SAMPLE - A Little Bit of Media Analysis by The Examcraft Group

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A little bit of Media analysis A student guide to Media on the Politics & Society Leaving Cert course

Dr Jerome Devitt

Edited by Paul McAndrew

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“A little bit of Media analysis”

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Politics and Society Students LC 2022-23 Student Media Handbook for Learning Outcome 2.6

Edited by Paul McAndrew, with Amélie McAndrew

Published by

McAndrew Books mcandrewbooks.com

Table of Contents Key Concepts and Evidence 1

Characteristics of Different forms of Media

Noam Chomsky – Key Ideas

Key Definitions

Roles of Media

Media Bias

Media Regulation Media Ownership Media Origination Citizen Journalism

12 19 23 24

Fake News

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Introduction

Role of Advertising

Targeting Strategies Adopted by the Media

Exam Focus

Section A “Infographics”

Section B “Data-Based Question”

Section C “Sample Essay Titles”

Introduction This booklet has been produced because I have found that teaching the ‘Media’ component of the Politics & Society subject specification has easily been one of the most difficult elements of the course each year. While students are familiar with many concepts from their study of Junior Cycle English (which includes aspects of ‘Media Studies’), the level of detail required to get your head around some aspects of the Politics & Society course can be quite daunting – and as a teacher, tracking down relevant contemporary resources has sometimes proven even more problematic.

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This is further compounded by the fact that the ‘media landscape’ changes (and presumably will continue to change) very quickly. What would have been a fairly straightforward explanation of Dennis O’Brien’s role in Irish Media Ownership in LC 2018-19 is now largely obsolete. So, what I wanted for my own classes was an up-to-date, and easily ‘updatable’ booklet that explained the key concepts, provided useful “Case Study” materials, and which allowed the students to begin to form their own opinions by scaffolding critical approaches to different ideas through what has already been written – both by the Key Thinkers involved and by contemporary news outlets. What is presented here should be seen as indicative, not prescriptive. It is intended as a handy resource, not a limitation on what a teacher and student might engage with throughout their two years of Politics & Society. Critically, I wanted to make the link between the concepts and the exam clearer throughout the process, as illustrated in the “Exam Focus” section below.

All good Politics & Society writing tries to balance THREE interconnected ideas – theory, practice, and personal responses (as we see here):

This is all well and good to say, but how do we translate that into workable ‘classroom ready’ resources? We have to balance studying key thinkers with our case studies, and then begin to formulate our personal responses by working out what our “I” sentences might look like once we have considered the broader perspectives.

Another challenge associated with our course is that while ‘Media’ is tightly packaged into Learning Outcome 2.6 (see below) of the Subject Specification, in practical terms it is really sprinkled throughout the course. As you will see, other key thinkers apart from Chomsky have touched on ideas of media representation, distortion, power, agenda setting, and more. So, while this can be seen as a ‘stand-alone’ booklet, I would strongly encourage students and teachers to return to the ideas within it at different times throughout the course. At every point of your studies, as you gather more information and deeper insights, you should remain suitably critical of the sources of your information!

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It’s also important to recognize what this booklet is NOT. It isn’t a definitive guide to Global Media, but rather an attempt to focus in on the specific requirements of the Politics and Society Subject Specification. The other ‘Media’ component of the course that proves challenging is the fact that while the course is very broad in certain ways, the subject specification is phrased in such a way as to require students and teachers to undertake some very specific “deep dives”.

Throughout this booklet, you’ll see that we focus in on those areas with great specificity. Where possible, contrasting perspectives on those areas are offered and the student is prompted to ‘synthesise’ and ‘critically evaluate’ the opposing views to help establish what they think about the idea or issue – effectively, to help them to write their own “I” sentences, or as I often say – “develop not just an opinion, but an informed opinion.”

Explore the Subject Specification to see what areas you are already comfortable with and which areas you’ll need to develop specific content knowledge:

Towards the end of this booklet, you’ll find examples of some of the ways in which this topic might be examined. The ‘Short Questions’ of Section A focus in around media infographics. The ‘Data-Based Question’ of Section B should also be seen as a future Case Study upon which you can draw. The sample Essay Questions are designed to give you a flavour of how you can engage more holistically with this material in a longer essay format. I hope that they prove useful in your preparation and exam revision.

Starting Questions: Entry-Level Knowledge For each key topic in Politics & Society, there are a number of unavoidable definitions that students will need to understand before real progress can be made. I would strongly urge students to approach the definitions presented here with a critical eye and add to, subtract from, or substitute aspects of those definitions as they see fit. But before we dive in let’s very briefly assess our prior knowledge, so that we have at least some shared understanding. What is ‘Media’? Media (plural of ‘medium’) are the communication channels or tools used to communicate or deliver information, data, or narratives. “Mass Media” refers to the industry that undertakes this process on a local, national, and/or global scale, such as print media, traditional or digital publishing, the news media, photography, cinema, radio and television broadcasting, internet/digital/’Social’ media, and advertising.

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Why does this topic feature so prominently on our course?

Because many elements of the course require students to undertake their own investigations and gather their own information, it is critical that they are doing so with their “eyes open”. Understanding the potential biases and distortions, therefore, becomes an entry-level skill. Understanding the implications of the biases that they will encounter doesn’t eliminate the possibility of distortion, but certainly minimizes some of the negative impacts of “dis-information” and “fake news”. They will (hopefully) develop what we might call a “healthy scepticism” towards the seemingly endless sources of information they encounter.

What do we mean by the following words?

Bias: prejudice in favour of or against one person, group, ideology, or position - especially in a way designed to be or is considered unfair.

Subjectivity: based on or influenced by personal feelings, tastes, experiences, or opinions. Objectivity: showing a lack of favouritism toward one side or another. Free from bias. Impartial. Propaganda: information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view. Generally seen as appealing to emotion rather than reason. As your knowledge and experiences increase from studying the Politics & Society course in more depth and detail, you may want to return to these definitions and note specific examples you have come across that illustrate those ideas. But always bear in mind that the more you learn about media, the more you might need to re-think your own relationship to media ‘consumption’ and use those insights as a way of informing your own actions. This is a very personal way in which the study of media can directly impact you. If, as our Key Thinker Noam Chomsky argues, “He who controls the media controls the minds of the public”, then it is critical for students to begin to understand the factors that shape how they view the processes of Power and Decision-Making that are so central to this part of the course.

Characteristics of Different Types of Media

Clearly, different media have different qualities that make them more or less suitable for different types of expression. Use the two tables below to summarize and evaluate the qualities of the different forms of media. Complete the empty spaces below. Traditional Media Formats ce ien

h ac Re

Television

d Au

Broad Reach

Newspapers /Print Local/National

s se es n k ea W

n tio a l gu Re

hs gt n re St Tightly Regulated Wide variety of channels and (BAI) - Chilling potential revenue streams. effect of Powerful audio-visual medium Defamation Act. with clear messaging

Diminished Ad Revenue. Lag between story and publication, limited 'shelf life'. Extremely cost-effective/low production costs. Strong advertising potential. Portable (low-tech requirements).

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Literate, loyal, Well Regulated subscription (Press Council) Tightly Regulated Little education (BAI) - Chilling required. Very effect of accessible. Defamation Act.

High 'production costs', limited audience attention span.

Radio

What would you add to the points already made here?

A Small Problem! While the Subject Specification distinguishes between ‘Traditional’ and ‘New’ media, it is very important to recognize that those dividing lines are increasingly meaningless as time progresses. Most traditional forms of media are, at the very least, hybrid (mixes of traditional and digital) because they have layered more modern practices into their ‘business model’. The “Paper of Record” in Ireland – The Irish Times – for example, is now almost exclusively a ‘digital first’ newspaper. This means that the story is posted online when the story ‘breaks’ before it makes it into the print edition the following day. Most radio programs can be listed to again on the podcast feed of the show. Many TV shows incorporate social media feedback, polls, and comments into their production process. Clearly, then, the distinction between new and traditional is at least blurred.

Internet

Global & Interconnected

Global & Social Media Interconnected

Podcasts

es se s W ea kn

St re ng th s

Re gu lat ion

Au di en ce

Re ac h

New/Digital Media Formats

Exceptionally broad range of Potential for dissemination of GDPR in European material available for fake news. Authorship often Union, but little consumers. Online marketplace unclear. Technology costs. broader for trade. Monetization of Access to broadband/wifi regulation. products needed Very fast and responsive for of "Echo Chamber". communication. Ability to Spread of 'dis-information' by Analytics easy to follow breaking events. Highly "influencers". Difficult to establish and focussed audience of similar verify. Tighter regulation of track. interests/ideologies. "verified" accounts. Very lightly Easily accessible regulated by Low Production Costs. Longthrough mobile. terms and term availability. Highly Subscriber/ conditions of hosts focussed on specific topic areas. 'Patreon' base. (iTunes etc.) Forum for discussion.

What would you add to the points already made here? 4

Media Noam Chomsky What insights can be provided by looking through the “5 Filters”?

Key Concepts: “Manufacturing Consent” (1988) (‘The 5 Filters’), Media Ownership, Role of Advertising, Power of those who Work in the Media, Consumer targeting strategies, Origin of Content, Reach and Influence of the Media.

“It is our view that, among their other functions, the media serve, and propagandize on behalf of, the powerful societal interests that control and finance them.” Introduction, ‘Manufacturing Consent’ Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky (1988) This leads to ‘editorial self-censorship’, but without ‘overt coercion’ in 5 ways, the ‘Five Filters of Editorial Bias’ 2. Advertising: Media costs a lot more than consumers will ever pay. So who fills the gap? Adverting revenue. And what are the advertisers paying for? Audiences. “And so it isn’t so much that the media are selling you a product — their output. They are also selling advertisers a product — YOU.” Do you think, in that context, that media organization will be critical of their own advertisers? Is it possible to understand the media in a context that ignores advertising? Chomsky says ‘No’!

3. The Media Elite: Journalism cannot be a check on power because the very system they work within encourages complicity. Governments, corporations, big institutions know how to play the media game. They know how to “influence the narrative”. They feed/leak media scoops, official accounts, and interviews with the “experts”. They make themselves crucial to the process of journalism. So, those in power and those who report on them are “in bed with each other”.

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1. Media Ownership: Mass media firms are big corporations. Often, they are part of even bigger conglomerates. Their goal is Profit. And so, it’s in their interests to push for whatever guarantees that profit and guarantees their “market share”. Therefore, critical (investigative) journalism must take second place to the needs and interests of the corporation. In the case of Media Moguls, we must look to the impact of self-censorship at all levels of the journalistic process.

4. Flak: If you want to challenge power, you’ll be pushed to the margins and denied access to the leaks that the ‘elite’ (no. 3) control. When the media – journalists, whistle-blowers, sources – stray away from the consensus, they get ‘flak’. When the story is inconvenient for the powers that be, you’ll see the flak machine in action discrediting sources, trashing stories and diverting the conversation. They’ll do anything to discredit the source and get you to look in the other direction…

5. The Common Enemy To manufacture consent, you need an enemy — a target. That common enemy is the fifth filter. Communism, Terrorists, Immigrants, Muslims, Travellers, European Bureaucrats… Anyone will do! A common enemy, a bogeyman to fear, helps shape public opinion. While this is directly relevant to media, it overlaps with ‘identity’ also, particularly Edward Said’s “Covering Islam”. What examples of a ‘common enemy’ can you identify in the media today?

Using the ‘Five Filters,’ consider what impact ‘self-censorship’ might have on the following people:

A ‘Regular Joe/Jane’ News Consumers:____________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ A Rookie Newspaper Reporter: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ A ‘Cable’ TV News Anchor: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ A Newspaper Editor: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ A Media Corporation owner/shareholder: _______________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ A Corrupt Politician: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ A Media ‘Spin Doctor’: ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __

Thinker’s Background • • • • • • • •

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•

Chomsky, born in 1928, is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian, political activist, and social critic. Sometimes called "the father of modern linguistics". He is best known as a professor in the prestigious M.I.T. (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) where he was a professor of Linguistics for more than 50 years! He was famously opposed to the Vietnam War and spoke and published frequently about it, particularly in his amazing essay “The Responsibility of Intellectuals” where he lays out some of the ideas that would late go on to be a part of “Manufacturing Consent” https://chomsky.info/19670223/ He identifies politically as a “Libertarian Socialist”. How does that fit in with other key thinkers? “Manufacturing Consent” was written during the 1980s at a time when America was becoming actively more engaged in wars in Central and Latin America (such as Nicaragua). From the 1990s onwards, he became an even more visible political activist, particularly for East Timor. After 9/11 Chomsky argued that the ensuing “War on Terror” was not a new development but a continuation of the U.S. foreign policy and longstanding rhetoric that had been pursued since the Reagan era (1980s). He’s still alive, and if you want to, you can find hundreds of hours of his talks and interviews on YouTube about almost every topic under the sun! Part of the problem of studying Chomsky is that he has been so prolific. You could dip into lots of Chomsky’s ideas to support or challenge the ideas of other key thinkers. One useful place to start would be to start by listening to what Chomsky had to say about the education system, which he thought was designed as a way of indoctrinating the young. Watch YouTube clip “Education is a System of Indoctrination of the young”!

Modern Media History- A Suitable Starting Point The Hutchins Commission - The Commission on Freedom of the Press

During World War 2 many Americans were concerned about the degree to which the media, then mainly newspapers and radio, should or shouldn’t be critical of the government. At what point did the fact that a WAR was on, mean they should be patriotic and not harm the ‘war-effort’? Or should they continue to be critical of government and/or the Armed Forces in a way that might undermine public morale?

At this time, many of the powerful publishers were viewed with suspicion by the American public, and criticisms of the ‘Fourth Estate’ focussed on the ideas that they wanted to ‘monopolize’ the media market and didn’t represent the interests of minorities who were not like themselves. People also worried about the ‘commercialization’ of the news and that business would be seen as more important that keeping the public well informed – a process we will return to below.

After WW2, Henry Luce who was the publisher of the massive “Time” and “Life” magazines wanted to enquire about the “proper function of the media in a modern democracy”. Many of the findings of the commission inform how the media went on to develop in most modern democracies. After 4 years of deliberation, they found that: • It was imperative (essential/demanded) that a commitment to ‘social responsibility’ be imposed on the mass media • It was in the interests of both the free media and the public for them to provide citizens with the information they needed for good government, otherwise the government would need to regulate the media • There should be a strengthening of the editorial and journalistic “Code of Ethics” • The Media should consider “their moral obligation to consider the overall needs of society” that created the greatest good. In other words, they had to balance multiple (often competing) perspectives when deciding what to publish. To what extent do you think that these findings still apply today, particularly given the role of social media? Critical Evaluation Question:

If you were setting up a new “Hutchins Commission” for the 21st Century, what would your recommendations be? Justify the criteria behind your choices.

Key Quote: “Civilized society is a working system of ideas. It lives and changes by the consumption of ideas. Therefore, it must make sure that as many as possible of the ideas which its members have are available for its examination.” Hutchins Report (1947), p 6. 6

Some Key Definitions & Explanations

We need to have a common language for discussion the privileges and restraints that control how the media behaves. Consider the following terms (which are mentioned on the subject specification, and therefore could be asked as ‘short questions’) and then examine the case studies below. In groups, divide the case studies and see how these cases influence what you think about the actions of the press in vastly different contexts. Freedom of the Press is the right of newspapers, magazines, to report news without being controlled or restricted by the government. Social Responsibility of the Press - freedom of the press is not an absolute right for it must be balanced against the people’s rights and the interest of society. This means the press can report the news without censorship, but the news content should be subject for discussion, scrutiny, and review by the public through proper forums, and the press should be self-regulating and accountable in the performance of its duty to the public.

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Accountability of the Press: News organization act as a ‘Watchdog’ of those in power but aren’t themselves immune from abuses. Sometimes news organizations place profit over the public interest. This approach distorts coverage of important issues and promotes a “pro-corporate” agenda (in favour of big businesses). Sensationalism (clickbait!) and bias lead to coverage that dehumanizes women, people of colour and other communities and makes them less safe. If the media knowingly promotes irresponsible or dangerous coverage of events, how should they be held accountable? Examples to consider: Investigate the three case studies below and assess the degree to which they fit into the terminology we have just explored. You’ll notice that in each case the lines between social responsibility, accountability, and press freedom can blur in many ways.

1. The UK: The Leveson inquiry was a judicial public inquiry in the UK into the unethical of the British press following the News International phone hacking scandal, where celebrity’s voicemail boxes were hack to get news stories. In what ways did journalists and editors violate their responsibilities when it came to their social responsibilities? What punishments they receive? Was this a satisfactory conclusion to the inquiry? 2.

The US: Some students might be familiar with the recent Hollywood film “The Post” with Tom Hanks and Meryl Streep. This film centred around the publication of “The Pentagon Papers” – confidential documents from the war in Vietnam. Were the editors of the New York Times and the Washington Post correct to publish that material. Compile a list of ‘Pros’ and ‘Cons’ that an editor and publisher would have to consider before printing such controversial documents. What would you have done in their shoes? Which of the terms above would be most important in your deliberations?

Ireland: In 2015 Social Democrat TD, Catherine Murphy, spoke in Dáil Éireann about loans that had been granted to Irish businessman, Dennis O’Brien. She used “Parliamentary Privilege” (TDs can’t be sued for things that they say in the Dáil that they believe to be in the ‘public interest’. Speaking in the Dáil about a topic that journalists were forbidden from reporting on because of a High Court “Injunction” (ban/block) meant that journalists were now free to report on her words. Where do the ethical and practical limitations lie in this case? How would you react as a newspaper owner or editor if you received a letter from O’Brien threatening legal action if your reporting was not removed? Investigate what other privileges TDs enjoy in the Dáil and decide if Murphy acted appropriately. Who gets to decide what is in the ‘public interest’ here? What are the implications for our understanding of “Separation of Powers” between the legislature and the judiciary? Find out more about the “Protected Disclosures Act (2014) that is designed to protect ‘whistle-blowers’ who come forward about wrongdoings of the organizations for whom they work.

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