The Digital Divide: A Literature Review

The Digital Divide

The Digital Divide Theo Fowles University of Southern California Dr. Sylvia Rousseau EDUC 523 December 9, 2012

The Digital Divide The Digital Divide

Jenkins, Clinton, Purushotma, Robison, & Weigel (2006) argued that computers and new media are the new participatory tools in helping students excel in school.

Without access to technology and more importantly, proper instruction in the use of technology and media literacy, African-American students are ill-prepared even at the basic level to meet and exceed college expectations.

Technology in the Digital Age Nearly any electronics store has available what seem to be endless types of technology. A person can now hold thousands of songs or books in the palm of her or his hand. People play video games with friends across the world. Yet by far, the most pervasive technologies available today are those technologies that are integrated with internet access. The purchase of a cell phone, but a smart phone is better. Buying a television is good, but a smart television is better. The term smart, has come to imply any device that provides access to web tools and applications. Many of these apps, like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube give the user the ability to create her or his own content and most importantly, the ability to share and communicate that content to others instantaneously.

Conversation and communication is essential in the 21st century. Some online users create full websites using html coding language. Others use templates. It is often said that a picture is worth a thousand words--microblogs like instagram are proving just that. Sometimes, as in the case of twitter, you only have 140 characters to say what you mean. The entertainment world has taken full advantage of these smart devices and

The Digital Divide applications by creating trendy topics for their shows. Even news sources, like CNN, have turned to online users for content. In 2011, there were 750,000 iReporters contributing stories and firsthand information to the CNN website.

In the latest Social Media adoption study by the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 100% of U.S. universities are using some form of social media with the leading platform being Facebook. Statistics such as this force the question of how is technology, specifically smart devices, web apps, and social media tools being integrated into the classroom? In a survey of 500 K-12 teachers nationwide, PBS found that 91% of teachers had access to computers in the classroom but only 22% felt that they had the right level of technology. As universities become more accepting of both social media and smart devices like e-books, the gap between college expectations of classroom technology use and traditional forms of teaching within K-12 becomes more apparent.

The digital divide is not only one of tools but of methodology.

The Digital Divide The digital divide is the code name used to describe all inequities related to computers and the internet; it is the distinction between the technological haves and havenots (Damarian 1998). The digital divide begins at home. According to the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (1998) White households are twice as likely to own a computer as Black or Hispanic households and three times as likely to have online access at home. Damarin (1998) points out that the NTIA findings define the "haves" as those who own internet-ready computers and retain internet services whereas the "have-nots" are all others--including those who may access the internet at places other than their home or via a mobile device. Interestingly, A Pew Study on Technology and

The Digital Divide People of color found that 46% of African-Americans and 51% of Latinos use phones to access the internet but only 33% of whites do the same. These statistics suggest that computer ownership and internet access are still symbols of status and achievement.

Holme (2002) found that maintaining status dominates the decision making process, especially for white-upper middle class.

Socio-economics is a key factor in the digital divide. The NTIA (1998) reported that households earning less than $35,000 per year have computer ownership levels and online access levels lower than the national average. In the classrooms, 63% of teachers believe that budget is the greatest barrier to accessing technology in school. Yet as access to various technologies becomes more affordable, Damarian (1998) argues that institutions develop technological equity and teach to the diverse levels of access that may be found within the classroom. Further, Damarian suggests that equity is created by 1) using the least costly tool to accomplish the task, 2) using the most accessible tool to accomplish the task, 3) making materials available in multiple formats, and 4) teaching students to make the maximum use of a tool.

African Americans in the Digital Divide As involuntary immigrants to the United States, African-Americans have struggled against the system. In particular, Ogbu (1998) recognizes that societal education policies and the treatment of minorities in school serve as the system against which minorities must adjust and achieve. As schools begin to search for a balance between academics and technology (if there is one to be found) these systematic flaws contribute not only to educational inequities but to digital gaps as well.

The Digital Divide In the 20th century, James Baldwin said, to his nephew turning 14, “[AfricanAmericans] were not expected to aspire to excellence. [African-Americans] were expected to make peace with mediocrity." The 21st Century is no different. In fact, when digital divide was first recognized, Congress suggested increasing the computer donation age requirement from two to three years. Damarian (1998) argues that the donation of old equipment only serves to increase the divide because the given tools are immediately obsolete. Kaiser (2005) does note however, that some policies like increasing funding to Community Technology Centers, focused on providing access to those without home computers, were steps in the right direction.

While it is clear that access to computers and other digital tools is a major factor in the digital divide, it must also be noted that it is equally important to recognize that how the tools are used, both inside and outside the classroom contribute to the digital divide as well.

A Divide in Pedagogy When education and technology intersect in the classroom the system begins to change. It is the difference between what Friere (1993) describes as 'banking' and what Jenkins (2006) describes as participatory culture. In a banking system, the process of inquiry is a non-factor because information only flows from the teachers to the students (Friere 1993). Further, Alverman and Hagood (2009) point out that traditional educational discourse values student identities of unity, conformity, and stability which is teacher-centric. In a participatory culture, not everyone must contribute to a goal initiative or cause, but everyone must believe that they are free to do so and that the contribution will be valued (Jenkins 2006). The use of technology and media lends itself

The Digital Divide to a participatory culture. Yardi (2008) notes that students can learn from one another through collaborative knowledge sharing while teachers can use technology to assess student understanding and provide immediate feedback.

In the traditional classroom, because of the banking approach to learning, nonconformity often leads to lack of access in the classroom. Judge (2005) observed that high achieving African-American students used software more frequently than did low achieving African-American students--often as a reward. Therefore, it can be assumed that because African-Americans are disproportionately disciplined for poor behavior, that they are also disproportionately losing access to available technologies.

Defining Media Literacy The digital divide is clearly visible through the lens of access and availability.

Yet more abstract is the idea of being media literate. Jenkins et. al (2006) resolves that focusing on access to new technologies is worthless without the skills and knowledge necessary to actively use the tools for one’s own goals. Learning to use and applying various technologies to everyday life partially defines media literacy. Rubin (2006) defines media literacy as understanding sources and technologies of communication, the messages produced from the communication and the interpretation and impact of the messages. Just as there are various media, there are multiple literacies that the 21st century student must engage in. Voithofer and Winterwood (2010) distinguish computer literacy, which includes using personal computers in authentic contexts from information literacy which is the ability to find information and interpret and present to different audiences or through different mediums.

The Digital Divide Byard (2012) asserted that media literacy allows students to deconstruct and construct the world around them. Further she argues that once students become conscious and use new media tools as constructive and deconstructive tools, they can better apply gained knowledge outside of the classroom and with their peers.

How to Teach Media Literacy David (2009) argues that although students are spending more time on the internet and teachers are giving more assignments requiring online research, digital media literacy is underrepresented within curriculum. Considine et. al (2009) assert that this is due to the assumption by both youth and adults that extensive use of technology equates to competency—which is often not the case. One media literacy model follows a set of questions using the acronym T.A.P. which stands for text, audience, production (Duncan, D'Iappolito, Macpherson & Wilson, 1998 as cited by Considine, Horton and Moorman, 2009). Text questions examine the type of text and the genre. Audience questions ask "who is the audience of the text and who is not being addressed? Finally, production questions allow students to critically think about the creation, distribution, and marketing of media content. As a whole, asking these T.A.P. questions allow students to build critical competencies that go beyond the use of technology tools. Considine et. al (2009) argues that youth who do not develop a critical lens or frame of reference are open to manipulation and misinformation.

In the case of African-American youth, manipulation and misinformation takes place in the form of negative discourse and deficit language that reinforce ‘isms’. The ‘isms’ [racism, sexism, etc.] are structures maintaining a sense of privilege towards the dominant culture on an individual and societal level (Johnson, 2006). Daniels (2008)

The Digital Divide observes that the internet is often the first and only place youth research the subject of race. Daniels further asserts that it is possible that casual, non-critical internet users can stumble upon racism online while looking for legitimate information. Media literacy models like T.A.P. provide an initial structure for identifying and deciphering media. In a system of haves versus have-nots, the identification of ‘isms’ is only a surface level understanding of a process that has deeper socio-cultural implications.

Frederick (2007) observed that Black teachers used the internet and computer related apps not only for the attainment of skills but for the development of black students' lives. Media literacy is not only the analysis of media and the acquiring of skills but it is also determining how one fits within those literacies as well--the creation of identity. Frederick (2007) noted that black teachers used the computer for culturally meaningful instruction by highlighting the contributions and stories of people of African descent. These counter stories serve two purposes. First, through the T.A.P. process, these stories simply bring other perspectives to the table. Secondly, and more importantly, Iverson (2007) argues that individual identities are shaped by discourse.

Without counter stories, Iverson further argues that the predominant discourse constructs images of people of color as outsiders, at-risk and less than. Media literacy, on the surface identifies and analyzes content. Below the surface, media literacy reflects what Friere (1993) describes as struggle of those in power and those without, finding within themselves a sense of humanity. The need for identity is exacerbated by technology and social media platforms which force people to identify themselves personally and in relation to others on a global scale. In fact, Singh (2010) observed that new media’s expanding communication of knowledge, values, ethics, and the exchange of lifestyles

The Digital Divide [all contributors to identity]shape a new global world culture. Despite this growing global culture, media illiteracy is rampant and as Considine et. al (2009) observed, there is a failure to build a bridge between the technological world today’s youth live in and the classrooms they must learn in.

How Media Illiteracy Contributes to the Divide Brown (2006) observed, many K-12 teachers are taught mastery of the technology hardware versus how to integrate those tools within the classroom. This lack of knowledge on the part of the teacher forces them to revert to more traditional methods of teaching instead of using newer tools. Becker (2000) observed that teachers in low SES schools were more likely to use computers for remediation of skills and mastering skills that were just taught compared to teachers at high SES schools who use computers for making presentations to audiences or analyzing information. Low SES schools may also focus on basic computer skills because teachers are uncertain of the computer access that students have at home (Werschauer 2004). Further, Albermann and Hagood observe that there is a "stripping of self" at the classroom door where one's life outside of school, including pop culture is viewed as leisure activity and of non-academic importance (2000). According to a Pew Study, 18% of Twitter users are Latino and and 13% of users are black as compared to 5% white users (2011) yet these points of access however are not tools commonly used in most classrooms.

The stark contrast between how low SES schools use technology and how universities are using technology and how those institutions expect students to use technology creates media illiteracy. Statistics show that 80% of college professors use social media for coursework, yet Considine (2009) observed that social networking sites

The Digital Divide are often blocked in K-12 school libraries and computer labs. These restrictions leave students ill prepared to see social media from the critical lens expected by colleges and universities.

The Implications of the Digital Divide The digital divide speaks to a larger division of cultural and social capital within the United States. Urban students bring fewer traditional resources (e.g. they have lesseducated parents, more poverty) and attend schools with less funding and equipment than their upper middle class peers (Kidd 2009). Samad (2009) bluntly argues that children of color are trapped in restricted opportunities that limit their life chances. AfricanAmericans are limited by textbooks and traditional materials in low-resourced schools that seldom make counter-stories available so students can develop positive identities.

Specifically, Bennett (2001) notes that this bias is reflected in characterization, language, historical authenticity, cultural accuracy and in illustrations of many texts available to students. In spite of these limitations, technology widens the scope of information available to students about who they are and about people who share their racial and ethnic identities. Accessing this kind of information through technology can only enrich enriches students’ identities if they are media literate.

Byard (2011) argued that unhealthy messages are easily transmitted to youth who lack a solid foundation of self-knowledge. In order to be media literate and interpret information externally, minority youth must first have a clear sense of self. While some programs focus on being technically literate, other programs focus on developing culture through media. Byard (2011) developed Rise Above the Noise [RAN] as a six hour workshop exposing and discussing negative discourse of Blacks in mainstream media.

The Digital Divide As a part of the exposure, participants were introduced to technical skills of video production and digital storytelling as a means of creating their own counter stories.

Frederick (2007) argues that computers and through them, the internet, are tools that have cultural and political consequences. In the case of Rise Above the Noise, the consequences were positive—Byard was able to build a community, an ‘online village’ focused on shaping the African-American identity online and offline. Identifying and understanding online discourse in addition to acquiring the technical ability to use digital tools builds media literacy.

Technology is changing the culture of the classroom and without access to these tools, classrooms are left out of the growing online conversation and forced to use traditional methods-- missing opportunities to be in dialogue with a larger audience. The internet and social media platforms thrive on collaboration and interaction. Ertmer (2012) argued that the roll of technology from a teacher's perspective is to deliver content, enrich curriculum, and to transform teaching and learning. That transformation comes through sharing. Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory argues that learning is not a singular process but comes from sharing and engaging with others. Through computers, phones, cameras and other media, we become participants--content creators developing our own knowledge base and the knowledge of others. Bennett (2001) further asserts, from a curriculum reform perspective that knowledge is both contested and constructed.

It is this dialoguing process which is amplified via the internet and social media.

Conclusion The virtual world is now the real world and the importance of media literacy can no longer be ignored. For African-Americans, it is imperative to build technical skills

The Digital Divide and critical thinking skills when it comes to technology and social media. Academically, colleges expect students to not only be media savvy but be able to use that creativity to shape the learning community. Socially and culturally, without these skills, AfricanAmericans as the oppressed will remain so, unable to give voice to struggles of socioeconomics, education, race etc. because the voices are now found online.

John Henrik Clarke said that history is a clock that tells the political and cultural time of day and a compass people use to find themselves on the map of human geography. What happens when the map is digital? Media literacy, allows an individual or a collective voice to be self-defined.

The Digital Divide

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The Digital Divide Samad, A. A. (2009). Post-raciality in education revisiting Myrdal’s “American dilemma”. Human rights, 36(4), 11-13.

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