Koreana Summer 2010 (English)

K K oo rr ee aa nn A A rr tt & & C C uu ll tt uu rr ee

vo vo ll .. 2 24 4 ,, no no .. 2 2 S Su um mm me e rr 2 20 00 19 0

60 Years After the Korean War ISSN 1016-0744

BEAUTY OF KOREA

Key Charm

© Lock Museum

O

riginally a simple device to hold keys, the key charm developed into an ornate work of elaborate craftsmanship. A key charm’s body often featured a kind of commemorative coin, or byeoljeon, which would be inscribed with symbols and characters associated with longevity and good luck. The coin body was adorned with colorful strings decorated with coin ornaments, fancy beads, or knots. The aristocratic class gave out such key charms as wedding gifts, which might be maintained as family heirlooms. Tradition called for including a key charm in a daughter’s dowry for the couple’s good fortune and prosperity.

This key charm was once a wedding gift. It includes a brass coin in the shape of a pear blossom with the Chinese character for “longevity” engraved in the center and a boy’s image on each side. This key charm is rather simple as compared with those that might have several dozen decorative coins. However, the coin’s design and craftsmanship are impressive.

Shaped like a pear flower with five petals, a symbol of the Joseon Dynasty, its upper area is etched with the face of Cheoyong, a legendary figure who was said to be capable of fending off demons. People would carry

a Cheoyong-face talisman to protect against smallpox. Along the rim, there is a mythical lion-dragon creature (baektaek), which appears in times of peace and prosperity.

The eight lotus fruits signify fecundity. Half gourd dippers in the shape of a peach, which represents marriage, are attached to the lower edge. They are crafted to fit together perfectly so as to symbolize marital bliss. Between the two gourds, there is a brass coin (yeopjeon ) attached to a scimitar-shaped device used for cleaning the bowl of a tobacco pipe.

The purple and red tassels are decorated with ivory beads. This key charm is part of the collection of the Lock Museum (www.lockmuseum.org), which maintains a variety of ancient Korean locks, latches, and key charms, and also conducts in-depth research on these items.

The ornate coins of key charms are often crafted into the shape of a lucky pouch, rather than a pear blossom, while others are brightly colored. These decorative coins and their unique symbolism reveal much about the culture and customs of earlier times.

Korean Art & Culture

Vol.24, No.2 Summer 2010

6

The U.N. Memorial Park in Busan is the final resting place for the U.N. troops who made the ultimate sacrifice for the defense of South Korea and world peace. After the signing of the Korean War armistice, the remains of some 11,000 troops of the U.N. forces, from 21 countries, were interred here; however, most of the remains were later returned to their respective homeland, at the request of family members. Today, the park is home to about 2,300 fallen troops from 11 nations. © Song Bong-keun

16

28

44

60 Years After the Korean War 8 The Korean War’s Far-reaching Consequences Han Kyung-Koo 16 Wartime Trauma Etched Deeply in the Korean Heart Hahn Myung-hee

50

22 Korea’s Phenomenal Post-War Development Park Tae-gyun 28 Photo Documentary of Korea’s Demilitarized Zone Choi Byung Kwan

70

34 Reflecting on the Korean War through Literature Kim Chi-su 40 Korea’s Standing in the Global Community Lee Tae Joo 82

44 Interview Kim Yu-na

Figure Skater Kim Yu-na Stands on Top of the World

Kim Dong Wook 50 Artisan Jo Chung-ik Jo Chung-ik’s Traditional Fans: Functional Works of Art Park Hyun Sook

56 ART REVIEW

Exhibition Reveals Kwon Jinkyu’s World of Sculptural Art

Kim Yisoon 62 DISCOVERING KOREA Unwavering Passion for the Korea of Today and of Ancient Times

Élisabeth Chabanol 66 ON THE GLOBAL STAGE Shim Jae Doo, Yu So Yeon Korean Couple Serves as Medical Missionaries in Albania for 17 Years Kim Mina

70 ON THE ROAD

Five Scenic Islands in the Yellow Sea Await Unification

Kim Hyungyoon 78 CUISINE Cold Noodle Dish to Counter the Summer Swelter Lee Jong-Im

82 LIVING

The City Wall of Seoul: Living History in the Heart of Seoul

Charles La Shure

Published quarterly by The Korea Foundation 2558 Nambusunhwan-ro, Seocho-gu, Seoul 137-863, Korea PUBLISHER Kim Sung-yup EDITORIAL DIRECTOR Hahn Young-Hee EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Park Jeong-yeop EDITORIAL BOARD Cho Sung-taek, Han Kyung-koo, Han Myung-hee, Jung Joong-hun, Kim Hwa-young, Kim Moon-hwan, Kim Youngna COPY EDITOR Dean Jiro Aoki LAYOUT & DESIGN Kim’s Communication Associates ASSOCIATE EDITOR Lim Sun-kun PHOTO DIRECTOR Kim Sam ART DIRECTOR Lee Duk-lim DESIGNER Kim Su-hye Subscription Price for annual subscription: Korea — W 18,000, Asia by air US$33, elsewhere by air US$37 Price per issue in Korea — W 4,500 Subscription/circulation correspondence: The U.S. and Canada Koryo Book Company 1368 Michelle Drive St. Paul, MN 55123-1459 Tel: 1-651-454-1358 Fax: 1-651-454-3519 Other areas including Korea The Korea Foundation 2558 Nambusunhwanno, Seocho-gu, Seoul 137-863, Korea Tel: 82-2-2151-6544 Fax: 82-2-2151-6592 ADVERTISING CNC Boom co,. Ltd Towercrystal Building, 1008-1, Daechi 3-dong, Gangnam-gu, Seoul 135-851, Korea Tel: 82-2-512-8928 Fax: 82-2-512-8676 LAYOUT & DESIGN Kim’s Communication Associates 398-1 Seogyo-dong, Mapo-gu, Seoul, 121-840, Korea Tel: 82-2-335-4741 Fax: 82-2-335-4743 www.gegd.co.kr Printed in Summer 2010 Samsung Moonwha Printing Co. 274-34, Seongsu-dong 2-ga, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 133-831, Korea Tel: 82-2-468-0361/5

Koreana Internet Website http://www.koreana.or.kr

87

JOURNEYS IN KOREAN LITERATURE

Park Wan-suh

A Woman’s Story of the Korean War Park Hye-kyung

Encounter at the Airport Translated by John M. Frankl

© The Korea Foundation 2010 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without the prior permission of the Korea Foundation.

The opinions expressed by the authors do not necessarily represent those of the editors of Koreana or the Korea Foundation.

Koreana, registered as a quarterly magazine with the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism (Registration No. Ba-1033, dated Aug. 8, 1987), is also published in Chinese, French, Spanish, Arabic, Russian, Japanese, and German.

The Hangang Railway Bridge was intentionally destroyed by South Korea in an effort to stall the southward advance of North Korean troops. Today, a series of 27 bridges traverse the Hangang River, including a reconstructed Hangang Railway Bridge.

Š NOONBIT Publishing Co.

60 Years After the Korean War Koreana | Summer 2010

The Korean War, which began with North Korea’s surprise invasion of South Korea on Sunday, June 25, 1950, lasted for three years. The hostilities ended with the signing of an armistice agreement in July 1953. This war broke out only five years after the Korean Peninsula had been liberated from Japanese colonial rule, and only three years after the establishment of separate North and South governments, in a nation divided by foreign powers. The war’s devastation left much of South Korea in ruins, along with its people in social turmoil. Sixty years hence, South Korea now strives to play a central role in resolving the common problems of the global community, as evidenced by its hosting of the G-20 Summit in Seoul, in November 2010.

Summer 2010 | Koreana

The Korean War’s Far-reaching Consequences Today, Korea is the only divided nation in the world, while the North and South remain locked in a state of confrontation.

Indeed, the Korean War is “the war that hasn’t ended” for Koreans. Sixty years after its outbreak, the war continues to influence the lifestyle and attitude of South Koreans.

Han Kyung-Koo Cultural Anthropologist and Professor, College of Liberal Studies, Seoul National University Kim Yong-chul, Ahn Hong-beom Photographer

The War Memorial of Korea, which was opened in June 1994, commemorates the historical events and heroic efforts of individuals during the Korean War. It is located in Yongsan-dong, Yongsan-gu, Seoul.

Koreana | Summer 2010

T

he Korean War was a significant incident in terms of international politics, but it resulted in an even more profound impact on the socio-cultural characteristics of Korean society. Liberation from Japan’s colonial rule in 1945 was historically significant, and the establishment of the government of the Republic of Korea was a notable development as well, but the Korean War, which began in 1950 and saw an end of outright hostilities under an armistice agreement in 1953, was of such pervasive influence that it has shaped the behavioral patterns, way of thinking, and value systems of South Koreans, as well as the direction of South Korean society’s development, from the time of the war’s outbreak and long thereafter.

Overview of the Korean War The Korean War got underway at 4:00 in the morning on Sunday, June 25, 1950, with a full-scale surprise invasion of the South by North Korean forces. At an overwhelming disadvantage in terms of equipment and training, South Korean troops were forced to repeatedly retreat southward. Even after the U.N.-sponsored troops arrived in the South, at one point, North Korea had come to occupy almost the entire Korean Peninsula, except for areas of the Gyeongsang-do provinces, making it seem that unification of the peninsula by force was only a matter of time. But the U.N. troops countered with a successful landing at Incheon, from where they were able to liberate Seoul and then continued northward to take Pyongyang, and eventually reach the Amnokgang (Yalu) River.

Thereafter, upon China’s entry into the war, Seoul was again lost, followed by a counterattack that featured especially fierce fighting along the current armistice line, until a ceasefire was declared in July 1953.

Practically the entire Korean Peninsula experienced the ravages of war. With the front line being continuously pushed back and forth, tremendous toll in human life and widespread physical destruc-

Summer 2010 | Koreana

1 © NOONBIT Publishing Co.

tion left Korean society in serious turmoil. This resulted in large-scale movements across social and class lines, and the development of new social and physical infrastructure as the divided peninsula struggled to recover from the war. Following a virtual collapse of longstanding personal relationships and value systems, a process of modernization gained momentum and new value systems emerged. As such, the pace of urbanization and industrialization accelerated as well. Since everyone had suffered from this terrible loss of life and wartime devastation, followed by extreme poverty and hunger, as well as the separation of families and a clash of ideological views, they were compelled to join hands to promote economic development in order to overcome poverty and the threats of war and communism, which led to a thirst for peace, security, education, and culture.

Moreover, the arrival of U.N. troops resulted in a tremendous culture shock for South Koreans. As a result of their large-scale, active involvement, the United States, in particular, became an overwhelmingly important “other country” among South Korean society, during and after the war. American military and humanitarian aid, along with their advanced technology, material abundance, values of democracy, and the appeal of U.S. culture, all served to influence the way that Koreans perceived the United States.

10 Koreana | Summer 2010

Refugee Experience In the early stages of the Korean War, the South’s porous defensive efforts and misguided measures of an inexperienced government resulted in North Korea’s occupation of numerous South Koreans, who were forced to comply with orders of the Northern troops. The chaotic situation was worsened by the South Korean government’s bold pronouncements early on, only to find itself hastily abandoning Seoul shortly thereafter. Many of the people who did not escape the sudden onslaught suffered from such atrocities as massacre, torture, imprisonment, and abduction, while those who survived were often branded “collaborators,” leaving them with a permanent black mark. The so-called background checks, which were rigorously enforced through the 1980s, served as a de facto guiltby-association system that did not allow suspected individuals to assume public office.

The South’s defense of Seoul was twice overrun by the North. With the intervention of China’s People’s Volunteer Army, South Korean and U.N. forces were again forced to retreat from Seoul, as part of a massive exodus of people fleeing southward, by land and sea. Consequently, the city of Busan, with a population of about 400,000, suddenly found itself home to more than one million people. The more fortunate families were able to cram themselves into small rooms;

2

those less so made do with cardboard boxes, wood planks, and makeshift tarp coverings for shelter.

Of note, the fact that areas in the Gyeongsang-do pro­ vinces, including Busan and Daegu, had managed to avoid the North’s occupation, served to influence the development of South Korea’s modern society. In particular, the residents in these areas escaped the worst of the war’s physical destruction, along with generally being free from accusations of being “collaborators,” thereby avoiding social obstacles after the war’s end. Since it was thought that these areas were relatively secure, and would likely remain so even in the event of another conflict, leading institutions and figures from across the country formed a close bond with these areas during the relocation period. As such, this circumstance enabled the southeast regions of Korea to develop more rapidly than the southwest regions immediately following the war.

Healing the Scars of War Although the senseless loss of countless people and vast destruction that left much of the country in rubble, the war’s consequences were far more profound. The hearts of all South Koreans were deeply scarred. The war and its aftermath exerted a significant influence on the behavioral patterns and ways of thinking of South Koreans for quite some time. In Japan,

1~2

A scene of Sejongno Street immediately after the war, and today’s Gwanghwamun Square, in a median area of Sejongno Street

the “Fifteen Year War” includes the period that began with the Manchurian Incident in 1931, followed by the Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and ending with Japan’s defeat in the Pacific War in 1945. Having suffered under Japanese colonial rule during this period, the tension and sense of crisis reached a peak in Korea as well. Furthermore, it was only a few years after Korea had finally freed itself from Japan’s militarism and wartime mobilization that it experienced national division and the horrors of such a cruel war. Even after the armistice, the state of confrontation between the South and the North has continued.

In this way, South Koreans have endured decades of tension and struggle to survive.

Through this extreme hardship, South Koreans developed a boundless vitality and resiliency, but also suffered from serious trauma. Various aspects of the Korean people and their culture, which have been perceived in a negative light, are rooted in the scars of this lengthy period of crises and their experiences with the atrocities of war. When foreign troops and emissaries came to South Korea, they encountered a people in the midst of a horrific war, before wounds from the “Fifteen Summer 2010 | Koreana 11

© The U.N. Memorial Park

British Commonwealth veterans of the Korean War made a return visit to Korea, which included a tour of the U.N. Memorial Park. The wife of an Australian officer, who had been killed in the Korean War and buried here some 60 years ago, was being laid to rest alongside her husband, in accordance with her final wishes.

Year War” period had even healed. That Korea’s emergence on the world stage came about due mainly to the Korean War has had a truly unique influence on the formation of perceptions toward Korea and the Korean people.

For many in South Korea, the war led to their first real encounter of life outside their local community, whether through their military service or as refugees, who struggled for survival with complete strangers from across the country. Amidst this crisis situation and desperate struggle for survival, those who practiced forthrightness were thought to be ineffectual, while a notion took root that anyone who “followed the rules” would not survive. Under these circumstances, people came to believe that competing fairly and clinging to traditional values would only lead to failure. Poverty and an abject lack of material possessions encouraged such untoward behavior as cutting in line and resorting to expediency. There was also a tendency to justify breaking the rules by claiming that the competition was unfair or that others would ignore the rules as well.

Even as the ravaged cities were rebuilt and the people extricated themselves from the depths of poverty through Korea’s economic recovery, the trauma that people experienced due to the horrors of war would take much longer to heal. Even 12 Koreana | Summer 2010

though the crisis situation had ended, after having endured such a tumultuous everyday life, it was no simple matter for the thoughts and behavior of people to return to a state of normalcy. Moreover, even the succeeding generation, who did not directly experience the war, could not be free from the influence and memories of their deeply traumatized parents.

Although a number of key issues still need to be resolved, as Koreans commemorate the 60th year of the start of the Korean War, the wartime trauma has loosened its grip with the passage of time. Even as the state of South-North division and confrontation continues, South Koreans have managed to attain political democratization and the peaceful transition of government power. Freedom of the press has been expanded, along with a notable improvement in the respect for human rights. For most, there is still cause for concern, but the desperate sense of crisis that had existed for so long is fading away.

Vestiges of Nationalist Education The wartime chaos and its aftermath have greatly impacted the educational system in Korea. As for Japan, which had pursued imperialist aggression that resulted in its defeat, the democ-

Through this extreme hardship, South Koreans developed a boundless vitality and resiliency, but also suffered from serious trauma. Various aspects of the Korean people and their culture, which have been perceived in a negative light, are rooted in the scars of this lengthy period of crises and their experiences with the atrocities of war.

ratization of its education was promoted by the U.S. occupation authorities. But in the case of Korea, which had been victimized

by Japan’s militarism and colonial rule, the vestiges of Japanesestyle nationalist education remained in place for a considerable period of time due to such factors as national division, anticommunism measures, and national security concerns.

Prior to the Korean War, the Ministry of Education had required all students to memorize a credo known as “our oath,” which included the following pledges. First, “We are sons and daughters of the Republic of Korea, and we will defend our nation to the death.” Second, “Let us defeat the Communist aggressors, for we are bound together like steel.” Third, “Let us wave the Korean flag on the summit of Mt. Baekdusan and achieve the unification of South and North.” This oath was printed in all books, not only textbooks. When the war broke out, the participation and sacrifice of student soldiers were glorified, while Student National Defense Corps were formed on school campuses, and students participated in military training. It was not until the 1980s that regulations on student hair length and clothing were relaxed as part of a gradual elimination of the authoritarian-era aspects of education.

Dietary Practices The Korean War brought about dramatic change to the dietary practices of South Koreans. Food items such as coffee, gum, chocolate, candy, biscuits, and powdered milk were introduced to the general public by the U.S. military. Under a U.S. agricultural program, an abundance of surplus wheat flour was supplied to Korea, which led to the development of flour-based foods, including the Korean-style dish of noodles with black bean sauce.

In addition, North Korean dishes, such as cold noodles, gained a foothold in the South. Of course, a variety of North Korean foods, such as Pyongyang cold noodles, was already popular in Seoul and other large cities, but the massive inflow of North Korean refugees during the war helped to spread the Northern cuisine to every corner of the country. The Northerners who had fled to the South opened numerous restaurants in their new land. As a result, Northern-style dishes such as cold noodles, meat with noodles soup, beef soup with rice, mung bean pancakes, and fermented flatfish became favorites in the South. Until recently, you could easily notice former North Koreans at Northern-style restaurants in Seoul and other large cities, including those in Ojang-dong and Euljiro that

specialized in cold noodles, and the ham hock establishments in Jangchung-dong.

Pyongyang cold noodles, which had long been a special treat in the South, soon found its way onto the regular menus of Korean restaurants across the country after the Korean War. Meanwhile, the dish known as mixed noodles or mixed hoe (raw fish) noodles in Hamgyeong-do Province, was renamed Hamheung cold noodles after the war. People say that the new name was an attempt to have this dish associated with Pyongyang cold noodles, which had already gained widespread popularity.

Religious Beliefs The division of Korea and the Korean War played a central role in shaping the attitudes of Koreans toward religion. In the case of shamanism, South Korea maintained a tradition of hereditary shamans, under which the shaman title was passed down from one generation to another, while North Korea recognized spirit-possessed shamans, whereby it was necessary for a shaman to demonstrate spiritual powers. However, upon the establishment of the Democratic People’s Republic, the Northern regime harshly persecuted North Korean shamans, who were forced to seek refuge in the South during the war.

Consequently, as spirit-possessed shamans from the North integrated themselves into the South, the traditional shamanist community emerged with a new face.

As for mainstream religions and individual sects, they were affected by the war in varying ways. For example, because a large majority of Chondogyo (Religion of the Heavenly Way) followers were from the North, the number of its adherents plummeted. Confucianism and Buddhism also experienced considerable contraction, while the believers of Protestantism and Catholicism expanded quite noticeably. With more than two-thirds of Presbyterian Christians living in North Korea, when they became a target of persecution by the Northern regime, this led to a large-scale exodus of its believers and leaders to the South, where they visibly influenced the development of Christianity in Korea after the war. Of particular note, churches such as Youngnak Presbyterian Church and Choonghyun Church in Seoul, founded by “Northwestern Christians” from Pyongyang, played a prominent role in the anticommunism efforts of Korean society.

Belief in Christianity spread widely during the war through missionary outreach efforts among the military personnel and Summer 2010 | Koreana 13

1Earthenware crocks store soy sauce and soybean paste that are carefully prepared according to generationsold family recipes.

2Clan members gather at Okdong Seowon in Sangju to prepare for an ancestral ritual.

1

POW detainees as well. It has been noted that the Christian leanings of President Syngman Rhee’s administration also served to promote its acceptance among the general populace. Christianity was seen as a means to obtain relief supplies, as well as a pathway to the United States and a way to taste a piece of the American lifestyle in Korea. With so many Koreans relying on the church for food aid, the United States came to be stamped indelibly into the minds of Koreans as a “land of grace.” There are scholars who regard a tendency among Christian circles, to believe that material blessings will naturally follow from a belief in Christ, can be traced to people’s experiences of the war and its aftermath.

Some believe that Christianity gained considerable popularity because, unlike other religions, it offered a sense of community and an explanation of sorts to help people understand the irrationality of war atrocities. The war resulted in the massive displacement of people, in terms of geography and social status, while the Christian church offered these newcomers emotional stability and social cohesion. In particular, the churches founded by refugees from North Korea provided a sense of community for those who had been so abruptly uprooted. In addition, various Christian leaders thought of the Korean War as “a trial imposed by God so that He might use the Korean people as a means to achieve world salvation,” while others interpreted it as a sign of a coming of the world’ s final judgment. Although this interpretation was limited to a small group of people, it did have the effect of making understandable an utterly cruel, incomprehensible reality.

14 Koreana | Summer 2010

2

Inflow of Refugees Along with the Korean War’s massive scale and substantial loss of human life, another far-reaching consequence was its displacement of countless people who were forced to abandon their homes. In most cases, it was not possible for people to relocate in family units; the men left by themselves to ensure that the family name would survive or perhaps because other family members were incapable of making the journey, resulting in vast numbers of separated families. It has been estimated that some 1.5 million people fled southward during the eight-year period from 1945 (when Korea was liberated from Japanese colonial rule) to 1953, which marked the end of the Korean War. Moreover, the relocatees are said to have left behind some 4.5 to 6 million family members, equal to a 15-20 percent share of the 1950 population.

People from North Korea most often settled in the cities, which contributed to the South’s urbanization and modernization efforts in the 1950s, although this did result in the emergence of low-income slum areas. At that time, South Korea’s urban residents accounted for about 24.5 percent of the overall population. Former North Koreans resettled in large numbers in border regions, such as Sokcho, which drastically altered the local community makeup.

Before liberation, the residents of northwestern Korea were known for being open-minded and progressive, along with being well educated and successful in business, and many of them being Christians. Since the people who fled from the North did so for their survival or to pursue a better life, it was natural for

1 The campus of Ewha Womans University.

Today, some 81.9 percent of high school students are admitted to university or college, reflecting Korea’s well-known zeal for education.

2 Choonghyun Church in Seoul was founded

by Christians from North Korea who fled to South Korea.

these refugees to bring a strong sense of survival and resiliency to South Korean society.

Many refugees emphasized their anticommunist beliefs and even actively participated in the conservative anticommunism movement in South Korea. But they also suffered from extreme emotional distress over the family members they left behind, and many were watched carefully by the authorities.

It was only in 1985, 32 years after the war’s end, that the first meeting was held to bring together separated family members from South Korea and North Korea. This was followed by a second reunion meeting in 2000. There were also those who made their way to the United States for a more secure environment and to pursue the American dream.

Benefits of Education, Military Service For Koreans, who had acquired a keen appreciation for the importance of education through the painful experience of colonial rule, the war taught them that modern education could well mean the difference in your very survival. The mandatory military service was postponed for university students during the war and the post-war reconstruction period as well, while English-language competency and modern education were essential to open the doors to employment opportunity and social advancement. Indeed, material wealth could be destroyed or looted during war, but education was a “secure” asset, as well as a pathway to social status and economic prosperity. Education has thus determined the fate of entire families. It could be said that the passion for education among modern-day Koreans can

well be attributed to the lessons learned from the Korean War. Even after the signing of the armistice agreement brought an end to the battlefield hostilities, peace was not established and the state of South-North confrontation continued. For its security, South Korea was forced to maintain a 600,000-member military, a massive commitment when compared to the nation’s population, and as a result, all Korean men were required to serve in the military. Due to the war, the ongoing confrontation between South and North, and U.S. military aid, military service provided valuable opportunities for education and training, while the government’s generous support of the military sector enabled it to secure advanced know-how and organization practices. Although anticommunist ideology played a notable role, this military-centered environment set the stage for Korea’s military coup d’etat and authoritarian regimes.

For Korean men, military service provided an entrance into society, as the lessons learned about the military’s teamwork cooperation and organizational principles proved to be of significant value in the civilian sector as well. Critics claim that military service contributes to an excess of macho tendencies in Korean society and a reinforcement of the patriarchal and authoritarian systems, along with creating obstacles to true democratization. But for the pre-war generation in Japan, they are known to admire Korean men for their strength of character and fighting spirit, as well as a strong sense of camaraderie, as a result of their military service. Moreover, they seem to lament an absence of these characteristics in Japan’s post-war generation.

Summer 2010 | Koreana 15

Refugees scurry across the structural remnants of the heavily damaged Pyongyang Daedonggang Railway Bridge to move southward. This scene of utter desperation tells the tale of the war’s tragic consequences.

16 Koreana | Summer 2010

Š NOONBIT Publishing Co.

Wartime Trauma Etched Deeply in the Korean Heart Last spring, at Imjingak, nearby the DMZ, a white-haired old man, his face lined with wrinkles, stood at a chain link fence and gazed at the mountains and rivers of North Korea. The rays of spring sunshine that reflected off his silver hair were like x-rays, capable of penetrating body and soul, bringing to light the deep remorse in the heart of this man, who had been separated from his family all this while. The tragedy of the Korean War, even after the passage of 60 years, remains a source of unbearable anguish for too many Koreans..

Hahn Myung-hee Director, Imisi Academy for Korean Music Culture Sung Jong-yun Photographer

T

here was a time when Korea was known to the world as “The Hermit Kingdom” or “The Land of the Morning Calm.” This reflected the peaceful state that occupied a small, unassuming part of Northeast Asia. Yet a storm began to brew in the second half of the 19th century, from which even such a small and peaceful Korean Peninsula could not hide. This storm began with pressure from the Western powers to open the doors of the nation and led to an invasion of the Korean Peninsula by Japan’s Empire. And just when it had seemed that Korea had finally achieved independence from these formidable international dynamics, a communist power from the north came sweeping down the Korean Peninsula. In the end, the Korean Peninsula, which had shared a common blood, common language, and common culture for thousands of years, was abruptly severed at the 38th parallel, which set the stage for mutual hostility.

Han River Miracle For Koreans, the Korean War marked a period of unprecedented hardship and suffering. The entire nation was riddled with bullet holes, amid the ruins of destruction and stench of rotting corpses. The harsh reality was an endless succession of starvation, despair, and tragedy.

Thereafter, like the old saying that “time heals all wounds,” as the years passed by the wounds left by the war were eventually cleansed and allowed to heal.

As for numerous mountains, whose slopes had been extensively gouged by artillery shelling and bombing raids, they eventually managed to again bloom with new greenery, while the nation of Korea, which had been

torn apart by war, gradually began to return to a state of normalcy. However, rather than a restoration of its original form, it was reborn in an entirely new form. The people of Korea built such a new form that people around the world would call it the “Han River Miracle.” At least on the surface, it seemed that the wounds of the war had healed, leaving only barely perceptible scars.

But the Korean War is not over. This is not because North and South still face off today, or because the armistice agreement is in effect. The physical and social scars of war might be less visible, but mentally and emotionally, the sorrowful bitterness of the Korean War still remains deep in the hearts of all Koreans. Although the pain on the surface may be less evident, it has simply burrowed its way deeply into the body, where the nightmare of the war remains vivid and fresh.

Separated Family Members June 30, 1983 was an unforgettable day, when all of Korea spent the evening fighting back tears as they viewed a live KBS broadcast that sought to reunite the family members who had been separated by the war.

Nearly 30 years later, this KBS program, which hoped to bring together separated family members, can be vividly remem-

Summer 2010 | Koreana 17

1 © NOONBIT Publishing Co.

bered by Korean viewers. The “Does Anyone Know This Person?” program was meant to be a one-time special broadcast.

But as soon as the program concluded, the station was flooded with phone calls from separated family members and swamped with people who visited the studio in person to describe their situation.

As a result of this unexpected reaction, KBS extended the broadcast into the early morning of the following day, and ended up airing the program for another 138 days. During this time, some 100,000 separated family members appeared on the show, of which there were 10,189 successful reunions, marked by a dramatic outpouring of emotions. The program repeatedly featured such heartrending scenes, while the sight of the KBS building, plastered with thousands of posters from people looking for lost family members, was another reminder of the Korean War’s cruel tragedy.

18 Koreana | Summer 2010

People could only lament the plight of “ten million separated family members.” Of note, the number of people who had been separated from their family members amounted to about one-quarter of the population of South Korea. The people who appeared on the KBS program, whether originally from South Korea or North Korea, had never seen the family members they had been separated from during the war, even though they resided in the South. Those who had left their family members behind in North Korea, however, could not even hope to be reunited with their family members. The Armistice Line, which separated North and South Korea, prevented people from going back and forth.

Recently, in the years since the KBS efforts, selected family members in the North and South have at least been allowed to see each other, if only briefly and intermittently. Since 1988, about 127,000 people have applied to be reunited with fam-

1 Soldiers and refugees swarm onto an LST vessel in accordance with a Heungnam evacuation order, issued by the United Nations Command, on December 12, 1950. South Korean civilians joined South Korean troops and U.N. forces, in a massive maritime flight to safety.

2, 3 On June 30, 1983, when KBS aired a live broadcast to reunite family members, who had been separated since the war, the KBS facility was flooded by separated family members from across the country. They covered the building walls with their pleas for assistance. Originally intended to be a one-time broadcast, the program continued for another four and a half months, which resulted in more than 10,000 successful reunions.

2 © Hong Soon Tai

3 © Hong Soon Tai

Of the 127,000 people who applied for the reunion program to see separated family members in the North, some 19,000 have been reunited with their relatives, while another 42,000 applicants have since passed away. For these elderly survivors, who are well into their 80s and 90s, their hopes to see long lost, but never forgotten, family members are steadily dimming. For the people of Korea, the war’s trauma is so deep that it is beyond comprehension.

ily members in the North. Of these, some 19,000 have been able to see their relatives through the occasional North-South reunions. During this time, about 42,000 applicants have since passed away. These families have been separated for some 60 years since the Korean War, while those who so desperately seek a reunion are elderly individuals in their 80s and 90s. With so little time remaining in their lives, their hopes of seeing their long lost, but not forgotten, family members are steadily dimming. This is because of the hard-line attitude of the North Korean regime, which defies common sense. For the people of Korea, the war’s trauma is so deep that it is beyond comprehension and imagination.

Recovery of Remains On June 25, 2009, there was a gathering of some 200 people, including well-known figures of Korean culture, at Imisi

Academy, in a quiet valley outside of Seoul. The event featured a poetry recital on the occasion of the 59th anniversary of the start of the Korean War. The program began with Lieutenant Major Lee Yong-seok, who described his efforts to recover the remains of war casualties. This was followed by the reading of emotional poems about the Korean War, by the popular broadcaster Kim Se-won, voice talents Kim Jong-seong and Yu Gang-jin, and veteran actress Park Jung-Ja. There was also a saxophone performance of familiar songs from the time of the Korean War, while the acclaimed pansori performer Ahn Sook Sun deepened the solemn atmosphere with her melancholy lyrics.

The two-hour program brought everyone together in a sorrowful and somber atmosphere. Many in the audience could not hold back their tears during Lieutenant Major Lee’s stories about recovering the remains of war victims. In 2000, the MinSummer 2010 | Koreana 19

1

istry of National Defense launched an MND Agency for KIA Recovery and ID. Though a belated start, it was modeled after the JPAC (Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command), which is based in Hawaii. The MND estimates that the number of war victims, whose remains have not been recovered, amounts to some 130,000. In the ten years of the Agency for KIA Recovery and ID’s operations, the remains of 4,133 victims have been found.

There are still another 126,000 victims scattered about the nation, who have yet to be returned to their loved ones. With the passage of time, it becomes ever more difficult to recover remains, as the environment changes, landmarks disappear and there are no longer many people who can identify sites where remains might be found. Before long, it may not be possible for the remains to ever see the light of day, eventually returning to dust and giving life to beautiful flowers that brighten their homeland. This is the unfortunate and tragic reality.

In August 2000, just after the Agency for KIA Recovery and ID was founded, there was a miraculous incident in Hyeon-ri, Inje-gun, Gangwon-do Province. The area of Hyeon-ri, surrounded by mountains rising up 1,000 meters, was the site of a fierce battle during the Korean War. During this fighting, Kim Gwon-sun, from Suncheon in the southern part of the Korean 20 Koreana | Summer 2010

Peninsula, was killed. When he joined the army, he left behind his wife and one-year-old daughter. As Kim’s remains were not recovered, his wife waited long for his return, but later remarried and moved to an island in the South Sea. The daughter, Kim Chun-hwa, grew up without her father and eventually married. But she and her husband never lost hope of recovering the remains of her father, who had fallen on the battlefield. At long last, a former comrade of her father’s told her that her father had died nearby Yongpyo Bridge, in Hyeon-ri, Gangwon-do Province. Thereafter, Lieutenant Major Lee’s KIA recovery team arrived at a village near Hyeon-ri, where he heard the testimony of residents, who told him that An Seong-hwan, a 63-year-old resident who lived in a remote area, had an eerie dream.

In An’s dream, his deceased father came to him and said: “My child, important guests will be coming tomorrow, and the person they are looking for is inside the air-raid shelter behind the house. The last man buried there, the one who is the shortest, is the one they are looking for.” Amazingly, the remains of three soldiers were found buried there, and the shortest one was in the last spot, exactly as described in An’s dream. Moreover, this soldier, with a bullet wound in his leg, was identified as Kim Gwon-sun, Kim Chun-hwa’s father, through DNA testing.

1 Memorial of Mangbaedan at Imjingak, in Paju, Gyeonggi-do Province. Former North Koreans will stop by here on holidays and special occasions to perform ancestral rituals and remember their families across the border.

2 From the third floor observatory of Imjingak, you can view the lands of North Korea through binoculars.

Pain of Displacement The heartrending stories about the Korean War are so numerous, while the wartime trauma has left Koreans with such unbearable pain beyond description, that it is inevitable for some people to believe how such an intense yearning to be reunited with your own flesh and blood can result in actual miracles, just as faith is said to be capable of moving mountains.

The past 60 years are particularly important to the East Asian cultural sphere, which includes Korea. Since long ago, the planet Jupiter has been known as the “year planet,” and a standard for defining time periods. That is, the 12 years that it takes for Jupiter to orbit the sun were known as the “12 branches,” while the 12 years made up a cycle. The 60 years that it takes for Jupiter to complete five orbits around the sun makes up a sexagenarian cycle, which is considered to be a single unit in the life of a human being. Accordingly, anyone entering their 61st year would be said to be starting a “second cycle of life.”

As such, this year’s 60th anniversary of the start of the Korean War is all the more meaningful.

In spite of the passage of a considerable period of time, seeing even the slightest trace of the war can cause people to re-live the nightmarish scenes and past heartache. This is true when viewing photographs of demolished bridges along the Hangang River or ruins of the Daedonggang River railway bridge, and the images of refugees, swarming like bees, to board U.S. naval vessels at Heungnam. It is true when we recall the stream of refugees leaving their homes in the dead of winter, with no known destination during the January 4th Retreat, and when we remember the severe hardship of Busan’s Gukje Market, overflowing with the starving masses.

Many Koreans can still vividly recall the Korean War’s horrors whenever they hear the beloved song, “Be Strong, Geum-sun,” along with being overwhelmed by a sense of deep remorse if they should listen to “Busan Station, the Place of Parting.” Women might sigh longingly when they hear “Heartbreaking Miari Hill,” which tells the heartbreaking story of a woman who can only watch as her husband is dragged off by North Korean troops. For those who have been separated from their families for so long, hearing the refrains of “Does Anyone

2

Know This Person?” might be enough to rekindle their desperate hopes of a reunion, if only faintly.

At Imjingak, nearby the DMZ, there is a memorial site for those who came south during the Korean War, leaving behind their homes and families. On special occasions such as the New Year’s holiday, these displaced people come here to offer greetings to their parents in the North and to perform ancestral rituals. One day in spring, the sunlight generated considerable warmth, after a long winter. Near the memorial, a white-haired old man, his face lined with wrinkles, stood at a chain link fence and gazed at the mountains and rivers of North Korea.

The mountains and fields, clear in his sight, remained silent and offered no response.

The white-haired old man took out a handkerchief and brought it to his eyes once or twice. He stood there like an old tree, silently looking out to the north. The rays of spring sunshine that reflected off his silver hair were like x-rays, capable of penetrating body and soul, bringing to light the deep remorse in the heart of this man, who had been separated from his family all this while. The white-haired old man’s heart was no doubt scarred by the war’s pain and frustration, which could not be healed by patience and longing. The tragedy of the Korean War, even after the passage of 60 years, remains a source of unbearable anguish for too many Koreans.

Summer 2010 | Koreana 21

Korea’s Phenomenal Post-War Development With the assistance of troops from 21 U.N. nations, Korea has been able to recover from the Korean War’s utter devastation and surge into the ranks of the world’s top 20 nations. The 60-year history of Korea’s post-war development is reflected in the almost unimaginable advancement of its economy, society, culture, population, and quality of life.

Park Tae-gyun Professor, Graduate School of International Studies, Seoul National University Seo Heun-kang Photographer

22 Koreana | Summer 2010

T

he Korean War was a catastrophic disaster for the entire Korean Peninsula. Not only in terms of the physical damage wrought by the war, but also the psychological anguish resulting from the separation of families and brutal massacres, which were so highly traumatic and beyond comprehension.

One notable aspect of the psychological damage incurred by the war is the extent to which the people of Korea were left with such a pervasive sense of despair and loss of confidence.

When the Korean people were liberated from Japan’s colonial rule, they were filled with optimism that they would be able to create a strong and prosperous nation on their own.

Even though two separate governments were founded in the South and North in 1948, they did not expect the peninsula’s division to last long, while believing that the nation would

A Hangang River cruise boat and nighttime view of the riverside

soon be reunited and be able to move forward in an autonomous manner. In this light, the South and North governments both developed plans to promote economic recovery.

Growth of Exports and National Income Soon after, this hope and confidence were dashed by the Korean War. After the war, Korea’s per capita income amounted to only $65, which was even lower than the figure during the Japanese colonial period. Even in 1961, eight years after the war and two administrations later, the per capita income stood at a mere $82. And when you take inflation into account, the increase of $17 showed little real improvement.

Still, there was a measure of hope for Korea. More than anything else, there was a growing belief that if you could succeed, then indeed you must succeed, through education. Free elementary school education was initiated, which enabled admission to middle school to steadily rise to 38 percent in 1961, as compared to around 16 percent in 1954. The number of university students, which amounted to about 30,000 in 1952, jumped to 60,000 by 1954, and exceeded 90,000 by 1960. Also, the number of female college students, which stood at only 1,000 or so at the time of liberation from Japanese colonial rule (1945), reached some 17,000 by 1960. The number of college students by 2009, nearly 50 years later, reached 3.07 million of which 1.21 million were female students.

This broadened availability of education fueled the public’s desire to attain democracy and economic development, which set the stage for the April 19th Student Revolution and Korea’s economic miracle, with unprecedented growth rates thanks in large part to the economic development plans adopted by the Park Chung Hee administration. This period of economic growth got underway in earnest in 1964, and over the next three decades from the 1960s to the early 1990s, with the exception of a few years in the 1980s, Korea recorded unheard of growth rates of more than 10 percent per annum. During this period, Korea’s economic growth rates well surpassed those of the economic powerhouse of Japan.

Exports, which stood at less than $100 million in 1962, when the first economic development plans were implemented, exceeded $1 billion in 1971, $10 billion in 1977, and amounted to $420 billion in 2008 (There was a 13.8 percent decline to $363 billion in 2009). Similarly, Korea’s per capita income surged sharply, reaching $1,000 in 1977, $3,218 in 1987, and $10,000 in 1995, surpassing the benchmark $20,000 level in 2007. It then dropped to $17,175 in 2009, the lowest level of the last five years.

Korea’s Industrial Standing Korea’s GDP stood at $832.9 billion in 2009, ranking 15th in the world. The business journal Fortune selected four Korean businesses, including Samsung Electronics, among its 100 global entrepreneurs in 2009, while Korea has produced Summer 2010 | Koreana 23

1

2

24 Koreana | Summer 2010

Exports, which stood at less than $100 million in 1962, when the first economic development plans were implemented, reached $1 billion in 1971, $10 billion in 1977, and amounted to $420 billion in 2008. Similarly, Korea’s per capita income increased sharply, after standing at $1,000 in 1977, it rose to $3,218 in 1987, and $10,000 in 1995, surpassing the benchmark $20,000 level in 2007.

global-standard, first-class products in the areas of shipbuilding, semiconductors, electronics, and autos. As for business scale, the share of Korean business sales, among the top 500 global enterprises, amounted to 2.9 percent in 1996, but declined to 1.5 percent after the financial crisis, then recovered to over 2.0 percent. Korea’s strong dependency on trade is among the highest of trade-oriented countries while its economic structure is centered on exports. Korea shows characteristics of both Asia and the West in its export products, such as electricelectronic and textiles, and autos.

Demographic Factors The strong economic growth and transformation of industrial structure brought about revolutionary changes to the society of Korea. The middle school attendance rate, which stood at 38 percent in 1961, reached the 100-percent mark in 1987, while high school and university admission rates likewise rose noticeably, from 21 percent to 80 percent, and from 6 percent to 29 percent, respectively, during the same period. The attendance rates of middle and high school in 2008 reached 99.9 percent and 99.7 percent, respectively, and the admission rate to university was 83.8 percent.

Amid these changes, women assumed more active roles in society as well. Up through the 1970s, women had in large part been relegated to simple manual-labor jobs in the processing industries, or in service industries. But since the 1980s, women were increasingly hired for specialized work on a large scale.

In 2009, the participation rate of women in economic activity was 50 percent. The field especially dominated by women was school teacher, with 74 percent of elementary school teachers, 64.5 percent of middle school teachers, and 42.1 percent of high school teachers being women. The percentage of successful female candidates on civil service and government-administered exams was quite high. The highest was 65.7 percent for the Foreign Service Examination, 51.2 percent for the Higher Civil Service Examination, and 38.0 percent for the bar exam.

The percentage of women in the current 18th National Assembly is 13.7 percent (41), an increase of 7.8 percent and 0.7 percent compared to 2000 and 2004, respectively.

Urbanization Trends Social changes can be measured by the distribution of household products, such as televisions, radios, and autos. In 1959, the total number of radios was only 300,000 (distribution rate of 9.1 percent), while the total number of televisions was a mere 1,000.

There were only 10 TV sets for every 1,000 people in 1965, but this number rose to 200 by 1980, and some 360 by 1995. If a typical family unit is assumed to consist of three to four members, then Korea had reached a point in which each family unit owned at least one TV, on average. Disagreement over which channel to watch, which had been a source of family discord up through the 1980s, has since become a thing of the past.

The urban migration rate has also shown a drastic increase.

The urbanization rate, which amounted to 23 percent in 1955, rose to 30 percent in 1960, 47 percent in 1975, 73 percent in 1990, and 81 percent in 2005. Recently, city dwellers, who have grown tired of the hectic urban life, have given rise to a new trend of relocating to rural areas, but their numbers are not enough to offset the rapid advance of urbanization. Although this urbanization growth is due to the people who resettle in the cities, it is also caused by the efforts of city authorities to expand their jurisdictional boundaries.

The increase in urbanization has resulted in a sharp contraction in the population of rural residents. The rural population, which stood at 16 million in 1967, began to decline drastically in the 1970s, due to the rapid pace of industrialization.

The percentage of the population that resided in urban areas, which was 28 percent in 1960, then increased to 41 percent by 1971, and soared to 74 percent by 1990. As the availability of electricity service was expanded through the Saemaeul (New Village) Movement, the number of villages with electricity rose from 20 percent in 1970, to 98 percent in 1978, but this did little to stem the flow of people into urban areas.

The burgeoning urban population was accompanied by a dramatic increase in the number of car owners. In 1955, the number of auto owners per 10,000 households was less than 10, but this figure surpassed 100 in 1980, 1,000 in 1990, and 10,000 in 2005. Today, there is more than one auto per household in Korea, overall. This sharp increase in the number of

1 Hyundai Heavy Industries Ulsan Shipyard. Korea’s shipbuilding industry has been ranked No. 1 in the world.

2 Incheon International Airport has been named the world’s best airport for five consecutive years.

Summer 2010 | Koreana 25

car owners is due to the large-scale production of autos since 1975, affordable prices for gasoline in the 1980s, and significant expansion of the national highway network, following completion of the Gyeongbu Expressway (Seoul-Busan) in 1970.

The rapid transformation into an industrialized society resulted in a more convenient and affluent lifestyle for Koreans, as indicated by the growing number of families who considered themselves as part of the middle class. As compared to 20.5 percent of the population, who described themselves as middle class in 1960, this figure doubled to 40.3 percent by 1980, and reached 53 percent in 2000. A broadening of this middle-class consciousness formed an essential social foundation for Korean society’s rapid promotion of democratization.

By 2009, the middle class accounted for 66.7 percent of the population.

Aging Population Rapid social change led to an evolution in traditional values and lifestyles. As public health care improved and more people sought an enhanced quality of life, Korean society rapidly became an aging society, with many people taking up new pursuits after their retirement from work. The average lifespan jumped from 52.4 years in 1960, to 70 years in 1987, to 79 years in 2005, and then to 79.4 years in 2007, while the average height of 17-year-old students increased by almost 6 centimeters, from 163.7 centimeters in 1965 to 169.5 centimeters in 1987. According to a survey on the physical fitness of the population conducted by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism in 2007, the average height of young people between 19 and 24

stood at 175.9 centimeters for males and 161.9 centimeters for females. These changes are due to a decrease in the populationper-doctor ratio to 1,218:1, a more than 50 percent reduction from that in 1965 (3,066:1), and to an improvement in hygiene conditions, such as an increase in the households with indoor plumbing, from 17.1 percent (1965) to 70 percent (1987).

This has resulted in a rapid alteration of the aging index (the share of the population aged 65 or older compared to the share under the age of 15), from 7 percent in 1960 to 20 percent in 1990, 35 percent in 2000, 50 percent in 2005, and 63.5 percent in 2009. On the other hand, the overall fertility rate (number of children that a typical woman would have during her lifetime) has declined from 4.5 in 1970, when family planning was first implemented, to 1.2 in 2005, leaving Korea with one of the lowest birthrates in the world.

In addition to its rapid aging, changing lifestyles have led to a sharp increase in the number of one-generation households, consisting of a nuclear family and single individuals living alone, from 7.5 percent in 1960 to 21.2 percent in 2005. Meanwhile, there has also been a decrease in the average number of family members per household to less than three (2005), and a decline in large households, in which multiple generations lived together, from 28.5 percent (1960) to 12.5 percent (1990). In 2009, households with more than seven family members amounted to only a 0.5 percent share. Thus, the welfare of the elderly has become an urgent social issue, while the so-called “silver industries” have emerged as a strategic growth sector. Of note, a kind of social isolation phenomenon has been on the rise, due to society’s modernization, while the

1 A clean room facility of the Samsung Electronics Giheung semiconductor complex. Korea’s electronic industry, which includes the manufacture of semiconductors, has developed in leaps and bounds.

2 Korean-made vehicles are exported worldwide, enabling Korea to rank as No.5 in the world in automobile production.

1

26 Koreana | Summer 2010

2

2

religious population has grown three-fold. In 1964, the proportion of people who described themselves as being religious amounted to some 13 percent (3.57 million), but this figure increased to 43 percent by 1985 (17.2 million of a total population of 40.42 million).

Related Indicators Moreover, a decline in the population growth rate, due to the low fertility rate, has created a situation in which Korea has been forced to import manpower from abroad, which has led to an increase in the number of long-term foreign residents in Korea, from 150,000 in 1999 to nearly 500,000 in 2005. International marriages increased from 5.0 percent in 2002, to 8.2 percent in 2003, and to 11 percent in 2008. In contrast to the 1980s and 1990s, when the majority of international marriages involved exchange students and U.S. military personnel in Korea, in the 2000s, there has been a dramatic rise in the number of marriages between Korean men from rural areas to women from other Asian countries. Along with the children of these marriages being known as “Kosians,” society has since developed a keen interest in Korea’s growing multiculturalism.

Today, it is no longer unusual to see a foreigner in most areas of Korea.

Yet relative indifference toward foreign workers and the re-

lated social consequences have become ever more serious. And while the number of foreign residents in Korea has expanded as result of globalization trends, Korea’s focus on foreign countries has been mainly centered on advanced nations, rather than developing countries. As such, Korea’s aid to developing countries has amounted to only some 0.1 percent of GDP, which ranks 29th among the 30 OECD member countries.

Korea’s rapid industrialization and accompanying social changes have caused the country to rank seventh in the world, in terms of total energy usage and oil consumption in 2005, which has led to the emergence of serious environmental issues. Energy usage ranked 9th in 2009, along with oil consumption as well. Meanwhile, despite the establishment of a modern capitalist economy, the percentage of workers belonging to labor unions rose from 9 percent in 1963, to 15 percent in 1981, before falling back to less than 10 percent in 2005. In 2008, this figure stood at a mere 10.5 percent. There has been enough economic development to advance Korea beyond the status of a developing nation, but society’s interest in social welfare and working conditions has not always kept pace with this economic success. Despite a polarization of society due to the 1997-98 financial crisis in Korea, and the growing emergence of an aging society, social welfare policies have actually been regressing in recent years.

Summer 2010 | Koreana 27

Photo Documentary of Korea’s Demilitarized Zone Korea’s Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) has long been a forbidden land. However, in 1997, the Ministry of National Defense retained me to photograph the DMZ. The results of this project were published in The 155 Miles of Truce Line, the Land of Remorse, Tension and Hope . In addition, I will present a photo exhibition, “Korea’s DMZ: In Search for Peace and Life,” at the U.N. Headquarters in New York (June 28-July 9, 2010).

Choi Byung Kwan Photographer

The DMZ, along the Armistice Line, has taken on the appearance of a grasslands area.

28 Koreana | Summer 2010

Summer 2010 | Koreana 29

1

2

30 Koreana | Summer 2010

During the more than half a century since the armistice, the DMZ has been off-limits to civilians, with access to the area being restricted to military personnel. Without a human presence, other life forms have managed to survive and flourish, including several animal and plant species that were thought to have been extinct.

A

fter three years of fighting, the Korean War ultimately ended up back where it had begun. It was a senseless, pathetic fratricidal war with no winner and no loser. On July 27, 1953, the Commander-in-Chief of the United Nations Command, the Supreme Commander of the North Korean Korea People’s Army, and the Commander of the Chinese People’s Volunteer Army signed the Armistice Agreement. Under this agreement, there was an immediate cessation of all hostility, along with the establishment of a buffer area, 4 kilometers wide and 249.4 kilometers long, to avoid direct contact and prevent further conflict.

This Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), which separates South Korea from North Korea, is bisected by a 155-mile Military Demarcation Line. On the southern side, 1,125 warning signs have been installed, in Hangeul and English, along the entire length of the DMZ. A 155-mile Trek In early 1997, the Army Headquarters established detailed plans to preserve the DMZ through a photo documentary project. After being selected as a photographer for this project, I walked along the entire 155-mile length of the DMZ three times, over a period of two years, while continuously taking photographs.

This was the first time for images of the DMZ to be captured by a civilian pho3 tographer in the half century since the Korean War. I started getting nervous a few days before I was to depart on my journey to photograph this land of tragedy which the war had left behind. I could hardly believe that I would be eating and sleeping with soldiers there during this assignment.

I placed my two bags in the back seat of a military jeep and settled into the seat next to my belongings. My elderly mother stood staring at me from the rusted front gate of the house, but said nothing. In the front seat of the jeep, a lieutenant major was assigned the task of transporting me to a military camp along the DMZ. The jeep drove ever northward, without stopping. My 80-year-old mother stood by the front gate until we were out of sight.

Along the way, we passed by armed soldiers walking along the shoulder of the road in unending columns, while the number of military vehicles, coming and going, steadily increased. As we drew closer to the DMZ, even the air seemed colder. My heart pounded in my chest. I could find nothing to say. A noticeable stillness hung in the air inside the jeep. Military camps were hidden in the mountains along the way, offering up only fleeting glimpses. Here and there, military police with rifles slung over their shoulders stopped our vehicle to inspect it.

The divisional troop information and education officer assigned me to my quarters. Having completely forgotten about my mother, whom I had left alone at home, I could only hope war would disappear from this land, and that the South and North might reconcile, so as to relieve this tension. Several nights passed without any sleep, because as hard as I tried to sleep, sleep would not come. All I could see out my window was a red neon-light cross; the moon and stars were not in sight. Every now and then, a gun shot would ring out and startle me. It was long after even the noisily chirping insects in the grass had gone silent.

I began taking photographs along the western front. The scenes that I first encountered within the DMZ seemed so unfamiliar and forlorn. Yet there existed here a unique kind of

1~3 A goat (Natural Monument No. 217), red-crown cranes (Natural Monument No. 202), and China Pink flowers, survive and even flourish within the DMZ.

Summer 2010 | Koreana 31

1

1 A wildflower blooms through a bullet-ridden helmet 2 Remains of Cheolwon Amjeonggyo Bridge that was destroyed during the Korean War 3 A poster for Choi Byung Kwan’s photo exhibition at the U.N.

beauty. There were minefields everywhere I turned, so I would not take even a single step off the prescribed paths. The ruins of war were all around and beyond comprehension: old trains and railroad tracks turned into heaps of twisted steel overgrown with weeds, rusted tanks and empty shells, helmets riddled with holes, signs warning of mines from the time of the war, collapsed bridges with only support columns, traces of former villages, and sites where schools once stood.

Among the ruins, I noticed a wildflower that had emerged through a hole in a rusted helmet, which I imagined was a young victim of the war who had been reborn in a new form. The sight stopped me in my tracks for some time.

Ecological Treasure Trove During the more than half a century since the armistice, the DMZ has been off-limits to civilians, with access to the area being restricted to military personnel. Without a human presence, other life forms have managed to survive and flourish, including several animal and plant species that were thought to have been extinct. Some areas were overgrown like a jungle, while other areas included vast plains stretching out in all directions. The colors of the wildflowers were especially vibrant and beautiful.

The DMZ, which resulted from a painful war, can now be thought of as a land with considerable promise. Above all, it has become an ecological treasure trove worthy of protection through international cooperation. I am convinced that, if South Korea and North Korea worked to heal the wounds of war in a spirit of reconciliation and coexistence, and appealed to the global com-

32 Koreana | Summer 2010

2

3

munity for assistance, the DMZ could be designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Indeed, this could also mean a huge economic boost to the North and South.

Along the southern side of the 155-mile-long Military Demarcation Line, a series of observatories have been built so that people can have a closer look, though still at a distance, at the North Korean land they have never been able to visit. Each time I stopped at an observatory, it would invariably be bustling with separated family members and other people from all walks of life. People would wait in line to catch a glimpse of their homeland, of which their memories had begun to fade.

One day, amid a cold winter wind, an elderly man, bent over with age, stood silently while gazing intently at the north through a pair of binoculars. This elderly man said that it was his dream to be able to visit his hometown again before he died. I took his hands firmly in mine, but could not say a word. His hands were wrinkled and covered with calluses. The depth of his remorse and yearning for his hometown was evident from the time he spent looking northward through his binoculars. As tears fell from his eyes, the wind that swirled about seemed to sense his deep despair.

I believe that the DMZ, which has played a vital role in preventing conflict on the Korean Peninsula over the past half century, is a scar as well as a fruit of the Korean War. And today, it has become a land of promise for the realization of lasting peace between North and South Korea. As I was photographing the DMZ, I did not feel threatened, but only prayed in earnest for the genuine peace of this land.

Summer 2010 | Koreana 33

Reflecting on the Korean War through Literature The theme of war has played a prominent role in Korea’s modern literature. While the authors of the postwar generation re-created their personal experiences about the Korean War’s horrors, third-generation writers delved into how the war’s aftermath, and still unhealed wounds, have colored their lives.

Kim Chi-su Literary Critic Professor Emeritus, Ewha Womans University

34 Koreana | Summer 2010

I

n terms of the subject matter and background for Korea’s fictional literature, no other historical event has exerted such a pervasive influence as the Korean War. With the execution of its surprise invasion of South Korea, North Korean troops forced South Korea’s troops to hastily retreat as far south as Daegu, within the first month of the war, thus gaining control of four-fifths of South Korean territory. The South Korean and U.N. troops then mounted a counterattack that advanced northward to the banks of the Amnokgang (Yalu) River, over the next five months. However, when China’s People’s Volunteer Army intervened, Seoul was again lost. After a fierce struggle to regain Seoul, the U.N. forces and North Korea agreed to a ceasefire and the two sides signed an armistice agreement at a site along today’s DMZ. The exodus of over 10 million refugees, who fled southward during the back-andforth fighting, left the South’s agriculture-based society in a chaotic state.

Post-war Generation Writers Most Korean fiction of the 1950s deals with the Korean War or uses this period as its setting. Notable members of this generation of writers, who personally experienced the war, include Yeom Sang-seop, Ahn Soo-gil, Hwang Sun-won, Kim Dong-ni, Park Gyeong-ni, Jang Yong-hak, Sunwoo Hwi, Son Chang-Sop, Seo Gi-won, Oh Sang-won, Lee Beom-seon, Lee Ho-chul, Song Byung-soo, and Ha Keun-chan. Yeom Sang-seop, Ahn Soo-gil, Hwang Sun-won, and Kim Dong-ni are part of the first-generation writers of the post-liberation era, while second-generation writers, who began writing in the 1950s as well, are known as the “post-war generation.” The Korean War was so tumultuous and catastrophic to individual families, social classes, and South Korea’s overall society that it served as a dividing line to define two generations of fiction writers.

As individuals who directly participated in the war by fighting against the enemy, escaping death on occasion, and seeing their friends die around them, the post-war generation of writers used their characters to denounce the senseless cruelty of war and to describe the wandering about and struggle for existence of survivors. These characters despaired at the evanescence and fickleness of human life as they engaged in a desperate search for a moral anchor for their everyday lives. And yet the characters, armed as they were with anticommunist sentiments, had no chance to examine the ideological direction of their society. They could not even question the meaning of the war in which they were forced to participate. Nor could they foresee the kind of society that they would have to live in. They were simply the casualties of war and victims of reality. As such, the post-war generation of writers used fiction as a means to re-create the reality they had experienced, to condemn the irrationality of reality, and bring to light the vagaries of human destiny.

Their works thus dealt with a variety of phenomena that

are associated with the extreme circumstances of war. First, the communist ideology that had been accepted in North Korea painted private landowners as the root of all evil, which resulted in the confiscation of their land and its redistribution among farmers and field workers. During this process, confrontation intensified between landowners and tenant farmers, leading to clashes and incidents of violence, as reflected in the works of Hwang Sun-won, Sunwoo Hwi, Lee Beom-seon, and Ha Keun-chan. Second, those who participated in the war would lose their human dignity by resorting to ruthless brutality, when they were forced to commit unthinkable acts for their very survival (Sunwoo Hwi, Oh Sang-won, Lee Beomseon). Third, the young people who had lost family members and loved ones due to the war were numbed with pain due to the wartime trauma. After losing faith in any system of values worth upholding, they would sometimes make immoral choices or lead lives of debauchery while the wounds of war did not easily heal and they continued to suffer from its consequences (Yeom Sang-seop, Hwang Sun-won, Seo Gi-won, Lee Beomseon, and Ha Keun-chan).

Fourth, although some children who lost their parents and siblings were cast adrift to wander the dark world of adults in order to fill their bellies they somehow managed to learn enough to overcome whatever adversity came their way (Lee Ho-chul and Song Byeong-su). Fifth, the extraordinary power of love was revealed through women who abandoned all selfrespect and pride as human beings and did not hesitate to sacrifice themselves to save a loved one in peril due to the war (Yeom Sang-seop, Hwang Sun-won, Kim Dong-ni, Park Gyeong-ni, and Seo Gi-won). Sixth, refugees who left their family members and hometowns behind when they fled to the South often found their lives marked by a sense of bitterness, due to the trials of starting a new life and a painful realization of never being able to return home again (Ahn Soo-gil, Jang Yong-hak, Lee Beom-seon, and Lee Ho-chul).

The post-war writers asked endless questions with their portrayal of the wandering of souls who had been traumatized by the war’s senseless violence. Within the context of these extreme consequences of war, they examined what it meant to be human, the difficulty of living like a human being, the relevance of morals, ethics, and laws that bound people together, and the profound depth of pain from losing a loved one without even knowing why, or having to kill someone simply because they were deemed the enemy.

The Square (Choi In-hun) Choi In-hun was notable for bringing a new perspective to the Korean War with his work The Square , in 1960. The protagonist, Lee Myeong-jun is unjustly assaulted by members of a South Korean investigative agency because his father had crossed over into the North after Korea’s liberation. He then visits a friend in Incheon, from where he secretly slips into Summer 2010 | Koreana 35

1 © NOONBIT Publishing Co.

North Korea. He expects to find the North’s heralded worker’s paradise, but instead he finds his defector father living a privileged life. He thus comes to realize the contradiction of the communist regime. When North Korea invades South Korea under a pretext of liberating the South, the protagonist is mobilized for the war effort. He is later taken prisoner at the Nak­ donggang River, and when he is released he chooses neither North nor South, instead deciding to leave Korea behind for a new land.

The Square was a unique form of fiction that dared to deal with the two divided systems, a taboo topic among Korean society at that time, from an objective and fundamental perspective. The protagonist is disillusioned with the deception perpetrated by North Korea as its justification for the war, but when he meets his lover Eun-hye on the battlefield, he realizes that his love for her is the most valuable reality. Yet the war does 36 Koreana | Summer 2010

not allow the two lovers to savor their love for long. After being separated from Eun-hye and taken prisoner, the protagonist is unable to accept the South’s capitalist society, which has been tainted by corruption, or the hypocrisy of the North’s tyrannical communism that claims to be a people’s government, and instead decides to leave Korea altogether.

North Korea’s communism and South Korea’s capitalism are merely nominal ideologies imported from the outside, not ideologies based on the internal necessities of Korean society.

But before the protagonist reaches India, his chosen destination, he leaps to his death into the Indian Ocean. Above all, his suicide is an expression of the deep soul-searching of someone who has realized that the truth of love is greater than any ideology, and death is not an escape or defeat, but a realization that death can be a means of attaining a perfect state of love. He has a vision of a flying seagull just before leaping into the sea,

© Korean Film Archive

2

1 View of the Geojedo Island prisoner-of-war camp from one of the guard towers, which is equipped with a machine gun.

2 Scenes from Flowers of Fire and The Descendants of Cain, as well as a poster for Superfluous Men, feature films adapted from literary works that dealt with the Korean War and its painful tragedy.

which symbolized the new life in Eun-hye’s womb. His reverence for life forces him to accept the fruit of their true love.

Although most of the fiction of the post-war generation deals with the conflict between good and evil, along with revealing the irrationality of humanity as a victim of the war through a traditional humanism based on an anticommunism mindset, The Square introduces the individual in a modern sense through a person who suffers great pain due to a clash between ideology and reality, and pays a dear price for the discovery of true love. This work, which could not be presented with a straightforward, linear narrative, instead adopted a modern form in which the story line is continuously interrupted or reverts to the past. In this regard, The Square is an exceptional work that offers a new perspective of the Korean War as well as a noteworthy starting point for the third generation of Korean War literature.

Third-generation Writers The third generation refers to the writers who experienced the Korean War during their childhood years, as part of refugee groups or in the rear. Along with emerging about a decade after the 1953 armistice agreement, they were notable as the “Hangeul Generation,” who was the first to learn Hangeul, the Korean alphabet, after Korea’s liberation. They were thus the first to think in Hangeul and to express themselves in Hangeul, along with being known as the “April 19th Generation,” for their lead role in the Student Revolution of April 19, 1960. The prominent writers of this generation included Kim Seung-ok, Yi Chong-jun, Park Tae-soon, Seo Jeong-in, Hong Sung-won, Kim Joo-young, Cho Hae-il, Kim Won-il, Jeon

Sang-guk, Yoo Jae-yong, Cho Sun Jak, and Yun Heung-gil.

These writers remember the Korean War from their youthful memories, but they discovered how the wounds of war still remained from their parents, which noticeably influenced their reality. As a generation who received education about democracy, they acquired a liberal and individualistic attitude, under which it was believed that they could determine the nature of their society. After experiencing the advancement of liberal democracy through the April 19th Revolution, they did not hesitate to express their views on the direction of social systems. They also sought to shed light on the fundamental cause of the conflict and confrontation between individuals, as well as between the individual and society, along with standing up for the rights of the individual amid Korea’s industrialized and commercialized market economy. Thus, their literary focus was varied and had a unique personality, but traces of the Korean War remained, in the background and the forefront as well.

Some writers dealt with protagonists who had experienced childhood trauma and then attempted to bury this wound deep within themselves, but suffered greatly whenever the trauma came to the surface (Yi Chong-jun, Seo Jeong-in, Kim Won-il, and Park Tae-soon). There were also writers who depicted protagonists who were forced to look after their family members at such a young age, after losing or being separated from their parents due to the war’s chaos (Kim Joo-young, Kim Won-il, Yoo Jae-yong, Cho Hae-il, and Cho Sun Jak).

Other writers portrayed their protagonists as individuals who, unable to even mention the absence of their fathers due to ideological concerns, were overwhelmed by nihilism and ended Summer 2010 | Koreana 37

The Square was a unique form of fiction that dared to deal with the two divided systems, a taboo topic among Korean society at that time, from an objective and fundamental perspective. It introduces the individual in a modern sense through a person who suffers great pain due to a clash between ideology and reality, and pays a dear price for the discovery of true love.

up leading a life of wandering, all the while wondering about their identity (Kim Seung-ok and Kim Won-il).

In addition, there were writers who delved into the tremendous pain wrought by the war, like that suffered by an old woman whose grandson dies in battle, or the bitterness of a dying refugee father who fails to realize his dream of returning to his hometown. Through these heart-wrenching experiences, the writers uncover the wounds of war and division that are still deeply rooted in the hearts and minds of Koreans (Yoon Heung-gil, Yoo Jae-yong, and Jeon Sang-guk). Other writers sought to tell the story of the wartime experiences of every group, class, and individual of Korean society, while bringing to light the absurdity of war’s violence and the illusions of ideology, along with advocating an anti-war attitude (Hong Sungwon). The third-generation writers, although they did not directly participate in the Korean War, asked questions about the ways in which the war remained a pervasive influence in their lives. These questions led to the discovery of a modern individual by placing their individual existence within a historical context.

From the 1980s, many of the works of the third-generation writers adopted a central motif that included the death of their protagonist. This was intended to reflect the fact that the principal players, who directly par-

Summer 2010 2010 38 Koreana | Spring

ticipated in the war or at least experienced it during the early 1950s, had reached an age when their lives were coming to an end. Although it seemed as if the Korean War might eventually be forgotten, their passing on served to rekindle memories of the war in the hearts and minds of the third-generation writers, who were inspired to reveal the significance of these experiences. Even though a number of years had elapsed since the war’s end, the reality of Korea’s continued division meant that this generation was still suffering from the war’s aftereffects.

As such, the death of the first generation that experienced the Korean War compelled the third generation to be even more sensitive toward the reality of life and to deal with relevant issues in their fictional works. Perhaps it is this irony, whereby death can spawn new life, which manifests the painful suffering of a divided Korea.

Tasks for the Fourth Generation Then, is there any way in which the wounds of the Korean War can be fully healed? Until unification of the Korean Peninsula is realized, healing on a fundamental level will not be possible. Yet Hwang Suk-young’s The Guest (published in the mid-2000s), suggests a possibility of, if not healing on a fundamental level, at least an end to the resentment and hatred.

Hwang concludes that the Korean people, after being unable to achieve a modernization of their own accord, brought about a bloodbath of “kill or be killed” after becoming entangled in foreign concepts. These “foreign concepts,” such as socialism and Christianity, are referred to by the author as “the guest.”

This work strives to open the way to coexistence of the North and the South by healing the souls who were still weighed down by bitter resentment and freeing them from an inclination toward violence. The author states: “I want to put the

Scenes from Taebaek Mountain Range, Yeongja’s Heyday, Flagman without a Flag, The Rainy Spell, and Fog, various films based on literary works with Korean War themes

© Korean Film Archive

Representative Literary Works about the Korean War Cho Hae-il: America Cho Sun Jak: Yeongja’s Heyday Choi In-hun: The Square

ghosts of the Cold War that are still on the Korean Peninsula to sleep with this one ritual.” This “one ritual” is his novel, The Guest . The author believes that listening to the stories of those who died unjustly is the only way to dispel their evil spirits and bring peace to those souls who continued to wander about even after their death, because they could not rest peacefully.

Here, we need to reflect on the words of Yi Chong-jun, expressed in his White Clothes (1994). He says that we must call together, appease, and comfort the spirits of the “countless remains left as white bones without tombs,” including those of the left-wing guerrilla forces and the right-wing punitive forces,” which are now “nothing but white bones bereft of all color of thought or ideology.” The author calls for not only the guerrilla and punitive forces, but also all the nameless souls of the countless innocent people on both sides who fell victim to the war, to be consoled and put to rest through a kind of memorial service, in order for genuine peace and reconciliation between the South and the North to be realized.

Yet the author notes that a true memorial service cannot be held by the first generation that actually experienced the war, but can only be held by the fourth generation, which has no direct relation to the war. In particular, they are without personal bias, which allows them to understand matters from an objective viewpoint and offer sincere consolation to the victims of both sides. Yi Chong-jun aptly points out the limitations of the older generation, who are still haunted by the nightmare of a North Korean invasion. Korean literary works remind readers that the Korean War is not yet over, but still in a state of ceasefire, while expressing a hope that true peace will soon come about so that the deep wounds of the Korean people can finally be healed. Indeed, Koreans dream about a world without war.

Ha Keun-chan: The Story of the Ferryboat; Roaring Laughter; The Royal Tombs and Occupying Forces Hong Sung-won: Byeongchon on D-Day Hwang Suk-young: The Guest Hwang Sun-won: The Descendants of Cain; Trees on a Slope Jang Yong-hak: Archetypal Legend; John’s Book of Poetry Jeon Sang-guk: Ah-be’s Family; Abandonment Burial Jo Jung-rae: Taebaek Mountain Range Kim Dong-ni: Evacuation of Heungnam Kim Joo-young: The Sound of Thunder; Winter of the Son Kim Seung-ok: Seoul-1964-Winter; Record of a Journey to Mujin Kim Won-il: The House with a Big Yard; Evening Glow; A Festival of Fire Lee Byung-ju: Jiri Mountain Lee Dong-ha: Toy City Lee Ho-chul: Leaving Home; Petit Bourgeois Lim Chul-woo: The Land of My Father Oh Jung-hee: Garden of Childhood; Chinatown Oh Sang-won: Records on Blank Paper Park Gyeong-ni: The Marketplace and the Battlefield Park Tae-soon: Theater in Ruins Seo Gi-won: Blank Map; An Embrace, on This Mature Night Seo Jeong-in: The Waltz Son Chang-Sop: The Divine Comedy; Superfluous Men; Unsolved Chapter; The Rainy Season Sunwoo Hwi: Flowers of Fire; Flagman Without a Flag; The Finale of the Chase Yeom Sang-seop: Shower Yi Chong-jun: The Walls of Rumor; The Tuner; The Wounded; White Clothes Yi Mun-yol: The Age of Heroes Yoo Jae-yong: Portrait of My Elder Sister; The Great Tree Yun Heung-gil: The Rainy Spell; Mother

Summer 2010 | Koreana 39

Korea’s Standing in the Global Community Korea has not forgotten the assistance that it once received from the international community and is now hard at work to repay this debt, through an expansion of its Official Development Assistance and efforts to share Korea’s development experiences with developing nations. Korea strives to serve as a bridge between the world’s advanced and developing nations in order to more effectively address the daunting problems of the global community.

Lee Tae Joo Professor, Hansung University

K

orea has risen from the rubble of war, as the poorest and most desperate nation in the world, to become an important member of the international community, with the world’s 13th-largest economy. In 2009, Korea joined the Development Assistance Committee (DAC), the group of advanced donor nations of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).

Moreover, in November 2010, Korea will host the Seoul G20 Summit, which plays a central role in coordinating multilateral efforts to deal with the world’s most difficult problems, such as mitigating climate change, adopting financial reform, reducing poverty, and resolving conflicts.

1 The 3rd Seoul ODA (Official Development Assistance) International Conference was held in Korea, November 2009.

2 KOICA (Korea International Cooperation Agency) volunteers provide medical services in Ethiopia.

40 Koreana | Summer 2010

From Aid Recipient to Donor In the past, Korea was a recipient of aid from countries around the world. Through the 1990s, Korea received emergency assistance and food aid from the international community after its liberation from Japanese colonial rule, as well as support for its post-war reconstruction, along with funding and technology support for economic development, amounting to some $12.7 billion (roughly equivalent to $60 billion in today’s values). Moreover, a number of notable institutions in Korea, such as the National Medical Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Pohang Iron and Steel Company (POSCO), Korea-Germany Vocational Training Center, and Gyeongbu Expressway, have been developed with support from the international community. Especially noteworthy is the fact that among all the nations that have received assistance from the global community in recent decades, only Korea has become a donor nation that now gives help to other countries. This has earned the wonder and admiration of the world, as well as Eckhard Deutscher, chair of the DAC, who has noted: “Korea’s entrance into the DAC is a success story that gives poor nations the confidence that they too can achieve such success, and a symbolic victory over the traditional South-North problem.”

Today, Korea is able to extend its Official Development Assistance (ODA) to 4 of the 21 nations that rendered support to the South during the Korean War: Ethiopia, the Philippines, Colombia, and Thailand. The Korean government also intends to expand its assistance efforts with the launch of a Knowledge Sharing Program (KSP) so that Korea can share its economic development experiences with the nations which contributed to the U.N. forces that came to Korea’s defense during the war.

In addition to the 16 nations that dispatched combat troops and another 5 countries that deployed medical personnel, the 32 nations that provided financial support and supplies are mostly developing nations, including Cambodia, and Myanmar, which today are among the world’s poorest countries with struggling economies.

Ethiopia, one of Africa’s poorest nations, has recently been named a key partner of Korea as part of Korea’s “Africa Development Initiative.” In Yeka, the home village of Korean War veterans, the Korean government has built an elementary school and is assisting a large-scale project to develop wells for drinking water, a much-needed resource for the people of Ethiopia. In the Philippines, an ally that enjoyed greater economic affluence than Korea at the time of the Korean War, Korea is ex-

1

2

© KOICA

Summer 2010 | Koreana 41 © KOICA

tending support for such projects as the construction of industrial complexes, feasibility studies for the development of thermoelectric power plants, and the upgrading of airport facilities and power distribution facilities, as well as the provision of a vocational training center, IT center, rice processing plant, general hospital, marine-product processing facility, and a pulmonary disease center.

In Bogota, the capital of Colombia, which deployed 5,100 troops to help defend the South, Korea has developed a rehabilitation hospital and is supporting efforts to upgrade various medical facilities. Korea is also sharing its IT technology to help with the development of Colombia’s information and communications sector. In Thailand, which also sent troops to the Korean Peninsula, Korea has strengthened the cooperative relations between the two nations by building schools for low-income areas, establishing a Korean language center, and promoting the development of Korean Studies, along with supporting the development of rural villages, providing agricultural technology, and dispatching volunteer groups.

In this way, Korea has not forgotten the assistance that it once received from the international community and is now hard at work to repay this debt, through an expansion of its Official Development Assistance and efforts to share Korea’s development experiences with developing nations.

1

2

The Korean government has set a target of providing some $3 billion of ODA, or 0.25 percent of its GNI (Gross National Income), by 2015, along with dramatically increasing its assistance budget in the years ahead. The Korean government strives to expand its international assistance in qualitative terms as well, through the provision of support for the promotion of technological and humanitarian endeavors. To this end, the 4th High Level Forum on Aid Effectiveness will be co-hosted with OECD/ DAC in Seoul in 2011.

From Enemy to Partner It is also noteworthy that China, which sided with the North during the Korean War, has enjoyed a rapid economic ascent, along with Brazil, India, and other nations, while emerging as a new donor nation. Moreover, as a leader of the G-77, China is promoting South-South Cooperation to supplement the Western world’s assistance, which is primarily associated with the DAC. As such, Korea has sought to integrate the development assistance and South-South Cooperation of new donor nations, such as China and Brazil, with the traditional assistance structure centered around European donor nations, in an effort to create a new global aid structure and serve as a bridge between the world’s advanced and developing nations in order to more effectively address the daunting problems of the global community.

As a new superpower, China’s rapid economic growth and widening influence on the global or42 Koreana | Summer 2010

der will have a notable impact on the international aid structure, while China’s partnership relations with Korea are expected to be further enhanced.

Korea has experienced the difficulties now faced by developing and poor nations, and has successfully overcome these challenges. Like other developing nations, Korea suffered from the exploitation of colonial rulers and has gone on to establish a nation state with support from the United Nations.

Korea has also suffered the tragedy of a fratricidal war and national division. In the process of its modernization as well, despite widespread poverty and authoritarian regimes, and having to deal with social turmoil and the emergence of an ardent desire for democracy, Korea miraculously attained economic development and democracy at the same time. Thus, Korea’s miracle of economic

Eckhard Deutscher, chair of the Development Assistance Committee (DAC), has noted: “Korea’s entrance into the DAC is a success story that gives poor nations the confidence that they too can achieve such success, and a symbolic victory over the traditional North-South problem.”

© KOICA

3

development and democracy offer much hope and inspiration for developing nations. Korea thus seeks to share these valuable experiences with developing nations, which will enable Korea to provide a distinctive form of international assistance with more practical applications for developing nations.

Private Volunteer Efforts Korea is doing its utmost to become a country known for its efforts for globalization, world peace, and environmental protection. Korea has moved from the margins of the world to its center, transformed itself from an aid recipient into a donor nation, and is now at the forefront of efforts to promote green growth. This is also a new-found passion for volunteerism abroad, which includes efforts by the government as well as university, private business, and civic groups.

The government has announced plans to dispatch 20,000 volunteers worldwide, over the next five years, as part of a “World Friends Korea” campaign. Including the volunteer groups supported by private groups, universities, and religious organizations, the number of overseas Korean volunteers amounts to several thousand, who can be found in every corner of the world. Only through these efforts to share Korea’s know-how and prosperity, can we realize a global Korea that truly belongs and lives in harmony with the international community. Only with the spread of a sense of global citizenship, while understanding that the world’s pain and suffering is not someone else’s problem but our own, can we realize a truly global Korea.

1 Volunteers offer emergency medical services in Haiti, which experienced a devastating earthquake.

2 Assistance from Korea helps to provide safe drinking water for the people of Swaziland.

3 Korea extended support for the building of an elementary school in Ethiopia.

Summer 2010 | Koreana 43

INTERVIEW

1 Kim Yu-na performs an exhibition program, to the musical accompaniment of “Meditation from Thais,” during the Gala Show event at the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics.

2 Kim Yu-na’s exhibition program, set to “Don’t Stop the Music” by Rihanna, to celebrate her gold medal

| Summer 2010 44 Koreana performance at the 2009-2010 ISU Grand Prix Final.

“I

will become a greater skater than Michelle Kwan.” In 2003, a member of the Korean national figure skating team boldly proclaimed that she would surpass the great Michelle Kwan, the silver medalist at the 1998 Nagano Winter Olympics, who at the time was regarded as the world’s best woman skater. Such an audacious statement by a girl who had just become a member of the Korean national figure skating team could easily have been thought of as wishful thinking. Such a claim seemed all the more implausible given the sorry state of Korean figure skating. Not only were there barely 50 figure skaters active in Korea, but there was a lack of adequate skating facilities for their training.

Still, Kim Yu-na stood out from other skaters. While her ambitious quest immediately set her apart from the rest, she was also fully committed to doing whatever was necessary to achieve her goal. There was no one in Korea in her age group, or even older, who could rival her natural talent. As a result, Kim’s sights were already focused on the global stage. Seven years down the road, Kim Yu-na indeed achieved her goal of becoming a greater skater than Michelle Kwan. She is now the world’s best-ever figure skater.

Textbook Jumps Kim Yu-na first laced up a pair of skates at the age of five. However, it was during the summer of 1996, when she was 6 years old, that she started to learn figure-skating techniques, when by good fortune an indoor rink was opened within the Gwacheon Civic Center, nearby her home. Although her sister, who also registered for skating lessons during her vacation period, eventually lost interest in skating, Yu-na was eager to continue. In fact, she loved skating so much that as a child she would watch videotapes of the performances of figure skaters rather than cartoons.

One day toward the end of an advanced class, the local coach suggested that Yu-na should think about training to become a professional figure skater. Well aware that her daughter had an exceptional talent for skating, Kim’s mother, Park Mi-hee, thought long and hard about the coach’s suggestion. To become a professional figure skater would mean devoting substantial time and money over a period of at least 10 years. In fact, once Yu-na decided to pursue figure skating, her training fees increased from 49,000 won to 350,000 won (about $340). She also replaced her 90,000 won skates for a new pair priced at 1 million won (about $950). Thereafter, figure skating became the central focus of her life.

Figure Skater

Kim Yu-na Stands on Top of the World While Kim Yu-na stood atop the podium after winning the 2009 World Figure Skating Championship, she envisioned even greater glory for herself; winning the gold medal at the 2010 Winter Olympics.

Today, the world waits to see what will be the next goal of this consummate figure skater who has inspired and thrilled audiences far and wide.

Kim Dong Wook Staff Reporter, Sports & Leisure Desk, The Dong-A Ilbo

1

Summer 2010 | Koreana 45

2

Shin Hye-sook, Yu-na’s coach at the time, recalls: “While the other students would relax during their free time, I would see Yu-na washing out her gloves for the next day’s practice.” In this way, she worked extremely hard and was always serious on the ice. She had a burning desire to succeed. She could not stand losing and did everything to the fullest. Her mother adds: “Yu-na practiced twice as much as the others. She did two years of training in one year.” While Yu-na practiced hard at all times, she always respected the basic fundamentals of skating. Her jumps have been described as “textbook perfect,” a cumulative result of her intensive training and respect for the fundamentals of skating.

Kim Yu-na says: “It is very difficult to change your habits once they have become set. Bad habits in a sport like figure skating, where athletes are scored on the precision of their moves, can become serious obstacles to success.”

Success at an Early Age Kim Yu-na’s initial success on the global stage came in the spring of 2002, when she won the Triglav Trophy at an international figure skating competition held in Jesenice, Slovenia. As a result of this success, in 2003 she became the youngest member of the Korean national figure skating team. After allowing herself a brief moment to rejoice, she returned to her rigorous routine of training from 10:00 in the morning and working hard until she went to sleep at 2:00 a.m., everyday except Sunday. A year later, Kim Yu-na would attain a new milestone in the history of Korean figure skating. In September 2004, she won the gold medal at the ISU Junior Grand Prix event, held in Budapest, Hungary, thereby becoming the first Korean to receive a gold medal at an international competition since the introduction of figure skating in Korea in 1908. After the gold medal ceremony, Kim telephoned her mother and said: “I showed everyone what I am made of, didn’t I Mommy? Just watch what I will do in the future!” Clearly, she had already set her sights on even greater success.

Of course, there were dark moments along the way as well.

Kim Yu-na thought about withdrawing during her preparations for the 2006 World Junior Figure Skating Championship. The source of her despair was her skates. Her skate boots, which should have lasted for at least four months, kept breaking after only a week or two. This unfortunate situation kept reoccurring, even after changing her skates several times. Fortunately, a sponsor stepped forward and provided her with high-quality skates, for no cost, after the 2006 Junior Grand Prix finals.

Dramatic Improvement In 2006, Kim Yu-na entered a new phase of her professional career after meeting Brian Orser, during a visit to Canada to consult with choreographer David Wilson. Brian Orser was immediately impressed with Kim, whom he referred to as “the total package.” Orser came to accept Kim Yu-na’s request and agreed to coach the young Korean skater, who became his first real student.

The visit to meet with Wilson thus proved to be a stroke of good 46 Koreana | Summer 2010

1

fortune for Kim Yu-na. The shy and intense Kim gradually learned to outwardly express herself. Wilson recalls his first impression of Kim: “Yu-na was so slim, and she had long limbs and a very serious look.” He adds: “My goal was to make her laugh.” Once under the wings of Orser and Wilson, Kim Yu-na started to flourish on the global stage.

Kim then enjoyed a string of impressive successes. She won a bronze medal at the 2006 Skate Canada, the event that marked her official entrance to the senior ranks. Then, despite a serious injury, she finished third at the 2007 World Figure Skating Championships in Tokyo. “It was probably a good thing that I finished third.

If I had made it to the top during my first season of senior competition, I would likely have become obsessed with keeping my first place standing. But I knew that there would be many chances for me to reach the top.”

Just as she had believed, Kim became a steady fixture on the top step of the podium from the next season and thereafter. During the 2007-2008 season, Kim won three Grand Prix competitions.

However, in March 2008, just before the 2008 World Figure Skating Championships in Gothenburg, Sweden, she suffered a hip injury.

And despite persistent pain, she went on to earn a bronze medal at this competition. In having closely observed Kim during com-

petitions, as a journalist, I came to quickly realize that this young woman possessed an extraordinary determination to succeed.

Although her mother had tears in her eyes as she watched Kim struggle through her performance, it was the daughter who wound up consoling her mother. Kim Yu-na recalls: “I even thought about withdrawing from the competition. But I cleared my mind and went out there and did my best. So, I don’t have any regrets about finishing third.” Even though she did not win at the 2008 World Figure Skating Championships, her popularity in Korea had already begun to soar. The number of students who wanted to learn figure skating jumped sharply. Moreover, as she increasingly garnered commercial endorsements, Kim soon became one of the most sought-after celebrities in Korea.

Exceeding Her Dreams “I have certain dreams as a figure skater. One is to win the World Figure Skating Championship. Once I have achieved this dream, I would like to challenge the top echelon at the 2010 Olympic Games in Vancouver.” This remark was made by Kim in March 2008, shortly before the World Figure Skating Championship. Her dream of winning the World Figure Skating Championship would become reality at the 2009 competition, held in Los Angeles,

where she set a new world record with a score of 207.71, thereby becoming the first female skater to surpass the 200-point mark, since the adoption of a new judging system in 2002.

Following her performance, Kim said: “I was surprised by my score. I am amazed that I was able to surpass 200 points. I don’t know whether I can establish another record in the future.

However, even if I never beat this score, I’ll try to hang on to this feeling.” Kim’s worry proved to be groundless. She went on to win the season-opening Grand Prix, held in Paris in October, with an unbelievable score of 210.03, finishing more than 30 points ahead of her closest competitor. She then won the subsequent Grand Prix event and the Grand Prix Final as well.

As Kim Yu-na mania swept though Korea, the over-the-top interest of her fans, in all aspects of her life, placed Yu-na in a difficult situation. During a Grand Prix Final event, in Goyang, Korea, the excessive cheering and adoration of the Korean audience proved to be such a distraction that she failed to perform up to her expectations. Sometime after the competition, Kim noted: “Figure skating is a sport that should be viewed rather than being cheered for so raucously. The organized cheering during the competition left me confused and stressed, along with being hard-pressed to maintain my concentration.” Nevertheless, Kim Yu-na continues to appreciate the support of her fans. The members of her fan club, which is known as “Coyote,” include a wide range of ages, whose knowledge about figure skating is truly remarkable. They have encouraged Kim, with some even traveling abroad to cheer her on at international arenas.

Although her fan club members have at times been criticized by sports fans in Korea for their obsessive interest in Kim Yu-na, foreign audiences have been impressed with their passionate encouragement.

Olympic Gold Medal Kim Yu-na was picked as one of the favorites to win the gold medal at the 2010 Winter Olympics by figure skating specialists and sports reporters. Philip Hersh of the Chicago Tribune wrote: “Yu-na Kim was nothing less than brilliant. She was sassy, speedy, and just plain scintillating. Kim was utterly in another league from the rest of the field.” It was against this backdrop that Kim Yu-na showed her true self on this final step toward achieving her ultimate dream.

1 Kim Yu-na fulfilled her lifetime dream by winning the gold medal at the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics for women’s figure skating.

2 Kim Yu-na performs her flawless short program to the accompaniment of “Danse Macabre” by Camille Saint Saens.

3

2

Summer 2010 | Koreana 47

1 Kim’s exceptional technique and graceful artistry are noticeably enhanced by her ideal physique for figure skating.

2 At the conclusion of her short program, to a James Bond soundtrack medley, Kim Yu-na strikes a pose as if aiming a gun, which has become her trademark.

“I have not yet approached perfection. I do not want to be remembered as a successful athlete, but rather as a person who achieved constant growth. More to the point, I want to be remembered as a great athlete who did her best to achieve her dreams, but also as Kim Yu-na, the person who always tried to do better.” (Excerpt from Kim Yu-na’s essay, “Kim Yu-na’s Seven Minute Drama”)

1 48 Koreana | Summer 2010

Her Olympic performance proved to be as close to perfection as humanly possible, which confirmed her pre-event confidence: “I am in the best condition I have ever been.” Although she flirted with perfection, she felt a heavy burden before each program.

To Kim Yu-na’s fans, she is known as someone with a “strong spirit.” Indeed, she has always possessed a special inner strength.

However, the Olympic stage, her ultimate dream, proved to be a stressful situation. Kim refused to talk with the media before the competition because she felt that this could be a mental distraction. A seriousness that had not been seen during previous competitions seemed to give her a boost just before her performance, while her facial expression was noticeably different as well.

Amid such immense pressure, Kim’s flawless performance resulted in yet another world record of 228.56 points, easily earning her the gold medal that she had long cherished. “I trained for this moment for a long time, and I am really happy that I was able to perform like I had prepared, and of course to win the gold medal. Since this was the Olympic Games, I did my best to empty my mind of all thoughts and simply go out there and perform. I was full of confidence and felt no tension. Being relieved of the burden I have borne for so long was the biggest thing for me. I felt really lighthearted out there.

While I am so elated to be the Olympic champion, I can’t help but feel such great joy that it is finally over.”

Having realized her dream, Kim’s face beamed with a satisfaction that she had never previously shown.

Her look, like her skating, was free and easy. She could hardly contain 2 her emotions, while playfully joking around with those around her. During a send-off event for the Korean National Olympic Team, Kim looked somewhat fatigued from the endless requests for autographs and photos. However, when she looked at my ID card photo, she joked that I looked more handsome in the photo than in real life, as she flashed the smile of someone who had achieved the dream of their lifetime.

True Korean Icon Following the 2010 Vancouver Olympic Games, Kim went through a period in which she strayed from her usual path, due in large part to the fulfillment of her lifelong goal. At the 2010 Ladies World Figure Skating Championship, held in Torino, Italy a mere 20 days after the Vancouver Olympics, Kim found herself sitting in seventh place after a mistake-filled short program. She refocused and was able to rank first in the long program, which enabled her

to secure a second-place finish overall. After the competition, Kim remarked: “I did not know that I would go through such a difficult period after the Olympics. I regret participating in the Ladies World Figure Skating Championship.” Kim experienced considerable hardship because she was only able to train for one week prior to the competition. Clearly, she needed a rest after her Olympic victory.

Thanks to her gold medal success at the Olympic Games, Kim Yu-na has become the most popular celebrity figure in Korea.

Her every word and action is reported as news. She cannot even walk along the streets without attracting attention. Kim has been featured in a number of TV commercials and various products that she has endorsed are now on the market. Clothing, bags, mobile phones, and cosmetic items linked to the skater have become hugely popular among local consumers. Yu-narelated items, such as diaries, bread products, and specially designed earrings, have become instant sellout hits. Simply put, Kim Yu-na has become a true Korean icon for the 2000s. Furthermore, she has been named by Time magazine as one of the world’s most influential people, for the year 2010.

Figure skating in Korea has undergone a revolution because of Kim Yu-na’s influence. In fact, figure skating in Korea can be broken down into periods before and after Kim Yu-na. Ten times more figure skaters have taken up the sport since Kim sashayed her way onto the global stage, including several junior figure skaters with a promising future.

Nevertheless, as was the case with Kim Yu-na, there is still a long way to go. There is still a lack of regulation ice rinks for figure skaters to train. Moreover, an upcoming figure skater with world-class potential, who might follow in her footsteps, has yet to be discovered in the post-Kim era.

Recently, there has been much concern that Kim Yu-na is contemplating retirement. Of course, there are those who worry that Korean figure skating will return to its previous state if Kim were to retire at the peak of her career. In this regard, Kim Yu-na notes: “Right now I cannot imagine a life away from figure skating. Perhaps some years down the road I might become a coach and teach young skaters.” Indeed, Kim Yu-na has already achieved so much.

However, her climb to the top of her world at such an early age has left Korea’s figure skating circles and general public waiting to see what her next move will be.

Summer 2010 | Koreana 49

ARTISAN

50 Koreana | Summer 2010

I

n Korea, where 70 percent of the land area is covered with mountains, the alignment of mountain ranges has been a key factor behind the development of regional characteristics.

In the Jeolla-do provinces, a rich agricultural area in the southwestern region of the peninsula, vast expanses of plains roll out to the sea along the western and southern coasts. A number of art forms have originated in this region, which is also the birthplace of pansori, Korea’s unique opera-like narrative that features a solo performer. Known as “the sound of Korea,” this indigenous music form epitomizes the Korean cultural sensibilities of the past.

While walking along a country road in the Jeolla-do provinces, you might come across an elderly person who could sing passages from “The Song of Sim Cheong,” at your request. The mild climate of this region made it ideal for the growing of bamboo, which enabled the area to become the center of bamboo-craft production in Korea. The coolness of a bamboo surface provides a sense of relief on a hot summer day. The practical applications of bamboo include the bamboo curtain hung in the doorway that deflects direct sunlight, while allowing a cool breeze to circulate, the jukbuin, or “bamboo wife,” which helps you to doze off on the most humid summer nights, and the bamboo sleeve frames that keep your clothing ventilated.

A fan made of durable mulberry paper and a bamboo frame has long been indispensable for countering the summer heat.

In Chinese, fan is written as seon (扇), while a master fan artisan is referred to as seonjajang (扇子匠). During the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), a Seonjacheong government agency was established in Jeonju, Jeollabuk-do Province, to oversee the production of fans, as a result of the city’s reputation for making such exquisitely crafted traditional fans. Jo Chung-ik, 63, an acclaimed fan maker based in Jeonju, has been designated Jeollabuk-do Intangible Cultural Property No. 10.

Round Fans Traditional Korean fans include round and folding types. A round fan, which is made by affixing mulberry paper or silk to a circular frame of bamboo strips, is known by various names including banggu buchae , danseon , and wonseon . On the other hand, a folding fan, which is known as jeopseon or jeopcheopseon , is made by attaching mulberry paper to a foldable frame of bamboo strips. In ancient times, Korean-made fans were highly esteemed for their refined craftsmanship, and often presented to foreign envoys as state gifts. After Korea developed the techniques for making folding fans, during the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392), this technology was transmitted to China and Japan.

The round fan, which boasts a longer history than the folding fan, varies widely in the shape of its frame and decorative treatment, for which each type has its own name. For example, taegeukseon features a taegeuk symbol at its center, while oyeop­ seon resembles the shape of a paulownia leaf, and pachoseon that of a plantain leaf. Semiseon is characterized by an intricate frame made with thin bamboo strips. The surface of a suseon is embellished with decorative embroidery, while the yunseon looks like a wheel with spokes. The surface of a hwangchilseon is coated with sap of the yellow lacquer tree, which produces a golden sheen and a subtle fragrance. Of note, the daewonseon is so large in size that it needs to be held with two hands. Jo Chung-ik, a master artisan of traditional fans, was born and raised in Jangsu, Jeollabuk-do Province. His career as a fan maker got underway in Jeonju, at the age of 29, when he completed his first fan.

Taegeuk Symbol “Before I took up fan making, I sold souvenirs to tourists at Gwanghallu Pavilion in Namwon. I made small folding screens with folk paintings that depicted scenes from ‘The Story of Chun-

Jo Chung-ik’s Traditional Fans

Functional Works of Art Traditional Korean fans include round and folding types, with the round fan boasting a longer history and greater variety. In the city of Jeonju, the home of Korean fan making, master fan maker and Jeollabuk-do Intangible Cultural Property No. 10 Jo Chung-ik has been busily carrying on the legacy of crafting round fans for the past 30 years, which includes his creation of more than 100 new designs.

Park Hyun Sook Freelance Writer | Ahn Hong-beom Photographer

Artisan Jo Chung-ik gained prominence in the world of traditional fan making by creating a standardized design (based on geometric proportions) for the three-section taegeuk symbol.

Summer 2010 | Koreana 51

hyang.’ One day, a taegeukseon caught my eye among a variety of souvenirs. This handcrafted item, which was so highly valued in the past that it would be presented to the king on the Dano festival, had become such a junky souvenir. The sloppy rendering of the symbol disturbed me to no end. I thought to myself: ‘Big or small, expensive or cheap, a beautiful Chun-hyang should be portrayed as a graceful girl, not a vulgar Wol-mae or Hyang-dan.’ So, I created a standard design for this enduring symbol. Until then, the symbol’s three sections were roughly apportioned by eye, so the size of each section was not always consistent. But the geometry-based sections of my standard design produced an artistic appearance that pleased me greatly, and others admired the stylish look as well,” explained the artisan, whose passionate expression was much like that of a pansori performer.

Jo Chung-ik rose to prominence as a master fan maker thanks to his artistic design of the traditional three-section taegeuk symbol, in which the blue, yellow, and red colors represent heaven, earth, and humans, respectively. Koreans can vividly recall the colorful taegeukseon that Korean athletes waved so joyfully during the opening and closing ceremonies of various international sporting competitions, including the 1982 New Delhi Asian Games, 1986 Seoul Asians Games, 1988 Seoul Olympic Games, and 2002 FIFA World Cup. These fans were the products of Jo’s hand.

“While I was making taegeukseon fans, a whole new world of traditional fans opened itself up to me. Tracking down their fading traces, I started to re-create the styles of ancient fans. Unlike most holders of the Intangible Cultural Property title, I did not learn from just one teacher. Rather, each time when I tried to make a specific type of fan, I sought out an expert to learn the related techniques. In this way, I re-created traditional fans, one after another, including oyeopseon, pachoseon, semiseon, and daewonseon. Then, I attempted to make entirely new fans with different shapes and decoration. I used fine strips of bamboo to depict folk-painting motifs, such as flowers, birds, and fish. I also made the world’s largest fan, which measures 270 centimeters wide and 420 centimeters long, as well as the world’s smallest, of 2.5 centimeters by 5 centimeters. I also made a fan that opened like a peacock’s tail, which required some 8,000 bamboo strips for the frame.”

Renovation of Tradition Jo Chung-ik’s Jukjeon Hand Fan Workshop (Jukjeon Sunjabang) can be found in Daeseong-dong, Wansan-gu,

Summer 2010 2010 52 Koreana | Spring

Jeonju. Based on his penname Jukjeon, meaning “bamboo fields,” the workshop is where he spends his time making fans, both reproductions of ancient fans and his own original creations. He says with a bemused smile: “It’s not a studio, nor a showroom. But it’s quite cluttered, isn’t it? This ambiguity might be what the poet Yun Seon-do alluded to in his ‘Songs on Five Friends,’ which goes: ‘Neither a tree, nor a plant / What makes you so straight / Why are you so empty within? / Green in all seasons / You’re my adorable friend.’” The walls of his 165-square-meter workshop are covered with all manner of fans of various types and shapes, along with mounds of partly finished works and materials lying all over the place.

Especially striking are the countless books stacked high in piles. From ancient Korean books of centuries ago, such as the Anthology of Korean Literature (Dongmunseon) , compiled by the Joseon Dynasty court official Seo Geo-jeong, and Jehol Diary (Yeolha ilgi), a travelogue by the scholar Bak Ji-won about his visit to China, to illustrated books on Korean painting, Korean and Chinese dictionaries and philosophy books. This library section looks much like a typical store for used books.

“My father studied the Chinese classics. I was his youngest son, born when he was 40. He taught me how to read Chinese characters even before I entered elementary school, but curiously, he started me out with the poetry of Tao Yuanming, instead of the basic textbook, Cheonjamun [One Thousand Character Classic]. In elementary school, he asked my teacher to allow me to skip the first grade, and start with second grade. Looking back, I feel it was my father’s way of showing his love for me. Unable to read and write in Korean, I was bewildered to be in the second grade, but even that did not last very long.

My family was so poor that I had to give up school in the fifth grade.

“Although I did not have much education in school, my love for books, which resulted from my father’s influence, has brightened my life. While I was making fans for a living and began to feel somewhat stifled, I read A Korean History from a Spiritual Perspective by the religious scholar Ham Seok-heon. The book helped me to realize that I had come to regard my job as mainly a means of ma­king a living. If you create something there should be meaning in your work, but I produced my fans simply to earn money, out of habit. The philosopher Ahn Byeong-uk stated in his book The Most Beautiful Things on Earth: ‘Life is a process of creative self-expression.’ In trying to take his

Jo preserves the basic structure of a traditional fan, while making various adaptations to the arrangement of the bamboo ribs and decorative elements.

Summer 2010 | Koreana 53

1

2

3

“A fan is not simply a tool to cool yourself off. For that matter, an air conditioner is far more effective, but a traditional fan can cool down your feverish heart. Everyone has a childhood memory of how their mother would gently fan them as they took a nap on her lap. The refreshing coolness of her loving hand was there to guide you throughout your life.”

words to heart, I attempt to work on a different fan design every day, which has enabled me to create more than 100 new types of fans so far.”

Fan-Making Process For Koreans in the past, a fan was much more than simply a means to create a breeze in summer; it was a versatile household item. People would often say that a fan had “eight virtues” or uses. This included an ability to create a breeze, shoo away flies and mosquitoes, cover an open container, provide shade from the sun, fan a fire, serve as a cushion when you sat on the ground, replace a dustpan, and provide a base when you carried a bundle on your head. In addition, it can heighten the mirth and enhance the performance of shamans, dancers, and singers. When decorated with poetry, calligraphy, or painting works, the fan becomes a functional work of art, which can be appreciated at anytime and anywhere.

“Honestly, there is nothing very complicated about making a fan. I don’t mean to be modest, but if you possess basic manual skills, all you need to do is follow the process. When all the materials are available, a simple fan can be completed within half a day. Of course, a fan with an elaborate bamboo frame can involve more than two months of work. To make a taegeukseon, there are 11 basic steps. First, the stalk of a two-year-old bamboo, from a sunny area, is cut to a proper length for making the fan’s ribs. The stalk is split into strips with a 1.5-centimeter width, and trimmed to a thickness of 1 millimeter.

1 Bamboo strips are placed on a sheet of white paper cut to the desired form.

2 A three-part taegeuk pattern is affixed to a thin sheet of mulberry paper.

3 The two sheets of paper are adhered together tightly, then the edges are trimmed and finished.

4 The fan is decorated with an intricate design made with thin bamboo strips.

54 Koreana | Summer 2010

4

The strips are split again to a width of about 1 millimeter, and then shaped into rounded strips of equal length. The round strips are placed on a sheet of base paper that has been cut to match the outline of the actual fan, which is covered with another layer of paper to which a taegeuk symbol has been attached. To assure that everything is firmly adhered together, the paper layers and bamboo frame are placed between two blankets. Then, you need to apply pressure on the blanket to compress everything tightly together. This step is known as dapseon (treading process).

Thereafter, the edges are trimmed to the final shape, and finished with a paper border. Finally, a wooden handle is attached to the fan with decorative rivets.”

3 2 Jo will often leave the surface of his fan blank, in the hope of having a prominent calligrapher or painter add an artistic work to the fan. Early on, his polite requests would often be declined. Over time, however, as his reputation as an accomplished fan maker became more widely known, his fans have been increasingly

highlighted by works of poetry, calligraphy, and Korean painting.

The renowned folk historian Jo Byeong-hui offered two of his calligraphy works to Jo Chung-ik, and has even bequeathed his most treasured masterpieces to him. Also, the Korean painter Song Kye-il traveled from Ilsan to Jeonju, in the middle of summer, to render a color-ink painting on one of Jo’s fans.

“The fans, which contain the artistic creation of an artist and also reveal his noble character, never fail to greatly impress me whenever I look at them. To share the joy of these beautiful fans, I have held an annual exhibition of Jeonju Dano fans since 2003.

A fan is not simply a tool to cool yourself off. For that matter, an air conditioner is far more effective, but a traditional fan can cool 4 down your feverish heart. Everyone has a childhood memory of how their mother would gently fan them as they took a nap on her lap. The refreshing coolness of her loving hand was there to guide you throughout your life.”

Summer Spring 2010 | Koreana 55

ART REVIEW

Exhibition Reveals Kwon Jinkyu’s World of Sculptural Art A retrospective exhibition of Kwon Jinkyu (1922-1973), a foremost Korean sculptor, was recently presented in Seoul. This large-scale exhibition, which was held in Japan as well, included works that have never been shown in public, providing a comprehensive glimpse into the artistic world of Kwon Jinkyu.

Kim Yisoon Professor, Graduate School of Arts, Hongik University Photographe The National Museum of Modern Art

D

espite a winter of unusually heavy snowfall, over 38,000 visitors viewed the Kwon Jinkyu Art Exhibition at Deoksugung National Museum of Art, from December 22, 2009 to March 1, 2010. This turnout was indeed impressive for the solo exhibition of a modern sculptor. The exhibition featured 100 sculptural works, 40 illustrations, and a plaster cast display to demonstrate how a terra-cotta sculpture is produced. Moreover, the exhibition provided an overview of Kwon’s art career, including the terra-cotta busts for which he is best known (Jiwon, Aeja, and Priestess), together with self-portraits from various periods of his life, human and animal sculptures from his early years, abstract reliefs, and Buddhist sculptures of his later years.

Korea-Japan Exhibition Tour Kwon Jinkyu held three solo exhibitions prior to his death in 1973. Thereafter, three retrospective exhibitions of his works have been presented: in 1974, to mark the first anniversary of his death, in 1988, for the 15th anniversary, and in 2003, for the 30th anniversary. The exhibition this past winter was by far the most extensive, filling all four galleries on the first and second floors of Deoksugung Museum. Moreover, the exhibition was jointly planned for presentations in Japan and Korea. Prior to its showing in Korea, the exhibition was held in Tokyo at the National Museum of Mod56 Koreana | Summer 2010

ern Art (October 10-November 6, 2009) and Musashino Art University Museum and Library (November 19-December 5, 2009).

In 2006, as part of the preparations to commemorate its 80th anniversary in 2009, Musashino Art University conducted a survey to determine “the most successful artist” among the university’s graduates, which resulted in the selection of Kwon Jinkyu. Kwon graduated in 1953 from Musashino Art School (Department of Sculpture), which was renamed Musashino Art University. He was a student of Shimizu Takashi, the school’s most distinguished professor and artist. Because of this background, the exhibition included 12 works by Shimizu Takashi and 5 reliefs by Antoine Bourdelle, Shimizu’s teacher, for the purpose of placing Kwon within an “Antoine Bourdelle – Shimizu Takashi – Kwon Jinkyu” lineage.

A Life of Tragedy Kwon originally went to Japan in 1948 to care for his older brother, who had fallen ill while working as a doctor at a local hospital. The next year, after his brother died, Kwon entered Musashino Art School to study sculpture. At that time, because diplomatic relations between Korea and Japan had not been established, and then with the outbreak of the Korean War, only a few Koreans were able to study art in Japan. During the

1 Kwon Jinkyu with a self-portrait sculpture. His studio, located in Dongseon-dong, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, has been preserved as a representative site of Korea’s early modern culture.

2 Horse Head (1969) terra cotta. Throughout Kwon Jinkyu’s career, a favorite subject of his sculptural works has been animals, including horses.

1

2

Summer 2010 | Koreana 57

2

Korean War, Kwon remained in Japan to continue his study of art.

After his graduation, he was employed by the school’s sculpture department, along with receiving an award from the influential Nika Art Competition. In 1959, he returned to Korea in large part to care for his widowed mother, but also to pursue new artistic directions, without his teacher’s influence, in an effort to establish his own identity in the world of art.

Kwon purchased a house on a remote hillside well away from downtown Seoul, and renovated the interior into a work studio.

It was a basic art studio equipped with a kiln for his terra-cotta works and other equipment needed for his work. Until the time of his death, except for presenting lectures at universities or meeting with friends, he preferred the solitude of his hideaway, where he conceived and created his art works. People who had visited his studio would often mention its sense of forlornness. The quiet of the remote hillside, Kwon’s taciturn nature, and his sculptural method of building a form by adding countless bits of clay, were all well suited to the serene surroundings. This physical stillness and the artist’s isolation are also reflected in his works.

For many, the life of Kwon Jinkyu is associated with the loneliness and suicide of a “tragic artist.” By taking his own life in the spring of 1973, at the age of 51, he came to be known as a “tragic

artist” rather than being recognized for his artistic talent. This recent exhibition has made clear that while his life might have been marked by tragedy, this should not detract from our respect for his sculptural artistry. After studying in Japan during the Korean War and working at his school for another six years, he returned to Korea and became a successful artist, which included three sponsored exhibitions over a period of thirteen years. At that time, it was rare for any sculptor to even hold an exhibition, while the thought of securing sponsors was practically unimaginable.

The guest books of his exhibitions are filled with the names of leading figures of the art community, including prominent art historians, art critics, artists, and sculptors.

Although Kwon was known to be rather taciturn and introverted in character, the Korean art community embraced him as an influential artist. At that time, however, art buyers preferred Asian paintings that could be hung on the wall, while terra-cotta works or dry-painted sculptures received little notice. Indeed, why would anyone want to purchase cumbersome and breakable terra-cotta works or dreary dry-painted busts? In the 1960s, artists in Korea, including Kwon, struggled to eke out a livelihood. Even for works of Art Informel, conceptual art, and monochrome painting, now regarded as important forms of modern Korean art, sales were

1

1 Horseman (1965) clay 2 Priestess (1967) terra cotta 3 Jiwon (1967) terra cotta

58 Koreana | Summer 2010

few and far between. Under such difficult circumstances, it was quite surprising that Kwon managed to sell two of his works at the first auction of Korean early modern artworks.

Kwon Jinkyu is a representative artist and sculptor of Korea.

In the long history of Korean art, only a handful of sculptors can rightfully be described as representative artists of their time, such as the seventh-century monk Yangji of the Silla Kingdom, who is mentioned in Samgungnyusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms) for his Buddhist sculptures, and Kim Bok-jin (1901-1940), who introduced Western-style sculpture to Korea. During this time, there have been countless sculptors in Korea, but they were primarily artisans, rather than artists, because they produced sculptures mainly for practical uses rather than artistic purposes.

Only a few sculptors created their own world of art, along with shaping art trends and representing their time. Kwon Jinkyu, however, left more sculptural works than any other artist, while creating his own world of art.

The exhibitions in Japan and Korea, along with a symposium that was held to supplement the event, provided an opportunity to peer into Kwon’s world of art in careful detail. This was a rare chance for an up-close examination of the “tragic genius,” whose career and life remain rather unfamiliar to most people. After tak-

ing up the study of art at a relatively late age, Kwon seems to have developed a serious attitude; his Japanese colleagues and university alumni remember him as being mature and serious-minded.

Moreover, Senna Hideo, a Japanese painter who specialized in Western-style works, took note of Kwon’s creativity, and for over 50 years kept plaster busts in his studio that Kwon had left behind.

The recent exhibition included several works not previously displayed in public, and there is also a possibility that more of his works remain hidden away.

Among the personal items of Kwon is a daily schedule that indicated he would usually work on sketches in the morning, sculptures in the afternoon, and conceptual designs in the evening. There are also records of his process for completing a work, which outlined how he applied his ideas and sketches to design a particular form. Kwon was a truly distinguished artist. But his prominence in the history of Korean sculpture is not due simply to his creative genius, as is often assumed, but also to his discipline

3

2

Summer 2010 | Koreana 59

1 1 S elf-Portrait (1968) terra cotta 2 Black Cat (1963) terra cotta

and commitment to creating his own world of art. Maybe his own death was a kind of art work as well, since he is known to have often told his students that one could die for art.

Consciousness of Existence Among Korea’s art circles, Kwon Jinkyu is recognized as an artist who sought to promote Korean tradition and Korean archetypes, and is thus regarded as an artist with a strong national consciousness. He often said: “I would like to establish realism in Korea.” As evidence of this approach, he used terra cotta and applied such traditional techniques as dry painting, along with adopting motifs from Korea’s traditional arts, such as gwimyeon (demon’s face), tou (clay icon), japsang (ornamental roof figurine), and images from Goguryeo tomb murals. Yet, his innovation transcended the boundaries of ancient Korean culture, as reflected in his interests with the ancient cultures of humankind and various other traditions of art related to long-ago artists as well as his contemporaries.

Kwon took note of the ancient arts of Mesopotamia and 60 Koreana | Summer 2010

Egypt, as well as the Cycladic, Etruscan, Greek, Romanesque, and Renaissance arts, in addition to the artistic principles associated with Cezanne, Rodin, Antoine Bourdelle, Shimizu Takashi, Aristide Maillol, Giacomo Manzu, Marino Marini, and Giacometti.

While integrating such a wide range of art traditions, he sought to highlight the fundamental and basic structure of objects. He would say: “Every object has a structure, but Korean sculpture lacks a deep search for that structure.” This statement should be understood from a context of his own deep, personal introspection. Ultimately, his artistic pursuits were focused less on national consciousness or ideology, and more on the pure spirit of art and its universal nature. For this, he worked on more fundamental and basic figures, while projecting his consciousness of existence into his works, similar to Giacometti and others of his generation after World War II. Kwon’s concept of art is revealed in his human figures and self-portraits, and especially the busts of young women, made from around 1967, in which his expressionism is even more evident. Each figure captures the model’s physical appearance,

The exhibition also featured 12 works by Shimizu Takashi and 12 reliefs created

by Antoine Bourdelle, Shimizu’s teacher, for the purpose of placing Kwon within an “Antoine Bourdelle – Shimizu Takashi – Kwon Jinkyu” lineage.

2

but the sculptures all convey a similar demeanor. The head, slightly smaller than actual size, and the long neck extending from drooping shoulders, create a triangular structure. The busts are characterized by upright heads that gaze off into the distance, along with frontal features that lack hair or clothing. The long neck and drooping shoulders are reminiscent of the works of Manzu or Marino Marini. But the depicted demeanor is different.

Kwon sought to portray the physical characteristics of his models, but did not express their individual sentiments. His busts convey a similar demeanor that is related to his inner world and personal sentiments. And because of this, you can see a similarity between Biguni, a Buddhist nun modeled after a girl named Yeong-hi, and Self-portrait with Monk Outfit.

Kwon’s artistic approach of emphasizing basic structure, rather than focusing on an object’s exterior appearance, was clearly influenced by his teacher Shimizu Takashi, and Shimizu’s teacher Antoine Bourdelle. This can be discerned by comparing

their works in the exhibition. But with his expression of such feelings as solemnity and anxiety, Kwon’s works are quite distinctive from the other two. His teacher’s attention to the structure of the human body was manifested in Kwon’s works as well. Still, the realism and beauty of the human body, which are rather evident in his teacher’s works, were apparently regarded as less relevant by Kwon.

With Kwon being one of Korea’s foremost sculptors, he has been the focus of considerable scholarly research. However, scholars have tended to simply repeat a limited range of matters because of a lack of materials and resources about Kwon, despite his high acclaim. The recent exhibition thus served as a meaningful opportunity to examine a comprehensive overview of his works, along with providing a catalogue with research articles based on additional materials, which should be a valuable resource for further scholarly research on Kwon. In this way, it is hoped that the artist Kwon Jinkyu and his works will deservedly attract the attention and appreciation of viewers in Korea and beyond.

Summer 2010 | Koreana 61

DISCOVERING KOREA

1

Unwavering Passion for the Korea of Today and of Ancient Times

Established well over a century ago, the French School of Asian Studies operates under the auspices of France’s Ministry of Higher Education and Research. The institute’s primary efforts are focused on the study of ancient Asian civilizations through research projects related to the humanities and social sciences. I was appointed in January 2002 to open the 17th branch of the ÉFEO in Seoul within Korea University’s Asiatic Research Institute. Élisabeth Chabanol Associate Professor, French School of Asian Studies, Head, Seoul Center

I

n November 2008, I received a letter from the Foreign Minister of France, Bernard Kouchner, informing me that I had been bestowed the honor of Chevalier dans l’Ordre national du Mérite. This honor, for which I was recommended by the foreign minister and then approved by the President of France, was in recognition for my efforts to disseminate knowledge about Korea’s rich history and artistic heritage, as well as my pivotal role in helping to advance Franco-Korean relations. Once an initial rush of emotion had subsided, I began to think about whether I was truly deserving of such an honor. The past 20 or so years had consisted of enriching experiences, fascinating discoveries, and personal growth, all of which had been made possible by an unbridled passion for my academic pursuits.

First Days in Seoul This passion was ignited on the evening of February 14, 1981, when I first arrived in Korea aboard a Korean Air flight from Japan. Due to a government-enforced curfew at that time, the passengers and crewmembers were obliged to travel to the Seoul Garden Hotel under military escort. This hotel, which was then one of the tallest buildings in the city, served as a landmark in the western part of Seoul. The next day, on the 15th, the monthly civil defense drill was conducted. Within minutes, the streets of the capital were deserted, while planes flew overhead. This was during the presidency of Chun Doo Hwan. It was the middle of winter and cold weather prevailed. Nevertheless, despite the drabness of the streets, the sun shone brightly and the faces of the Seoul 62 Koreana | Summer 2010

denizens were animated by a warm glow. I stayed in Seoul for only three days, but it was enough for me to realize that I would one day return and live in Korea.

In 1986, after having completed my studies at l’Ecole du Louvre, I enrolled in Chinese archeology courses at l’École pratique des hautes Études in Paris, as part of the Master’s Degree program I was working toward at Paris 4-Sorbonne University. One day, while I was waiting in front of the church building attached to the Sorbonne for my class, I overheard my classmates mention that the school was having a hard time finding someone to teach French in Korea, due to an apparent lack of candidates with an interest in this position. No interest! I could not believe my ears! It was against this backdrop that I eventually found myself again arriving at Gimpo International Airport, on the evening of October 15.

I immediately headed for Yeongdeungpo Station, where I boarded the overnight Tongilho train bound for Daejeon. Thereafter, I made my way to Chungnam National University, which was at the time situated near the village of Yuseong. I can still recall the rice fields and the singing of frogs, who inhabited the paddies in the summer, along with the inevitable wait for the monsoon season amid the sweltering heat that prevailed in late June, from which the only respite was a hand-held fan of bamboo and traditional Korean paper, and the pervasive aroma of sesame along the market street.

I can also recall the harsh winter in which I sought refuge and warmth under a traditional Korean blanket stuffed with cotton (ibul ). I had been parachuted into the heart of a foreign culture,

2 1 Élisabeth Chabanol held an exhibition of her research project at the Korea University Museum, as part of the activities to commemorate the 120th anniversary of Korea-France diplomatic relations, in 2006.

2 Élisabeth Chabanol and the French Ambassador to Korea at a reception to celebrate her receipt of the Chevalier dans l’Ordre national du Mérite award.

Summer 2010 | Koreana 63

into a world where men occupied a dominant position, where links with the outside world were still few and far between, and no one, with the exception of two priests who had been dispatched from Paris as missionaries, spoke either English or French.

Three Kingdoms Architecture

the direction my studies would take. I would study the architecture of the Three Kingdoms. Over the next few years, the ancient kings of Baekje and Silla, whose grandiose dignity and spirit are well depicted in such ancient texts as Samguksagi and Samgungnyusa, and the remnants of their architectural creations would be the central focus of my studies. Although I routinely had to return to France as part of my Master’s and Doctoral studies at the Sorbonne, it was the Korean archeologists and professors affiliated

I had come to Korea to teach, but also to learn. I was prepared to immerse myself in another way of life; I hoped to experience everything that I had read in books, and to understand this country that had so enchanted me five years earlier. My assimilation was of course not without trials and tribulations; but, step by step, and in a manner that meshed One day while waiting in front of the church building attached to the Sorbonne with the fluctuations in the raw emotions of a for my class, I overheard my classmates mention that the school was having a young French woman, I found myself progreshard time finding someone to teach French in Korea, due to an apparent lack of sively developing a better understanding of candidates with an interest in this position. No interest! I could not believe my this new world, into which I had been thrust. ears! It was against this backdrop that I eventually found myself again arriving However, during these formative years, I was at Gimpo International Airport. never alone in my journey to discover this other world.

I was given the name Ch ng A-r m, thereby becoming an honorary member of the Gyeryongsan Ch ng clan that hailed from the Mt. Gyeryeongsan (literally, Rooster-Dragon Mountain) area, with universities, government research institutes involved with the situated on the outskirts of Yuseong. I became a country girl, and preservation of cultural artifacts, and national museums that promore specifically a daughter of Chungcheongnam-do Province. I vided me with the guidance I needed to get through my studies. thus had to learn how to prepare Korean dishes, such as doenjang Significance of National Award jjigae (soybean paste stew), dwaeji gogi duruchigi (pork combined with an array of spicy seasonings), oi sobaegi (stuffed cucumber In February 1997, I said my goodbyes to Hanbat (literally, kimchi), and pajeon (pan-fried scallion pancakes). The only food large field), as Daejeon is also known. I then had an opportunity, that reminded me of my native France was the tuna that came in over the ensuing two years, to complete my doctoral dissertation a can. Butter would appear on local store shelves, from time to at Gyeongju National Museum. There, I had the chance to work time, and I would hurriedly buy it whenever available. However, under two wonderful directors, Dr. Ji Gon-gil and Kang Woo-bang. more often than not, it was rancid.

I spent these two years working alongside curators and archeoloMy taste for wine was replaced by that for makgeolli (fergists, along with exploring the city’s archeological sites, exhibimented milky rice wine) and dongdongju (fermented filtered rice tion rooms, unreleased relics storage areas, and the museum’s wine) which we drank on those days of student protests to counlibrary. I also spent time conducting field research on the structer lingering teargas. On sunny weekends, we would cross the ture of the royal tombs of ancient and Unified Silla, and funerary mysterious Mt. Gyeryeongsan, climbing from the more feminine items, such as crowns, earrings, belts, ceramic pieces, and variDonghaksa Temple to the masculine Gapsa Temple, passing the ous implements.

Nammaetap (Brother and Sister Pagoda) along the way.

The jigsaw puzzle that was my professional career was slowly Shortly after my arrival in Korea, I headed for Gongju, one coming into focus. I can still remember the trepidation that I felt of the capital cities of the ancient kingdom of Baekje, to visit the when I first headed up to Seoul. It was there, over the next three royal necropolis located in the Songsan-ri area and to see the years, in my capacity as an editor for the Korea Herald , that I tomb of King Muryeong. It was at that moment when I decided on became acquainted with the Korean business world. However, 64 Koreana | Summer 2010

Élisabeth Chabanol at the Sariwon Museum in North Korea. Since 2003, she has been able to expand the scope of her studies to include sites located in North Korea.

I eventually reached the conclusion that the only way I could remain fully immersed in my studies on the cultural heritage of the Korean Peninsula, while staying on the ground in Korea so that I could keep up with the latest archeological findings, was to secure employment with a research institute. My position at the French School of Asian Studies (l’École française d’ExtrêmeOrient or ÉFEO), allowed me to do all of that, and to also introduce European students to Korean archeology and art.

Established well over a century ago, the French School of Asian Studies operates under the auspices of France’s Ministry of Higher Education and Research (Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche). The institute’s primary efforts are focused on the study of ancient Asian civilizations through research in the humanities and social sciences. In January 2002, I was appointed to head the 17th branch of the ÉFEO in Seoul, as part of Korea University’s Asiatic Research Institute. In this process, I became the first Korean specialist of the French School of Asian Studies.

One of my first research projects dealt with the first French Koreanists, who were the first French diplomats dispatched to Korea.

These two men, Victor Collin de Plancy and Maurice Courant, possessed a profound knowledge of and respect for Korea and its people. A second part of this project was concerned with the first Koreans to make their way to France, such as Lee Beom-jin and Min Yeong-chan, to learn about Europe. In 2006, the results of this project were featured at exhibitions presented at the Korea University Museum, Albert-Kahn Museum, in Boulogne, and Media Center, in Troy, as part of the celebrations surrounding the 120th anniversary of the establishment of Franco-Korean diplomatic relations. An accompanying project booklet was also published.

Since 2003, the sphere of my research has been expanded to

include North Korea. I had long avoided turning my gaze toward the area north of the DMZ. I lived in the South; first in Daejeon and then in Gyeongju, far away from this scar that unnaturally divided the nation in two. In this case, denial of its very existence seemed to be a less painful option than having to deal with the pain that lay at its essence. However, such an approach meant that it would be impossible for me to visit the major sites associated with the kingdoms of Goguryeo and Goryeo. Although I had visited the Goguryeo sites located in Manchuria, and was well versed in a majority of the archeological and historical sites found between Paju and Jeju, I had very little knowledge about the sites that were situated between the Yalu and Hangang rivers.

Then, one day I was offered an opportunity to visit the North. Had fate intervened once again? Just as good fortune had come my way in 1986, I found myself with another golden opportunity.

This time it involved making a trek to the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea.

It was winter in Korea, with snow and ice covering the roadways north of the 38th parallel. Although the water pipes in the Joseonsik sallimjip, (traditional tile-roof homes in the North, which are known as hanok in the South) where I was staying became frozen, the heat emanating from the traditional floor-based heating system (ondol) was so intense that it literally felt like my spine was being scalded. It was under these circumstances that I came to be acquainted with the notable historical and archeological sites in Gaeseong, the capital of the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392). These sites, to which I have since regularly returned, have gradually become the primary focus of my recent studies.

As I look back on the path my life has taken to date, I inevitably realize that the honor which had been bestowed upon me should in fact have been awarded to all those individuals who had accompanied me during this fascinating journey. This honor belongs to all of those people who showed an interest in learning the French language and culture, provided me with guidance in my study of the Korean Peninsula and included me in their research projects, and supported or took part in my efforts. It is my fervent hope that I can continue to play a role, albeit minute, in the development of a better mutual understanding, and closer relations, between Korea and France.

Summer 2010 | Koreana 65

ON THE GLOBAL STAGE

Korean Couple Serves as Medical Missionaries in Albania for 17 Years In 1884, Horace Newton Allen, an American medical missionary of the Northern Presbyterian Church, arrived in Korea, which at the time was known as Joseon. Almost a century later, Gang Won-hi became the first Korean medical missionary to venture abroad in 1972. Since 1993, Dr. Shim Jae Doo and his wife Dr. Yu So Yeon have provided 17 years of medical service to the people of Albania.

Kim Mina Korea Doctor’s Weekly

T

oday, some 271 medical missionaries from Korea are providing voluntary medical services abroad for the residents of communities in Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe. One of the foremost examples is Dr. Shim Jae Doo, who is known as “the missionary of missionaries.” Since his arrival in Albania in 1993, Dr. Shim has served as director of the Shalom Clinic, in addition to taking on various activities outside the medical profession, including efforts to promote local education and social welfare.

Award from Korea In December 2009, Dr. Shim was named the second recipient of the “Hanmi Prize of the Most Honorable Medical Doctor” from the Korean Medical Association. This distinguished award is presented to recognize a medical professional’s significant contributions to Korea’s medical development or for commendable service, of a decade or longer, as a medical researcher or practitioner anywhere in the world. The first award recipient was Dr. Lee Jong-wook, a former Director-General of the World Health Organization (WHO). In particular, Dr. Shim was recognized for his personal dedication and meaningful contributions to the development of health care and medical education in Albania, which suffered from severe economic difficulty after the collapse of the Communist bloc. Indeed, Dr. Shim was most deserving of this prestigious award, in recognition of his 17 years of medical service to the people of Albania.

“The deadline to submit an application for the award was October 1. One of my Kyung Hee University colleagues managed, after considerable effort, to locate my whereabouts and contact me in Albania. He urged me to provide the application materials to support my nomination on September 30. So, I quickly gathered up the materials and sent them out the next day.”

Above all, Dr. Shim was grateful to be recognized for his 17 years of dedicated service in Albania. His wife, Dr. Yu So Yeon, joined him in Albania upon the completion of her specialist course work, which meant turning down a likely professorship position at her university. This left her colSpring 2010 2010 66 Koreana | Summer

Dr. Shim Jae Doo, Director of the Shalom Clinic in Tirana, Albania, and his wife and colleague, Dr. Yu So Yeon, have dedicated some 17 years of their careers to the provision of much-needed medical services for the Albanian people.

leagues in a state of bewilderment, who could only wonder about this couple: “What are they doing with their life?” Whenever the couple returned to Korea for a brief visit, they felt a sense of disheartenment when they noticed the personal success of their colleagues as professors or medical practitioners. In part, their discouragement stemmed from the fact that the situation in Albania had not improved as significantly as they had hoped for.

At the award ceremony, however, Shim’s former colleagues all attended to offer their congratulations, and as the recipient of this distinguished award, he could more easily meet with directors of hospitals and clinics to discuss collaborative efforts to improve Albania’s health care situation. He also sought to improve the educational quality of Albania’s dental schools through the promotion of cooperative relations with leading dental schools in Korea. The Hanmi Award thus opened the doors for a number of proposed Albania-Korea projects.

Medical Education and Training Dr. Shim’s wife was a few years his junior at Kyung Hee University. An anatomical pathologist, Dr. Yu worked at the Department of Anatomic Pathology of Tirana University in Albania, from 1994 to 2002. In addition to her regular work, she also tutored students and medical technicians, along with undertaking various supplemental activities, such as providing medical books and journals and introducing cellular pathology. For his part, Dr. Shim served as an internist for the treatment of tuberculosis and respiratory disease at Tirana University Hospital, from 1994 to 1998. He was the first to introduce inhalation therapy, and he conducted a seminar program on asthma, in addition to opening a library there in 1996.

“Treating patients is important, but I also hope to promote medical education and medical leadership training. In this way, I can help the Albanians to become more independent. I worked until 2000 in a kind of public institution, while I focused until last year on expanding medical services through the Shalom Clinic, which opened in 2001. This year, I started a project to promote medical education and Summer 2010 | Koreana 67

medical leadership training. I already tried to do this in the 1990s, but it didn’t work out. People at that time were only concerned with urgent needs, such as the availability of medicine and medical treatment. We wanted to set up a system that could help the people here become independent, but they didn’t quite understand our intention.”

In 1992, Albania’s communist government collapsed, and the country opened its doors to the outside world; but the bureaucracy inherited from the communist regime made administrative procedures time-consuming and complicated. As the people had been relatively content with their previous situation, they were not especially concerned about receiving assistance. The people seemed indifferent because there was no sense of urgency.

The lack of adequate infrastructure also hindered the pace of progress. The Shalom Clinic was without electricity from eight in the morning until five in the afternoon. Thus, patients who needed an examination with medical equipment could only be treated after five. Because the emergency ward of the National University Hospital was so understaffed, a large number of patients came to the Shalom Clinic, day and night. In 2004, another medical missionary, Choi Jo-young, an internist, arrived in Albania to help them out at the clinic.

“People often ask me my secret for staying in Albania for so long. Because we started out with almost nothing, even a little improvement was greatly rewarding. We were happy as things improved, so time passed very quickly,” which was followed by hearty laughter.

‘We have so much to do’ Even today, it takes 24 hours to fly from Seoul to Tirana, Albania. At the time Dr. Shim first arrived in Albania, the country seemed even more distant because anti-communist sentiments remained strong in Korea. So, why did Dr. Shim and his wife choose Albania? “Life doesn’t always go according to plan, I think. We first learned about Albania through a doctor, a graduate of Korea University who had spent time there. We knew only that the country was mainly poverty-stricken. At the time, I joined a missionary team headed for Albania that was organized by a group which I belonged to.”

But it seemed that Albania had chosen Dr. Shim. Knowing only that the country had been ruled by communists and the people were very poor, he boarded a plane headed for London with his wife and two children, for a temporary stop on the way to Albania. The lengthy trip helped him acquire a strong feeling for the country, and he read a book about Albania in a London library. “Our plan was for my wife and children to remain in London, while I continued on to Albania to scope out the situation. While looking for materials about the country, I came across

“This year, I started a project to promote medical education and medical leadership training. I already tried to do this in the 1990s, but it didn’t work out. People at that time were only concerned with urgent needs, such as the availability of medicine and medical treatment. But I know that it is more important to help the Albanian people become independent, than for me to remain here my entire life.”

2

1

68 Koreana | Summer 2010

2

some photos of Albanians. With emptiness in their eyes, tired and worn out from poverty, their faces showed an urgent cry for help. My wife felt the same. We thought we had so much to do and that we needed to hurry.”

At the Tirana Airport, however, his Korean family was very foreign to the Albanian people. Interestingly, the immigration officials who decided on the issuance of their visas had heard about North Korea, a familiar country to Albania and its people. They seemed to realize that if there is a North Korea, there must also be a South Korea, and their visas were eventually issued. Since that time, 17 years have passed and there have been many twists and turns. During the 1997 Albanian crisis, they had to seek refuge in Italy, while leaving everything behind.

“In the beginning, I told the Albanian people that we would live in Albania forever. And I really meant that.

But when internal conflict was about to break out, the government ordered us to leave the country for our safety.

So, we could not refuse. Not long ago, a younger Korean doctor who had to leave Afghanistan due to the Korean hostage situation described his inner conflict to me. He could not accept the fact that he had to leave everything behind because of the hostage incident. I felt the same way in my situation, but I now understand that helping the Albanians become independent is more important than me staying here my entire life. This year, I started preparing the people here for this eventuality.”

Dr. Shim’s physical health has suffered much from living 17 years in a country with such a cold, damp climate. And since you should know when it is time to leave, when is that time for Dr. Shim? He said that recently he has given much thought as to whether he is contributing enough to Albania. He believes, however, that he would like to stay as long as possible. The number of medical missionaries has increased in recent years, and he would like to expand the availability of medical services beyond Albania, to Kosovo and Macedonia, and even the larger Balkan region.

Gwanghyewon, the first Western-style hospital in Korea that was founded by Horace Allen, was the forerunner of Severance Hospital, which later produced the first Korean doctors educated in Western medicine. Today, Korea maintains an impressive health care system, along with an advanced level of medical science, based on international standards, and some 80,000 medical practitioners are providing services across the country. There are also growing numbers of Korean doctors and medical researchers working abroad. All this started 126 years ago when an American medical missionary arrived in Korea. How might Albania look in another 100 years? Perhaps the contributions of Dr. Shim and his wife will bear similar fruit in Albania.

1 Dr. Shim Jae Doo participates in a seminar on dentistry in Albania. To improve the educational quality of Albania’s dental schools, he has pursued the establishment of sisterhood relationships with leading dental schools in Korea.

2 Dr. Shim Jae Doo provided medical treatment at a refugee camp during the Kosovo conflict.

3 Dr. Shim Jae Doo has donated x-ray equipment to a military hospital in Albania.

4 Dr. Yu So Yeon consults with the Albanian doctors and staff of the Department of Anatomic Pathology at Tirana University.

4 3

4 Summer 2010 | Koreana 69

ON THE ROAD

Five Scenic Islands in the Yellow Sea Await Unification Five islands in the Yellow Sea, though blessed with graceful scenery, are constant reminders of the uneasy ceasefire between South and North Korea that now has been in place for more than half a century. Civilian activities, such as fishing and tourism, are conducted right alongside the strictly enforced military boundary.

Kim Hyungyoon Essayist | Kwon Tae-Kyun Photograper

Š Yun Ki-jung

Picturesque cliffs and rock formations at Dumujin, on Baengnyeongdo Island, the most popular tourist destination of the five northernmost islands situated in Korea’s west sea.

70 Koreana | Summer 2010

O

n the first day of my tour, I made my way to Baengnyeongdo Island. Located some 228 kilometers from Incheon Harbor, Baengnyeongdo is the northernmost of the South Korean islands found in the waters off the western coast of the Korean Peninsula. Hurtling along at a speed of 60 kilometers per hour, the hydrofoil completed the journey to this unfamiliar island within four hours.

The day was windy with an overcast sky. Although it was late March, spring had yet to arrive on the island. The cold made the harbor area seem even more bleak and desolate.

The information booth for the ferry was closed, and there was a storage area for shipping containers, for whatever reason. Of the 400 or so passengers on the hydrofoil, about half quickly dispersed on their separate ways. One group of about 30 middle-aged men, wearing black hiking outfits with a Korean flag on their left shoulder, had disappeared as well.

I imagined that they were former members of the Marine Corps, who had been assigned to military duty on the island, and decided to have a return visit for old times’ sake.

Sim Cheong’s Filial Devotion I hailed a taxi. The voice of the driver, a third-generation resident of the island, reminded me of the kind of strong

Summer 2010 | Koreana 71

1

accent that I had heard when I visited Pyongyang, North Korea’s capital, five years ago. It made me realize just how close Baengnyeongdo really is to North Korea. The driver took me to Simcheonggak Pavilion, from where you can look out at Jangsangot in North Korea, across the waters. Simcheonggak is a shrine dedicated to Sim Cheong, a legendary figure on the island and the heroine of a well-known Korean folk tale, who is revered for filial piety. To cure her father’s blindness, Sim Cheong agrees to be a human sacrifice for a crew of Chinese sailors, for a payment of 300 sacks of rice.

My friendly taxi driver pointed out a spot in the sea, known as Indangsu, where it is said that Sim Cheong was cast overboard as a human sacrifice to appease the Dragon King. This site is halfway between Baengnyeongdo and Jangsangot, at the tip of Hwanghaedo Province in North Korea. In the tale, after being cast into the waters, Sim Cheong is saved by the Dragon King and becomes his queen. But according to local legend, she latches onto a lotus that returns her to the surface, then drifts to Baengnyeongdo and eventually washes up at Yeonbong Bawi, or Lotus Rock.

Simcheonggak is found within a small park area enclosed by a stone wall, which also includes an army tank. The tank’s cannon is aimed toward the North Korean coast, but it does not appear to be operational. Later, I learned that there are a number of tanks 72 Koreana | Summer 2010

1 Summer lilies in full bloom on Baengyeongdo, which features a unique topography

2 A regular ferry service connects Baengnyeongdo with the Korean mainland 3 Baengnyeongdo is Korea’s largest habitat for sea lions.

2

3

and armored vehicles scattered about the five islands, bringing home the fact of the military’s presence in this area.

Intersection of Boundaries The five islands, located along the Northern Limit Line (NLL), the maritime boundary between South and North Korea, include Baengnyeongdo, Daecheongdo, Socheongdo, Yeonpyeongdo, and Udo. Since there are no resident inhabitants on Udo, it is not serviced by ferry boat. The NLL was established at the time of the Korean War ceasefire in 1953. Thereafter, in 1973, North Korea declared its own maritime Military Demarcation Line (MDL) that claimed the five islands, to protest the NLL, which it charged was unilaterally created by Mark Wayne Clark, commander of the U.N. troops in Korea. The five islands thus became pawns between the South and North, while leading to incidents of “intrusion of territorial waters.”

With the declaration of its territorial rights, the North sought to intimidate the island residents with maneuvers by naval vessels and MIG fighters that crossed the NLL. In response, the Seoul government dramatically stepped up its military presence on the islands, turning them into a kind of security area. Although the islands remain under military jurisdiction, ferries cruise the waters with residents and tourists. At Junghwa-dong harbor on

the south coast of Baengnyeongdo, I boarded a ferry that made its way toward the island’s northwest, which passed along scenic basalt cliffs. As we approached the northern end, the cliffs rose higher, while surging waves crashed into the coast, creating large areas of frothy foam on the water’s surface. The seascape was magnificent. But even here, the military’s presence could be seen.

High up the cliffs, where cormorants circled lazily, I could make out an antiaircraft installation, like an entryway carved into the rock face.

High Seas Warning After my arrival on Baengnyeongdo, I had planned to catch the afternoon ferry to Daecheongdo. But this service was cancelled due to a high seas warning issued by the meteorological administration. So, I spent my time walking along the coast to Dumujin, the northwestern seashore, nearby the end point of my ferry ride of the day before. An uphill path at the end of a pebble walkway led to a cliff overlooking the sea waters. There was a military bunker on the cliff top, but in the daytime it was unmanned.

I stood at the edge of the cliff and peered across the waters to North Korea. Since I learned how to operate a kayak last summer, I kept thinking that if I had a kayak I could easily paddle across to the North. The forbidden land of North Korea was so close by. A Summer 2010 | Koreana 73

1 The residents of Baengnyeongdo have an especially keen awareness of security concerns because of the island’s location nearby the Northern Limit Line.

2 Socheongdo consists of hilly lands while its coastline is 1

characterized by rugged cliffs.

3 View of Socheongdo from Daecheongdo

narrow stairway made its way down to the beach. The waters that I had viewed by boat were dancing onto the shore. The cormorants did not enter the water, likely due to the churning currents, while being content to glide along the cliffs. The cliff and rocks below were splashed white with their droppings.

I had hoped to observe the seals that visit these waters, but there were none in sight. Dumujin is one of three areas on Baengnyeongdo where seals stop by in the springtime, after giving birth to their young at Bohai Gulf, in China, during the winter. Perhaps they had not yet come by. But a village fisherman told me that the seals had already visited the island; however, they tended to be less active because of the cold weather. The seals, protected as natural monuments, had been scouring the seas for food, while greatly angering fishermen by wreaking havoc on their fishing traps. Previously, the number of seals visiting the island was said to be 300, but the count has risen steadily in recent years, reaching more than 1,000 nowadays, according to the fisherman.

Billions of Years Ago On the third day, with the high seas warning lifted, I rode the morning ferry to Daecheongdo. Compared to Baengnyeongdo, where there is adequate farmland that enables 70 percent of the residents to engage in an agricultural livelihood, Daecheongdo is covered with mountains, such that 90 percent of the households rely on fishing. In land area, Daecheongdo is only onethird as large as Baengnyeongdo, and with only 1,200 residents, 74 Koreana | Summer 2010

its population is about one-quarter that of the larger island. So, while Baengnyeongdo maintains eight taxis, there are only two on Daecheongdo.

These beautiful islands in Korea’s western waters boast picturesque beaches, which attract crowds of summer tourists from the mainland, even though the area remains a military zone.

On Baengnyeongdo, I visited the Sagot and Kongdol beaches.

Sagot Beach is a 4-kilometer stretch with a sandy expanse of 300 meters when the tide goes out. It is also known as one of only two natural airstrips in the world. Kongdol Beach, whose name means “bean stones,” is an attractive one-kilometer beach area covered with small bean-shaped stones. I walked barefoot over the stones for quite some time. They say that the air on Baengnyeongdo is the purest in Korea. Walking over the stones on the beach in the fresh air was the most memorable experience of my trip.

On Daecheongdo, I stopped by Okjukpo Beach, about an hour north of the harbor, where a large two-kilometer expanse of sand dunes is called the “desert” by local residents. No other site on the Korean Peninsula looks like this area of sand dunes, which I would call a “desert” as well. Winding along the coast, the mounds of especially fine sand provide a dramatic contrast to a background of pine trees. It was peaceful in the desert, which seems to be little changed by time.

Originally, I planned to visit Socheongdo as well, but after staying an extra day on Baengnyeongdo, I instead boarded a boat

2

3

Summer 2010 | Koreana 75

3 Š Jung Bo-sang

1

Š Jung Bo-sang

2

Standing atop a cliff at Dumujin, on Baengnyeongdo, this vantage point allowed me to peer across the waters to North Korea.

If I had a kayak, I could easily paddle across to the North, it seemed. The forbidden land of North Korea was so close by.

3

76 Koreana | Summer 2010

1 Simcheonggak Pavilion on Baengnyeongdo is a memorial to Sim Cheong, a young girl who exemplifies filial piety, according to Korea’s classical literature. Jeongsangot, North Korea can be seen in the distance.

2 The barbed wire fencing installed in various areas of the island is a constant reminder of Korea’s national division.

3 Daecheongdo is known for its graceful cliffs and isolated beaches.

for Incheon. Fortunately, we passed by Socheongdo, so I managed to at least catch a glimpse of Bunbawi, or “powder rock.” The site is so named because the rocks there are so white it looks as if they had been covered with fresh powder. The rocks are marble that evolved from lime. According to information about the rocks, they contain stromatolites, which are sedimentary structures formed by the growth of blue-green algae. These structures, hard for me to even pronounce, are said to be rare fossils and remnants of life from more than three billion years ago. I thus viewed the area with considerable respect and wonder from the passing boat.

Reveling in Isolation

1

From Incheon, I boarded a boat to visit Yeonpyeongdo. The name of this island has long been familiar to me. It was a major source of croaker, a type of fish I have enjoyed since my childhood.

Without hesitation, I would say that Yeonpyeongdo croaker is one of the favorite fish dishes for Koreans of my generation. But, it never occurred to me that the island was so tiny. Is it possible that the island had somehow shrunk since 1970, when croaker could no longer be found in the nearby waters?

Being only half the size of Daecheongdo, there was no taxi service on Yeonpyeongdo. So, I walked to sites around the island, like the croaker history center found high up a slope on the southern coast. There, I learned about the fish which had once made the island so prosperous that people said even the dogs carried around money. From the steep cliff, as I looked out at the waves crashing below, I began to wonder about the sudden disappearance of the croaker, which had long thrived in these seas.

I made my way to Manghyang outlook at the northern end of the island. From there, across the sea, you can clearly make out Haeju, in North Korea. According to the owner of the guesthouse where I spent the night, the North Korean coast used to be lit up at night, until the 1980s, but has since been cloaked in darkness. The cement factory there has been silent for sometime as well. The distance of about 10 kilometers was too far to make out the faces of people in the area. Similar to Baengnyeongdo and Daecheongdo, various military facilities are found on Yeonpyeong­ do. Quite often, I came across army barracks and soldiers in their camouflage-pattern uniforms. But it was not long before I became accustomed to the military’s presence, which seemed to create a sense of security.

Along the road to Junghwari Beach, I was completely alone, aside from the chattering of birds and waves crashing onto the shore. When I reached the wide open beach and looked out at the vast waters, I came to realize how I had been reveling in the isolation of these remote islands. These natural islands, which remain a source of North-South tension, are nevertheless a kind of ideal tourism destination for a visitor like me who enjoys a carefree journey, based on whatever might attract my interest. Above all, this pleasant thought remained in my mind as this adventure came to an end.

Summer 2010 | Koreana 77

2

CUISINE

Cold Noodle Dish to Counter the Summer Swelter Kongguksu is a favorite Korean dish during summer that consists of thin noodles served with a cold soybean broth.

The broth can be easily prepared by grinding prepared soybeans in a blender. This traditional Korean dish, which provides protein but only minimal calories, is a refreshing means to counter the sweltering summer heat in Korea.

Lee Jong-Im Director, Korea Food & Culture Research Center Ahn Hong-beom Photographer

Summer 2010 2010 78 Koreana | Spring

A

bowl of cold kongguksu (soybean milk noodles) has long been considered an effective means to restore your energy during the scorching summer heat. In fact, a cold serving of milky white kongguksu, not only tastes refreshing, it also helps revive your mental and physical vitality, which can be dissipated by the torrid heat associated with the “dog days” of a Korean summer. The consumption of excessive amounts of meat and fatty foods by Koreans, due to a dramatic change in their dietary practices and food preferences, has led to an increase in adult and geriatric diseases. As for kongguksu, which is made from beans and provides vegetable protein, it is recognized as a healthy choice by people today. In the summer, Koreans relish so-called energy foods such as samgyetang (chicken with ginseng soup) and a yukgaejang (spicy beef and vegetable soup), which they believe can help to rejuvenate the body and mind. In addition to kongguksu, other summer favorites include naengmyeon (cold noodles) and kkaeguksu (sesame noodles).

Origin of Kongguksu Although it is unclear exactly when Koreans first developed kongguksu, the Siuijeonseo (是議全書), a book on Korean cuisine published in the late 1800s, includes recipes for making kongguksu and kkaeguksu, confirming its longtime presence on the Korean dinner table.

Moreover, the lack of earlier references to this noodle dish might well be attributed to the fact that it was such a common food that there seemed to be little need to record a recipe for its preparation.

In the past, members of the literati (yangban) class believed in the benefit of revitalizing their physical and mental condition, which tended to be sapped by the summer heat, by having kkaeguksu, a noodle dish served with a sesame-based broth. According to the recipes for summer foods included in the ancient journal Dongguksesigi (東國 歲時記, A Record of Seasonal Customs in Korea ), the preparation of kkaeguksu called for making noodles out of flour, preparing chicken

A bowl of kongguksu made with thin green noodles and topped with a colorful garnish.

Summer 2010 | Koreana 79

As a rich source of nutrients, beans have increasingly gained popularity as a healthier alternative to meat. A few examples of Korean foods made with beans include dubu (tofu), doenjang (fermented soybean paste), ganjang (soy sauce), and cheonggukjang (quick fermented bean paste).

2

Nutritious Beans

1

meat and vegetables (such as zucchini and cucumber), and then combining the ingredients with a chicken broth that was made with roasted and ground up sesame seed. As for the common folk, they sought refreshment from a bowl of noodles served with a soybean broth. These days, beans have become a more popular and healthier alternative to chicken broth. As such, kongguksu has become a favorite cold food during the summer season.

Kongguksu is made with soybeans that contain eight essential amino acids.

Although beans are a source of vegetable protein, they do not contain any fat. Beans provide a variety of vitamins and minerals, such as iron, calcium, potassium, Vitamin A and C, and folic acid, but are also low in calories, making them an excellent choice in the efforts to curtail obesity.

Moreover, beans are rich in soluble fiber, which helps to prevent constipation and reduce the risk of cancer. Beans are also helpful for people with diabetes because they help to regulate glucose levels. In addition, beans contain the calcium and magnesium needed to maintain bone density as well as the female hormone, known as vegetable estrogen, which can mitigate climacteric symptoms and deter osteoporosis. Beans are also highly recommended for teenagers to help stabilize their bone structure during a period of rapid growth.

Since isoflavone, a primary component of beans, has been found to enhance the body’s absorption of calcium and to suppress the growth of cancer cells, bean consumption is recommended to help reduce breast cancer, prostate cancer, and ovarian cancer. And because beans

are rich in protein and unsaturated fatty acids, such as linoleic/linolenic acid, they lower the risk of atherosclerosis by reducing the accumulation of fatty deposits in the arteries. As a rich source of nutrients, beans have increasingly gained popularity as a healthier alternative to meat. A few examples of Korean foods made with beans include dubu (tofu), doenjang (fermented soybean paste), ganjang (soy sauce), and cheonggukjang (quick fermented bean paste).

Kongguksu Preparation In the previously mentioned Siuijeonseo , the recipe for making kongguksu states: “After a thorough soaking in water, parboil the soybeans. Grind the parboiled beans with a millstone and then filter through a sieve. Season the filtered liquid with salt. After wheat-flour noodles have been prepared, combine the noodles with the soybean broth and garnish with sliced vegetables.�

For the preparation of kongguksu, the first step is to thoroughly soak the soybeans in water, remove the outer skin, and parboil the beans. After allowing the beans to cool off, grind them with a millstone or process with a blender. The soybean broth should be seasoned with salt

1 Parboil the prepared white beans or soy beans 2 A variety of uncooked noodles, including a type of green noodle made with green tea.

3 White beans prior to soaking Summer 2010 2010 80 Koreana | Spring

and placed in the refrigerator. During the grinding process, sesame, black sesame, peanuts, and pine nuts can be added to the soybeans to create a richer flavor.

Combine the wheat-flour noodles with the soybean broth, and top with thin slices of cucumber garnish.

Kongguksu Ingredients Somyeon noodles (300 grams), cucumber (1/3), cherry tomatoes (3), orange paprika (1/8), pear (1/8), pine nuts (1 tablespoon), sesame for garnish Soybean broth: soybeans (2 cups), roasted sesame (1 tablespoon),

Variety of Noodles

fresh water (8 cups: 2 cups to parboil the beans, 3 cups for

In most cases, a thin wheat-flour noodle, somyeon, is used to make kongguksu.

Like the dried pasta used in Western-style cooking, somyeon is easy to prepare and store. Somyeon is ideally suited for a soybean broth. A basic dish of kongguksu can be prepared by simply combining the noodles and milky soybean broth, together with a garnish of sliced vegetables. As an alternative, you can use noodles infused with green tea or chlorella powder for a new twist, in terms of appearance and taste. The green-colored noodles provide the dish with a distinctive appearance and enhanced flavor. In addition, a more decorative dish can be created by adding a variety of garnish items, such as sliced cucumber, tomato, and pear, as well as radish sprouts and pine nuts.

grinding the boiled beans, 3 cups for noodles), salt (1 teaspoon).

Preparation 1. Rinse the soybeans and soak in water for about 10 hours, or overnight.

Rub the beans to remove the outer skin.

2. Parboil the soybeans in 2 cups of water. Remove from heat and save water. Allow beans to cool. (Avoid overcooking the beans in order to retain their flavor and nutrients.)

3. Grind the beans and sesame with a millstone or process in a blender, and combine with boiled water. Add 3 cups fresh water and filter the mixture through a sieve.

4. Season the soybean broth with salt and store in the refrigerator.

5. Thinly slice the cucumber, cherry tomatoes, pear, and orange paprika.

6. Heat water seasoned with salt. When the water reaches a boil, add the noodles.

Stir the noodles occasionally. Rinse the noodles with cold water and divide into individual portions.

7. Place a portion of noodles in a serving bowl. Add the sliced cucumber, orange paprika, pear, and cherry tomatoes, and pour in the cold soybean broth. Garnish with pine nuts and sesame, and add ice cubes.

3 Summer Spring 2010 | Koreana 81

LIVING

The City Wall of Seoul

Living History in the Heart of Seoul Seoul was originally surrounded by an elaborately built stone wall. Today, many of the citizens of Seoul spend their weekends following the vestiges of this wall on a walking course that allows them to experience the history of the city as they enjoy its views. This has only recently become possible as the gradual opening of once closed sections of the wall has restored the route encircling the old city.

Charles La Shure Professor, Graduate School of Interpretation and Translation, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies Kim Yong-chul Photographer

T

hough the city wall of Seoul is over 600 years old, walking along it is a relatively new experience for the residents of South Korea's capital. This is because the longest remaining section of the wall was declared off limits to civilians after a group of armed North Korean spies infiltrated the mountains around Seoul in January 1968. The wall on Mt. Inwangsan was opened to the public in 1993, while the remaining sections of the wall on Mt. Bugaksan, behind the presidential residence, were opened gradually in 2006 and 2007. Today, Koreans can experience an important part of Seoul’s history and see the city from a different perspective.

600 Years of History The Joseon Dynasty ruled the Korean Peninsula for over 500 years, from 1392 until the nation was annexed as a colony of Japan in 1910. One of the first things King Taejo did upon founding his dynasty was to move the capital to Seoul in 1394. But simply proclaiming a new capital was not enough; the city had to have all of the institutions and facilities befitting the capital of a nation. Palace buildings and the national shrines so important to a Confucian state were built, and in 1396 construction began on the city wall.

Seoul is encircled by mountains, and the city center in particular is bounded on four sides by what are known as the “four inner mountains.” These are Bugaksan (342 m) to the north, Namsan (262 m) to the south, Naksan (125 m) to the east, and Inwangsan (338 m) to the west. The wall was designed to connect these four mountains, with stone walls on the mountains themselves and earthen walls on the flatlands between them. Most of this original wall was completed in 1396, although it was a few years before all the gates and other fortifications were finished.

Over two decades later, many parts of the wall were in a state of disrepair, and King Sejong ordered a complete repairing and restoration of the wall. Construction began in 1422, and over 300,000 laborers from around the country were mobilized for the project. This number is even more astonishing when we take into account the fact that the entire population of Seoul at the time was about 100,000. In a span of only five weeks, the existing stone walls and fortifications were repaired and the earthen walls were replaced with stone walls.

Although the city wall was built to protect the capital, it never fulfilled this role, even during the tumultuous late 16th century and early 17th century. Walls are only as strong as their defenders, and if there is no one to oppose the enemy, even the most formidable fortress may be taken. When Japan invaded in 1592 and marched on Seoul, King Seonjo and his court fled, leaving the city walls undefended and giving up the capital without a fight. In 1624, rebels led by a military official named Yi Gwal 82 Koreana | Summer 2010

The Seoul city wall offers a variety of courses, from short walks to longer treks that wind around and up the mountain slopes.

once again captured the city without a struggle. Finally, when the Manchus invaded in 1636, King Injo fled the capital to take refuge in the Namhansanseong Fortress, a ploy that ultimately failed when the Manchus surrounded the fortress and forced the king to surrender.

Before the Manchus left, they forced Joseon to sign a treaty. This treaty contained a clause that forbade repairing existing city walls or building new city walls. So, for nearly 70 years, the city wall of Seoul was left to deteriorate. But at the turn of the century King Sukjong finally defied the treaty and ordered repairs be made to the city wall. Construction began in 1704 and proceeded at intervals until its completion five years later.

With modernization and the beginning of Japanese colonial period, the city wall became an obstacle to progress. In 1898 and 1899, sections of the wall were demolished to build streetcar lines, and other sections were torn down after the turn of the century. When the Japanese officially annexed Korea in 1910, they set about devising plans to modernize Korea as part of their ultimate strategy in East Asia. Plans to modernize Seoul were published in 1912, and as a result nearly all the city wall that stood on flatland was torn down. It was not until 1975 that Korea was able to begin restoration of the wall, and this process continues today. In 2006, the Cultural Heritage Administration and the Seoul Metropolitan Government began a joint restoration project that is scheduled to be completed in 2013, at which time the government plans to submit the city wall for consideration as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Summer 2010 | Koreana 83

1 Changuimun Gate, a terminus of the Bugaksan section of the former Seoul city wall

2, 3

A walk along the Seoul city wall allows visitors to experience important aspects of the city’s history and to see Seoul from a different perspective.

1

“If we just want to experience Seoul's history, we can always visit the palaces. But walking along the city wall gives us a sense of what Seoul was like in the past, and shows us how it was founded on principles of pungsu [feng shui]. It offers a new perspective on the city of Seoul.”

1

112

2

84 Koreana | Summer 2010

The City Wall Today Today, only 10.5 kilometers of the original 18.2-kilometer city wall remain standing. The longest unbroken section of the wall runs over Mt. Bugaksan to the north, with only a short gap before continuing over Mt. Inwangsan to the west. There are shorter sections on Mt. Naksan to the east, running between the gates of Hyehwamun and Heunginjimun (commonly known as Dongdaemun, or the “Great East Gate”), and on Mt. Namsan to the south. Probably the most popular course is the one running from Inwangsan to Bugaksan, in part because it was inaccessible for so long.

Mr. Gu, a long-time resident of Seoul, was excited at the prospect of visiting the city wall with his two elder brothers.

“My heart is leaping at the thought of this rewarding trip,” he said. “We've lived in Seoul for forty or fifty years and have only ever seen the Skyway Drive and Palgakjeong Pavilion on Mt. Bugaksan.” Ms. Jo, who works in downtown Seoul, in sight of Mt. Inwangsan and Mt. Bugaksan, visits the city wall about twice a month: “I really like how you can see the whole of Seoul at a glance from the top, and there are a number of places along 3 the wall where observation platforms have been set up to allow people to enjoy the views.” Her coworker, Mrs. Lee, agreed. “If we just want to experience Seoul's history, we can always visit the palaces,” she noted. “But walking along the city wall gives us a sense of what Seoul was like in the past, and shows us how it was founded on principles of pungsu [feng shui]. It offers a new perspective on the city of Seoul.”

Since most of the wall follows the mountain peaks and ridges, walkers are treated to a solid workout in addition to the beautiful, panoramic views of the city. Heading east from Changuimun, the wall climbs steeply up Mt. Bugaksan, and visitors follow along a winding stairway. Once at the top, though, the fresh air and sweeping vistas of Seoul nestled between mountain peaks wash away any fatigue.

Once walkers are able to take their eyes off the city below, the wall itself offers a journey through history. The three different styles of architecture are clearly visible, from King Taejo's original wall and King Sejong's renovations to King Sukjong's construction centuries later. The original city wall consists of smaller, irregular stones fitted together to form fortifications that look and feel very organic. When King Sejong rebuilt and renovated the wall, larger rectangular stones were used, with smaller stones inserted in between to plug any gaps. This wall still feels quite organic, but the lines are much more uniform. The 18th century construction is the most distinct, as square granite blocks were cut to a uniform shape and size to build a sturdy, imposing wall. There are a number of areas, such as the sections adjoining the northernmost gate of Sukjeongmun, where all three construction styles can be seen next to each other.

The observant walker will notice that certain blocks in the wall are engraved with characters.

Some of these record the dates of construction and the names of those in charge. Also, since laborers were mobilized from all corners of Korea, some stones mark the sections built by workers from each part of the country. Finally, the entire wall was divided into 97 sections of approximately 180 meters each. Rather than simply numbering these sections, the builders used the text of One Thousand Characters, a primer for learning the basic Chinese characters. The first section, at the peak of Mt. Bugaksan, is labeled with the first character in this text, the character for “the heavens.” The sections continue in order to the east, or clockwise, finishing once again on the peak of Mt. Bugaksan with the 97th character, the character for “to pity.”

Finally, there are the features of the wall itself. The most visible and iconic are the battlements atop the wall. These feature narrow gaps and wide “teeth,” the latter of which are each punctuated by Summer 2010 | Koreana 85

three loopholes. The two outer loopholes are cut straight through the wall, but the center loopholes are angled steeply downward, allowing defenders to target attackers both far away from and close to the wall. There are also smaller square bastions and larger curved bastions located along the wall. These structures offered defenders a greater field of fire, allowing them to cover the walls on either side. The most imposing structures along the wall are the many gates. Of the four great gates, the eastern gate, Heunginjimun, and the southern gate, Sungnyemun, now stand in the middle of busy city streets; Sungnyemun is currently being rebuilt after it was nearly destroyed by fire in 2008.

The western gate, Donuimun, was torn down by the Japanese during the colonial period, although it is scheduled to be fully restored by 2013. Only the northern gate, Sukjeongmun, still stands in its original environment.

Trekking as a New Trend

After enjoying panoramic views of the city below, the wall will enable you to take a journey back into history.

86 Koreana | Summer 2010

The Seoul city wall is a precious cultural heritage that offers a glimpse into the history of the city, but it is also a living part of the city today. Encircling what is now the center of Seoul, it can be accessed from various different points, leaving walkers free to choose from short strolls to longer walks that travel up and down mountain ridges. In this day and age, when people often seem to be in so much of a hurry to get where they are going that they do not take the time to stop and look around, many are making an effort to slow down and spend more time thinking about the journey itself than about the destination.

Among those seeking to enjoy the journey, trekking has become quite popular. In fact, a new educational institution called the Korea Trekking School has been founded with full government support for the purpose of introducing the Korean people to this relatively new pastime. According to the school’s website (www.kts2009.com), “While the goal of mountaineering is to overcome danger and adversity, and achieve a sense of accomplishment through adventures and challenges, trekking seeks to eliminate as much danger as possible, allowing the trekker to enjoy the scenery and become a part of nature in a safe and relaxed environment.�

There are a number of long trekking courses around the peninsula. Mt. Jirisan is the highest peak on the South Korean mainland, at a height of over 1,916 meters, and its deep mist-shrouded folds hold a special place in the imagination of Koreans. In recent years, a trail that circles the mountain, known as the Dulle Trail, has been restored for trekking. This trail runs for some 300 kilometers and 1 passes through land that is largely undeveloped and still in its natural form. The trail is divided into smaller sections to allow for shorter, single-day trips.

On Jejudo Island, off the southwestern tip of Korea, the Olle Trail runs along the shoreline, circling the highest mountain in South Korea, Mt. Hallasan (1,950 m). There are currently 15 different trails along this route, spanning some 215 kilometers along the southern shore from the western end of the island to the eastern end, and there are plans to add even more trails in the future. Closer to Seoul, construction is currently underway on a trekking trail that will run around Mt. Bukhansan. In March of this year, the 64-kilometer Sulle Trail, the first section of the longer trail, was opened to the public, and the entire trail is expected to be completed by 2013. With this, trekking looks to take its place in Korean culture next to mountain climbing as a new lifestyle that nurtures both body and soul.

Journeys in Korean Literature

Park Wan-suh At the age of 40, Park Wan-suh (1931-) emerged on the Korean literary scene with her first novel The Naked Tree . Her novels about ordinary people, whose circumstances and actions expose their duality and hypocrisy, have earned her high acclaim as an exceptional storyteller. After enduring the Korean War experience in her youth, Park has penned a number of novels and short stories that reveal the war’s far-reaching consequences on Korean families.

Summer 2010 | Koreana 87

CRITIQUE

A Woman’s Story of the Korean War

‘Encounter at the Airport’ by Park Wan-suh Park Hye-kyung Literary Critic

P

ark Wan-suh maintains a unique position in Korean literature for her initiation of a literary approach to historical developments. With her feminine eye and sensibility, she has re-created the details surrounding such historical subjects as the Korean War and the Korean Peninsula’s division, which had long been dominated by male writers. Park’s novels bring to life the microcosms of everyday life, which have often been overlooked by the macro-perspective of history, closely associated with the masculine rationale. Consequently, she has been able to reveal, through an abundance of detail and rich narrative texture, the deep and intimate pain that the war has left on the life of individual Koreans.

In blending her personal experiences with grander realms of history and politics, Park’s natural gift for storytelling shines through her stories about Korea’s war-ridden past and division, as well as in her other works about the more recent lives of her contemporaries. Of particular note, the tumultuous period of Korean history, from the time of Japan’s colonial rule leading up to the outbreak of the Korean War, overlaps with the formative years of her life, from her childhood to early adulthood. Therefore, the turmoil of Korea’s modern history, which she experienced during the most sensitive period of her life, has inflicted such an extreme trauma on her young soul that the Korean War has been a recurring theme in her literary works.

To the women in Park Wan-suh’s novels, the Korean War is a relentless process that only results in tragedy for all male members of the family, including young sons. The women who manage to survive the war’s devastation are left with the task of finding a way to live. With all the men of the family being lost in the midst of ideology conflicts, the

88 Koreana | Summer 2010

women become solely responsible for earning a livelihood for what remains of the family, turning life into a day-to-day struggle for survival. As such, “Encounter at the Airport” is not about the Korean War’s wellknown horrors, but rather the everyday experiences of the women who were left behind.

During this time of chaos, as men did battle along the front lines, the women in the rear waged their own desperate struggle to replace the men in their families. The U.S. military PX store in this story is a telling symbol of the extreme hardship that Korean women endured during the war in order to deal with the widespread poverty. In the story, the Korean women workers at the PX store smuggle out American goods by wrapping their bodies with layers of items, which were concealed under their full skirts.

The humorous depiction of the women, waddling unsteadily due to the bulk of the smuggled items, reflects the harsh reality that Koreans had to overcome amid the ruins of war.

As much as the Korean War was a civil conflict between the Koreans of the South and the North, it was also an international war waged on Korean soil, representing a clash of ideology between the West and the East. The United States emerged from the war as a powerful ally of South Korea, along its heroic image being engraved in the minds of Koreans for protecting them from the threat of Communism and providing much-needed aid to their poverty-stricken nation. At that time, whenever GIs appeared on the streets, a throng of raggedy children would surround them and shout in crude English: “Give me chocolate! Candy!” This ubiquitous scene symbolized the relationship between the two countries, as benefactor and beneficiary.

While children pestered American soldiers for

treats, adult Koreans smuggled food and commodities from the U.S. military commissaries. This was their form of begging. For Koreans, driven into utter poverty and hunger by the war’s destruction, the commissary shelves, stacked high with an enticing array of “luxury products,” were an object of fierce desire. During the post-war period, the shiny products from America meant something more to the Korean people than just a means for eking out a meager living: They were like a mysterious amulet that offered a promise of future happiness. In “Encounter at the Airport,” what the women really desired, while smuggling goods from the commissary, were actually the hopes for a better life and brighter future.

Nevertheless, it was inevitable for post-war Koreans, who had to depend so heavily on U.S. aid, to swallow their pride in front of the American troops.

Therefore, whether it was due to a desperate need to survive or a vain hope to attain happiness, their intense desire for the commissary’s items also created a sense of inferiority, which served to reinforce their cruel reality. In this way, ideology conflicts did not play out on the battlefield alone. The women in the rear, who had to accept the might of American capital and to suffer from the poverty of their own nation, were also engaged in their own war of ideology. In “Encounter at the Airport,” the foul-mouthed Mudaeso ajumma, whose curse words are neither Korean nor English, is portrayed as a staunch warrior with audacious pride, among the cringing subservience of her compatriots.

When the U.S. military authorities decide, after hours of blackout, to dump truckloads of possibly spoiled meat into the Han River, Mudaeso ajumma attempts to stop them by fiercely biting the arm of a soldier. With eyes that looked “like those of a beast

on the brink of extinction,” this is a vivid testament to the solitary battle she sought to wage in order to not yield to the power of the strong, even at a time when “there really are thirty million of us benefiting from the Yankees.” Although she herself is an active accomplice to smuggling operations, the U.S. military’s dispassionate enforcement of health regulations, in front of starving Koreans, must have appeared to her as an act of indulgence, or even depravity.

For her, maintaining her dignity is more important that her very survival. That is why her first husband’s senseless death, while on his way home from the front, left her in such a state of complete devastation. And that is also why she declares so vehemently: “You fuckers think all thirty million of us are sponging off of you, but I’m telling you there are goddamn Americans who are not starving to death thanks to Koreans. And you’re looking at a Korean who’s keeping a fucking American alive and that American is my husband.”

Thereafter, she goes on to say: “Naw, you just wait till I get to America. I’ll never use those damned curly-tongued American curses anymore. I’ll be using my country’s language to curse my country to my satisfaction.” In this case, she is not motivated by patriotism, but rather is simply expressing her resolve to preserve her personal values in the face of any adversity. Her steadfast refusal to surrender, like that of a solitary beast on the verge of extinction, makes it possible for the reader to have a sense of empathy, when the speaker of this story ends her reminiscing by noting: “There really are thirty million of us benefiting from the Yankees; she alone went against the grain and supported a single Yankee – an outrageous and friendless undertaking indeed. But, in her case, one that was possible.”

Summer 2010 | Koreana 89