Ÿ
Ÿ
RumpaMandal
AssistantTeacher(Education),PatipukurGirl'sHighSchool,WestBengal. Ph.DScholar,Dept.ofEducation,UniversityofCalcutta,WestBengal.
ABSTRACT
Drugabuseandexperimentationwithdrugsisnotuncommonamongstudentsinseveralcountries.Sometimesstudentsmayconsumedrugsoncollegepremises.The reactionofteachers,studentsandadministratorstosuchaneventisanimportantonebecauseithasanimpactontheoverallperceptionofdrugabuseamongstudents anditmayinfluencetheresultsofeducationfordrugabusepreventionprogrammes.Therefore,itisnecessaryforthecollegetohaveaclearandopenpolicyinplaceon how to deal with these situations. No action should be taken until the validity of the information and evidence relating to the incident has been given careful consideration.Youngpeoplemayfromtimetotimeexhibitsomeofthesignslistedbelowastheymeetnormaleverydaychallenges.Acombinationoffactorsshouldbe presentbeforedruguseissuspected,butevenwhenallthosefactorsarepresent,druguseisstillonlyonepossibilityamongallthethingsthatcanaffectyoungpeople.
KEYWORDS:Drugaddiction,Drugabuse,Collegebasededucation.
INTRODUCTION:
Education for drug abuse prevention in colleges may be defined as the educationalprogrammes,policies,proceduresandotherexperiencesthatcontributeto theachievementofbroaderhealthgoalsofpreventingdruguseandabuse.Educationfordrugabusepreventionshouldbeseentoincludebothformalandinformalhealthcurricula,thecreationofasafeandhealthyschoolenvironment,the provisionofappropriatehealthservicesandsupportaswellastheinvolvement ofthefamilyandthecommunityintheplanninganddeliveryofprogrammes.
Components of a college-based drug abuse – prevention, education and interventionprogramme: Theeducationalcomponentsofacollegedrugabusepreventionprogrammeare thefollowing:
Aprogrammebasedontheguidingprinciplesforcollege-based: Educationfordrugabusepreventionformsacorecomponentofthecollegecurriculumandfocusesonequippingyoungpeoplewithinformationaboutdrugs, thelifeskillsnecessarytoenablethemtodealwithdifferentsituationswithout turningtodrugs,theabilitytoresistpressuretousedrugsandanunderstandingof whatdrugsare.
Asafeandsupportivecollegeenvironment: Asafeandsupportivecollegeenvironmentmadepossiblebyasetofclearlycommunicatedpoliciesandproceduresthatprovidescare,counselingandsupportfor all students and ensures a cooperativeapproach among staff, students, parents, andrelatedprofessionals,agenciesandthepolice.
Strategiesforensuringthatallmembersofthecollegecommunitycontributetoandsupportcollegepoliciesandproceduresfordealingwithdrugmatters:
Ÿ
Appropriateprofessionaldevelopmentandtrainingforrelevantstaff
Ÿ
Ÿ
Information and support for parents, in particular parents of students involvedinillicitandotherunsanctioneddruguse
Mechanismsforcontinuousmonitoringandreviewofthecollege'sapproach toeducationfordrugabusepreventionandincidentmanagement
Theinterventioncomponentsofacollegedrugabusepreventionprogrammeare:
Ÿ Policiesandproceduresfordealingwithdrugincidentsbasedontheguiding principles for college-based education for drug abuse prevention that considerthestudent'swholelifeandthedegreetowhichheorsheisincontrolof hisorheractionsanddecisions.
Ÿ
Plansforinitialandlong-termresponsestodrugincidentsaimedatprotectingthehealthofallstudentsandthecollegecommunity
Ÿ
Ÿ
Aplan for managing drug incidents consistent with local laws and regulations,aswellasnationalandlocalcollegepoliciesondrugs.
Acommunicationstrategyfordrugincidentsthatensuresallstaffareaware of college or system-wide procedures for contacting and responding to the media.
Ÿ
Adirectoryofprofessionalsandagencies,includingthepolice,whocanprovideopportunitiesforprofessionaldevelopment,adviceandresources.
Ÿ Agreements with professionals and agencies, including the police, to formalizeandstrengthencooperativeliaisonandreferralarrangements.
Ÿ Supportforstudentsinvolvedindrugincidentsthatensurestheircontinued participationineducationprogrammes.
Guidingprinciplesforcollege-basededucationfordrugabuseprevention: Principle1.Anemphasisonlearningoutcomes,environmentalfactorsandcollaborativepartnershipsisvitaltothesuccessofcollege-basededucationfordrug abusepreventioncollegesthataimtochangedrugusebehaviourdirectlyriskfailingtoachieveitsincethe“target“isnotundertheircontrol.Itoughttoberecognized that colleges influence behaviour (they do not determine it) through the developmentofstudents'knowledgeandskillsandthecultivationofvalues.This inturnrequiressufficienttimetobeallocatedtoachievingclearlystatedlearning outcomesandcollaborativepartnershipswiththefamilyandthecommunityto bedevelopedinanatmospheresupportiveofpersonalandacademicgrowth.
Principle2.Drug-relatedlearningoutcomesshouldbeaddressedinthecontext of the health curriculum or other appropriate learning area that can provide sequence,progression,continuityandlinkstootherhealthissuesthatimpacton students'livesIsolatedprogrammescannotprovidetheongoingcomprehensive anddevelopmentalelementsthatencouragedevelopmentofpersonalandsocial skillsandvalues.Justasdrugabusedoesnotexistinavacuumbutispartofthe young person's whole life, education for prevention should incorporate other issuesimportanttoyoungpeople,includingadolescentdevelopment,stressand coping, sexuality, collaboration between home and college and personal relationships.
Principle3 Thecollegeenvironmentshouldbeconducivetoachievingeducational outcomes and building productive partnerships students respond positively to a college environment-comprising the culture, milieu, ethos, sense of community, goals and a sense of order-in which they feel that they are treated fairly Students benefit when college is purposeful, when colleges make clear whatstudentsshouldknowanddoandhowthoseoutcomesaretobeachieved andmeasured.
Principle 4 Collaborative partnerships should be developed for decisionmaking students, college personnel, parents, prevention practitioners, referral agenciesandthewidercommunityshouldcollaboratetomakedecisionsondrug policy,includingonthemanagementofdrugincidents.Acollaborativeapproach topolicydevelopmentreinforcesdesiredvaluesandconsistentbehavioursatcollege,inthehomeandamongthecommunity
Principle 5. Teaching and learning should be interactive teaching techniques suchasdiscussions,brainstorming,decision-making,assertiontrainingorroleplaying new skills and behaviour stimulate the active participation of all students.Asupportive classroom climate is promoted by conducting activities in smaller groups, which encourages peer to peer communication and maximum participation.
Ÿ
Principle6.Educationalprogrammesforthepreventionofdrugabuseshouldbe responsive and inclusive educational programmes for the prevention of drug abuseshouldtakeintoaccountlevelsofdruguseamongindividualsandinsociety,riskandprotectivefactors,gender,ethnicity,culture,language,developmentallevel,abilitylevel,religionandsexualorientation.Interactingwithstudentsin awaythatacknowledgestherealityoftheirbackgroundsandexperiencescreates opportunitiesformeaningfulstudentinputintoeducationfordrugabusepreventionprogrammes.Studentsreactpositivelywhentheirindividualneedsandthe needsofusersandnon-usersareacknowledgedandcommunicationchannelsare keptopenwithoutdrugusebeingcondoned.
Principle7.Trainingteachersindrugabusepreventioneducationenhancesthe impactandsustainabilityofdrugabusepreventionprogrammesofferingteachersprofessionaldevelopment,consistingofanorientationtodrugabusepreventioneducationthatenablesthemtousearangeoflearningstrategies,resources and evaluation techniques appropriate to students' needs, rather than offering training only in the use of a specific programme or resource, ensures that programmeshavegreaterimpactandsustainability Teachersshouldbeoffered thesupportofcollegeleaders,aswellastechnicaladviceandnetworkingopportunitiesforsharingbothsuccessesandproblems.
Principle8.Programmes,strategiesandresourcesshouldbedesignedtosupport theteacher,tohelpachievedrug-relatedlearningoutcomesandtocontributeto thelong-termimprovementofthecollegeenvironmentandethosdrugeducation programmesandresourcesshouldbeselectedtocomplementtheroleofclassroomteacherwithexternalresourcesenhancingnotreplacingthatrole.Thecredibilityoftheteacher'sroleinmeetingstudentneedsmaybecompromisedwhere externallydevelopedprogrammesareimposedonschools.
Principle9.Drugabusepreventionprogrammesandtheiroutcomesshouldbe evaluatedregularlytoprovideevidenceoftheirworthandtoimprovethedesign of future programmes some drug abuse prevention education programmes are noteffectiveandsomearecounterproductive.Schoolscanavoidpoorpractices iftheyrefertoprinciples,guidelinesandmodelsofgoodpracticeasstandardsto informandguidetheevaluationofprogrammesandoutcomes.
Principle 10. Policies and procedures for managing drug-related incidents at schools should be collaboratively developed and widely publicized in order to elicit a positive response and some responses to drug use may marginalize and stigmatizestudents.Detectionofdrugusewithasolelypunitiveoutcomeisnota productivestrategyunlessthehealthandsafetyoftheschoolcommunityisbeing compromisedandcouldalienatestudentsatriskfromtheonlyplacewhereindividualsandactivitiescansupporttheireffortstochange.
TeachingStrategiesforcollege-basededucationfordrugabuseprevention:
Ÿ Interactiveteachingandthelifeskillsapproach:
Alifeskillsapproachisawayofteachingandinteractingwithyoungpeoplethat hasthepotentialtoleadtobetterhealthanddrugabusepreventionlearningoutcomesandmayultimatelyinfluencestudentdruguse.Lifeskillsarebesttaught throughinteractivemethodsandaremosteffectivewhenappliedandpractisedin potentialdrugusesituationsthatarerelevantandmeaningfultothesocialsituations of students.Alife skills approach to education for drug abuse prevention willprovidedruginformationinthecontextofdevelopingattitudes,valuesand skillsinstudents.Theseincludeskillsforincreasingself-esteem,settingrealistic goals,copingwithanxiety,resistingpressures,communicatingeffectively,makingdecisions,managingconflictanddealingassertivelywithsocialsituationsin whichdrugsareoffered.
Ÿ Smallgroupwork: Lifeskillsarebesttaughtinsmallgroups,whichprovideopportunitiesforfree and thorough exchanges of ideas and increased individual participation. Small groupprocesses,beinginteractive,aremoreappropriatetofacilitatingtheexaminationofattitudestodrugsanddruguseandcreateanenvironmentconduciveto attitudechangebyencouragingtrustandreducingpersonalobstaclestochange such as egocentrism (looking at things from your own point of view only) and defensiveness. Evidence suggests that programmes that are teacher-facilitated andstudent-orientedratherthandrug-oriented,one-offorinformation-basedare more likely to achieve drug- and health-related learning outcomes. Effective groupworkdoesnothappenasamatterofchance,butisawell-orchestratedorganizationalstrategythatrequiresplanninginadvance.Thefacilitatorneedstoconfirm carefully the group goals, organize how the groups are formed, establish groupmemberrolesandplanthestepsthatthegroupswillfollowtoachievetheir goals. The goals and objectives of group work must be clearly defined before selecting and facilitating a learning activity The environment in which group workisfacilitatediscriticaltotheeffectivenessoftheprocess.
Ÿ Thefacilitator:
The role of the facilitator is different from that of the instructor The facilitator shouldpromoteanatmosphereoftrust,supportandencouragementforthegroup andinterveneonlywhenineffectivegroupbehaviourisimpactingnegativelyon groupoutcomes.Aneffectivefacilitatorwill:
Ÿ Modeltheskillsthatarebeingtaught
Useactiveandinteractivemethods Ÿ
Followtheproceduresforexperientiallearning Ÿ
Createanatmosphereofopenness,acceptanceandsupport Ÿ
Besensitivetotheneeds,stylesandpersonalpreferencesofstudents Ÿ
Introduce,completeandlinkalllearningexperiences Ÿ
Organizethematerial,proceduresandfacilitiesrequired Ÿ
Betask-orientedandkeeptotime Ÿ
Know,understandandbeenthusiasticaboutthematerialbeingpresented Ÿ
Show enjoyment of the experience and enthusiasm, ensuring that it is a worthwhilepersonal learningexperience
Ÿ
Ÿ
Focusattentiononthekeylearningsandunderstandingsandtheunderlyingtheoryandapplication
Experientiallearning:
Experientiallearninginvolvesactiveandinteractiveparticipationinstructured learning experiences or activities employing a combination of learning styles, including:
Ÿ
Concreteexperience:doingthingsratherthanlearningfromtext Ÿ Observationandreflection:watchingthefacilitatorandotherparticipants andthinkingaboutwhatisobservedandexperienced
Ÿ Abstractionandgeneralizationofconcepts:understandingthetheoryand purposebehindtheactivitiesandlinkingthesetoreal-lifesituations
Ÿ
Testingnewideasandassessingimplications:usingthesafelearningenvironmenttoexploreideasandtheories,aswellashypotheses
Experiential methods provide students with a balance between didactic and inquiry teaching methods, and the opportunity for everyone to contribute, to sharefeelingsaboutanactivityanditsapplicationtointerpersonalrelationships andtoacquirethenecessarytheory
Warm-up.Shortactivities“warmup“thegroupforthelessonandgivemembers timetofocusongrouptasks.Activitiescanbephysicalorpassive,writtenororal. Asasecondaryaimofthewarm-upactivitiesistoenhancegroupempathy,activitiesshouldbeselectedaccordingtothelevelofgroupdevelopment.
Leadingtheactivity.Beforestartinganactivity,thestageshouldbesetforlearningandthepurposeoftheactivityshouldbeclearlystated.Anactivityorstatementcanactasawayofconnectingtheprevioussessionoractivitytothepresent session. The objectives of an activity should be stated from the outset. Group membersaremorelikelytounderstandthepurposeandrelevanceoftheactivity andarelessinclinedtoresistit.Onceagroupisworkingwell,theobjectivesofan activity need not be stated in advance, but can become clear in the process of work.
Conducting the activity This provides the experience through which learning objectivesareachievedandtheinformationlearnedisappliedtoreallife.Facilitators should use their knowledge of the group when selecting activities. The activity should be relevant to the desired objective, provide a balance between theoryandpracticeandallowmaximumparticipation.
Reflection. Students should be actively involved in the learning process and shouldbeencouragedtoreflectonthelearningexperiencesintermsofhowand whyactivitiescontributedtotheobjectivesandhowactivitiesmaybeappliedto theirlives.Reflectionisavitalcomponentofthelearningprocess.Learningfrom an experiential activity occurs when students see how classroom skills and knowledgecanbegeneralizedandappliedtoreal-lifesituations.Makingthese connections and stating them ensures that the information acquired has maximumimpact.
Ÿ Interactivelearningexperiences: Interactiveteachinginvolveslearningtechniquesthatcomplementorarepartof theexperientiallearningapproach.
Learner-centred teaching.This method focuses on the needs of the learner and encouragesstudentstoparticipateactivelybyexploringtheissues,questioning and challenging information, instead of being passive recipients. Learning is moreeffectivewhenthereisahighlevelofparticipation.
Cooperativelearning.Studentsareencouragedtoworktowardstheachievement ofeducationoutcomescollaborativelyandtousesocialcooperationtodevelop otherskills.Cooperativegroupsdevelopthesocialskillsofsharing,leadership,
communication,buildingtrustandmanagingconflict,whichareimportantlife skills,forwork,withinfamiliesandforotherpersonalrelationships.
Theinquirymethod.Theinquirymethodisincorporatedintoexperientiallearning to draw issues and lessons from activities. Using this method, teachers would:
Ÿ Use a questioning mode that enables students to take responsibility for their learning, in terms of content and style, rather than being provided withinformationbytheteacher
Ÿ Encouragestudent-studentinteractionaswellasstudent-teacherinteractioninawaythatrespectstheideasandopinionsofeveryone
Ÿ Developlessonsthatrespondtotheneeds,interestsandconcernsofstudentsandarenotlimitedbyasetcurriculum
Ÿ Engagestudentsinexploringhowandwhytheythinkinaparticularway ratherthantellingthemwhattheyshouldthink
Role play Role play is one of the most useful experiential learning techniques andisideallysuitedtogroupwork.Throughroleplay,studentscanexperience andexplorethefeelingstheymighthaveinasocialsituationanditspotentialoutcomes,withoutsufferingtherealconsequencesofthedecisionstheymakeinthat situation.Roleplaycanprovideanopportunity:
Ÿ
Tobroadenaperson'sskills
Ÿ
Ÿ
Ÿ
Topracticeandreinforcenewskillswithoutfearoffailureorcriticism
Togeneratesolutionstoconflictsituationsinasafeenvironment
Toconsiderarangeofresponsestoparticularsituations
Ÿ
Ÿ
Toexperimentwithrolesandpersonalitiesinanon-threateningenvironment
Toexperiencethefeelingsthatmayaccompanydecisions
Ÿ Decision-making:
Decision-makingisaskillthatcanbelearnedandpracticed.Ithelpsstudentsto look after themselves, their peers, others in the community and their environment. Teachers do not need to be experts to facilitate the learning of decisionmaking. Decision-making is relevant to education for drug abuse prevention becauseitpromotesandsupportsstudentdecisionsinrelationtopositivehealthy behaviourandacceptablesocialactivity Theroleofthefacilitatorindecisionmakingis:
Ÿ
Toprovideadecision-makingprocessthatcanbeusedinavarietyofsituations
nitylinks.Someofthecharacteristicsofcollegesthatrelatetosuccessfulchange includequalityleadership,teachermorale,teachermastery,thecollegeenvironment and resources.Thecollege environment can directly influence emotional well-being and health, as well as academic outcomes.Asense of belonging to both family and college are major protective factors against health-risk behaviours in young people. Students benefit when college is purposeful, when collegesmakeclearwhatstudentsshouldknowanddo,anddescribehowtheyare going to bring about these desired results and how those outcomes are to be achievedandmeasured.
Theroleofparentsasprimaryeducatorscanberecognizedandsupportedbycollegesbyworkinginpartnershipwithparents.Partnershipswithparentsandcommunityhelptointegrateconsistentandrelevanthealthmessagesintothehome andthecommunity,improvestudenthealthandpromoteagreaterawarenessof health issues among students and their families. Programmes that are implementedandinitiatedinconsultationwithparentsarenotonlymoresuccessful, butalsoempowerparents.Parentsoftenhavedifficultiesdiscussingdrugissues withtheirchildren,yettheycanbethemosttrustedandpreferredsourceofinformationonhealthissuesforyoungpeople.Collegescanassistparentsbyprovidingthemwithinformationonhealthanddrugissuesasagroup.Collegesworkinginpartnershipswithparentsremovesomeoftheanxietyparentsexperience from the expectation that education for drug abuse prevention is their sole responsibility Further, such programmes have the potential to provide parents withskillsandknowledgetobroachanddiscussthetopicofdrugswiththeirchildren.Parentsarealsoimportantbecausefamiliesareaprimarysourceofsocializationandbecauseparentalopinioncaneitherreinforceorcountermandthemessagesofeducationfordrugabusepreventionprogrammes.Parentsareimportant also as their opinions contribute to community norms about substance use and communitysupportforeducationfordrugabuseprevention.
REFERENCES:
I. AltaresS.,CopoA.,GobuyoA.,LaddaranT.,MejiaL.,PolicarpioI.,AguedG., TizonD.,YaoM.(2003)ElementaryStatistics:AModernApproach.(2003Ed.). (pg.13).
II. Asumi, J. (1996). Socio-Psychiatric Problems of Cannabis in Nigeria. Bulletin onNarcotics,16(2):17
III. Alexander,C.,Piazza,M.,Mekos,D.andValente,T (2001)Peers,schoolsand adolescentcigarettesmoking,JournalofAdolescentHealth,29(1),2-30.
IV Bauman, K.E. and Ennett, S.T (1996) On the importance of peer influence for adolescent alcohol use: commonly neglected considerationsAddiction, 91 (2), 185-198.
V Bettinger,E.,Slonim,R.(2007)Patienceamongchildren,JournalofPublicEconomics,Elsevier,vol.91(1-2),pages343-363
VI. Brook,S.,Balka,B.,Witheman,M.(1999)Therisksforlateadolescenceofearly adolescentmarijuanause,AmericanJournalofPublicHealth,89,1549-1554
VII. Card,D.(1990)TheImpactoftheMarielBoatliftontheMiamiLaborMarket, IndustrialandLaborRelationsReview,Vol.43,No.2,pp.245-257
VIII. Chatterji,P andDeSimoneJ.(2005)Adolescentdrinkingandhighschooldropout,NBERWorkingPaper11337.
Ÿ
Ÿ
Tohelpstudentstorealizethattheyhavecontroloverthedecisionsthey make
Toencouragestudentstogatheraccurateinformationfrommanysources toinformtheirdecisions
Ÿ
Ÿ
Toassiststudentstoassessthepositivesandnegativesoftheirdecisions, includingthepossibleconsequencesforthemselvesandforothers
Tohelpstudentstoidentifythefactorsthatinfluenceoptionsandchoices beforeanaccurateassessmentofasituationcanbemade
Ÿ
Ÿ
Toallowanumberofdecision-makingoptionstobeconsidered
Toexplorefeelingsandvaluesassociatedwiththevariousoptions
Ÿ
Ÿ
To encourage students to take responsibility for their actions before a choiceismade
Toemphasizetheneedforstudentstore-evaluatethedecisionstheymake andadaptthemtonewsituations
IX. Clark,A.andLoheacY (2007)“Itwasn’tme,itwasthem!”Socialinfluencein riskybehaviorbyadolescents,JournalofHealthEconomics,26,763-784.
X. Cook,J.P andMoore,M.(1993)DrinkingandschoolingJournalofHealthEconomics,12(4),411-429.
XI. Deas,D.,Riggs,D.,Langenbucher,J.,Godman,M.andBrown,S.(2000)Adolescents are not adults: development considerations in alcohol users”, inAlcoholism:ClinicalandExperimentalResearch,2492,232-237.
XII. Dee,T.S.andEvans,W.N.(2003)Teendrinkingandeducationalattainment.Evidencefromtwo-sampleinstrumentalvariablesestimates,JournalofLabor21(1), 178-209.
XIII. DeSimoneJ.andWolaverA.(2005)Drinkingandacademicperformanceinhigh schoolNBERWorkingPaper11035.22
XIV Duarte, R., Escario J.J. and Molina, J.A. (2006) Marijuana consumption and school failure among Spanish students, Economics of Education Review,25, 472-481
XV Duarte,R.andEscarioJ.J(2006)AlcoholabuseandtruancyamongSpanishadolescents:acount-dataapproach,EconomicsofEducationReview,25,179-187.
XVI. Deas,D.,Riggs,D.,Langenbucher,J.,Godman,M.andBrown,S.(2000)Adolescents are not adults: development considerations in alcohol users”, inAlcoholism:ClinicalandExperimentalResearch,2492,232-237.
Ÿ
Toremindstudentstoconfirmthedecisionpriortoassertion,asitiscriticalforstudentstobecommittedtothedecisionbeforeassertingthechoice
CONCLUSION:
Thecollegeenvironmentandtheclassroomclimatearemajorvariablesinfluencingtheeffectivenessofeducationfordrugabuseprevention.Studentsinteractin thecontextofclassrooms,eachofwhichhasitsownnormativeclimate,encouragingordiscouragingcertainbehaviours.Classroomsexistwithinandformpart ofthecollegeenvironmentthatprovidesthelargercontextforallactivitiesina college.Colleges,asinstitutionsforpeopleintheirformativeyears,arestrategic settings for advancing health promoting skills, policies, practices and commu-
XVII. Engs,R.C.,Diebold,B.A.andHanson,D.J.(1996).TheDrinkingPatternsand ProblemsofaNationalSampleofCollegeStudents.JournalofAlcoholandAlcoholEducation,41(3),13-33.
XVIII. Epton, T., Norman, P., Sheeran, P et al. (2013) 'A theory-based online health behaviourinterventionfornewuniversitystudents:studyprotocol',BMCPublic Health,13(107)pp.1-11
XIX. KuriaMW Alcoholabuseamongurbanascomparedtoruralsecondaryschools studentsinKenya:ashortcommunication.EastAfricaMedJ.1996;73:339.
XX. Kwamanga DH, Odhiambo JA, Amukoye EI. Prevalence and risk factors of smokingamongsecondaryschoolstudentsinNairobi.EastAfricaMedJ.2003; 80:207–212.
XXI. Koch,S.F.andMcgeary,K.A.(2005)Theeffectsofyouthalcoholinitiationon high school completion, in Economic Inquiry 43(4), 750-765 Koch, S.F and
Ribar,D.C.Asiblingsanalysisoftheeffectsofalcoholconsumptiononsetoneducationalattainment,inContemporaryEconomicPolicy,19(2)162-174.
XXII. Lemo Giraldez, S. and FidalgoAliste,A.M. (1997) Personality disposition and health-related habits and attitudes: a cross-sectional study European Journal of Personality11,197-209.
XXIII. LiccardoPacula,R.,Ringel,J.andRoss,K.E.(2003)DoesMarijuanauseImpair HumanCapitalFormation?NBERWorkingPaper9963.
XXIV Lewinsohn, D.A., E. Winata, G.M. Swarbrick, K.E. Tanner, M.S. Cook, M.D. Null,M.E.Cansler,A.Sette,J.Sidney,andD.M.Lewinsohn.2007.Immunedominant tuberculosis CD8 antigens preferentially restricted by HLA-B PLoSPathog3:1240-1249.
XXV Meier, P.S. (2010) ‘Polarized drinking patterns and alcohol deregulation’, NordicStudiesonAlcoholandAlcohols,27(5),pp.383-408
XXVI. Nicklin,2000;Wechsler,Lee,Nelsonetal.,(2002)‘PolicyOptionsforAlcohol Price Regulation: The Importance of Modelling Population Heterogeneity’, Addiction,105(3),pp.383-93
XXVII. OgwellAE,AstromAN, Haugejorden O. Socio-demographic factors of pupils who use tobacco in randomly-selected primary schools in Nairobi province, Kenya.EastAfrMedJ.2003;80:235–241.[PubMed]
XXVIII. Pascarella,E.T.,Goodman,K.M.,Seifert,T.A.,Tagliapietra-Nicoli,G.,Park,S., Whitt,E.J.(2007).CollegeStudentBingeDrinkingandAcademicAchievement: ALongitudinalReplicationandExtension.JournalofCollegeStudentDevelopment,48(6),715-727.
XXIX. Paschall,M.J,andFreisthler,B.(2003)Doesheavydrinkingaffectacademicperformanceincollege?Evidencefromaprospectivestudyofhighschoolachievers,inJournalofStudiesonAlcohol64,515-519.
XXX. Porter,S.R.,&Pryor,J.(2007).TheEffectsofHeavyEpisodicAlcoholUseon StudentEngagement,AcademicPerformance,andTimeUse.JournalofCollege StudentDevelopment,48(4),455-467.