Interneuron - Issue 2.2

INTERNEURON Nobel Prize for the Inner-GPS System Mirror Neurons: The Neural Substrate for Empathy?

FEATURE:

Let's Discuss that Shower Cap and Ear Bone: Learning the relationship between brain and technology Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 2 3 4 6 9 11

Letter from the Editors

Nobel Prize for the Brain's Inner-GPS System

OPINION

12 14 15 18 20 22

Autism Spectrum Disorder & the U of T Autism Alliance

Let's Talk Local: A Spotlight on Neuroscience Research at U of T

Mirror Neurons: The Neural Substrate for Empathy?

The Neuroscience of Consciousness: Induction of Lucid Dreams

ARTWORK The MRI Gone Awry

FEATURE

Let's Discuss that Showercap & Earbone: Learning the Relationship Between Brain & Technology

FEATURE Introduction to Deep Brain Stimulation

The Myth of Free Will

Capgras Syndrome: The Illusion of Look-Alikes

OPINION Comprehensive Computation?

Get Involved!

Contributors Authors

Letter from the Editors

Darren Cheng Ikram Khan Victor Lee Sarah Marko Alex Mogadam

Dear Readers,

Sawayra Owais Maryna Pilkiw

We are proud to present Issue 2.2 of Interneuron! Based on our team’s interest and current events in the realm of neuroscience, this edition explores the theme of ‘Neuroscience and Technology.’

Recently, NAUS held their third annual Everything Neuroscience Conference: “The Digital Brain.” Interneuron was glad to be invited it was great meeting some of you there and hearing about your interest in contributing to the magazine!

Sara Pishdadian Ann Sheng Sahil Zaveri

Cover Art Speaking of contributions, we would like to encourage our readers to contribute artwork or photography for upcoming issues. We are always looking for creative, neuro-related pieces that can stand alone and stand out in our pages; in future issues, we hope to include more student illustrations, comic strips, or other creative media!

Louise Escuban

Artwork Oshien Lekhwani

As students ourselves, we understand that our contributors have a lot on their plates. To find another valuable way to appreciate your time and commitment, Interneuron has applied for Co-Curricular Record (CCR) recognition! Using CCR, you will be recognized for your contributions by a faculty member and will be able to formally show off your involvement with Interneuron.

Ella Lew

Layout Yasmine Abdelaal Louise Escuban

If you have any suggestions, comments, or concerns about Interneuron, please feel free to contact us - we would love to hear from you!

Thank you to our dedicated Editorial team, Layout team, and student contributors for putting together a wonderful issue. On behalf of Interneuron, we wish you a wonderful holiday season and a happy New Year!

Regards,

Sarah & Susmita

Editors-in-Chief

Oshien Lekhwani Aileen Zhou

Editorial Team Yasmine Abdelaal Omar Bitar Theo Brunn Toni Dayno Alex Jacob Steven Meas Sarah Peters Susmita Sarkar

Nobel Prize for the Brain's Inner-GPS system Sahil Zaveri Every year, scientific research propels forward, as

repeatedly that different areas of the hippocampus lit up.

countless experiments lead to eye-opening breakthroughs.

Hence, different cells were being activated in accordance

Numerous hours are spent in search of the answers to the

with the rats’ geographic placement. O’Keefe called them

mysteries of science. Many of the scientists behind these

“place cells,” as they theoretically seemed to be serving as a

discoveries are rewarded with the Nobel prize in

map.

acknowledgement of their remarkable contributions. This

With continued research, the second part of the team, Moser

year’s Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded

& Moser, made the second significant finding in 2005. This

this year for the discovery of particular cells in the brain that

time, the researchers explored a different group of nerve cells

function as a “GPS system.

known as “grid cells.” As their name suggests, these cells

It was credited one half to John O’Keefe and the other

were found to be responsible for creating a grid-type spatial

to a married couple: May-Britt Moser and Edvard I. Moser.

coordinate system for precise positioning. The entorhinal

These researchers dedicated their experiments in the hopes

cortex was another key brain region that was critical to this

of answering many basic, yet complicated questions. How do

study. It is implicated in important cognitive functions such as

we go from point A to point B? How do we have a sense of

memory and planning.

where we are? How do we navigate directions in our minds?

Looking at the bigger picture reveals the potential of

In regards to the prize money, O’Keefe received half the total

these research findings, as they may help explain the

amount, which amounted to 8 million Swedish krona

symptoms of various medical conditions, such as Alzheimer’s

(approximately 700,000 pounds), while the couple earned a

disease. It has been observed that patients in the early stages

quarter each.

of this disease forget where they are or where they are going.

However, these findings did not somehow occur

Research indicates that this is strongly linked to these newly

overnight. It took several decades to answer these “basic”

found place and grid cells. Essentially, these are specialized

questions. For example, the first notable finding occurred

cells for spatial memory. They are the body’s way of

back in 1971 when John O’Keefe discovered the first major

identifying the environment and keeping track of all its

piece of this puzzle. While conducting his experiments on

continuous changes. Therefore, it is very likely that further

rats, he studied different areas of the brain–particularly the

research into the brain’s inner-GPS system may help

hippocampus–to learn which of them were activated when

scientists find a cure for such diseases that affect spatial

rats occupied different locations within a room. He noticed

memory.

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Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014

OPINION

Autism Spectrum Disorder and the U of T Autism Alliance Victor Lee

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is an umbrella term

propriately and interact positively; it is our hope that this will

for a variety of disorders. Currently, more than 1 in 68 children

encourage the children to behave similarly in other situations.

are diagnosed with ASD, and the number is constantly rising.

I have always had a soft spot for children with disabilities,

Children with ASD have impairments in social development

and I have always tried to do all that I can to support them. I

and communication; severity and symptom types vary widely

could not have done so without the help of my fellow club

between individuals.

members and the support of Autism Ontario Toronto Chapter.

Presently, there is no known cure for ASD. Available

Above spreading awareness, our club believes that taking

medications are only used to treat symptoms; however, cer-

action is just as important. We hope that what we do not only

tain programs have been proven effective in improving be-

brings enjoyment to children and their families but also to our

haviour. Applied Behaviour Analysis and Intensive Be-

volunteers. Most importantly, we seek to help the children

havioural Intervention focus on methods including positive

thrive in a fun, open, and inclusive setting. I believe that pro-

reinforcement to develop a child’s behaviour. Unfortunately,

viding social events is one of the most beneficial activities our

these therapeutic approaches are extremely expensive; how-

club can organize to help children living with autism in our

ever, many of their techniques can be incorporated into day-

community.

to-day interactions with the children at home, school, and the community or implemented into weekly regimens. Children are rewarded with high fives when they greet someone properly, given stickers for responding appropriately to social cues, or given time to play on a smartphone (sometimes, one of their favourite rewards!) if they successfully explain an appropriate emotional reaction to a hypothetical social situation.

Now in it’s third year, the U of T Autism Alliance strives to bring social events to children living with autism. In conjunction with Autism Ontario Toronto Chapter, we recently hosted our first Halloween party—a great success! According to one of the children, it was the “bestest Halloween party ever.” We host events that are fun for the whole family, and the children are given an opportunity to interact with their peers and U of T student volunteers. While we are no professionals, we try to incorporate various aspects of the behavioural therapies into our interactions during events. We make sure to respond with extra enthusiasm when the children behave ap-

3

neurocognitive difficulties that impact their quality of life.

Interestingly, CSR has been identified as a key risk factor in

Let'sTalk Local: A Spotlight on Neuroscience Research at U of T

the development of these cognitive effects (Mabbott et al., 2008). More specifically, prior research in the field has shown slower processing speeds (Mabbott, Penkman, Witol., Strother, & Bouffet, 2008; Palmer et al., 2013), attention difficulties (Reeves et al., 2006), lower Full Scale Intelligence Quotients (FSIQ) (Mabbott, Noseworthy, Bouffet, Rockel, & Laughlin, 2006; Brinkman et al., 2012), and memory problems in this population. With regards to how these effects arise, CSR has been shown to cause white matter tract damage that potentially impacts cognitive function (Mabbott et al., 2006).

Why is Dr. Mabbott’s lab interested in the effect of exercise in childhood cancer survivors? Animal and human research has shown exercise to promote brain plasticity as

Alex Mogadam

well as have neuroprotective effects, the former being key in memory and learning (Cotman & Berchtold, 2002). In addition, studies have shown that exercise increases white and grey matter volume in geriatric populations (Colcombe et al., 2006). In light of this work, Dr. Mabbott was interested to

The term “local” is a powerful keyword in our society’s

see whether these effects might also present themselves in

food and design cultures and has instigated a movement that

pediatric brain cancer survivors. As such, he launched an

looks to emphasize and promote home-grown products. In

exercise intervention for the population of interest, looking to

light of this new way of engaging and celebrating what each

observe the intervention’s effects on the brain through

homestead has to offer, I think it is only apt to highlight some

measurements such as cortical thickness, white matter

of the cutting-edge neuroscience research here in Toronto.

density, and behavioural measures of cognition. Logan,

Getting as local as we can, let us examine the research of a

along with other members of the lab, is working on the data

fellow U of T student: Logan Richard, MSc.

obtained from this project.

Logan is a graduate student who started his MA in Psychology at U of T this fall. He is based out of Dr. Donald

Hello Logan! How has your experience as a U of T graduate student been so far?

Mabbott’s lab, a neuropsychology research unit at the hospital for Sick Children. Logan is studying the effects of

It has been great! A lot of work, but overall it has been great.

exercise on cognition and white matter density in childhood

As a graduate student, you have to be self-motivated and

brain cancer survivors who were treated with Cranial Spinal

open to self-directed learning. There is a lot to juggle, an awful

Radiation (CSR). Despite the medical advances that have

lot to learn, and only so little time; time-management skills are

allowed for a major increase in survival rates, pediatric brain

key. This is why it is very important that you like your project

cancer survivors must often contend with long-term

and you are truly interested to see it through. When that's the

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Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014

case, it’s really exciting to do your work. Being based out of

your academic studies, stay flexible and don’t be afraid to look

SickKids, through U of T, I have had the opportunity to attend

into things that you might not have thought of before–allow

some amazing talks, symposiums, and conferences

yourself to experience and pursue new and unexpected

presenting the newest research findings in my field. I have

interests. And finally, don’t forget to have a life outside school

also had the chance to engage and network with some

- it’s totally possible, and if anything, necessary!

physician-scientists – something I hope to become myself at some point down the road.

References: Colcombe SJ, Erickson KI, Scalf PE, Kim JS, Prakash R, McAuley E, et al. Aerobic

Your work sounds really exciting - where do you see this research going? What do you think the impact might be?

exercise training increases brain volume in aging humans. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2006 Nov;61(11):1166-70.

Cotman, C. W., & Berchtold, N. C. (2002). Exercise: a behavioral intervention to

The research that has come out of the Mabbott lab has helped

enhance brain health and plasticity. Trends in neurosciences, 25(6), 295-301.

shed light on the long-term effects of the treatment we provide

Mabbott, D. J., Noseworthy, M. D., Bouffet, E., Rockel, C., & Laughlin, S. (2006).

to children with brain tumors. Now, with this amassed

Diffusion tensor imaging of white matter after cranial radiation in children for medulloblastoma:

correlation

with

IQ.

Neuro-oncology,8(3),

244–252.

knowledge, we are trying to look into interventions that might

doi:10.1215/15228517-2006-002

mediate or counteract these long-term effects. Essentially, I

Mabbott, D. J., Penkman, L., Witol, A., Strother, D., & Bouffet, E. (2008). Core neurocognitive functions in children treated for posterior fossa tumors.

think that this type of research will eventually allow for more

Neuropsychology, 22(2), 159–168. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.22.2.159

personalized long-term care options to complement the Palmer, Shawna L, Armstrong, C., Onar-Thomas, A., Wu, S., Wallace, D., Bonner, M.

drastic, but necessary, short-term medical interventions

J., … Gajjar, A. (2013). Processing speed, attention, and working memory after

administered to these patients.

treatment for medulloblastoma: an international, prospective, and longitudinal study.

Journal of clinical oncology: official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology,31(28), 3494–3500. doi:10.1200/JCO.2012.47.4775

That sounds amazing. Health care, unfortunately, often

Reeves, C. B., Palmer, S. L., Reddick, W. E., Merchant, T. E., Buchanan, G. M.,

seems to be likened to medicine and this ignores many

Gajjar, A., & Mulhern, R. K. (2006). Attention and memory functioning among

other fields that also play crucial roles in providing care.

pediatric patients with medulloblastoma. Journal of pediatric psychology, 31(3), 272– 280. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsj019

However, the type of work you and your lab are bringing forward truly emphasizes the effect clinical research can have on how we treat and provide care for our patients beyond acute medical intervention.

Absolutely – there are so many ways of helping people and working in the field of health care besides being a doctor. This type of work can lead to policy change and can affect the standards of care we maintain, ultimately affecting what we understand as a “cure.” The fruits of this work are perhaps a little less tangible than directly treating a patient, but there is the potential for high impact that can help many.

Do you have any final recommendations for future grad students?

It is not a race. Don’t pay too much attention to what others are doing around you; you need to do what is right for you. Also, while it’s good to have an idea of what you want to reach with

5

Mirror Neurons: The Neural Substrate for Empathy?

Ann Sheng Why is yawning contagious? What makes us good at

The exciting results from this discovery gave

reading people's intentions? And why are we so drawn

scientists a new framework for understanding the relationship

towards movies? As diverse as these phenomena appear,

between the generation and interpretation of actions. Over

they may be the workings of a common underlying brain

the next few decades speculations about the functions of the

network composed of "mirror neurons," a finding that has

mirror neuron system have blossomed.

received the nickname of "the most hyped concept in neuroscience."

One of the main hypotheses proposed by the same group of Italian scientists is "action understanding." This

Mirror neurons were first discovered in the early

model tries to explain how humans "connect" to one another.

1990's at the University of Parma, Italy, by Giacomo

Since our ability to understand others' actions involves

Rizzolatti. Rizzolatti and his colleagues were studying the

activating parts of our own motor system, our brain is - quite

motor cortex, a part of the brain that processes action and

literally - putting us in the other person's shoes by recreating

movement, in macaque monkeys. Eavesdropping on the

a neural representation of their actions in our heads. Vittorio

neural activity of macaques with electrode implants the

Gallese, who co-authored the original paper with Rizzolatti,

researchers found that a subset of neurons in the ventral

explains to Karin Badt in a Huffington Post interview about this

premotor area fired both when the monkeys performed an

phenomenon:

action but also when they observed the same action performed by a human researcher. More importantly, these mirror neurons seemed to responded to specific

"We are in a restaurant, and somebody reaches for the salt. The classic idea of cognition is that I infer that you want the salt - that is the 'mind-reading' route. But there is a

goals - hearing the sound of a

much faster route to understanding

peanut cracking elicited similar

you want the salt. I sense it myself

neural activity in the monkey

- my mirror neurons fire as do yours

brain as if the animal had

- and understand through my own

cracked a nut itself. In support of

body."

this observation various studies since then have demonstrated that these neurons are actually a mix of different cell types with varying specificity for stimuli ranging from sight to sound.

6

Critics

for

the

"action

understanding" hypothesis argue that proponents for the model are confusing what mirror neurons are doing: even if they enable our brains to associate meaning with a particular action this does

Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014

not necessarily imply that these same neurons encode the

BOLD signals have been shown to closely correlate with

meanings. That is, the activity of mirror neurons may well be

neural activation.

the result of action understanding, not the cause of the understanding itself.

Furthermore, it is important to realize that much of the hype about mirror neurons found in the media are based on monkey studies and may not translate well into human behaviour. Since invasive electrode insertion experiments are unethical for human subjects there is, to date, only one single-neuron recording study that directly measured mirror neuron activity in the human brain.

In this study, 21 epilepsy patients with surgical

One such imaging study conducted by Iaboconi et al.

electrode implants in their medial frontal and temporal lobes

asked participants to observe, execute, or imitate a simple

executed or observed either grasping motions or facial

finger movement. Since mirror neurons respond to both

expressions. The researchers found brain cells with mirroring

observation and execution of the same motion, imitation -

activity mostly in the supplementary motor and limbic areas.

which involves both processes simultaneously - should elicit

Though these regions are not the ones heavily studied in

the greatest neural activity. Indeed, the two cortical areas that

monkeys, this finding supports the notion that humans may

showed this activation pattern correspond to the equivalent

have a more widespread mirror neuron system that includes

mirror neuron area identified in monkeys.

not only motor regions but also those responsible for

What is the significance of the role of mirror neurons

processing emotions. Interestingly, a subset of these mirror

in imitation? Developmental psychologists have known for a

neurons showed opposite activity patterns compared with the

long time that imitation is vital for the development of social

rest; the researchers concluded that this opposition "may [...]

cognition, which is important for our capacity for empathy. An

form a simple neuronal mechanism for maintaining self-other

interesting phenomena that relates these concepts is called

differentiation." In other words, the human mirror system may

the Chameleon Effect, which states that people who more

contain built-in methods for distinguishing the actions of self

often imitate others tend to be more empathetic. As mirror

versus others. To circumvent the problem of direct human

neurons are involved in imitation, it is reasonable to

testing, researchers over the decades have used a variety of

hypothesize that they play a role in empathy. One fMRI study

neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic

that examined this hypothesis found that motor and limbic

resonance imaging (fMRI), to indirectly investigate the

regions during facial expression imitation showed a similar

existence and function of mirror neuron systems in humans.

pattern of neural activity compared with when participants

fMRI measures the Blood Oxygen Level Dependent (BOLD

merely observed the same emotions. The location of these

signal which shows changes in oxygen consumption by

regions seem to conform well to those found in the epilepsy

different brain regions during different activities. Importantly,

study - this large scale network may allow us to understand

7

the feelings, needs and goals of others through our

the central cause, we could be blinded by a beautiful

own inner representations. It may also partially explain why

hypothesis and thus miss finding more effective treatments

we are so drawn to movies and why the drama of fictional

for ASD.

characters can have such a profound influence on our own emotional states.

Clearly, although the mirror neuron system is a strong candidate for our ability to imitate and empathize, it is

But what happens when this system fails? Starting

not the panacea for understanding these brain processes and

from the early days of mirror neuron research, a team of

associated dysfunctions such as autism. More research is

scientists led by Vilayanur Ramachandran at UC San Diego

needed to confirm its existence in humans, to characterize its

proposed that dysfunction of the mirror neuron network may

functional role, and to examine how it interacts with other

contribute to the striking symptoms of Autism Spectrum

neural systems to generate the range of complex human

Disorder (ASD): lack of social skills, language disability, and

behaviors. What emerges from this brief examination of the

little display of empathy.

Neuroimaging studies that

mirror neuron literature is perhaps a theme common in

investigated this "broken mirror" hypothesis found weaker

neuroscience: an exciting initial discovery, controversial

mirror neuron network activity in the autistic brain compared

hypotheses,

to that of normally-developing individuals.

accumulating evidence. We are far from understanding these

and

intense

debate

surrounding

the

fascinating cells; the journey to unravel this enigmatic and complex system has just begun.

References: 1. Jarrett, C. (2012, December 10). Mirror Neurons: The Most Hyped Concept in Neuroscience?

Retrieved November 27, 2014, from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/brain-myths/201212/ mirror-neurons-the-most-hyped-concept-in-neuroscience

2. Di Pellegrino, G., Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L., Gallese, V., & Rizzolatti, G. (1992). Understanding motor events: a neurophysiological study. Experimental brain research, 91(1), 176-180.

3. Kilner, J. M., & Lemon, R. N. (2013). What we know currently about mirror neurons. Current Biology, 23(23), R1057-R1062.

4. Rizzolatti, G., & Craighero, L. (2004). The mirror-neuron system. Annu. Rev. Neurosci., 27, 169-192.

5. Badt, K. (2013, May 13). Mirror Neurons and Why We Love Cinema: A Conversation with Vittorio Gallese and Michele Guerra in Parma. Retrieved November 25, 2014, from http:// www.huffingtonpost.com/karin-badt/mirror-neurons-and-why-we_b_3239534.html 6. Hickok, G. (2013). Do mirror neurons subserve action understanding?. Neuroscience letters, 540,

On the opposite side of this debate, Oxford professor of psychology Cecilia Heyes contends that ASD, itself poorly characterized, is too complex of a disorder to be explained by the faulty mechanisms of a single neural system. Moreover, the problem of causation begs the question: did dysfunctional mirror neurons contribute to autism, or did autism bring about these observed changes? If the mirror neuron system is not

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56-58.

7. Jarrett, C. (13, December 11). A Calm Look at the Most Hyped Concept in Neuroscience - Mirror Neurons. Retrieved November 27, 2014, from http://www.wired.com/2013/12/a-calm-look-at-themost-hyped-concept-in-neuroscience-mirror-neurons/ 8. Mukamel, R., Ekstrom, A. D., Kaplan, J., Iacoboni, M., & Fried, I. (2010). Single-neuron responses in humans during execution and observation of actions. Current biology, 20(8), 750-756.

9. Mukamel, R., Gelbard, H., Arieli, A., Hasson, U., Fried, I., & Malach, R. (2005). Coupling between neuronal firing, field potentials, and FMRI in human auditory cortex. Science, 309(5736), 951-954.

10. Iacoboni, M., Woods, R. P., Brass, M., Bekkering, H., Mazziotta, J. C., & Rizzolatti, G. (1999).

Cortical Science, 286(5449), 2526-2528.

Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014

11. Chartrand, T. L., & Bargh, J. A. (1999). The chameleon effect: The perception–behavior link and

www.huffingtonpost.com/karin-badt/mirror-neurons-and-why-we_b_3239534.html

social interaction. Journal of personality and social psychology, 76(6), 893.

14. Ramachandran, V. S., & Oberman, L. M. (2006). Broken mirrors: a theory of autism. Scientific

12. Carr, L., Iacoboni, M., Dubeau, M. C., Mazziotta, J. C., & Lenzi, G. L. (2003). Neural mechanisms

American, 295(5), 62-69.

of empathy in humans: a relay from neural systems for imitation to limbic areas. Proceedings of the

15. Thomas, B. (2012, November 6). What’s So Special about Mirror Neurons? Retrieved November

national Academy of Sciences, 100(9), 5497-5502.

27, 2014, from http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/2012/11/06/whats-so-special-about-

13. Badt, K. (2013, May 13). Mirror Neurons and Why We Love Cinema: A Conversation with Vittorio

mirror-neurons/

Gallese and Michele Guerra in Parma. Retrieved November 25, 2014, from http://

The Neuroscience of Consciousness: Induction of Lucid Dreams Sarah Marko Human consciousness is commonly viewed as a

An experiment studying brain electrophysiology and

discrete entity wherein it exists exclusively as one of two

brain activity associated with this phenomenon1 was

states: conscious or unconscious. The conscious is better

conducted using electroencephalography (EEG), which

understood as the coexistence of these two states in a continuum. An example of this continuous nature of consciousness can be seen in lucid dreaming. Lucid dreaming is a rare, dissociative state in which elements of higher order processing—prevalent during wakefulness— emerge during a dream. This emergence elicits self-

measures the electrical activity resulting from the firing of neurons. Lucid dreamers were the subjects of this experiment, where they communicated to researchers when they became lucid through specific horizontal eye motion.

During lucid episodes, EEG indicated increased activity in the

awareness within a dream, such that the dreamer recognizes

lower gamma frequency band—a pattern not typically found

they are dreaming. In some cases, the dreamer can actually

in typical REM sleep.1 Furthermore, this activity was

control their experiences in what can be described as an

predominately located in the frontal cortex at around 40 Hz.1

extremely detailed and realistic dream.

9

In a recent study, Voss et al.2 used stimulated gamma activity

to

induce

self-awareness

while

Conversely, it can be argued that the validity of this

dreaming.

study is questionable due to the over-representation of self-

Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) was used

ratings given by the subjects on their experienced lucidity3. In

to activate the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) of 27

some aspects, elevated scores may not be sufficient when

participants, imitating the activity seen in lucid dreamers.

classifying the dreams as lucid; additional research needs to

tACS uses electrodes to apply low current stimulation to a

be done in this field of study, as it is still in its infancy3.

particular area of the brain, altering neuronal excitability and

Nonetheless, this study provides an exciting preliminary foun-

leading to the alteration of brain function. EEG was also used

dation for research on brain physiology in relation to con-

in this study to monitor brain activity in subjects. Throughout

scious awareness and potential clinical applications.

four consecutive nights, various levels of stimulation ranging from 2 to 100 Hz were applied for 30-second periods after the subject entered REM sleep. Following the period of stimulation, the subjects were awoken to report their experience, completely unaware of the received stimulation.

The study found that with a stimulation of 40 Hz to the frontal cortex—elevating gamma frequency band activity— 77% of the subjects reported attaining lucidity while dream-

References: 1.Voss, U., Holzmann, R., Tuin, I., & Hobson J. A. Lucid dreaming: a state of consciousness with features of both waking and non-lucid dreaming. Sleep.

32: 1191–1200 (2009).

2.Voss, U. et al. Induction of self awareness in dreams through frontal low current stimulation of gamma activity. Nature Neuroscience. 17: 810-812. (2014).

3.“Does Gamma TACS Really Induce Lucid Dreaming?” Web log post.

Neurocritic. (2014).

ing.2 These results provide strong evidence that the ability to become lucid during REM sleep is explicitly related to gamma activity2. This study provides the first evidence of tACS-induced fluctuations specific to frequency in the cerebral cortex; additionally, it is possibly the first to demonstrate inductive oscillations in the gamma frequency band generating a modified state of conscious awareness2. This evidence postulates an exciting foundation for clinical applications, with the utilization of tACS to reestablish oscillators of the cerebral cortex and thalamus. This gives rise to the potential to reinstate defective network activity seen in individuals with schizophrenia or obsessive-compulsive disorder. Gamma oscillation induction during REM sleep may also aid in preventing recurring nightmares in post-traumatic stress disorder.

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Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014

The MRI Gone Awry Ella Lew

"This artwork was inspired by my awe at viewing colorful MRI images of the brain. There is a creative and aesthetic beauty to science that often gets overlooked. It was my goal with this artwork to capture and present a different aspect of science, albeit not entirely to scale or scientifically accurate."

FEATURE

Let's Discuss that Shower Cap and Ear Bone: Learning the Relationship Between Brain and Technology Sara Pishdadian

It was always terribly obvious to me that being a brain

groups and learning a novel technique was thrilling to me. To

scientist involved wearing a variety of demanding hats – an

my surprise, while reading about EEG I was brought back to

ethics expert, an anatomy authority, a research methods

my physics class in grade 12. Sure, I was aware that all

connoisseur and well-practiced theoretician. However, it was

sciences are related; but I hadn’t quite imagined my lack of

not until I worked in a cognitive neuroscience lab that I

attention to frequency and current would come up again years

amended my list – to include a technology buff.

later.

This revelation is due to the fact that I am currently

EEG is highly reliant on signals being sensed by

involved in a project that is studying working memory in young

electrodes. EEG measures voltage, which, as I had to remind

and older adults. The project’s method of acquisition is a well-

myself, is essentially electrical potential. This potential is the

established technique called EEG.

potential to flow from one area to another. This means that

EEG

is

the

shorthand

notation

for

there is more than area involved, which leads me to explain

electroencephalography. It involves placing a showercap-

that the waveforms that we’re studying (ERP waveforms) are

like object on a person’s scalp. This “shower cap” has holes

not actually representative of activity at one site but of the

in it where gel can be placed followed by the insertion of

difference in activity between two sites. There are so-called

electrodes into the holes of the cap. There are also electrodes

reference sites (remember those cheek and mastoid

placed on the person’s mastoids (bone behind the ear) and

electrodes I mentioned?) that all detected activity goes

cheeks. The brain is electrically charged and so, using EEG,

through. And so, in order to understand why electrodes are

you can detect differences in activity during different tasks. It

placed behind a person’s ear, a reference site, one should at

is an incredible tool as it allows psychologists to do more than

least somewhat understand voltage and electrical potential.

just hypothesize about the brain and actually measure – with

Sure, it isn’t technically necessary to understand the

limits of course – what the brain is doing during a certain task.

science behind the action. You could theoretically run EEG

And so imagine my excitement when I began to work

studies your entire life and never really comprehend why this

on this project. Working with participants of various age

12

technology is done the way it is.

Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014

However, aside from being impractical, it’s critical to

excitement of it all– knowledge to help people, to shed light on

understand the underpinnings of a technology so one can

something mysterious, to understand how our actions and

manipulate it to fit their study’s needs. And also, if something

experiences are placed into a mosaic of anatomical changes.

isn’t working it can be quite helpful to understand the reasons

The fact that resistance is an impediment to a direct current

behind that. Passively placing objects on people’s skin is

never captured my attention the same way, even though I was

hardly scientific.

well aware of its applicability.

And so, I’ve found myself reading more and more

I propose a few things: First, I may have been slightly

about resistance, impedance and amplification than ever

impatient to see how topics can be applied to the real word,

before. In addition, and this is personally shocking, I’ve found

a childish sentiment for a desire of a direct action-reaction.

Second, all knowledge is useful and can be applied in some circumstance; there is never a good reason to pass up knowledge. And lastly, the relationship between technology (and its underlying concepts) and brain research is so intricate that a distinction between the two would be imperceptive.

The more I learn about the brain, the more I feel the need to take classes in physics, computer science, and bioengineering so I can analyze it more in depth with the technology available today. The sentiment remains the same for learning about behaviour, as I want to understand its mechanisms–and then again I will use technology in some form. I can speak confidently now that one mechanism for

myself enjoying it more than ever before. When I learned

studying the brain, EEG,

requires an understanding of

these concepts from a textbook or my physics teacher in high

technology. I encourage others to be ambitious and

school they seemed dry and disconnected. Now they are

exploratory–it may surprise you what intrigues you when you

intriguing and frankly, real. This has made me wonder how I

learn (or relearn in my case) information in different contexts.

would have enjoyed these topics had they been introduced to

I find myself relishing the knowledge I am gaining about

me as a side topic to a real-world application (like EEG), rather

working memory, but also very appreciative of the

than being the main topic with an applied real-world

interdisciplinary nature of science and the technology that it

application (did you know EEG involves this?).

brings along.

What enthralled me about brain science was the

13

FEATURE Introduction to Deep Brain Stimulation Maryna Pilkiw

Depression is a word from our everyday vocabulary

disease and essential tremor. The idea to apply DBS to mood

but it covers a range of meanings from a short-lasting feeling

disorders originated from observations that movement

of overwhelming sadness, to a life-long, life-threatening

disorder patients benefited from DBS treatment not only in

disorder. Even the clinical definition of the mood disorder that

terms of improved motor function but also their emotional

we call depression includes conditions with different

state.

severities, such as subclinical depression (while clinically

DBS

for

depression

involves

neurosurgical

significant, it does not qualify as a major depressive disorder)

implantation of electrodes in a specific brain region that

or treatment resistant depression (the disorder that does not

provide generates high frequency electrical pulses generated

respond to antidepressant medication).

The range of

by a subcutaneously implanted battery (Kennedy et al, 2011;

affected functions of patients with depression and the varying

Holtzheimer et al., 2012; Hamani et al., 2009). This way, the

effects of the treatments suggest that depression is not a

specific brain region of interest along with the related

disorder of a specific area of the brain or a simple chemical

networks is directly affected by an externally generated

imbalance. This idea is consistent with the current view of

electrical current. In case of depression, various brain regions

depression as a system-level disorder which involves the

have been targeted, including the subgenual cingulate gyrus,

dysfunction of different neural networks connecting cortical,

nucleus accumbens, and the lateral habenula. These brain

subcortical

regions were selected based on their postulated role mood

and

limbic

regions,

and

the

related

neurotransmitters (Mayberg et al., 2005; Price & Drevets,

regulation neural networks.

In a report published in 2011 (Kennedy et al,),

2012).

Currently, the most prescribed treatments for

researchers presented the long term effects of DBS in

depressive disorder are psychotherapy and medication.

patients with treatment resistant depression (TRD). It must

Despite their widespread use, these treatments leave many

be noted that due to experimental nature of DBS, the

patients without improvement and, in most cases, their

inclusion criteria for DBS surgery were limited to TRD

effectiveness declines as patients become more resistant to

patients who have previously failed to show improvement

the therapies. The ineffectiveness of pharmacotherapy

after psychotherapy, several rounds of pharmacotherapy,

prompted researchers to look for new potential treatments.

and, most importantly, electro convulsive therapy. The

One such treatment was deep brain stimulation (DBS). DBS

long-term follow-up study of 20 patients revealed that after

has been shown to be a safe and effective treatment for

3 years post surgery, 64% of them showed response and

severe cases of movement disorders such as Parkinson’s

14

Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014

50% were remitted. The improved quality of life of the patients could be judged by increased employment of the patients

References:

from 10% before to 65% 1 year post-operation. Studies with

1. Boldrini, M., Hen, R., Underwood, M. D., Rosoklija, G. B., Dwork, A. J.,

animal models also showed that DBS of the regions in rodents

progenitor cell proliferation are increased with antidepressant use in major

Mann, J. J., & Arango, V. (2012). Hippocampal angiogenesis and

corresponding

to

BA25

produced

antidepressant-like

depression. Biol Psychiatry, 72(7): 562–571.

behavioural effects (Hamani et. al., 2010), reduced

2. Hamani, C., Diwan, M., Macedo, C. E., Brandão, M. L., Shumake, J.,

anhedonia, and promoted neuroanatomical changes such as

of medial prefrontal cortex deep brain stimulation in rats. Biol Psychiatry,

hippocampal neurogenesis (Boldrini et al., 2012).

67(2):117–124.

Gonzalez-Lima, F., ...Nobrega, J. N. (2010). Antidepressant-like effects

Following the initial results of DBS for treatments of depression, many researchers agreed that the findings were

3. Hamani, C., Mayberg, H. S., Snyder, B., Giacobbe, P., Kennedy, S., & Lozano, A. M. (2009). Deep brain stimulation of the subcallosal cingulate gyrus for depression: anatomical location of active contacts in clinical responders and a suggested guideline for targeting. J Neurosurg, 111(6):

exciting and promising but also raised many new questions,

1209–15.

from details about parameters of stimulation, optimal

M. M., Garlow, S. J., ... Mayberg H. S. (2012). Subcallosal cingulate deep

neuroanatomical placements of the electrodes to questions

4. Holtzheimer, P. E., Kelley, M. E., Gross, R.E., Gross, R. E., Filkowski, brain stimulation for treatment-resistant unipolar and bipolar depression.

Arch Gen Psychiatry. 69(2): 150–158.

about the mechanism underlying the improvement after

5. Kennedy S. H., Giacobbe, P., Rizvi S. J., Placenza, F. M., Nishikawa

DBS. DBS research also prompts questions about our

treatment-resistant depression: Follow-up after 3 to 6 years. Am J

knowledge of mood disorders and a necessity for new models

Y., Mayberg H. S., & Lozano A. M. (2011). Deep brain stimulation for Psychiatry,168(5): 502–510.

6. Mayberg, H. S., Lozano, A. M., Voon, V., McNeely, H.E., Seminowicz,

of depression. While DBS is an invasive technique that may

D., Hamani, C., ...Kennedy S. H. (2005). Deep brain stimulation for

never replace common therapies, it can provide new insights

7. Price J.L., & Drevets W.C. (2012). Neural circuits underlying the

into key issues of how we understand depression.

treatment-resistant depression. Neuron, 45(5): 651–660. pathophysiology of mood disorders. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(1): 61–71.

The Myth of Free Will Ikram Khan The debate over the existence of free will is possibly one of the most important discussions of human nature.

has led to two, polar-opposite philosophical schools of thought: determinism and libertarianism.

Insight into this debate holds vast ethica, legal and political

Determinism is heavily rooted in science and

implications. In my experience, those who are not familiar with

empiricism and argues that all events have a prior physical

the topic often conflate free will for consciousness, and

cause. Determinists therefore reject a metaphysical

impetuously accept the existence of free will. Free will is

contribution to behavior and free will. Libertarians on the other

defined as the freedom of humans to make choices that are

hand reject determinism and ascribe a metaphysical

not determined by prior physical causes. Those who believe

contribution to behavior. This article will examine these two

in free will thus ascribe a metaphysical contribution to

schools of thought using a neuroscientific framework, reveal

behaviour (e.g., a soul) as they believe prior physical causes

the illusion of free will and why this illusion may be detrimental

do not entirely account for behavior. The debate over free will

to society.

15

Take a minute to pause from this article and think

environment. Most of us find this lardy, sodium-filled

about what has shaped your life so far. Go on, reflect! It may

substance extremely satisfying, and this appeal is dictated by

seem like there are too many events and factors to consider.

our brain chemistry.

However, break that list down into two simple categories:

You’re probably frustrated by now. Despite the fact

biological factors and environmental factors. Are there any

that you needed prior knowledge of chips, or that your brain

you can think of that don’t fall into either of those categories?

chemistry is what made you find chips appealing, you still

I argue that there aren’t. You might be thinking about ways to

CHOSE to conduct the seemingly free act of eating a bag of

disprove my assertion as we speak. In fact, you may be saying

chips! However, did you actually make that decision free of

to yourself, “I can choose to spontaneously eat an entire bag

prior physical causes? Or was it because you were stimulated

of chips! And this spontaneous decision is not constrained by

by an environmental variable (i.e., me) to do so? What

biological or environmental factors. It’s a decision that is not

triggered you to even think about that specific action? A

dictated by prior physical causes can be attributed to my free

thought simply popped up in your head, right? Now expand

will!” But to that I say…

this idea even further, to all the decisions you've made in your

Chocolate milk. That’s right, you read correctly. What

life. Do you actually consciously choose each and every

just went through your head? Chocolate milk right? Was it

decision? Or do thoughts simply appear in your head, just as

your free choice or an environmental variable (i.e., the text in

they did when I mentioned chocolate milk or when you tried

this article) that caused the resulting thought? Now extend this idea to the bag of chips: if you

hadn’t

had

prior

environmental exposure to this sodium-filled goodness, eaten it and felt the subsequent activation of the mesolimbic reward system of the brain, this thought would never have occurred to you!

to rebut my statement with the spontaneous decision of

The above example illustrates two important

demolishing a bag of chips?

concepts. Firstly, it highlights the fact that you can’t

Most of the brain’s information processing occurs

spontaneously generate knowledge - it has to come from prior

unconsciously, and this hidden processing can make it easy

experience. Have you ever spontaneously generated the

to fall for the illusion of free will. In other words: because

knowledge for a midterm you didn’t study for? Of course not!

thoughts are derived unconsciously, they seem to appear

Secondly, it alludes to the cross-talk biology has with the

spontaneously and are attributed to metaphysical factors.

16

Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014

However, this unconscious processing is the

evidence to support its existence.

cumulative effect of many brain processes including long-

The idea of a lack of free will may not only seem

term potentiation of brain circuits1, experience-dependent

shocking, but suffocating at first. However, just because an

epigenetic modifications2, neurotransmitter concentrations of

unpredictable metaphysical contribution to our behaviour

the brain3 and many more.

doesn’t exist does not mean that our behaviour does not

You might not be convinced yet. You feel like you can

matter. In fact, it means that our behaviour matters more than

still make conscious decisions of your own accord! Consider

ever! Understanding that behavior is shaped not by an

the seminal work of Benjamin Libet. By using ECG

inherently evil or inherently good “free will”, but is the

recordings, it was demonstrated that researchers could

accumulation and interaction of environmental and biological

reliably predict the decisions someone will take before they

factors, should lead us to have much more empathy for each

are consciously aware of that decision themselves4. This

other. After all, we are equal in the sense that none of us chose

highlights the idea that conscious decisions are not derived

the biology we would be born with or the environment we were

from a metaphysical source, but are the result of unconscious

born into. If we’re all equal, then the ultimate goal of humanity

processing in our brains.

should be to create a society in which we’re all happy. No one

Consider further the case of Phineas Gage. An

should be penalized for being given a set of factors that cause

unfortunate accident caused his frontal lobe to be impaled by

them to gravitate towards bad behavior, unless it impinges on the safety or well-being of others.

This is a very liberating idea for me. It helps me understand that in the grand scheme of things, I am no better than anyone else, and no one is better than me. We are all equals experiencing the journey of life.

References: 1. Bliss, T. V., & Collingridge, G. L. (1993). A synaptic

model

of

memory:

long-term

potentiation in the hippocampus. Nature, 361(6407), 31-39.

a metal rod. This loss of function in this “personalityendowing” region of the brain5 transformed a once hardworking and pleasant man into an ill-mannered, impatient and unreliable individual

6

. This case study

highlights an important idea: if free will existed, how negligible a contribution does it have if biology and environment dictate most of our behaviour? The unfortunate thing about the illusion of free will is that it is accepted despite any empirical

2. Sweatt, J. D. (2009). Experience-dependent epigenetic modifications in the central nervous system. Biological psychiatry, 65(3), 191-197.

3. Schildkraut, J. J. (1965). The catecholamine hypothesis of affective disorders: a review of supporting evidence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 122(5), 509-522.

4. Libet, B., Gleason, C. A., Wright, E. W., & Pearl, D. K. Time of conscious intention to act in relation to onset of cerebral activity (readiness-potential). The unconscious initiation of a freely voluntary act.

Brain. 1983; 106: 623-642.

5. Eslinger, P. J., & Damasio, A. R. (1985). Severe disturbance of higher

17

cognition after bilateral frontal lobe ablation Patient EVR. Neurology, 35 (12), 1731-1731.

Capgras Syndrome: The Illusion of Look-alikes Sawayra Owais “Who are you and what have you done to my mother?”

hand, Capgras patients have damage to the right ventral

This ubiquitous statement is found in popular culture from

medial prefrontal cortex (Fiacconi et al., 2014). Indeed, it has

television sitcoms to soap operas to the jesting son. However,

been shown that the left hemisphere, undamaged in a

for those afflicted with Capgras syndrome, this playful

Capgras patient, is the rational hemisphere. In essence, it

statement is reified into a frustrating and fearful experience.

seeks to explain and reason one’s experiences at the

Capgras syndrome was first identified in 1923 by French psychiatrist Joseph Capgras. He labelled the syndrome as “l’illusion de sosies” or “illusions of look-alikes” after encountering a woman who insisted her husband was an imposter (Capgras & Reboul-Lachaux, 1923). Indeed, Capgras patients believe their loved ones, particularly their parents or spouses, have been replaced by imposters.

expense of the truth (Devinsky, 2009). Studies with split-brain patients, those with the corpus callosum severed, revealed the degree of lateralization of function between the two hemispheres. For instance, when the word ‘walk’ was presented exclusively to the right hemisphere the split-brain patient began walking. When asked why they were walking the patient replied, “I wanted to get a Coke”. Since their corpus callosum is severed, their left hemisphere is unaware that the

To the astute student this syndrome may sound similar to

right hemisphere received the instructions to walk and thus

another

prospagnosia.

confabulated a story to explain their behaviour (Gazzaniga,

Prospagnosia is neuropsychological disorder where one’s

2005). Ramachandran (2007) coupled the idea of the

ability to recognize faces is impaired despite one’s visual

rationalizing left hemisphere with the loss of familiarity

system still being intact. Indeed, there are a couple

Capgras patients demonstrate and suggested that the

overlapping similarities between the two disorders. First, both

Capgras syndrome may be the manifestation of a

disorders manifest themselves after damage to the ventral

disconnection syndrome. He suggested that the longitudinal

visual stream. In addition, both disorders are symptomatic of

fasciculus, a white matter tract that connects the temporal

a loss of familiarity (Klein and Hirachan, 2014). Though these

lobe and limbic areas, is severed in Capgras patients

parallels can be drawn, there are many differences that

(Ramachandran, 2007; Bauer, 1984). Therefore, when a

distinguish these two disorders.

Capgras patient sees, for instance, his/her mother they are

recognition

deficit

disorder:

able to recognize and recall memories of her yet there is a lack The first piece of evidence that differentiates prospagnosia from Capgras syndrome stems from neuroanatomical studies. For instance, brain imaging studies of prospagnosics have revealed bilateral lesions to the

of emotion due to the information not reaching the limbic system. To explain this lack of positive association the patient uses their intact left hemisphere to reason that this person must indeed be an imposter.

occipitotemporal lobe (Fiacconi et al., 2014). On the other

18

Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014

Once theories have been generated on the basis of

Currently, there is no cure for Capgras syndrome

neuroanatomical data it is important to test them and assess

but case studies have revealed that with time the delusions

their validity. Indeed, laboratory studies that investigated the

disappear by themselves (Ramachandran, 2005). But,

autonomic responses of prospagnosics and Capgras

these delusions can drive patients to be aggressive and

patients to familiar and unfamiliar faces supported

even homicidal: evidenced by the documentation of some

Ramachandran’s theory.

parricide cases (Klein and Hirachan, 2014). Further

There are two components involved in recognizing a

research aims to elucidate the organic basis of Capgras

face. First, one must consciously perceive the face and,

syndrome and its treatment such that the statement, “Who

second, there must be some emotional response to the face

are you and what have you done to my mother?” never has

(Hirstein

to leave the television screen.

and

Ramachandran,

1997).

Researchers

hypothesized that prospagnosics have a deficit in the former References:

while Capgras patients lack the latter (Bauer, 1984; Hirstein & Ramachandra, 1997). In one example the researchers

1. Bauer, R. (1984). Autonomic recognition of names and faces in prosopagnosia: A neuropsychological application of the guilty knowledge

placed electrodes that measure galvanic skin response, an

test. Neuropsychologia, 457-469

autonomic response that can vary depending on the stimuli

2. Capgras, J., Reboul-Lachaux, J. (1923). "Illusion des " sosies " dans un délire systématisé chronique". Bulletin de la Société Clinique de Médicine

presented, on Capgras patients (Bauer, 1984). When we

Mentale 2: 6–16.

recognize a familiar face we start to sweat (which the

3. Devinsky, O. (2009). Delusional misidentifications and duplications: Right brain lesions, left brain delusions.Neurology, 72, 80-87

electrodes sense) but when we are presented with an

4. Fiacconi, C. M., Barkley, V., Finger, E. C., Carson, N., Duke, D.,

unknown face there is little to no galvanic response (Bauer,

Rosenbaum, R. S., . . . Köhler, S. (2014). Nature and extent of person recognition impairments associated with capgras syndrome in lewy body

1984).

Accordingly, when prospagnosics were shown

pictures of familiar faces they were unable able to name the

dementia. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 726. doi:10.3389/ fnhum.2014.00726 5. Gazzaniga, M. (2005). The Believing Brain. In The ethical brain (pp.

people yet they displayed an increased galvanic skin

145-155). New York: Dana Press.

response (Bauer, 1984). Compare this finding with Capgras

6. Hirstein, W., & Ramachandran, V. S. (1997). Capgras syndrome: A novel probe for understanding the neural representation of the identity and

patients who were able to name the familiar face but did not

familiarity of persons. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.Series B:

show an increased galvanic skin response (Hirstein and

Biological Sciences, 264(1380), 437-444.

7. Klein, C. A., & Hirachan, S. (2014). The masks of

Ramachandra, 1997). prospagnosics have their covert

identities: Who's who? delusional misidentification syndromes. The Journal

recognition intact but their overt recognition is damaged while

of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 42(3), 369-378.

8.http://www.ted.com/talks/vilayanur_ramachandran_on_your_mind?

the opposite phenomenon is true for those with Capgras.

language=en

19

OPINION

Comprehensive Computation?

Darren Cheng

An opinion on the 2014 Computational Neuroscience Conference presented by NAUS On the drizzly Saturday morning of November 8th, the

or possibly even both… but unfortunately for those who found

Neuroscience Association of Undergraduate Students

themselves with experience with only one of these fields, they

(NAUS) came together with the UofT Human Biology and

were sorely out of their depth. As an undergraduate student

Computer Science faculties to bring the third annual

specialising in neuroscience, the topics discussed leaned far

Everything Neuroscience

too heavily on technical background and computational

Research

Conference,

details, effectively excluding those who walked into the

this year featuring The

conference with little education in computer science. My mind

Digital Brain. Poised to be

constantly wandered as the descriptions of informational

an

and

processing techniques and methods of analysis whizzed by,

experience,

many others also clearly lost in the steady stream of field-

students with interests in

specific terminology (if the glossed over looks of confusion

both programs came out to

and actively used smartphones as encyclopaediae were any

get their weekend’s fill of

indication). The proceeding breakout session – mine in

brain food.

particular

enlightening

enriching

Even those who

being

the

computational

perspectives

on

integrative theory of the brain given by Chris Honey and

have never heard of computational neuroscience must be at

Andre

Chevrier

least somewhat aware of the ever-strengthening relationship

comprehensibility.

–

hardly

improved

in

terms

of

between biology and computing. From MRIs to SSRIs and

Perhaps I lacked the foresight to brush up on the

genome sequencing to brain mapping, there’s no doubt that

current literature in the field of computational neuroscience,

the digital era is upon us and it’s already buried its roots deep

but what I can be certain of was my absolute and utter inability

in the fields of biology and neuroscience. The keynote

to keep up with the speakers. I’m sure what was presented

speaker, Randy McIntosh, gave an interesting overview of

was extremely applicable to today’s current research and

the developing international neuroimaging database The

maybe my future in neuroscience will even lead me to some

Virtual Brain.

of the very techniques that were talked about. Nonetheless,

Students presumably went into the conference with at

I still walked away from this day with a feeling of emptiness

least some neuroscience or computer science background,

and mild disappointment which I truly hope few others shared.

20

Interneuron . Volume 2, Issue 2 . December 2014

Regardless of how the day panned out, there’s no doubt that computational neuroscience is expanding exponentially and its importance should be highlighted.

NAUS made a commendable attempt at bridging the gap between

neuroscience

and

computer

science

for

undergraduate students. However, it is worthwhile to note that we might not quite be ready take the leap into this particular pond when we’re still working on our baby steps.

UPCOMING EVENTS January 16th: Interneuron General Meeing February 4th: Deadline for Issue 2.3 Submissions February 20th: Issue 2.3 release

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