting a hydra with heads entangled like the legs of an octopus, she causes the self and its other self, the cyborg, to disappear. Viewers may experience confusion, losing themselves for a moment in the simultaneous familiarity and unfamiliarity of public space. And they then find themselves faced with other constructions reflected in the mirror, but the images are incomprehensible. In more recent works, Lee Bul has evoked a situation in which the self disappears and only a sense of the self remains. The theatrical absurdity of human existence, portrayed in a coexistence of incongruous things, which are lascivious, blunt, and garbed with decorative embellishment, highlights the extent of our instability. In a space of modernity, in which the architecture involves only a framework, without a body, and only childish and repetitive decoration remains, people might meet or encounter each other, or otherwise miss each other. In fact, although they exist in the same space, they miss each other in most instances. And then they end up at a distance from each other, connected only through their eyesight and lingering traces. Lee Bul compels viewers to gaze at a space into which they cannot reach behind the glass, or she brings history, especially Korea’s modern history, into her works. Her recent works, larger in scale and deeper in content, emphasizes narrative messages. With space being at the center of a story, and various episodes making up a story, Lee Bul’s works incorporate the architecture of modern times along with its history. However, any idealistic architecture is simply a device and instrument. The props of glass marbles, crystal jewelry, and metallic netting, which are fascinating as well as foreboding, serve as hints for the inference and imagination of historical facts. But these props do not reveal any specific clues, so the viewers are free to place themselves into the center of the narrative and adopt their own interpretation. As such, with the underlying essence of Lee Bul’s work being the existence of a theatrical situation, her art is more about the viewer than herself. Through her deference, the audience can view themselves. That is the artistry of Lee Bul. Accordingly, they have to grow accustomed to the unfamiliarity and experience a “body without organs,” like accepting a fate of living together, in spite of any inconvenience. We thus look forward to the continuing evolution of Lee Bul, whose thought-provoking works are part of an exhibition touring the EU, the United States, and Asia. Spring 2009 | Koreana 6

on tHe roaD

Mt. Maisan is named for its twin Ammai and Sutmai peaks, which are said to resemble a pair of horse ears from afar. They are also known as “Mast Peaks” in the spring, when the peaks look like a ship’s masts rising above a sea of mist. 68 Koreana | Spring 2009

Jinan Somewhere Well Off the Beaten Path Jinan lies between the Noryang and the Sobaek mountain ranges, nearby the source of the Seomjingang River and the uppermost reaches of the Geumgang River. Of note, Jinan is the center of falconry in Korea, and home of the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foremost falconers. Lee Yong-han Poet Ahn Hong-beom Photographer

Spring 2009 | Koreana 6

1 Buddha statue at Geumdangsa Temple 2 The slopes of Mt. Maisan are dotted with natural caves, in which hikers will stack up stones to form small towers.

3 Ammai Peak can be seen from Hwaam Cave, about halfway up Sunmai Peak, from where a mountain spring flows.

“A

n inexhaustible source” is used in East Asian Buddhism to express the vast and inexhaustible nature of virtue, and is also a metaphor for describing a quality of boundless vastness. This could also be a fitting description of the areas of Muju, Jinan, and Jangsu, in Jeollabuk-do Province. The Jinan area is such a vast wilderness that you can easily lose your way, along with being distracted by one scene after another of gorgeous landscape. Jinan’s natural wonders are so boundless that they must have come from some kind of an inexhaustible source.

Horse Ears Mountain

0 Koreana | Spring 2009

Jinan’s landmark is Mt. Maisan, which is named “horse ears” because of the way the mountain’s twin peaks resemble the upright ears of a horse. But back in the Goryeo period it was known as Yongchulsan, and during the Silla period it was called Seodasan, and then in the early Joseon era it was named Sokgeumsan. Its

two peaks include the 686-meter Ammai Peak, or “female horse ear peak,” and the 680-meter Sunmai Peak, or “male horse ear peak.” In addition, the two peaks go by different names depending on the season: “Horse Ear Peaks” in autumn; “Mast Peaks” (Dotdaebong) in spring, when the peaks are surrounded by heavy fog; “Dragon Horn Peaks” (Yonggakbong) in summer; and, “Writing Brush Peaks” (Munpilbong) in winter. The descriptions “masterpiece of nature” and “handiwork of the gods” attest to its majestic splendor. There is a legend about the two peaks that tells the story of a god and a goddess, who lived on the mountain with their two children. One day, the couple was summoned by the heavens and thus prepared to leave the earth. The god said: “The people must not see us ascending to heaven, so we should leave at night.” But the goddess thought: “Nighttime can be

frightening for the children, so we should wait until dawn.” So, at dawn the goddess took her two children in her arms and began to ascend to heaven, along with her husband, but then, a village woman, who had come out to draw water, saw them. Woeful of being seen by a commoner, the god tore the two children from the grasp of the goddess and returned to earth, where he turned himself and his children into mountain peaks. Heartbroken, the goddess returned and turned herself into a mountain peak as well. And this is how the twin summits are said to have come about, alongside two secondary peaks.

built 120 stone towers, of which about 80 remain standing. Indeed, it is incredible that the towers, which were built by piling up countless stones and without using any

Tower Temple The pride of Jinan is Tower Temple. If Mt. Maisan is a masterpiece of nature, then Tower Temple is a treasure of humankind. About 100 years ago, from the age of 25 until his death some 70 years later, the scholar Yi Gap-ryong

adhesive or mortar, remain standing today after almost a century of exposure to the elements. The primary towers are the Heaven and Earth Towers (Cheonjitap), which are guarded by the Towers of the Five Elements (Obangtap). Another notable phenomenon of Tower Temple is its “inverted icicles.” It is said that if you draw water from a well nearby the temple grounds at early dawn, and pause for a brief prayer, an icicle extending upward will form on the water dipper. And in fact, there are many people who can attest to this unusual occurrence. Supposedly, this phenomenon is the result of a combination of unique factors, including wind speed, cool temperature, and certain air pressure, but such an explanation seems to be less than satisfactory.

Geumdangsa Temple 3

About 1.4 kilometers from Tower Temple, to the south of Maisan, is GeumSpring 2009 | Koreana 1

1 Mt. Maisan is blanketed with lush greenery beyond a field of bellflowers in full bloom. In summer, the peaks of Mt. Maisan are known as “Dragon Horn Peaks.”

2 The roadway along Yongdam Lake, near the upper reaches of Geumgang River, includes several lookout points such as this one, “Hill of Nostalgia.”

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A popular attraction of Jinan is Tower Temple, where some 80 towers of stone stand tall. Indeed, it is incredible that the towers, which were built by piling up countless stones and without using any adhesive or mortar, remain standing today after almost a century of exposure to the elements.

dangsa Temple, which houses the Hanging Painting of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva (Treasure No. 1266). This representative example of a hanging Buddhist painting measures a full nine meters in height and five meters in width. In the past, whenever there was an extended drought, the monks would conduct prayer rituals in the presence of this painting, as an appeal for rain, which invariably resulted in rainfall shortly thereafter. Geumdangsa Temple, which was built in 814 during the reign of King Heondeok of the Silla period, is known as the place where the Goryeo monk Naong hwasang practiced his form of asceticism. According to another account, the daughter of General Jeon Bong-jun, who led the Donghak Rebellion (1894), an anti-establishment and anti-foreigner campaign, sought refuge here. The temple also served as a base for guerrilla troops in the Jinan area during the Japanese colonial period.

Valleys of Mt. Unjangsan North of Jinan, between Mt. Unjangsan’s Myeongdeok and Myeongdo peaks you will find Juja Stream Valley, which offers especially picturesque cliff-side scenery. Due to its prevalence of heavy cloud cover, the area is known as “Cloud Sun Valley” (Uniram) and “Half Sun Valley” (Baniram). With peculiar rock formations scattered about and the sweet fragrance of clear mountain water, the recent development of visitor accommodations has made the valley a popular area for recreational activities. Equally impressive is Baegundong Valley, where you can see Jeomjeon Rock, a broad, flat rock with a surface area of about 100 square meters, and a memorable 5-meter waterfall with flowing waters that sparkle brilliantly in the sunlight. In spring, azaleas are everywhere, whereas in fall, the foliage turns the valley into a fantasy land ablaze with red and gold hues. Unlike Juja Stream Valley, which is

now a favorite visitor area, Baegundong Valley is largely undeveloped, making it perfect for those who enjoy the quiet solitude of nature. On the slopes of Mt. Palgongsan (1,115 meters) in Baegun-myeon, Jinan, you can find Demi Spring, the source of the Seomjingang River, a lifeline of the southern regions. It is said that the Seomjingang waters can be traced to Mt. Palgongsan, up its slopes to the peak, and upward into the heavens. Seomjingang flows to Baegun-myeon, alongside Maisan, and then onward to Imsil, Gurye, and Hadong, before emptying into the seas off the southern coast, some 200 kilometers away. The trail leading up to Demi Spring, which requires a hike of about an hour from the base of the mountain, is resplendent with natural beauty, making it a reallife classroom of the wonders of nature. Additional natural attractions include Windy Cave and Icy Stream. At Windy Cave, on the slopes of Mt. Daedusan, Spring 2009 | Koreana 3

you can find ice there throughout the year, even in the middle of summer. As for Icy Stream, which flows alongside the cave, its water temperature is said to remain at a constant 3° C year round. Being a kind of natural refrigeration, village residents will store their kimchi in this area during the summer months. The waters of Icy Stream have long been revered for their curative properties. The renowned Joseon era physician Heo Jun, author of the Exemplar of Korean Medicine , noted the water’s medicinal benefits, which were effective for the treatment of skin ailments and digestive disorders.

Falconry Tradition

1 1 The Heaven and Earth Towers stand at the highest point of the temple grounds. The 80 or so remaining stone towers of Tower Temple, which had been built without any mortar or adhesive, are a remarkable wonder for enduring more than 100 years of exposure to the natural elements.

2 Baegundong Valley is no less picturesque than Cloud Sun Valley (Uniram) or Half Sun Valley (Baniram). The clear, sparkling waters of a five-meter waterfall create a dazzling sight.

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Aside from its natural wonders, Jinan is also known as the home of falconry in Korea. The late Jeon Yeong-tae had been designated a “human cultural heritage” of falconry in 1998, while Bak Jeong-oh was named the successor to carry on this tradition in 2007. Falconry involves the training of falcons to hunt small game, such as quail and rabbit, while a falconer is a person who trains or hunts with a falcon.

After the molting season, falcon hunting gets underway in earnest in December. A hunting party calls for at least five members, with a typical group being seven or eight. The late Jeon Yeong-tae once reflected on falconry: “Long ago, when everyone farmed, there would be nothing to do after the harvest in late autumn. In the winter, people used to gather indoors, and the adults would tell the young people to go falcon hunting. Once you get into falconry, you have to stick with it. There’s no lying down because you have a cold. No matter how cold the weather, if the quail takes to the skies ten times, the falconers must run ten times, as fast as they can. In the past, this was the national sport. For the king, as well as commoners, the aristocracy and servants, rich or poor, man and woman, young and old, everyone enjoyed it. People would hunt with falcons everywhere. If you were falcon hunting, passersby would stop to watch. When the falcon chased a quail, the people would cheer, and when the falcon is in flight, well, there was nothing like it.”

Falconry in Korea

Due to the outbreak of the Korean War, just after liberation of Koreans enjoying falconry during the Silla period, and Gogufrom Japanese colonial rule, falconry waned since everyone had ryeo tomb murals depict scenes of falconry as well. It is said that to worry about their own survival. The use of coal and petroleum Goryeo period rulers would send falcons to Yuan China as a form for fuel, instead of wood, under a policy to protect the forests, of tribute. In China, Korean falcons had a reputation for being was another factor in the decline. As the mountain areas became exceptional hunters. more densely forested, it became difficult for falconers to roam Traditional falconry was practiced in every corner of the about freely. And the introduction of hunting rifles made the use of Korean Peninsula up through the Japanese colonial period. And falcons obsolete. However, a more decisive factor was the scarcity even then, it is estimated that over 1,000 falconers remained of falcon eggs due to environmental active. Of note, falconry is not a pollution and rampant poaching. solitary pursuit, but a recreational According to falconers, on a single activity enjoyed by a small group. hunt, a falcon would usually catch The falconer, the group leader, three or four quails, and sometimes carries the falcon. When a quail or as many as ten. And they also caught rabbit is sighted, he shouts “Falcon rabbits, weasels, and dung beetles. away!” and releases the jess, the After a hunt, a falcon must be fed a strap used to tether the falcon. From rich diet for one week, including a experience, the falcon is prepared daily chick. to take flight even before the jess is Falcon types include young released, when the falconer shouts: home-grown falcons, wild falcons “There goes a quail!” Then, the kept in the mountains, hand-trained spotters follow the quail’s flight and falcons, and peregrine falcons. give directions to the quail catchers, Among these, young falcons (gosperhaps six or seven in number, who hawks) are the most suitable for run at full speed toward the falcon. falconry. Young falcons with their If the falcon eats its prey, it is likely juvenile feathers are said to be two to fly away and escape, so the quail years old, with older falcons being catchers must separate the falcon three years old. In general, a trained from its prey as soon as possible. falcon is able to hunt for four to five Before a falcon hunt, the falyears, if it does not escape. But there coner must first catch the falcons. have been instances in which a falFalcons generally lay their eggs in con would hunt for up to nine years. spring, and shortly thereafter the There is a notable Korean idiom falconer will search for falcons to A falcon that had been owned by the late Jeon Yeong-tae, associated with falconry. Tail tags catch. Falcons that are caught as a “human cultural heritage” of falconry. In Jinan, the home of falconry in Korea, falcons are trained to hunt quails and rabbits. (carved from horn) would be affixed fledglings are preferred since they to the tail of a falcon to indicate its are less likely to escape if they can ownership. On occasion, a falconer would lose a falcon during a be raised by a falconer from an early age. Still, the capture of a hunt, after which people were known to recover it and replace the falcon is far from simple. Along with falcon nests being found in tail tag with one of their own. Accordingly, the phrase, “to remove inaccessible areas, once a fledgling learns to fly, it becomes an a tail tag,” came to be used to refer to someone who might feign almost impossible task to capture it. Only the most experienced innocence of an act of deception. falconer, who will wait patiently at an advantageous spot, can have Falconry in Korea originated around the first or second cenany chance of snagging a falcon in his netting. Thereafter, a falcon tury B.C. Records indicate that falconry was practiced in China in captivity must be handled with great care so as to not damage any of its feathers, which are essential for proper flight. by the second century B.C., and in Mesopotamia during the first century B.C. History of the Three Kingdoms includes accounts Spring 2009 | Koreana 5

CuISIne

Epitome of Palace Cuisine

Sea Bream with Noodles Though a longtime favorite of royal palace banquets, people can enjoy Sea Bream with Noodles today, thanks to the dedication of court ladies who have preserved the recipe for preparing this delectable dish. The people of Korea are known to revel in song and dance at any time; however, this particular dish is said to be even more pleasurable than singing and dancing. Han Bokryeo President Institute of Korean Royal Cuisine Ahn Hong-beom Photographer Kim Hyong nim Cuisine Consultant

n Korea, because sea bream is often quite expensive it is usually reserved for special occasions. It is an attractive fish with a well-formed body and clear scales, which is typically prepared and served whole. A steamed or fried sea bream is a favorite dish for a celebratory gathering, in addition to being a popular gift for the families of a to-be married couple, and a food offering for ancestral rites. In Japan, sea bream dishes are highly prized, making it essential for New Year’s parties and wedding receptions. For some, a sea bream soup should be served to herald the arrival of spring and express a wish for good fortune.

Tasty White Meat

Sea Bream with Noodles, an exquisite dish, is a creation of Joseon palace cuisine. The slices of fish, coated with egg and fried, are laid out so as to restore the original fish shape, and then simmered in a broth with beef, mushrooms, and glass noodles.

Early spring, in March and April, is said to be the ideal time for enjoying sea bream. After hibernating from late autumn to early spring, sea bream are aroused by the warming waters, which are conducive for the laying of their eggs. Around this time, the sea bream develops a ravenous appetite that causes it to devour any nearby prey, including shrimp, octopus, and mussels. Accordingly, sea bream caught at this time are especially meaty and tasty. But actually, it is such a flavorful fish at any time that people are known to say: “Even rotten, it’s still sea bream.” Sea bream thrive in temperate waters, and are often caught in the seas around the islands of Wando, Jejudo, Chujado, Wido, and Geomundo, as well as areas nearby Haenam and Dadohae Sea. Sea bream differ in size, color, and taste, based on their particular variety, which includes chamdom, mukdom, hwangdom, heukdom, bukdom, jaridom , and okdom . Among these types, the chamdom is favored for its attractive form and large

size, and glossy scales. A large-size fish, but not overly so, makes an impressive centerpiece on a banquet table. The sea bream is a white-flesh fish with firm and meaty flesh, which does not give off a strong fishy odor. Its firm meat allows it to be prepared in a variety of ways, including as sashimi, in soup, steamed and served with a five-color garnish, fried whole or in egg-coated pieces, or slowly reduced in a savory sauce. The mild flavor of sea bream is a result of the glutamic and inocinic acids of its fish protein. Sea bream is a rich source of protein but low in fat, making it an ideal health food for people concerned about weight gain or high cholesterol. It also contains amino acids that complement the grain-based Korean diet. Since sea bream is easy to digest, it is suitable for children and the elderly, and someone recovering from illness. Fish lovers relish a chance to pick over a sea bream head, which yields a fair amount of meat, while its eyes contain a kind of glucose that is said to have antiaging benefits. In Japan, a special dish, made by reducing a sea bream’s head and skeletal remains in a sweetened soy sauce, is a favorite delicacy. As for the sea bream, and other types of fish, nothing goes to waste.

Careful Handling The scales of a sea bream are stiff and thus should be fully removed beforehand. For this, a knife or scaling implement can be used, if scales being scattered all about is no problem. Otherwise, firmly hold the fish inside a large plastic bag and use a spoon to remove the scales, from the tail to the head. Also, some people will use wedges of large radish, instead of a knife or spoon, to scale a fish, in which case the Spring 2009 | Koreana

Sea Bream with Noodles Ingredients: 1 sea bream, 200 grams beef (brisket or shank), 100 grams beef (shank silverside), 50 grams dropwort, 50 grams mugwort, 4 eggs, 5 rock mushrooms, 3 large shiitake mushrooms, 20 grams soaked-ear mushrooms, 1 red pepper, 50 grams glass noodles, 3 walnuts, 1 teaspoon pine nuts, 1 teaspoon salt, 1 tablespoon clear soy sauce, 1/2 teaspoon pepper, 4 tablespoons flour, and vegetable oil sauce to marinate beef: 1 tablespoon clear soy sauce, 1 teaspoon minced garlic, 1 teaspoon sesame oil, and pepper. Ingredients for meatballs: 30 grams beef (shank), 20 grams tofu, 1/3 teaspoon salt, 1 teaspoon chopped green onion, 1/2 teaspoon minced garlic, 1/2 teaspoon sesame oil, and pepper

Preparation: 1 Scale and gut the fish. Slice the meat into thin, diagonal, 4-centimeter pieces, and season with salt and pepper. Add salt and pepper to the head and tail attached to the skeleton. 2 Cook the beef brisket in 8 cups of water until soft. Then, cut the beef into strips, and marinate in sauce. Season the broth with salt and clear soy sauce. 3 Cut the beef shank into slices and marinate, as with the brisket. Chop up 30 grams of beef shank, and mash the tofu. Combine the beef and tofu with the other meatball ingredients and form meat balls, about 1 centimeter in diameter. 4 Soak the rock mushrooms in warm water and rinse off any moss from the underside, and then chop into small pieces. Soak the shiitake mushrooms and remove the stems. Separate each lobe of the soaked-ear mushrooms. Cut the red pepper in half and remove seeds. 5 Separate the white and yolk of two eggs, and add salt to both. Divide the egg white into two halves, and fry one half in thin layers. Then, add the ear mushrooms to the other half, and also fry in thin layers. Fry the egg yolk in thin layers. 6 Discard dropwort leaves and cut stems into equal lengths, and then attach to a skewer. Coat the skewered dropwort with flour, then with the remaining eggs, and fry on both sides. Do the same with the fish slices and beef meatballs. Soak the walnuts in warm water and remove any skins. Trim the tops of the pine nuts. Cut the fried egg white and fried egg yolk layers, fried dropwort, shiitake mushrooms, and red pepper into pieces of 2.5 centimeters by 4 centimeters. 8 In a large shallow pan, place the boiled and marinated beef, and then the marinated raw beef, shiitake mushrooms, and soaked-ear mushrooms. Then, restore the fish shape by arranging the fried fish pieces between the head and the tail. Decorate with the fried egg and dropwort pieces, meat balls, walnuts, and pine nuts. Pour in broth, and bring to a boil. Soak the glass noodles in warm water, cut noodles and mugwort into short lengths, and add to the saucepan after the broth reaches a boil.

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scales become embedded in the wedges. Sea bream is often prepared and served whole, to accentuate its visual appeal. Still, once people dig into the dish, its attractive appearance will soon be lost. To prevent this, the meaty areas should be pre-cut so that neat pieces can be removed. An especially impressive version is the steamed sea bream associated with the city of Tongyeong, Gyeongsangnamdo Province. For this, the fish is sliced along its back into halves, and the guts are removed. The halves are marinated in soy sauce and then steamed. After steaming, the fish is carefully deboned and stuffed with a mixture of greens, shellfish, and tofu, so that its original shape can be restored. After a five-color garnish is applied, it is briefly steamed again and then served. Along with this steamed sea bream dish of Tongyeong, another exquisite version is Sea Bream with Noodles, or seunggiatang , a royal palace dish that would be served at banquet events. The recipe for this delicacy was passed down to me by my late mother Hwang Hye Seong (1920-2006), who had been

As compared to Sea Bream with Noodles, a steamed version of sea bream is easier to prepare and a delectable favorite of coastal regions.

Sea bream is a popular fish, prized for its meaty flesh, which can be prepared in a variety of ways. In particular, sea bream with noodles makes for an attractive centerpiece at any festive occasion, as a visually appealing dish with an exquisite savoriness, fit for royalty.

designated Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 38, for her expertise in “Royal Cuisine of the Joseon Dynasty.” In turn, she had learned this recipe while working with Han Hui Sun (1889-1972), the last court lady of the Joseon palace kitchen.

Unsurpassed Pleasure First, cut the sea bream meat into thin slices, coat the slices with egg, and fry lightly. Place prepared marinated beef and mushrooms in a saucepan. Fry the carcass of the fish (skeleton with head and tail attached), and then place it into the saucepan atop the beef and mushrooms. Arrange the fried fish slices onto the skeleton in order to re-create its original shape. After adding various ingredients, pour in meat broth and cook. The fish head and bones will exude a unique flavor to the fried fish pieces, resulting in a luscious richness that cannot be adequately

described in words. This recipe, which is not widely known, is the product of the court ladies who sought to create an incomparable sea bream dish, fit for a king. Court records indicate that seunggiatang was served at royal banquets held in 1848, 1877, and 1887. However, at these times, the dish was prepared with gray mullet, instead of sea bream, and it is recorded that a heating unit was used to cook the fish at the dining table. According to documents, Sea Bream with Noodles was served at a banquet in 1901. The dish was also called seunggiaktang , meaning that its sublime flavor was more pleasurable than the enjoyment of singing and dancing, which reflects the near legendary status of this delicacy. The origin of the dish is described in Hong Seon Pyo’s Cooking Joseon Cuisine (Joseonyorihak) , published in 1940. At the time of King Seongjong of the Joseon

Dynasty, Manchurian tribes had been intruding into Hamgyeong-do Province and aggravating the residents. The king thus dispatched General Heo Jong to defend the border villages. When Heo arrived at Uiju with his troops, he was welcomed by the residents, who prepared a banquet in his honor, at which he was served a sea bream dish. Heo was in such awe of its delectable flavor that he asked about the name of this unique dish. To this, the residents responded: “It has no name because it was made especially for you.” To express his high praise, Heo remarked: “This dish is even more pleasurable than drink, song, and a dancing woman.” Thereafter, based on this account, the sea bream dish became known as seunggiaktang, or “victory over song and dance.” Your appreciation of a true delicacy like Sea Bream with Noodles can be enhanced by an understanding of its colorful history. Spring 2009 | Koreana

lIvInG

In Koreaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Military, Women Get a Boost in Status and Rank These days, enthusiastic and confident women are rewriting the history of Koreaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s armed forces. Up through 1990, the roles for women in the military were mainly limited to administrative Nowadays, Motorcycle assignments. couriers provide prompt delivery tohowever, you can see women performing the same anywhere in Seoul. Although these services are of more duties as men, in practically all branches the armed forces, including the Marine Corps. costly than regular mail and express parcel delivery.

Yu Yong Weon Reporter, The Chosun Daily Newspaper

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n 2002, three women broke new ground in Korea’s military history when they were commissioned as fighter pilots. Known as the “Women Pilot Trio” by their fighter wing, First Lieutenants Park Ji-yeon, Park Ji-won, and Pyun Bo-ra, earned admission to the Korea Air Force Academy by overcoming stiff competition in which only one out of 22 applicants were selected. They recorded outstanding scores in all of the rigorous training sessions, including the Night, All-weather, and Formation Flights, and piloting of the T-38 or T-59, advanced supersonic training jets. They also demonstrated exemplary leadership skills, along with possessing the physical capabilities required of pilots.

Women Fighter Pilots On November 22, 2007, when Lieutenant Ha Jeong-mi stepped onto the tarmac of the 20th Fighter Wing, in Seosan, Chungcheongnam-do Province, she made history as the first woman to pilot a KF-16 jet fighter. Ha was commissioned an Air Force second lieutenant in 2002, and she had piloted an A-37 through late 2006, when she applied for a slot to pilot a jet fighter. For a year thereafter, she was trained to pilot a KF-16. However, the training regimen was not without its difficulties. A KF-16 is capable of a speed of Mach 2, which was about 1.5 times faster than the A-37 that she had previously flown. When she accelerated rapidly or made a sharp turn, her

body had to endure a tremendous force of 9 Gs, equivalent to nine times the normal effect of gravity. Ha noted: “After flying abrupt maneuvers, I would have these awful bruises on my thighs and arms because the pressure would rupture my capillaries.” Ha dreamed about becoming a fighter pilot while she was a senior in high school. When Air Force personnel came to her school to recruit students for the Korea Air Force Academy, she learned about the experiences of a pilot. Ever since then, she harbored a desire to “fly in the sky” rather than having a routine life in college. In 2001, as a senior cadet at the Air Force Academy, she visited the 20th Fighter Wing, where she was so impressed with the sleek appearance of a KF-16 on the runway that she decided to become a jet fighter pilot. “I am determined to be the best fighter pilot in the Air Force. There is no such thing as off-limits to me,” Ha enthusiastically declares. Among the three military services, the Air Force was the first to open the doors of its academy to women. The Air Force Academy admitted its first women students in 1997, and graduated the first women pilots in 2002. Of the 1,900 or so pilots in the Air Force, as of 2007, there are 24 women pilots who are assigned to the operation of helicopters, transport planes, and jet fighters.

Special Forces Paratrooper Warrant Officer Kang Myung-suk, who

1 The Army Special Warfare Command features woman paratroopers, including Warrant Officer Kang Myung-suk, who has completed more than 4,000 parachute jumps.

2 Korea’s military has long assigned woman officers to naval vessels that conduct coastal operations. (Photograph: Republic of Korea Navy)

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Staff Sergeant Kim Ji-yeong has made her mark as the only woman on the ordnance disposal team, one of the military’s most hazardous assignments, in which a momentary lapse can mean serious injury. “Whenever I prepare for an assignment, I have to repeat ‘Calm down’ to myself three times,” she says.

has been serving in the Korean Army for more than 20 years, is assigned to the Special Warfare Command (SWC), an elite force of the Korean military. Moreover, the 707 battalion of which she is a member includes the most highly regarded SWC troops. With 4,002 parachute jumps to her credit, Kang ranks No. 1 among women soldiers. During her intensive training period, she once parachuted ten times a day. Thanks to her rigorous training, she managed to capture a second place award at the Military World Games, held in Croatia in 1998, which included participants from 43 countries. The particular jump that she remembers best was during the opening ceremony of the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games, when she touched down on the field of the Jamsil Olympic Stadium. “From high in the sky, the Olympic Stadium looked like a gigantic heart and it seemed to be beating to the rhythm of my own heart,” Kang recalls. Previously, Kang was of a slight build and rather introverted. However,

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with the confidence gained from her successful parachute jumps, she has developed into an outgoing person who welcomes challenges. Because of her compact physique and agility, she is known as “Atom,” after the Astro Boy character of the Japanese animation film.

Ordnance Disposal Team Last year, a woman soldier participated in mine-clearing operations conducted in Yeoncheon, Gyeonggi-do Province, and Cheorwon and Goseong, Gangwondo Province, which were undertaken to remove mines in areas along the DMZ line in order to prevent possible injury to civilian residents. Kim Ji-yeong, a staff sergeant of the 2nd Army Logistics Support Command, is the first woman soldier to be assigned to the ordnance disposal unit. She joined the Army in 2005, and applied for assignment to the ordnance disposal team in June 2007. Previously, when she was promoted to staff sergeant, Kim and four other women soldiers were

assigned to the handling of explosive ordnance, which heretofore had been assigned to only male troops. Kim was attracted by the challenge of this risky duty. “I wanted to find my own specialty, something most people would not dare to do,” Kim said. Kim is responsible for the safe disposal of undischarged rounds in the fields after live-fire exercises, as well as any bombs and landmines remaining from the Korean War. Ordnance disposal is one of the military’s most hazardous assignments, in which a momentary lapse can mean serious injury. “Whenever I prepare for an assignment, I have to repeat ‘Calm down’ to myself three times,” she says. During the period July 2007 to March 2008, she participated in more than 60 disposal operations.

Marine Company Commander Nicknamed “Ghost Busters,” the ROK Marine Corps is legendary for the physical demands of its training regimen. In 2006,

some 54 years after its establishment, the Marine Corps assigned its first woman to a command position of a combat unit. Captain Kim Yun-jeon thus became the corps’ first woman company commander, in charge of the headquarters company of the 2nd Regiment of the 1st Division. Previously, Kim had been in the spotlight when she was appointed the first Marine Corps woman officer in 2001. Of particular note, she has managed to successfully juggle three roles: Marine company commander, military officer’s wife, and mother of a 17-month-old son. Initially, members of her company seemed to be taken aback by this new experience, but it was not long before Kim earned their respect with her no-nonsense approach and authoritative presence. As a cadet, she completed all the training exercises under the scorching sun and in rough seas, alongside her male counterparts. Moreover, in training sessions, such as shooting drills, amphibious landings, helicopter landings, and bioweapons practices, she would regularly outperform her male cadets. The Marine Corps granted no exceptions to Kim, nor did she accept any preferential treatment. The only privilege she enjoyed was exclusive use of the lady’s room and a separate bedroom. To Kim, there is a simple explanation for her choice of the Marine Corps over the Army, Navy, or Air Force: “Marines are the greatest soldiers.”

Women in Korea’s Military The first women troops of the regular army included 32 officers who were admitted to military schools in 1948. Single women between the ages of 18 and 25, with a middle school diploma (equivalent to today’s high school), were eligible to enlist in the military after passing a written test and comprehensive physical examination. The most prominent women officers of this period included Kim Hyeonsuk, who was commissioned a first lieutenant and later became the first woman 2 chief branch officer, and Kim Jeong-rye, a platoon commander, who later served as a legislator and the Minister of Health and

Social Affairs. Following the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950, the Women’s Volunteer Training Center, the first formal unit of women soldiers, was established in September. In 1969, the first women soldiers were dispatched overseas, along with the first deployment of women airborne troops. Since 1988, married women have been allowed to continue their military service after childbirth. In the late 1990s, the service academies, which thus far had only accepted male candidates, started to open their doors. The first women candidates were admitted into the Air Force Academy in 1997, the Military Academy in 1998, and the Naval Academy in 1999. After the Air Force commissioned the first women pilots in 2002, the Military Academy appointed its first women officers that same year and assigned them to rifle corps units, on the frontline, as platoon commanders. In 2003, the first women sailors were assigned to battleship duty, which brought an end to this longstanding “men-only” domain. At the Air Force Academy, the woman cadet Hwang Eun-jeong gained legendary status by entering and graduating as the No. 1 of her class.

Increase of Women Officers In November 2002, the School for Women Soldiers (successor of the Women’s Volunteer Training Center) concluded its 52 years of operation when the Women Soldiers’ Advocacy Agency was established, under the supervision of the Minister of National Defense. In recognition of the increasing number of women in the military and the growing importance of their roles, the Ministry of National Defense sought to maintain a more comprehensive support organization in order to better address related issues. During just over half a century, the School for Women Soldiers turned out more than 1,500 officers and 6,300 noncommissioned officers. The competition among women seek-

1 When Air Force Lieutenant Ha Jeong-mi became the first woman pilot assigned to a KF-16 jet fighter, along with making history, she also fulfilled her longtime dream. (Photograph: Ministry of National Defense)

2 For a training exercise of the Capital Defense Command in Seoul, women members of a SWAT unit are required to quickly rappel from a height of 11 meters down to the ground.

Spring 2009 | Koreana 83

ing to enter officer training academies has intensified noticeably in recent years. For example, women applicants of the Naval Academy can gain admission only by surviving a competition ratio of 40 to 1. As for the Military and Air Force academies, women candidates face stiffer competition than their male counterparts. Meanwhile, a November 2008 report indicated that women accounted for a one-third share of the noncommissioned officers who had graduated from the Army NCO Academy that year. As of August 2008, the number of women serving in Korea’s armed forces stood at 4,910, including 2,618 officers and 2,292 noncommissioned officers (no women served at the private rank). By branch, the Army included 2,067 women officers and 1,563 NCOs, the Navy 252 officers and 224 NCOs, and the Air Force 299 officers and 505 NCOs. However, the overall rate of women in Korea’s military (2.7 percent) remains somewhat lower than that of countries such as the United States (14.6 percent), Russia (8.5 percent), Japan (4.6 percent), and China (3.6 percent). The Ministry of National Defense intends to increase the rate of women officers to 5.6 percent by 2020, as part of the National Defense

Reform 2020 Project. Also, the rates of commissioned and noncommissioned officers will be increased, from the current 3.9 percent and 2.1 percent, to 7 percent and 5 percent, respectively. Currently, the highest ranked woman officer in the Korean military is a brigadier general, while once every two years, a woman general is appointed to serve as the principal of the Armed Forces Nursing Academy. As of July 2008, senior-ranking women officers included 1 brigadier general, 8 colonels, 60 lieutenant colonels, and 212 majors.

Up to the Challenge In 2007, Women Net (www.womennet.net), a web portal operated by the Ministry of Gender Equality and Family, conducted a survey to assess the attitude of women toward serving in the military. Quite interestingly, 52.3 percent of the younger-generation respondents indicated that they “regarded military service as a new type of career” or they were “willing to give it a try.” According to the “Gender Empowerment Measure,” a noteworthy report that includes an evaluation of Korean women in the military, published by the United Nations Development Program, the overall

status of women in Korea is ranked at No. 63 in the world, while that for Korean women in the military is comparable to that of advanced countries. As a result of the wide diversity of their assignments, the standing of women in the Korean military is not far behind that of world leaders such as the United States and various EU countries. In fact, the United States does not assign women to combat command positions, while the U.K. restricts frontline duty to men only. As for the growing attraction of the military among young women, the key factor has been the recent transformation of the military environment. A majority of women point to the broadened horizons of military service, plus an opportunity to pursue self-development. For example, they can acquire a variety of qualifications, such as taekwondo black-belt ranking or Internet information-search certification, which most men in the military eventually obtain. “A military career has a number of advantages for active young women. They can realize a greater sense of self-fulfillment because they encounter less sexual discrimination in the military than in many other workplaces,” an official of the Ministry of National Defense explained.

Cadets salute smartly during the commissioning ceremony of the Armed Forces Nursing Academy, in Daejeon.

84 Koreana | Spring 2009

Journeys in Korean Literature

JO Kyung Ran

In her award-winning literary works, JO Kyung Ran (b. 1969) has gazed into the hearts and minds of people who seem to be drifting about without an emotional grounding. She has also built up a readership outside of Korea by introducing her works through book-reading sessions abroad. In 2007, she signed contracts with several leading publishers in the United States and Europe for the publication of her latest novel Tongue . In her short story, “Bought a Balloon,” she speaks through the protagonist: “If we can’t avoid anxiety in life, we should learn to live in its company, or even be spurred on by it.”

CrItIQue

JO Kyung Ran Examines Personal Struggle and Unwavering Hope Cha Mi-ryeong Literary Critic

n Korea, a “rooftop room” (oktap bang) , as suggested by its name, is a kind of makeshift room built onto the roof of a house. A part of the house in one way, but also a separate space, a rooftop room typically serves as temporary accommodations for urban dwellers who cannot afford to have a regular home but still want a place of their own. As such, a rooftop room is associated with images of economic hardship, a sense of independence, and youthful exuberance. Writer JO Kyung Ran lived in a rooftop room in Bongcheon-dong, Seoul, for almost 20 years. During this time, this small room, attached to the house built by her carpenter father, was the birthplace of her literary works. After reading her novels and short stories, you might be able to imagine this writer diligently writing down her thoughts in the solitude of her cramped room. By receiving various Korean literary awards, including the Munhak Dongne New Author Award (1996), Today’s Young Artist Award (2002), Hyundae Literary Award (2003), and Dongin Literary Award (2008), Jo has well established her standing at the forefront of Korea’s world of contemporary literature. In her works, Jo has gazed into the hearts and minds of people who seemed to be drifting about without an emotional grounding. The quiet elegance of her novels comes from the author’s unwavering hope and search for a decent human existence, in the face of even trying circumstances. This is true for “Bought a Balloon” as well. Included in a collection of short fiction, bearing the same title published in 2008, it describes a 37-year-old woman who has just returned to Seoul, after studying for 10 years in Heidelberg, Germany. What awaits her in Korea is neither academic prominence nor an attractive career, along with a less than supportive family. She feels uncomfortable after having been away for ten years; Seoul feels like a strange place. Her future here is marked by considerable obscurity. An account in the story, in which she is depicted considering the purchase of a French-made handbag, then in vogue among Korean women, shows the extent to which she feels like a stranger in the city and lacks self-confidence in her everyday life. How will she be able to handle this situation? Two men are part of the story. The first, described in her reminiscence about her experiences in Germany, is Thomas, a friend she met there. He is a physician who had helped her to cope with her panic attack disorder by having her blow up balloons until she could calm down. However, even Thomas, who had been so attentive and sympathetic to her situation, could only wonder about her future. A final message that he sent her just prior to her departure for Seoul was ominous, saying that she seemed “destined to live in solitude,” because of her inability to communicate with others or the real world. The other man is Jay, a young man she met in Seoul. He used to be a member of the national handball team. Jay attends her lecture presentation at the cultural center where she works. The two

86 Koreana | Spring 2009

sense a connection and begin dating. Not long after their first date, however, the woman finds out something about Jay; contrary to his cheerful demeanor, he used to suffer from serious panic attacks. With his 28th birthday approaching, the age when his father committed suicide, panic attacks started to take over his life. How could Jay overcome this crisis? In “Bought a Balloon,” the author delves into the anxiety and dreadfulness that are capable of driving people to the brink of their existence. The anxiety that the woman and Jay struggle to cope with does not only afflict those with a serious panic disorder. To express her sentiments, the author speaks in the voice of her protagonist: “We’d better fight anxiety when it limits our lives and drives us to lock ourselves in; but, anxiety can also be a kind of blessing in your life. If we can’t avoid anxiety, we should learn to live in its company, or even be spurred on by it. We should learn to accept and embrace our agony and unpleasantness as something that can sustain life, rather than ruin it.” “Bought a Balloon” is about a woman’s struggle to escape from her self-imposed isolation and willfully change the direction of her life. It is also about her efforts to find happiness through a relationship with Jay, something that Thomas doubted would be possible. Probably, neither the woman nor Jay would be able to completely free themselves from anxiety during the course of their lives. However, they might be able to accept and embrace it as proof that life is never perfect. In fact, this imperfection can make life even more beautiful, as suggested by a realization about the possibility of love: “Nowadays, I long to acknowledge my imperfections and be reconciled with them. Because someone I want to care for has come along.” The balloons gradually drifted upward in the sky. The path to overcoming fear is not something to look back upon, it is something to lead you ahead, Jay. This may well mean changing. If there is a special purpose in life that I could not discover for myself, it may be something round and needing to be inflated, like a balloon. To touch my forehead against his chin, I cautiously raise myself on tiptoe. In the final scene, the woman and Jay meet each other after a long time and release balloons. The balloon, which used to be a therapeutic aid for coping with anxiety, flies upward, lifting their hopes. To them, the roundness of a balloon represents a will to live. “If there is a special purpose in life that I could not discover for myself, it may be something round and needing to be inflated, like a balloon.” The balloons flying freely in the sky suggest the possibility of a new life that the woman is now finding after her longtime despair and aimless wandering. The knot that has trapped her soul is finally loosened, releasing her spirit so that it can soar freely, like the balloons ascending in the sky.

Spring 2009 | Koreana 8

Korea Foundation Publications Subscription/Purchase Information

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Fragrance of Korea — The Ancient Gilt-Bronze Incense Burner of Baekje exclusively features the Gilt-Bronze Incense Burner of Baekje, designated a National Treasure of Korea (No. 287), which is acclaimed as the consummate metal-craft masterpiece of ancient East Asia for its exquisite detail and formative beauty. It includes 110 pages of photo images and three essays: “Historical Significance of the Gilt-Bronze Incense Burner of Baekje”; “Cultural Dynamics and Diversity: From the Daoist Boshanlu to the Buddhist Incense Burner of Baekje”; and “The Site of the Buddhist Temple at Neungsan-ri, Buyeo.”

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