INTERNEURON Nobel Prize for the Inner-GPS System Mirror Neurons: The Neural Substrate for Empathy?
FEATURE:
Let's Discuss that Shower Cap and Ear Bone: Learning the relationship between brain and technology Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014
TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 2 3 4 6 9 11
Letter from the Editors
Nobel Prize for the Brain's Inner-GPS System
OPINION
12 14 15 18 20 22
Autism Spectrum Disorder & the U of T Autism Alliance
Let's Talk Local: A Spotlight on Neuroscience Research at U of T
Mirror Neurons: The Neural Substrate for Empathy?
The Neuroscience of Consciousness: Induction of Lucid Dreams
ARTWORK The MRI Gone Awry
FEATURE
Let's Discuss that Showercap & Earbone: Learning the Relationship Between Brain & Technology
FEATURE Introduction to Deep Brain Stimulation
The Myth of Free Will
Capgras Syndrome: The Illusion of Look-Alikes
OPINION Comprehensive Computation?
Get Involved!
Contributors Authors
Letter from the Editors
Darren Cheng Ikram Khan Victor Lee Sarah Marko Alex Mogadam
Dear Readers,
Sawayra Owais Maryna Pilkiw
We are proud to present Issue 2.2 of Interneuron! Based on our team’s interest and current events in the realm of neuroscience, this edition explores the theme of ‘Neuroscience and Technology.’ Recently, NAUS held their third annual Everything Neuroscience Conference: “The Digital Brain.” Interneuron was glad to be invited it was great meeting some of you there and hearing about your interest in contributing to the magazine!
Sara Pishdadian Ann Sheng Sahil Zaveri
Cover Art Speaking of contributions, we would like to encourage our readers to contribute artwork or photography for upcoming issues. We are always looking for creative, neuro-related pieces that can stand alone and stand out in our pages; in future issues, we hope to include more student illustrations, comic strips, or other creative media!
Louise Escuban
Artwork Oshien Lekhwani
As students ourselves, we understand that our contributors have a lot on their plates. To find another valuable way to appreciate your time and commitment, Interneuron has applied for Co-Curricular Record (CCR) recognition! Using CCR, you will be recognized for your contributions by a faculty member and will be able to formally show off your involvement with Interneuron.
Ella Lew
Layout Yasmine Abdelaal Louise Escuban
If you have any suggestions, comments, or concerns about Interneuron, please feel free to contact us - we would love to hear from you!
Thank you to our dedicated Editorial team, Layout team, and student contributors for putting together a wonderful issue. On behalf of Interneuron, we wish you a wonderful holiday season and a happy New Year! Regards,
Sarah & Susmita
Editors-in-Chief
Oshien Lekhwani Aileen Zhou
Editorial Team Yasmine Abdelaal Omar Bitar Theo Brunn Toni Dayno Alex Jacob Steven Meas Sarah Peters Susmita Sarkar
Nobel Prize for the Brain's Inner-GPS system Sahil Zaveri Every year, scientific research propels forward, as
repeatedly that different areas of the hippocampus lit up.
countless experiments lead to eye-opening breakthroughs.
Hence, different cells were being activated in accordance
Numerous hours are spent in search of the answers to the
with the rats’ geographic placement. O’Keefe called them
mysteries of science. Many of the scientists behind these
“place cells,” as they theoretically seemed to be serving as a
discoveries are rewarded with the Nobel prize in
map.
acknowledgement of their remarkable contributions. This
With continued research, the second part of the team, Moser
year’s Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded
& Moser, made the second significant finding in 2005. This
this year for the discovery of particular cells in the brain that
time, the researchers explored a different group of nerve cells
function as a “GPS system.
known as “grid cells.” As their name suggests, these cells
It was credited one half to John O’Keefe and the other
were found to be responsible for creating a grid-type spatial
to a married couple: May-Britt Moser and Edvard I. Moser.
coordinate system for precise positioning. The entorhinal
These researchers dedicated their experiments in the hopes
cortex was another key brain region that was critical to this
of answering many basic, yet complicated questions. How do
study. It is implicated in important cognitive functions such as
we go from point A to point B? How do we have a sense of
memory and planning.
where we are? How do we navigate directions in our minds?
Looking at the bigger picture reveals the potential of
In regards to the prize money, O’Keefe received half the total
these research findings, as they may help explain the
amount, which amounted to 8 million Swedish krona
symptoms of various medical conditions, such as Alzheimer’s
(approximately 700,000 pounds), while the couple earned a
disease. It has been observed that patients in the early stages
quarter each.
of this disease forget where they are or where they are going.
However, these findings did not somehow occur
Research indicates that this is strongly linked to these newly
overnight. It took several decades to answer these “basic”
found place and grid cells. Essentially, these are specialized
questions. For example, the first notable finding occurred
cells for spatial memory. They are the body’s way of
back in 1971 when John O’Keefe discovered the first major
identifying the environment and keeping track of all its
piece of this puzzle. While conducting his experiments on
continuous changes. Therefore, it is very likely that further
rats, he studied different areas of the brain–particularly the
research into the brain’s inner-GPS system may help
hippocampus–to learn which of them were activated when
scientists find a cure for such diseases that affect spatial
rats occupied different locations within a room. He noticed
memory.
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Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014
OPINION
Autism Spectrum Disorder and the U of T Autism Alliance Victor Lee
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is an umbrella term
propriately and interact positively; it is our hope that this will
for a variety of disorders. Currently, more than 1 in 68 children
encourage the children to behave similarly in other situations.
are diagnosed with ASD, and the number is constantly rising.
I have always had a soft spot for children with disabilities,
Children with ASD have impairments in social development
and I have always tried to do all that I can to support them. I
and communication; severity and symptom types vary widely
could not have done so without the help of my fellow club
between individuals.
members and the support of Autism Ontario Toronto Chapter.
Presently, there is no known cure for ASD. Available
Above spreading awareness, our club believes that taking
medications are only used to treat symptoms; however, cer-
action is just as important. We hope that what we do not only
tain programs have been proven effective in improving be-
brings enjoyment to children and their families but also to our
haviour. Applied Behaviour Analysis and Intensive Be-
volunteers. Most importantly, we seek to help the children
havioural Intervention focus on methods including positive
thrive in a fun, open, and inclusive setting. I believe that pro-
reinforcement to develop a child’s behaviour. Unfortunately,
viding social events is one of the most beneficial activities our
these therapeutic approaches are extremely expensive; how-
club can organize to help children living with autism in our
ever, many of their techniques can be incorporated into day-
community.
to-day interactions with the children at home, school, and the community or implemented into weekly regimens. Children are rewarded with high fives when they greet someone properly, given stickers for responding appropriately to social cues, or given time to play on a smartphone (sometimes, one of their favourite rewards!) if they successfully explain an appropriate emotional reaction to a hypothetical social situation. Now in it’s third year, the U of T Autism Alliance strives to bring social events to children living with autism. In conjunction with Autism Ontario Toronto Chapter, we recently hosted our first Halloween party—a great success! According to one of the children, it was the “bestest Halloween party ever.” We host events that are fun for the whole family, and the children are given an opportunity to interact with their peers and U of T student volunteers. While we are no professionals, we try to incorporate various aspects of the behavioural therapies into our interactions during events. We make sure to respond with extra enthusiasm when the children behave ap-
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neurocognitive difficulties that impact their quality of life. Interestingly, CSR has been identified as a key risk factor in
Let'sTalk Local: A Spotlight on Neuroscience Research at U of T
the development of these cognitive effects (Mabbott et al., 2008). More specifically, prior research in the field has shown slower processing speeds (Mabbott, Penkman, Witol., Strother, & Bouffet, 2008; Palmer et al., 2013), attention difficulties (Reeves et al., 2006), lower Full Scale Intelligence Quotients (FSIQ) (Mabbott, Noseworthy, Bouffet, Rockel, & Laughlin, 2006; Brinkman et al., 2012), and memory problems in this population. With regards to how these effects arise, CSR has been shown to cause white matter tract damage that potentially impacts cognitive function (Mabbott et al., 2006). Why is Dr. Mabbott’s lab interested in the effect of exercise in childhood cancer survivors? Animal and human research has shown exercise to promote brain plasticity as
Alex Mogadam
well as have neuroprotective effects, the former being key in memory and learning (Cotman & Berchtold, 2002). In addition, studies have shown that exercise increases white and grey matter volume in geriatric populations (Colcombe et al., 2006). In light of this work, Dr. Mabbott was interested to
The term “local” is a powerful keyword in our society’s
see whether these effects might also present themselves in
food and design cultures and has instigated a movement that
pediatric brain cancer survivors. As such, he launched an
looks to emphasize and promote home-grown products. In
exercise intervention for the population of interest, looking to
light of this new way of engaging and celebrating what each
observe the intervention’s effects on the brain through
homestead has to offer, I think it is only apt to highlight some
measurements such as cortical thickness, white matter
of the cutting-edge neuroscience research here in Toronto.
density, and behavioural measures of cognition. Logan,
Getting as local as we can, let us examine the research of a
along with other members of the lab, is working on the data
fellow U of T student: Logan Richard, MSc.
obtained from this project.
Logan is a graduate student who started his MA in Psychology at U of T this fall. He is based out of Dr. Donald
Hello Logan! How has your experience as a U of T graduate student been so far?
Mabbott’s lab, a neuropsychology research unit at the hospital for Sick Children. Logan is studying the effects of
It has been great! A lot of work, but overall it has been great.
exercise on cognition and white matter density in childhood
As a graduate student, you have to be self-motivated and
brain cancer survivors who were treated with Cranial Spinal
open to self-directed learning. There is a lot to juggle, an awful
Radiation (CSR). Despite the medical advances that have
lot to learn, and only so little time; time-management skills are
allowed for a major increase in survival rates, pediatric brain
key. This is why it is very important that you like your project
cancer survivors must often contend with long-term
and you are truly interested to see it through. When that's the
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Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014
case, it’s really exciting to do your work. Being based out of
your academic studies, stay flexible and don’t be afraid to look
SickKids, through U of T, I have had the opportunity to attend
into things that you might not have thought of before–allow
some amazing talks, symposiums, and conferences
yourself to experience and pursue new and unexpected
presenting the newest research findings in my field. I have
interests. And finally, don’t forget to have a life outside school
also had the chance to engage and network with some
- it’s totally possible, and if anything, necessary!
physician-scientists – something I hope to become myself at some point down the road.
References: Colcombe SJ, Erickson KI, Scalf PE, Kim JS, Prakash R, McAuley E, et al. Aerobic
Your work sounds really exciting - where do you see this research going? What do you think the impact might be?
exercise training increases brain volume in aging humans. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2006 Nov;61(11):1166-70. Cotman, C. W., & Berchtold, N. C. (2002). Exercise: a behavioral intervention to
The research that has come out of the Mabbott lab has helped
enhance brain health and plasticity. Trends in neurosciences, 25(6), 295-301.
shed light on the long-term effects of the treatment we provide
Mabbott, D. J., Noseworthy, M. D., Bouffet, E., Rockel, C., & Laughlin, S. (2006).
to children with brain tumors. Now, with this amassed
Diffusion tensor imaging of white matter after cranial radiation in children for medulloblastoma:
correlation
with
IQ.
Neuro-oncology,8(3),
244–252.
knowledge, we are trying to look into interventions that might
doi:10.1215/15228517-2006-002
mediate or counteract these long-term effects. Essentially, I
Mabbott, D. J., Penkman, L., Witol, A., Strother, D., & Bouffet, E. (2008). Core neurocognitive functions in children treated for posterior fossa tumors.
think that this type of research will eventually allow for more
Neuropsychology, 22(2), 159–168. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.22.2.159
personalized long-term care options to complement the Palmer, Shawna L, Armstrong, C., Onar-Thomas, A., Wu, S., Wallace, D., Bonner, M.
drastic, but necessary, short-term medical interventions
J., … Gajjar, A. (2013). Processing speed, attention, and working memory after
administered to these patients.
treatment for medulloblastoma: an international, prospective, and longitudinal study. Journal of clinical oncology: official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology,31(28), 3494–3500. doi:10.1200/JCO.2012.47.4775
That sounds amazing. Health care, unfortunately, often
Reeves, C. B., Palmer, S. L., Reddick, W. E., Merchant, T. E., Buchanan, G. M.,
seems to be likened to medicine and this ignores many
Gajjar, A., & Mulhern, R. K. (2006). Attention and memory functioning among
other fields that also play crucial roles in providing care.
pediatric patients with medulloblastoma. Journal of pediatric psychology, 31(3), 272– 280. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsj019
However, the type of work you and your lab are bringing forward truly emphasizes the effect clinical research can have on how we treat and provide care for our patients beyond acute medical intervention. Absolutely – there are so many ways of helping people and working in the field of health care besides being a doctor. This type of work can lead to policy change and can affect the standards of care we maintain, ultimately affecting what we understand as a “cure.” The fruits of this work are perhaps a little less tangible than directly treating a patient, but there is the potential for high impact that can help many. Do you have any final recommendations for future grad students? It is not a race. Don’t pay too much attention to what others are doing around you; you need to do what is right for you. Also, while it’s good to have an idea of what you want to reach with
5
Mirror Neurons: The Neural Substrate for Empathy? Ann Sheng Why is yawning contagious? What makes us good at
The exciting results from this discovery gave
reading people's intentions? And why are we so drawn
scientists a new framework for understanding the relationship
towards movies? As diverse as these phenomena appear,
between the generation and interpretation of actions. Over
they may be the workings of a common underlying brain
the next few decades speculations about the functions of the
network composed of "mirror neurons," a finding that has
mirror neuron system have blossomed.
received the nickname of "the most hyped concept in neuroscience."
One of the main hypotheses proposed by the same group of Italian scientists is "action understanding." This
Mirror neurons were first discovered in the early
model tries to explain how humans "connect" to one another.
1990's at the University of Parma, Italy, by Giacomo
Since our ability to understand others' actions involves
Rizzolatti. Rizzolatti and his colleagues were studying the
activating parts of our own motor system, our brain is - quite
motor cortex, a part of the brain that processes action and
literally - putting us in the other person's shoes by recreating
movement, in macaque monkeys. Eavesdropping on the
a neural representation of their actions in our heads. Vittorio
neural activity of macaques with electrode implants the
Gallese, who co-authored the original paper with Rizzolatti,
researchers found that a subset of neurons in the ventral
explains to Karin Badt in a Huffington Post interview about this
premotor area fired both when the monkeys performed an
phenomenon:
action but also when they observed the same action performed by a human researcher. More importantly, these mirror neurons seemed to responded to specific
"We are in a restaurant, and somebody reaches for the salt. The classic idea of cognition is that I infer that you want the salt - that is the 'mind-reading' route. But there is a
goals - hearing the sound of a
much faster route to understanding
peanut cracking elicited similar
you want the salt. I sense it myself
neural activity in the monkey
- my mirror neurons fire as do yours
brain as if the animal had
- and understand through my own
cracked a nut itself. In support of
body."
this observation various studies since then have demonstrated that these neurons are actually a mix of different cell types with varying specificity for stimuli ranging from sight to sound.
6
Critics
for
the
"action
understanding" hypothesis argue that proponents for the model are confusing what mirror neurons are doing: even if they enable our brains to associate meaning with a particular action this does
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014
not necessarily imply that these same neurons encode the
BOLD signals have been shown to closely correlate with
meanings. That is, the activity of mirror neurons may well be
neural activation.
the result of action understanding, not the cause of the understanding itself. Furthermore, it is important to realize that much of the hype about mirror neurons found in the media are based on monkey studies and may not translate well into human behaviour. Since invasive electrode insertion experiments are unethical for human subjects there is, to date, only one single-neuron recording study that directly measured mirror neuron activity in the human brain. In this study, 21 epilepsy patients with surgical
One such imaging study conducted by Iaboconi et al.
electrode implants in their medial frontal and temporal lobes
asked participants to observe, execute, or imitate a simple
executed or observed either grasping motions or facial
finger movement. Since mirror neurons respond to both
expressions. The researchers found brain cells with mirroring
observation and execution of the same motion, imitation -
activity mostly in the supplementary motor and limbic areas.
which involves both processes simultaneously - should elicit
Though these regions are not the ones heavily studied in
the greatest neural activity. Indeed, the two cortical areas that
monkeys, this finding supports the notion that humans may
showed this activation pattern correspond to the equivalent
have a more widespread mirror neuron system that includes
mirror neuron area identified in monkeys.
not only motor regions but also those responsible for
What is the significance of the role of mirror neurons
processing emotions. Interestingly, a subset of these mirror
in imitation? Developmental psychologists have known for a
neurons showed opposite activity patterns compared with the
long time that imitation is vital for the development of social
rest; the researchers concluded that this opposition "may [...]
cognition, which is important for our capacity for empathy. An
form a simple neuronal mechanism for maintaining self-other
interesting phenomena that relates these concepts is called
differentiation." In other words, the human mirror system may
the Chameleon Effect, which states that people who more
contain built-in methods for distinguishing the actions of self
often imitate others tend to be more empathetic. As mirror
versus others. To circumvent the problem of direct human
neurons are involved in imitation, it is reasonable to
testing, researchers over the decades have used a variety of
hypothesize that they play a role in empathy. One fMRI study
neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic
that examined this hypothesis found that motor and limbic
resonance imaging (fMRI), to indirectly investigate the
regions during facial expression imitation showed a similar
existence and function of mirror neuron systems in humans.
pattern of neural activity compared with when participants
fMRI measures the Blood Oxygen Level Dependent (BOLD
merely observed the same emotions. The location of these
signal which shows changes in oxygen consumption by
regions seem to conform well to those found in the epilepsy
different brain regions during different activities. Importantly,
study - this large scale network may allow us to understand
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the feelings, needs and goals of others through our
the central cause, we could be blinded by a beautiful
own inner representations. It may also partially explain why
hypothesis and thus miss finding more effective treatments
we are so drawn to movies and why the drama of fictional
for ASD.
characters can have such a profound influence on our own emotional states.
Clearly, although the mirror neuron system is a strong candidate for our ability to imitate and empathize, it is
But what happens when this system fails? Starting
not the panacea for understanding these brain processes and
from the early days of mirror neuron research, a team of
associated dysfunctions such as autism. More research is
scientists led by Vilayanur Ramachandran at UC San Diego
needed to confirm its existence in humans, to characterize its
proposed that dysfunction of the mirror neuron network may
functional role, and to examine how it interacts with other
contribute to the striking symptoms of Autism Spectrum
neural systems to generate the range of complex human
Disorder (ASD): lack of social skills, language disability, and
behaviors. What emerges from this brief examination of the
little display of empathy.
Neuroimaging studies that
mirror neuron literature is perhaps a theme common in
investigated this "broken mirror" hypothesis found weaker
neuroscience: an exciting initial discovery, controversial
mirror neuron network activity in the autistic brain compared
hypotheses,
to that of normally-developing individuals.
accumulating evidence. We are far from understanding these
and
intense
debate
surrounding
the
fascinating cells; the journey to unravel this enigmatic and complex system has just begun.
References: 1. Jarrett, C. (2012, December 10). Mirror Neurons: The Most Hyped Concept in Neuroscience? Retrieved November 27, 2014, from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/brain-myths/201212/ mirror-neurons-the-most-hyped-concept-in-neuroscience
2. Di Pellegrino, G., Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L., Gallese, V., & Rizzolatti, G. (1992). Understanding motor events: a neurophysiological study. Experimental brain research, 91(1), 176-180. 3. Kilner, J. M., & Lemon, R. N. (2013). What we know currently about mirror neurons. Current Biology, 23(23), R1057-R1062. 4. Rizzolatti, G., & Craighero, L. (2004). The mirror-neuron system. Annu. Rev. Neurosci., 27, 169-192. 5. Badt, K. (2013, May 13). Mirror Neurons and Why We Love Cinema: A Conversation with Vittorio Gallese and Michele Guerra in Parma. Retrieved November 25, 2014, from http:// www.huffingtonpost.com/karin-badt/mirror-neurons-and-why-we_b_3239534.html 6. Hickok, G. (2013). Do mirror neurons subserve action understanding?. Neuroscience letters, 540,
On the opposite side of this debate, Oxford professor of psychology Cecilia Heyes contends that ASD, itself poorly characterized, is too complex of a disorder to be explained by the faulty mechanisms of a single neural system. Moreover, the problem of causation begs the question: did dysfunctional mirror neurons contribute to autism, or did autism bring about these observed changes? If the mirror neuron system is not
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56-58. 7. Jarrett, C. (13, December 11). A Calm Look at the Most Hyped Concept in Neuroscience - Mirror Neurons. Retrieved November 27, 2014, from http://www.wired.com/2013/12/a-calm-look-at-themost-hyped-concept-in-neuroscience-mirror-neurons/ 8. Mukamel, R., Ekstrom, A. D., Kaplan, J., Iacoboni, M., & Fried, I. (2010). Single-neuron responses in humans during execution and observation of actions. Current biology, 20(8), 750-756. 9. Mukamel, R., Gelbard, H., Arieli, A., Hasson, U., Fried, I., & Malach, R. (2005). Coupling between neuronal firing, field potentials, and FMRI in human auditory cortex. Science, 309(5736), 951-954. 10. Iacoboni, M., Woods, R. P., Brass, M., Bekkering, H., Mazziotta, J. C., & Rizzolatti, G. (1999). Cortical Science, 286(5449), 2526-2528.
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014
11. Chartrand, T. L., & Bargh, J. A. (1999). The chameleon effect: The perception–behavior link and
www.huffingtonpost.com/karin-badt/mirror-neurons-and-why-we_b_3239534.html
social interaction. Journal of personality and social psychology, 76(6), 893.
14. Ramachandran, V. S., & Oberman, L. M. (2006). Broken mirrors: a theory of autism. Scientific
12. Carr, L., Iacoboni, M., Dubeau, M. C., Mazziotta, J. C., & Lenzi, G. L. (2003). Neural mechanisms
American, 295(5), 62-69.
of empathy in humans: a relay from neural systems for imitation to limbic areas. Proceedings of the
15. Thomas, B. (2012, November 6). What’s So Special about Mirror Neurons? Retrieved November
national Academy of Sciences, 100(9), 5497-5502.
27, 2014, from http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/2012/11/06/whats-so-special-about-
13. Badt, K. (2013, May 13). Mirror Neurons and Why We Love Cinema: A Conversation with Vittorio
mirror-neurons/
Gallese and Michele Guerra in Parma. Retrieved November 25, 2014, from http://
The Neuroscience of Consciousness: Induction of Lucid Dreams Sarah Marko Human consciousness is commonly viewed as a
An experiment studying brain electrophysiology and
discrete entity wherein it exists exclusively as one of two
brain activity associated with this phenomenon1 was
states: conscious or unconscious. The conscious is better
conducted using electroencephalography (EEG), which
understood as the coexistence of these two states in a continuum. An example of this continuous nature of consciousness can be seen in lucid dreaming. Lucid dreaming is a rare, dissociative state in which elements of higher order processing—prevalent during wakefulness— emerge during a dream. This emergence elicits self-
measures the electrical activity resulting from the firing of neurons. Lucid dreamers were the subjects of this experiment, where they communicated to researchers when they became lucid through specific horizontal eye motion. During lucid episodes, EEG indicated increased activity in the
awareness within a dream, such that the dreamer recognizes
lower gamma frequency band—a pattern not typically found
they are dreaming. In some cases, the dreamer can actually
in typical REM sleep.1 Furthermore, this activity was
control their experiences in what can be described as an
predominately located in the frontal cortex at around 40 Hz.1
extremely detailed and realistic dream.
9
In a recent study, Voss et al.2 used stimulated gamma activity
to
induce
self-awareness
while
Conversely, it can be argued that the validity of this
dreaming.
study is questionable due to the over-representation of self-
Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) was used
ratings given by the subjects on their experienced lucidity3. In
to activate the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) of 27
some aspects, elevated scores may not be sufficient when
participants, imitating the activity seen in lucid dreamers.
classifying the dreams as lucid; additional research needs to
tACS uses electrodes to apply low current stimulation to a
be done in this field of study, as it is still in its infancy3.
particular area of the brain, altering neuronal excitability and
Nonetheless, this study provides an exciting preliminary foun-
leading to the alteration of brain function. EEG was also used
dation for research on brain physiology in relation to con-
in this study to monitor brain activity in subjects. Throughout
scious awareness and potential clinical applications.
four consecutive nights, various levels of stimulation ranging from 2 to 100 Hz were applied for 30-second periods after the subject entered REM sleep. Following the period of stimulation, the subjects were awoken to report their experience, completely unaware of the received stimulation. The study found that with a stimulation of 40 Hz to the frontal cortex—elevating gamma frequency band activity— 77% of the subjects reported attaining lucidity while dream-
References: 1.Voss, U., Holzmann, R., Tuin, I., & Hobson J. A. Lucid dreaming: a state of consciousness with features of both waking and non-lucid dreaming. Sleep. 32: 1191–1200 (2009). 2.Voss, U. et al. Induction of self awareness in dreams through frontal low current stimulation of gamma activity. Nature Neuroscience. 17: 810-812. (2014). 3.“Does Gamma TACS Really Induce Lucid Dreaming?” Web log post. Neurocritic. (2014).
ing.2 These results provide strong evidence that the ability to become lucid during REM sleep is explicitly related to gamma activity2. This study provides the first evidence of tACS-induced fluctuations specific to frequency in the cerebral cortex; additionally, it is possibly the first to demonstrate inductive oscillations in the gamma frequency band generating a modified state of conscious awareness2. This evidence postulates an exciting foundation for clinical applications, with the utilization of tACS to reestablish oscillators of the cerebral cortex and thalamus. This gives rise to the potential to reinstate defective network activity seen in individuals with schizophrenia or obsessive-compulsive disorder. Gamma oscillation induction during REM sleep may also aid in preventing recurring nightmares in post-traumatic stress disorder.
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Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014
The MRI Gone Awry Ella Lew
"This artwork was inspired by my awe at viewing colorful MRI images of the brain. There is a creative and aesthetic beauty to science that often gets overlooked. It was my goal with this artwork to capture and present a different aspect of science, albeit not entirely to scale or scientifically accurate."
FEATURE
Let's Discuss that Shower Cap and Ear Bone: Learning the Relationship Between Brain and Technology Sara Pishdadian
It was always terribly obvious to me that being a brain
groups and learning a novel technique was thrilling to me. To
scientist involved wearing a variety of demanding hats – an
my surprise, while reading about EEG I was brought back to
ethics expert, an anatomy authority, a research methods
my physics class in grade 12. Sure, I was aware that all
connoisseur and well-practiced theoretician. However, it was
sciences are related; but I hadn’t quite imagined my lack of
not until I worked in a cognitive neuroscience lab that I
attention to frequency and current would come up again years
amended my list – to include a technology buff.
later.
This revelation is due to the fact that I am currently
EEG is highly reliant on signals being sensed by
involved in a project that is studying working memory in young
electrodes. EEG measures voltage, which, as I had to remind
and older adults. The project’s method of acquisition is a well-
myself, is essentially electrical potential. This potential is the
established technique called EEG.
potential to flow from one area to another. This means that
EEG
is
the
shorthand
notation
for
there is more than area involved, which leads me to explain
electroencephalography. It involves placing a showercap-
that the waveforms that we’re studying (ERP waveforms) are
like object on a person’s scalp. This “shower cap” has holes
not actually representative of activity at one site but of the
in it where gel can be placed followed by the insertion of
difference in activity between two sites. There are so-called
electrodes into the holes of the cap. There are also electrodes
reference sites (remember those cheek and mastoid
placed on the person’s mastoids (bone behind the ear) and
electrodes I mentioned?) that all detected activity goes
cheeks. The brain is electrically charged and so, using EEG,
through. And so, in order to understand why electrodes are
you can detect differences in activity during different tasks. It
placed behind a person’s ear, a reference site, one should at
is an incredible tool as it allows psychologists to do more than
least somewhat understand voltage and electrical potential.
just hypothesize about the brain and actually measure – with
Sure, it isn’t technically necessary to understand the
limits of course – what the brain is doing during a certain task.
science behind the action. You could theoretically run EEG
And so imagine my excitement when I began to work
studies your entire life and never really comprehend why this
on this project. Working with participants of various age
12
technology is done the way it is.
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014
However, aside from being impractical, it’s critical to
excitement of it all– knowledge to help people, to shed light on
understand the underpinnings of a technology so one can
something mysterious, to understand how our actions and
manipulate it to fit their study’s needs. And also, if something
experiences are placed into a mosaic of anatomical changes.
isn’t working it can be quite helpful to understand the reasons
The fact that resistance is an impediment to a direct current
behind that. Passively placing objects on people’s skin is
never captured my attention the same way, even though I was
hardly scientific.
well aware of its applicability.
And so, I’ve found myself reading more and more
I propose a few things: First, I may have been slightly
about resistance, impedance and amplification than ever
impatient to see how topics can be applied to the real word,
before. In addition, and this is personally shocking, I’ve found
a childish sentiment for a desire of a direct action-reaction. Second, all knowledge is useful and can be applied in some circumstance; there is never a good reason to pass up knowledge. And lastly, the relationship between technology (and its underlying concepts) and brain research is so intricate that a distinction between the two would be imperceptive. The more I learn about the brain, the more I feel the need to take classes in physics, computer science, and bioengineering so I can analyze it more in depth with the technology available today. The sentiment remains the same for learning about behaviour, as I want to understand its mechanisms–and then again I will use technology in some form. I can speak confidently now that one mechanism for
myself enjoying it more than ever before. When I learned
studying the brain, EEG,
requires an understanding of
these concepts from a textbook or my physics teacher in high
technology. I encourage others to be ambitious and
school they seemed dry and disconnected. Now they are
exploratory–it may surprise you what intrigues you when you
intriguing and frankly, real. This has made me wonder how I
learn (or relearn in my case) information in different contexts.
would have enjoyed these topics had they been introduced to
I find myself relishing the knowledge I am gaining about
me as a side topic to a real-world application (like EEG), rather
working memory, but also very appreciative of the
than being the main topic with an applied real-world
interdisciplinary nature of science and the technology that it
application (did you know EEG involves this?).
brings along.
What enthralled me about brain science was the
13
FEATURE Introduction to Deep Brain Stimulation Maryna Pilkiw
Depression is a word from our everyday vocabulary
disease and essential tremor. The idea to apply DBS to mood
but it covers a range of meanings from a short-lasting feeling
disorders originated from observations that movement
of overwhelming sadness, to a life-long, life-threatening
disorder patients benefited from DBS treatment not only in
disorder. Even the clinical definition of the mood disorder that
terms of improved motor function but also their emotional
we call depression includes conditions with different
state.
severities, such as subclinical depression (while clinically
DBS
for
depression
involves
neurosurgical
significant, it does not qualify as a major depressive disorder)
implantation of electrodes in a specific brain region that
or treatment resistant depression (the disorder that does not
provide generates high frequency electrical pulses generated
respond to antidepressant medication).
The range of
by a subcutaneously implanted battery (Kennedy et al, 2011;
affected functions of patients with depression and the varying
Holtzheimer et al., 2012; Hamani et al., 2009). This way, the
effects of the treatments suggest that depression is not a
specific brain region of interest along with the related
disorder of a specific area of the brain or a simple chemical
networks is directly affected by an externally generated
imbalance. This idea is consistent with the current view of
electrical current. In case of depression, various brain regions
depression as a system-level disorder which involves the
have been targeted, including the subgenual cingulate gyrus,
dysfunction of different neural networks connecting cortical,
nucleus accumbens, and the lateral habenula. These brain
subcortical
regions were selected based on their postulated role mood
and
limbic
regions,
and
the
related
neurotransmitters (Mayberg et al., 2005; Price & Drevets,
regulation neural networks. In a report published in 2011 (Kennedy et al,),
2012). Currently, the most prescribed treatments for
researchers presented the long term effects of DBS in
depressive disorder are psychotherapy and medication.
patients with treatment resistant depression (TRD). It must
Despite their widespread use, these treatments leave many
be noted that due to experimental nature of DBS, the
patients without improvement and, in most cases, their
inclusion criteria for DBS surgery were limited to TRD
effectiveness declines as patients become more resistant to
patients who have previously failed to show improvement
the therapies. The ineffectiveness of pharmacotherapy
after psychotherapy, several rounds of pharmacotherapy,
prompted researchers to look for new potential treatments.
and, most importantly, electro convulsive therapy. The
One such treatment was deep brain stimulation (DBS). DBS
long-term follow-up study of 20 patients revealed that after
has been shown to be a safe and effective treatment for
3 years post surgery, 64% of them showed response and
severe cases of movement disorders such as Parkinson’s
14
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014
50% were remitted. The improved quality of life of the patients could be judged by increased employment of the patients
References:
from 10% before to 65% 1 year post-operation. Studies with
1. Boldrini, M., Hen, R., Underwood, M. D., Rosoklija, G. B., Dwork, A. J.,
animal models also showed that DBS of the regions in rodents
progenitor cell proliferation are increased with antidepressant use in major
Mann, J. J., & Arango, V. (2012). Hippocampal angiogenesis and
corresponding
to
BA25
produced
antidepressant-like
depression. Biol Psychiatry, 72(7): 562–571.
behavioural effects (Hamani et. al., 2010), reduced
2. Hamani, C., Diwan, M., Macedo, C. E., Brandão, M. L., Shumake, J.,
anhedonia, and promoted neuroanatomical changes such as
of medial prefrontal cortex deep brain stimulation in rats. Biol Psychiatry,
hippocampal neurogenesis (Boldrini et al., 2012).
67(2):117–124.
Gonzalez-Lima, F., ...Nobrega, J. N. (2010). Antidepressant-like effects
Following the initial results of DBS for treatments of depression, many researchers agreed that the findings were
3. Hamani, C., Mayberg, H. S., Snyder, B., Giacobbe, P., Kennedy, S., & Lozano, A. M. (2009). Deep brain stimulation of the subcallosal cingulate gyrus for depression: anatomical location of active contacts in clinical responders and a suggested guideline for targeting. J Neurosurg, 111(6):
exciting and promising but also raised many new questions,
1209–15.
from details about parameters of stimulation, optimal
M. M., Garlow, S. J., ... Mayberg H. S. (2012). Subcallosal cingulate deep
neuroanatomical placements of the electrodes to questions
4. Holtzheimer, P. E., Kelley, M. E., Gross, R.E., Gross, R. E., Filkowski, brain stimulation for treatment-resistant unipolar and bipolar depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 69(2): 150–158.
about the mechanism underlying the improvement after
5. Kennedy S. H., Giacobbe, P., Rizvi S. J., Placenza, F. M., Nishikawa
DBS. DBS research also prompts questions about our
treatment-resistant depression: Follow-up after 3 to 6 years. Am J
knowledge of mood disorders and a necessity for new models
Y., Mayberg H. S., & Lozano A. M. (2011). Deep brain stimulation for Psychiatry,168(5): 502–510. 6. Mayberg, H. S., Lozano, A. M., Voon, V., McNeely, H.E., Seminowicz,
of depression. While DBS is an invasive technique that may
D., Hamani, C., ...Kennedy S. H. (2005). Deep brain stimulation for
never replace common therapies, it can provide new insights
7. Price J.L., & Drevets W.C. (2012). Neural circuits underlying the
into key issues of how we understand depression.
treatment-resistant depression. Neuron, 45(5): 651–660. pathophysiology of mood disorders. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(1): 61–71.
The Myth of Free Will Ikram Khan The debate over the existence of free will is possibly one of the most important discussions of human nature.
has led to two, polar-opposite philosophical schools of thought: determinism and libertarianism.
Insight into this debate holds vast ethica, legal and political
Determinism is heavily rooted in science and
implications. In my experience, those who are not familiar with
empiricism and argues that all events have a prior physical
the topic often conflate free will for consciousness, and
cause. Determinists therefore reject a metaphysical
impetuously accept the existence of free will. Free will is
contribution to behavior and free will. Libertarians on the other
defined as the freedom of humans to make choices that are
hand reject determinism and ascribe a metaphysical
not determined by prior physical causes. Those who believe
contribution to behavior. This article will examine these two
in free will thus ascribe a metaphysical contribution to
schools of thought using a neuroscientific framework, reveal
behaviour (e.g., a soul) as they believe prior physical causes
the illusion of free will and why this illusion may be detrimental
do not entirely account for behavior. The debate over free will
to society.
15
Take a minute to pause from this article and think
environment. Most of us find this lardy, sodium-filled
about what has shaped your life so far. Go on, reflect! It may
substance extremely satisfying, and this appeal is dictated by
seem like there are too many events and factors to consider.
our brain chemistry.
However, break that list down into two simple categories:
You’re probably frustrated by now. Despite the fact
biological factors and environmental factors. Are there any
that you needed prior knowledge of chips, or that your brain
you can think of that don’t fall into either of those categories?
chemistry is what made you find chips appealing, you still
I argue that there aren’t. You might be thinking about ways to
CHOSE to conduct the seemingly free act of eating a bag of
disprove my assertion as we speak. In fact, you may be saying
chips! However, did you actually make that decision free of
to yourself, “I can choose to spontaneously eat an entire bag
prior physical causes? Or was it because you were stimulated
of chips! And this spontaneous decision is not constrained by
by an environmental variable (i.e., me) to do so? What
biological or environmental factors. It’s a decision that is not
triggered you to even think about that specific action? A
dictated by prior physical causes can be attributed to my free
thought simply popped up in your head, right? Now expand
will!” But to that I say…
this idea even further, to all the decisions you've made in your
Chocolate milk. That’s right, you read correctly. What
life. Do you actually consciously choose each and every
just went through your head? Chocolate milk right? Was it
decision? Or do thoughts simply appear in your head, just as
your free choice or an environmental variable (i.e., the text in
they did when I mentioned chocolate milk or when you tried
this article) that caused the resulting thought? Now extend this idea to the bag of chips: if you
hadn’t
had
prior
environmental exposure to this sodium-filled goodness, eaten it and felt the subsequent activation of the mesolimbic reward system of the brain, this thought would never have occurred to you!
to rebut my statement with the spontaneous decision of
The above example illustrates two important
demolishing a bag of chips?
concepts. Firstly, it highlights the fact that you can’t
Most of the brain’s information processing occurs
spontaneously generate knowledge - it has to come from prior
unconsciously, and this hidden processing can make it easy
experience. Have you ever spontaneously generated the
to fall for the illusion of free will. In other words: because
knowledge for a midterm you didn’t study for? Of course not!
thoughts are derived unconsciously, they seem to appear
Secondly, it alludes to the cross-talk biology has with the
spontaneously and are attributed to metaphysical factors.
16
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014
However, this unconscious processing is the
evidence to support its existence.
cumulative effect of many brain processes including long-
The idea of a lack of free will may not only seem
term potentiation of brain circuits1, experience-dependent
shocking, but suffocating at first. However, just because an
epigenetic modifications2, neurotransmitter concentrations of
unpredictable metaphysical contribution to our behaviour
the brain3 and many more.
doesn’t exist does not mean that our behaviour does not
You might not be convinced yet. You feel like you can
matter. In fact, it means that our behaviour matters more than
still make conscious decisions of your own accord! Consider
ever! Understanding that behavior is shaped not by an
the seminal work of Benjamin Libet. By using ECG
inherently evil or inherently good “free will”, but is the
recordings, it was demonstrated that researchers could
accumulation and interaction of environmental and biological
reliably predict the decisions someone will take before they
factors, should lead us to have much more empathy for each
are consciously aware of that decision themselves4. This
other. After all, we are equal in the sense that none of us chose
highlights the idea that conscious decisions are not derived
the biology we would be born with or the environment we were
from a metaphysical source, but are the result of unconscious
born into. If we’re all equal, then the ultimate goal of humanity
processing in our brains.
should be to create a society in which we’re all happy. No one
Consider further the case of Phineas Gage. An
should be penalized for being given a set of factors that cause
unfortunate accident caused his frontal lobe to be impaled by
them to gravitate towards bad behavior, unless it impinges on the safety or well-being of others. This is a very liberating idea for me. It helps me understand that in the grand scheme of things, I am no better than anyone else, and no one is better than me. We are all equals experiencing the journey of life. References: 1. Bliss, T. V., & Collingridge, G. L. (1993). A synaptic
model
of
memory:
long-term
potentiation in the hippocampus. Nature, 361(6407), 31-39.
a metal rod. This loss of function in this “personalityendowing” region of the brain5 transformed a once hardworking and pleasant man into an ill-mannered, impatient and unreliable individual
6
. This case study
highlights an important idea: if free will existed, how negligible a contribution does it have if biology and environment dictate most of our behaviour? The unfortunate thing about the illusion of free will is that it is accepted despite any empirical
2. Sweatt, J. D. (2009). Experience-dependent epigenetic modifications in the central nervous system. Biological psychiatry, 65(3), 191-197. 3. Schildkraut, J. J. (1965). The catecholamine hypothesis of affective disorders: a review of supporting evidence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 122(5), 509-522. 4. Libet, B., Gleason, C. A., Wright, E. W., & Pearl, D. K. Time of conscious intention to act in relation to onset of cerebral activity (readiness-potential). The unconscious initiation of a freely voluntary act. Brain. 1983; 106: 623-642. 5. Eslinger, P. J., & Damasio, A. R. (1985). Severe disturbance of higher
17
cognition after bilateral frontal lobe ablation Patient EVR. Neurology, 35 (12), 1731-1731.
Capgras Syndrome: The Illusion of Look-alikes Sawayra Owais “Who are you and what have you done to my mother?”
hand, Capgras patients have damage to the right ventral
This ubiquitous statement is found in popular culture from
medial prefrontal cortex (Fiacconi et al., 2014). Indeed, it has
television sitcoms to soap operas to the jesting son. However,
been shown that the left hemisphere, undamaged in a
for those afflicted with Capgras syndrome, this playful
Capgras patient, is the rational hemisphere. In essence, it
statement is reified into a frustrating and fearful experience.
seeks to explain and reason one’s experiences at the
Capgras syndrome was first identified in 1923 by French psychiatrist Joseph Capgras. He labelled the syndrome as “l’illusion de sosies” or “illusions of look-alikes” after encountering a woman who insisted her husband was an imposter (Capgras & Reboul-Lachaux, 1923). Indeed, Capgras patients believe their loved ones, particularly their parents or spouses, have been replaced by imposters.
expense of the truth (Devinsky, 2009). Studies with split-brain patients, those with the corpus callosum severed, revealed the degree of lateralization of function between the two hemispheres. For instance, when the word ‘walk’ was presented exclusively to the right hemisphere the split-brain patient began walking. When asked why they were walking the patient replied, “I wanted to get a Coke”. Since their corpus callosum is severed, their left hemisphere is unaware that the
To the astute student this syndrome may sound similar to
right hemisphere received the instructions to walk and thus
another
prospagnosia.
confabulated a story to explain their behaviour (Gazzaniga,
Prospagnosia is neuropsychological disorder where one’s
2005). Ramachandran (2007) coupled the idea of the
ability to recognize faces is impaired despite one’s visual
rationalizing left hemisphere with the loss of familiarity
system still being intact. Indeed, there are a couple
Capgras patients demonstrate and suggested that the
overlapping similarities between the two disorders. First, both
Capgras syndrome may be the manifestation of a
disorders manifest themselves after damage to the ventral
disconnection syndrome. He suggested that the longitudinal
visual stream. In addition, both disorders are symptomatic of
fasciculus, a white matter tract that connects the temporal
a loss of familiarity (Klein and Hirachan, 2014). Though these
lobe and limbic areas, is severed in Capgras patients
parallels can be drawn, there are many differences that
(Ramachandran, 2007; Bauer, 1984). Therefore, when a
distinguish these two disorders.
Capgras patient sees, for instance, his/her mother they are
recognition
deficit
disorder:
able to recognize and recall memories of her yet there is a lack The first piece of evidence that differentiates prospagnosia from Capgras syndrome stems from neuroanatomical studies. For instance, brain imaging studies of prospagnosics have revealed bilateral lesions to the
of emotion due to the information not reaching the limbic system. To explain this lack of positive association the patient uses their intact left hemisphere to reason that this person must indeed be an imposter.
occipitotemporal lobe (Fiacconi et al., 2014). On the other
18
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014
Once theories have been generated on the basis of
Currently, there is no cure for Capgras syndrome
neuroanatomical data it is important to test them and assess
but case studies have revealed that with time the delusions
their validity. Indeed, laboratory studies that investigated the
disappear by themselves (Ramachandran, 2005). But,
autonomic responses of prospagnosics and Capgras
these delusions can drive patients to be aggressive and
patients to familiar and unfamiliar faces supported
even homicidal: evidenced by the documentation of some
Ramachandran’s theory.
parricide cases (Klein and Hirachan, 2014). Further
There are two components involved in recognizing a
research aims to elucidate the organic basis of Capgras
face. First, one must consciously perceive the face and,
syndrome and its treatment such that the statement, “Who
second, there must be some emotional response to the face
are you and what have you done to my mother?” never has
(Hirstein
to leave the television screen.
and
Ramachandran,
1997).
Researchers
hypothesized that prospagnosics have a deficit in the former References:
while Capgras patients lack the latter (Bauer, 1984; Hirstein & Ramachandra, 1997). In one example the researchers
1. Bauer, R. (1984). Autonomic recognition of names and faces in prosopagnosia: A neuropsychological application of the guilty knowledge
placed electrodes that measure galvanic skin response, an
test. Neuropsychologia, 457-469
autonomic response that can vary depending on the stimuli
2. Capgras, J., Reboul-Lachaux, J. (1923). "Illusion des " sosies " dans un délire systématisé chronique". Bulletin de la Société Clinique de Médicine
presented, on Capgras patients (Bauer, 1984). When we
Mentale 2: 6–16.
recognize a familiar face we start to sweat (which the
3. Devinsky, O. (2009). Delusional misidentifications and duplications: Right brain lesions, left brain delusions.Neurology, 72, 80-87
electrodes sense) but when we are presented with an
4. Fiacconi, C. M., Barkley, V., Finger, E. C., Carson, N., Duke, D.,
unknown face there is little to no galvanic response (Bauer,
Rosenbaum, R. S., . . . Köhler, S. (2014). Nature and extent of person recognition impairments associated with capgras syndrome in lewy body
1984).
Accordingly, when prospagnosics were shown
pictures of familiar faces they were unable able to name the
dementia. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 726. doi:10.3389/ fnhum.2014.00726 5. Gazzaniga, M. (2005). The Believing Brain. In The ethical brain (pp.
people yet they displayed an increased galvanic skin
145-155). New York: Dana Press.
response (Bauer, 1984). Compare this finding with Capgras
6. Hirstein, W., & Ramachandran, V. S. (1997). Capgras syndrome: A novel probe for understanding the neural representation of the identity and
patients who were able to name the familiar face but did not
familiarity of persons. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.Series B:
show an increased galvanic skin response (Hirstein and
Biological Sciences, 264(1380), 437-444. 7. Klein, C. A., & Hirachan, S. (2014). The masks of
Ramachandra, 1997). prospagnosics have their covert
identities: Who's who? delusional misidentification syndromes. The Journal
recognition intact but their overt recognition is damaged while
of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 42(3), 369-378. 8.http://www.ted.com/talks/vilayanur_ramachandran_on_your_mind?
the opposite phenomenon is true for those with Capgras.
language=en
19
OPINION
Comprehensive Computation? Darren Cheng
An opinion on the 2014 Computational Neuroscience Conference presented by NAUS On the drizzly Saturday morning of November 8th, the
or possibly even both… but unfortunately for those who found
Neuroscience Association of Undergraduate Students
themselves with experience with only one of these fields, they
(NAUS) came together with the UofT Human Biology and
were sorely out of their depth. As an undergraduate student
Computer Science faculties to bring the third annual
specialising in neuroscience, the topics discussed leaned far
Everything Neuroscience
too heavily on technical background and computational
Research
Conference,
details, effectively excluding those who walked into the
this year featuring The
conference with little education in computer science. My mind
Digital Brain. Poised to be
constantly wandered as the descriptions of informational
an
and
processing techniques and methods of analysis whizzed by,
experience,
many others also clearly lost in the steady stream of field-
students with interests in
specific terminology (if the glossed over looks of confusion
both programs came out to
and actively used smartphones as encyclopaediae were any
get their weekend’s fill of
indication). The proceeding breakout session – mine in
brain food.
particular
enlightening
enriching
Even those who
being
the
computational
perspectives
on
integrative theory of the brain given by Chris Honey and
have never heard of computational neuroscience must be at
Andre
Chevrier
least somewhat aware of the ever-strengthening relationship
comprehensibility.
–
hardly
improved
in
terms
of
between biology and computing. From MRIs to SSRIs and
Perhaps I lacked the foresight to brush up on the
genome sequencing to brain mapping, there’s no doubt that
current literature in the field of computational neuroscience,
the digital era is upon us and it’s already buried its roots deep
but what I can be certain of was my absolute and utter inability
in the fields of biology and neuroscience. The keynote
to keep up with the speakers. I’m sure what was presented
speaker, Randy McIntosh, gave an interesting overview of
was extremely applicable to today’s current research and
the developing international neuroimaging database The
maybe my future in neuroscience will even lead me to some
Virtual Brain.
of the very techniques that were talked about. Nonetheless,
Students presumably went into the conference with at
I still walked away from this day with a feeling of emptiness
least some neuroscience or computer science background,
and mild disappointment which I truly hope few others shared.
20
Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014
Regardless of how the day panned out, there’s no doubt that computational neuroscience is expanding exponentially and its importance should be highlighted. NAUS made a commendable attempt at bridging the gap between
neuroscience
and
computer
science
for
undergraduate students. However, it is worthwhile to note that we might not quite be ready take the leap into this particular pond when we’re still working on our baby steps.
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