Thomas Wakeman Masters Thesis 2015 by Tom Wakeman

HOUSE OF STICKS SUSTAINABLE DESIGN IN AMERICAN TIMBER FRAMED HOMES

TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................ ii ABSTRACT.................................................................................................... iv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS........................................................................... x 1. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................... 1 1.1 Statement of Aim........................................................................................ 2 1.2 Methodology.............................................................................................. 4 1.3 Structure.................................................................................................... 5 2. INCENTIVISATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT................................. 7 2.1 Financial Incentives.................................................................................... 8 2.2 Resources and Conservation..................................................................... 11 2.3 A shift in Thinking.................................................................................... 19 2.4 New Construction Case Study: Chemung County, New York.................... 22 2.5 The Hatch House & Midcentury Modern................................................. 25 3. HEALTH................................................................................................... 39 3.1 Metrics for Healthy Homes....................................................................... 40 3.2 Materials & Air Quality............................................................................ 43 4. APPROACHES TO SUSTAINABLE DESIGN......................................... 49 4.1 Values Based vs. Targets Based: LEED & BREEAM.................................. 50 5. CONSTRUCTION.................................................................................. 55 5.1 Framing Developments............................................................................. 57 5.2 Advanced Framing Systems....................................................................... 57 5.3 Building Smart......................................................................................... 60 5.4 High Tech vs. Low Tech............................................................................ 65 6. SUMMARY................................................................................................ 77 BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................................... 83 (10,000 words)

Cardiff University Welsh School of Architecture Masters Thesis 2015

HOUSE OF STICKS SUSTAINABLE DESIGN IN AMERICAN TIMBER FRAMED HOMES

Thomas E. Wakeman Cardiff University - wakemante@cardiff.ac.uk (cover photo: http://www.margotaustin.ca/)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Oriel Prizeman, for her support and encouragement throughout my research thesis. She provided excellent guidance and encouraged me to question my thinking as well as questioning the status quo, which has formed an important part of my research approach. I have learned a lot from this experience, both in terms of Architecture and Construction, as well as conducting research and developing different ways of thinking. I would also like to thank Karen McCarthy for her inspiration to write about Midcentury Modern design. Visiting her new home in New York was one of my main sources of ideas, and helped form a critical part of my investigation.

ABSTRACT

Abstract The Western housing stock is comprised of 70% timber framed construction, and 90% of all US homes are timber framed1. This investigation will focus on US timber framed single residences as a benchmark, and ask: what does it mean to “build sustainable”? To better define this loose term, this investigation considers the fundamental cultural, economic and technical issues that shape the way homes are built in the US, and “smarter” ways of achieving design goals. Metrics for sustainability are all-encompassing, and smarter design not only considers the energy consumption and life span of a building, but also the wider consequences on the environment, behaviour and our health. Because ‘sustainability’ is a fairly recent term for better integrating these aspects, the following chapters will step back and unpick just where our current approaches have been derived, considering historic developments, lessons from influential architectural movements, and cultural drivers. There are a great deal of benefits and challenges to building a new home; these will be analysed through real estate and new construction trends, and by identifying why individuals may choose the new build timber framed route. There are many issues of perception, different approaches toward using materials efficiently and opposing interpretations toward ‘rating’ systems such as LEED and BREEAM in aiding more sustainable designs. In Chapter 3, these systems are dissected, identifying the extent to which they benefit residential construction. Zero-energy, “sustainable” homes have been demonstrated possible in theoretical situations, and under controlled conditions, but in reality, how well are they performing? Do they require their inhabitants to adopt alternative ways of living? New and high-tech construction methods require contractors to adopt new skills and trades, and work to exacting standards using unfamiliar techniques; to what extend does this affect the quality of the finished building, and what are the alternative, low-tech approaches? Subsequently, is there any value to the one-off eco-house; what lessons can the exceptional teach the ordinary? Vahik Enjily and Tim Reynolds, Timber frame buildings: A Guide to the Construction Process (London: BRE Digest, 2005), p. 496. left: Passive House Retreat, New England: http://zeroenergy.com/p_valette.html Previous: http://rowhousenest.com/2012/07/13/kinfolk-dreams/ 1

vii

viii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure. 1: “10 Easy ways to cut your energy bill this winter”........................................................... 9 2: Newenhouse, Wisconsin............................................................................................. 12 3: Jennifer Marrapese et al, ‘Zero Net Energy Award: Net-plus is our new norm’................. 15 4: Typical construction waste for a new 2000 sq ft house................................................... 16 5: Construction waste from standard residential construction........................................... 17 6-8: “The New Home in 2015” .................................................................................... 18 9: Karen McCarthy’s kitchen, Chemung County, NY....................................................... 23 10: Natural light and clerestory windows....................................................................... 23 11-12: Halprin House, Hayden Walling, 1965............................................................... 24 13: Lechay House, Hayden Walling, 1960...................................................................... 26 14: Walling’s Saltbox typology........................................................................................ 28 15: Master Bedroom, Hatch House, Jack Hall................................................................. 29 16: Living room, Hatch House, Jack Hall....................................................................... 30 17: Entrance breezeway, Hatch House, Jack Hall............................................................ 30 18: Hatch House, Hall’s photos...................................................................................... 32 19: Hatch House Entrance............................................................................................ 33 20-21: Ruth Hatch and the breezeway........................................................................... 35 22: Taliesin Mod.Fab, Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture..................................... 37 23: Passive House Retreat, New England, Zero Energy Design.......................................... 41 24: Rigid foam duct board installation........................................................................... 45 25: Spray foam installation........................................................................................... 45 26: Asbestos fibres......................................................................................................... 47 27: Early US Balloon Framing...................................................................................... 56 28: Sheet metal ducting and flex ducts............................................................................ 59 29: Inefficient flex ducts................................................................................................ 59 30: Optimum Value Engineering................................................................................... 60 31: Smart framing illustration....................................................................................... 61 32: Smart framing in construction................................................................................. 61 33: California Corner................................................................................................... 63 34: Swedish Platform Framing & American New Wall.................................................... 63 35: Exterior insulation.................................................................................................. 64 36: Interstitial condensation, vapor barrier..................................................................... 67 37: Fiberglass batt, staining around penetrations............................................................. 67 38-41: Robert Riversong, Innovative tow-tech Vermont home........................................... 69 42: The New England Farmhouse, Zero Energy Design.................................................... 70 43: Schaler Eco-Home, Portland, Oregon....................................................................... 72 44: Taliesin Mod.Fab, Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture..................................... 74 45: Irby House, The Sea Ranch, California..................................................................... 81

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction 1.1 Statement of Aim Over 40% of global energy consumption is attributable to the existing built environment1. Government targets have aimed to curb this figure, with increasingly stringent energy efficiency requirements. A great deal of literature focuses on sustainability in terms of carbon emissions and climate change, which has become the impetus for change. The US is the largest energy consumer, accounting for 20% of all energy use in buildings2, primarily single residences. This investigation considers what this means for the design of more energy efficient homes. Using the author’s hypothesis: “The way we go about constructing and ultimately occupying buildings is the antithesis of how research and developments are conducted in the energy sector”, this investigation identifies what evidence there is to support this idea, and how we can better bridge the gap between science and architecture. The National Green Building Standard Certification Authority defines sustainable design in terms of the following aspects: Healthy Homes Providing fresh air ventilation that improves indoor air quality Limiting pollutants and contaminants Preventing moisture problems contributing to mould and attracting pests Lower Operating Costs Reducing utility costs through cost-effective energy and water efficiency practices Controlling maintenance costs through durable construction and product selection Providing technical and educational resources to ensure optimum performance Sustainable Lifestyle Promoting walkability Reducing home maintenance through enhanced durability Preserving natural resources through responsible land development practices3 International Energy Agency, FAQs: Energy Efficiency (2013), <http://www.iea.org/aboutus/ faqs/energyefficiency/> [accessed 19 August 2014]. 2 U.S. Department of Energy, Building energy codes: types of codes (2011), <http://www. energycodes.gov/why_codes/types.stm> [accessed 1 September 2014]. 3 Salami, R.O and Olaniyan, M.K, ‘Towards A Sustainable Built Environment’, The Green Building Concept , Continental J. Sustainable Development 1 (2010), pp. 45-50. 1

Energy efficiency and ‘carbon emissions’ are only one aspect, and this investigation analyses what it means to “build sustainable” with respect to social and economic as well as environmental considerations, or the so called ‘triple bottom line’4. In so doing, it will ask: how can designs influence the environment, behaviour and our health? What are the metrics, and to what extent have cultural, historical and technical developments informed the design of timber framed homes? What do people look for in a home, and what are the advantages of timber frame in terms of financial incentive, health and lifestyle? Do innovative designs require people to change their lifestyle, and how can the science-architecture action gap be better bridged to create designs which work for people? Do high-tech construction approaches have any benefits over low-tech approaches, and what implications do they have on construction and performance? Subsequently, how effective are rating systems such as LEED and BREEAM, what are the alternative approaches, and what does this mean for building “smarter” sustainable homes that stand the test of time?

Pat Borer and Cindy Harris, The Whole House Book, (Powys: Centre for Alternative Tech-

nology, 2005), p. 7.

1.2 Methodology To begin to identify the metrics for sustainable design, a number of case studies, both contemporary and historic are analysed to identify the individual incentives to “build sustainable”, ranging from financial opportunities to resource availability, health and wellbeing. Important cultural and historic developments, and changes in real estate and construction trends are also analysed to get a grasp on the current state of the market, and what this means for sustainable design. Moving on from this, using the idea of the “fabric first approach”, aspects such as sunlight, air flow, resource availability and minimising artificial components will be considered in unison with scientific consensus to identify how the design of homes affects our health and wellbeing. This is achieved by analysing these approaches in relation to local conditions, experimental construction practices, research into materials, and systematic reviews into occupant behaviour and wellbeing. Subsequently, to compare alternative approaches to the sustainable design of US residential timber framed homes, values based approaches are compared with targets based approaches, and considered in terms of major developments in construction practices. To understand how these approaches and incentives can inform a more “smart” architecture, a number of contrasting case studies, ranging from the simple to the “high-tech” have been analysed with respect to current research, historic developments, legislative changes and cultural norms. Technology changes so rapidly that mechanical systems can quickly become obsolete5, and aspects more fundamental to the building design arise from human needs, expectation and lifestyle. To gauge what makes a design ‘efficient’, case studies have been compared with respect to the aforementioned rating systems and physical performance as well as more relative measures of flexibility, innovation, allowances and “future proofing” strategies. This will draw conclusions about how simple solutions may influence more efficient designs. Ed van Hinte, Marc Neelen, Jacques Vink and Piet Vollaard, Smart Architecture, (Rotterdam: 010 Publishers, 2003), p. 13. 5

1.3 Structure Chapter 2 considers the different primary incentives for individuals to build more efficient, sustainable homes using the US timber framing method, by looking at US culture, resources and the environment. Moving on from this, various motives for improving physiological and psychological health and wellbeing are considered in relation to historic developments, materials and practices. Chapter 4 follows on from this by considering the different approaches to designing more efficient, healthy buildings, considering rating systems such as LEED and BREEAM and their relevance in residential design. The final chapter goes on to consider the construction practices and developments which can shape smarter, more sustainable designs, summarising the current state of the industry and identifying where we may be headed in the future.

CHAPTER 2

INCENTIVISATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

2.0 Incentivisation and the Environment 2.1 Financial Incentives The free market principle is fundamental to US construction. For the most part, if you have the initiative and the resources, the gates are open. In contrast with European nations, where planning laws and government legislation are becoming increasingly prescriptive, the US has maintained privatisation within these sectors; environmental improvements are driven by financial incentives and building codes are State-specific. This empowering, can-do approach stems from that libertarian quest for physical progress and achieving the impossible, which has given rise to some of the most influential buildings in the world. Commodity and technology is all-powerful, and ingrained into US culture, and the uptake of advanced digital technologies has occurred at an unprecedented rate. Standards of living are amongst the highest and homes are physically the biggest in the world. However, whilst construction methods have advanced, energy standards are now grossly behind that of European regions. Traditionally, American homes were designed to maximise space as cheaply as possible, to the detriment of energy efficiency and quality. According to Susanne Moser and Lisa Dilling, apathy and complacency toward climate change is the main hindrance to improving efficiency: “Even concerned individuals ready and willing to act on their conviction that climate change is a problem may encounter obstacles. For example, getting an energy audit for one’s house but no help in prioritizing, how to select a contractor, finance the work and navigate other problems involved... can thwart the intentions of even the most committed... learning more about climate change... may feel overwhelming and disempowering, or even reinforce the desire to hold on to the status quo. If the onus is placed instead on saving money, this gives a whole different incentive.”6

Susanne Moser and Lisa Dilling, Communicating Climate Change: Closing The ScienceAction Gap (Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 161-169. Right: Fig 1. “10 Easy ways to cut your energy bill this winter”: <http://inhabitat.com/10-easytips-to-cut-your-home-energy-bill-this-winter/> 6

The majority of European literature can be demotivating due to this fixation on climate change and fossil fuel consumption, without providing tangible solutions. Sustainable guidance handbooks focus on issues like air conditioning and renewable energy and legislation has been set up to force individuals to use less. The DECC Heat and Energy Saving Strategy Consultation, commissioned by the RIBA7 sets out that there is no individual incentive to invest in energy efficiency, very little benefit in improving designs on a case-by-case basis, and legislation must promote behavioural change. The American outlook, on the other hand is very different; the AIA’s Architect’s guide to Energy Efficiency8 is focused on financial gain, tailoring best approaches to different buildings, and providing practical solutions to improving efficiency without mandating individuals. The biggest incentive is to reduce running costs, and with increasing concerns to appear more environmentally conscious, improve personal health, and get more for your money, there is now voluntary change in the priorities of American home owners.

DECC Heat and Energy Saving Strategy Consultation, Response by the Royal Institute of British Architects, (RIBA, 2009). <http://www.architecture.com/Files/RIBAHoldings/ PolicyAndInternationalRelations/Policy/PublicAffairs/Heatandenergystrategy.pdf> [accessed 02 January 2015]. 8 American Institute of Architects, Deep Energy Retrofits: An Emerging Opportunity, An Architect’s Guide to the Energy Retrofit Market, (Rocky Mountain Institute, 2013), pp. 1-63. 7

2.2 Resources and Conservation Timber is fundamentally an extremely sustainable construction material, and The Whole House Book summarises the benefits:

• Timber is the only renewable structural building material • Timber has a low embodied energy compared with other building materials • The extraction and conversion of timber from well managed sources accounts •

• • • • •

• •

for very little pollution Minimal waste is created from the production and use timber, as there are viable end uses for virtually every part of the tree, and at the end of a building’s life, timber can be easily recovered or recycled. The use of natural timber poses no health risks and can help to regulate humidity. Wood is a natural insulator, and warm to the touch, with an immediate aesthetic appeal. Timber production is a CO2 sink Modern timber buildings behave very predictably in a fire Timber buildings are inherently durable and easy to maintain. A study carried out by the Building Research Establishment on 120 timber framed houses built between 1920 and 1975, found their performance to be ‘similar to masonry dwellings of the same age and, given proper maintenance, likely to remain so for the foreseeable future. Timber framing and modular systems provide much greater flexibility in construction and leads to expedited lead times It is easier to achieve higher insulation values with thinner wall compositions.’9

Borer and Harris, The Whole House Book, pp. 110-111.

When it comes to environmental improvements and efficiency, the properties of timber alone make it a lot easier to achieve better performance. A new home built to Passivhaus standards, using a ‘fabric first’ approach can reduce space heating demands by 75% on average10, a substantial saving. The EPA Energy Star program estimates the average US household spends $2,000 a year on energy, 50% space heating, 27% running appliances, 19% heating water and 4% air conditioning11. The Newenhouse a low-tech timber framed home in Wisconsin shows how Passivhaus strategies can sustain internal temperatures of 68 to 86°F using less energy than a hairdryer, despite exterior temperatures hovering at -30°F. This is made possible with 18 inch thick walls filled with cellulose and strategic passive design, improving efficiency by 80-90 %. Net positive energy homes are now becoming a reality; the Crossway Eco House in Sussex, a highly experimental and innovative design, receives an annual cheque from the energy company for surplus power. The Uphill House in Upstate New York is a comparable US example, using a much more generic design, using a number of complex systems and advanced insulation materials. These 3 case studies represent very different approaches to achieving a similar outcome. Chapters 4 and 5 ask: how replicable are these different approaches on a larger scale?

Energy Saving Trust, Passivhaus: the poet’s energy efficiency standard (2012), <http:// tools.energysavingtrust.org.uk/blog/2012/01/25/passivhaus-the-poets-energy-efficiencystandard> [accessed 20 June 2014]. 11 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), (2009). Left: Fig 2. Newenhouse, Wisconsin <http://www.dailyarchdesign.com/kids-decor/wisconsinpassivhaus-combines-3-movements-green-creating-small-property-and-sustainable-living/> 10

Vol. 32, No. 2 | fall 2014

BUILDINGENERGY

THE MAGAZINE OF THE NORTHEAST SUSTAINABLE ENERGY ASSOCIATION

Zero Net Energy Building Award: Net-plus is our new norm BuildingEnergy NYC Conference Preview

As well as energy savings, there is also economic justification for reducing waste. The table below demonstrates the cost of materials literally thrown away whilst constructing the majority of ‘standard’ homes: Material Solid lumber Engineered lumber Drywall Cardboard Metals

Weight (lbs) 1600 1400 2000 600 150

Vinyl (PVC) Masonry Containers Other Total

150 1000 50 1050 8000

Fig 4. Typical construction waste for a new 2000 sq ft house.12

Abe Kruger and Carl Seville, Green Building: Principles and Practices in Residential Construction, (New York: Delmar, 2013), pp. 7-8. Previous: Fig 3. Jennifer Marrapese et al, ‘Zero Net Energy Award: Net-plus is our new norm’, Building Energy, 32.2, (2014), 1-72. Right, Fig 5. Construction waste from standard residential construction < http://www. recovery1.com/> 12

Figs 6-8. “The New Home in 2015”15

2.3 A shift in Thinking Resource conservation is as much about reducing inefficiencies as it is about considering the things people want and need, and adapting designs to better suit those requirements. Sheri Koones, suggests that: “Whereas houses were getting bigger and bigger in the boom years of the 1970’s and 80’s, today’s homeowners are shopping for smaller, better-designed houses that utilize space more purposefully and reduce waste of energy, water, and other resources.”13 ‘The New Home in 2015’ predicts that homes will get smaller and have more green features, especially wood fires and sun porches14. The typical American house in 2015 is expected to average 2,152 sq ft, 10% smaller than in 2010.15 This trend represents a fundamental shift in culture. New builds are extremely common with US land availability and design freedom. Additionally, findings by Gallup suggest that Americans tend to relocate more frequently than any other nation in the world, with over 20% of citizens surveyed, having moved within the past 5 years16. Most US homes are not designed to last forever. The needs of one generation to the next are so different, that it is impractical and expensive to speculate the future. According to the EPA: “Architects and builders typically do not design homes with easy renovation or deconstruction in mind. The average US family moves every 10 years. Homes often undergo many renovations over their lifetimes, or complete building removal is carried out to make room for a newer home”17. Sheri Koones, Frefabulous + Almost off the Grid (New York: Abrams, 2012), p. 12. Gerald M. Howard, Mark Pursell, Lakisha Campbell and Elizabeth M. Rich, The New Home in 2015, (Washington DC: National Association of Home Builders, 2011), pp. 2-9. 15 Koones, Frefabulous + Almost off the Grid, p. 12. 16 Neli Esipova, Anita Pugliese, and Julie Ray, 381 Million Adults Worldwide Migrate Within Countries: U.S. one of the most mobile countries in the world (Gallup, 2011) <http:// www.gallup.com/poll/162488/381-million-adults-worldwide-migrate-within-countries. aspx?utm_source=alert&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=syndication&utm_ content=morelink&utm_term=All%20Gallup%20Headlines> [accessed 15 September 2014]. 17 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), (2009). 13 14

Jed Kolko, Chief Economist at Trulia finds the top reasons individuals like to start anew are to have modern features (e.g. bigger closets, a kitchen island, open floor plan and walls pre-wired for flat screen TVs); to be able to customize the home before construction is completed; and to spend less on maintenance and running costs.18 Up until the market crash of 2007-2008, 1 in 6 home buyers opted for new construction19 ; following a 4 year slump, this figure is now increasing again, with the average cost of building a new single-family home, including lot and construction totalling just $267,900 in 2011.20 Homes are in a constant state of flux and in terms of “future proofing”, this means designing with much more flexibility for the next generation. The designs that last the longest are not necessarily the most durable, or the ones that stay true to their original design, but often the smart designs which are cheap and easy to adapt as fashions evolve. The most sustainable designs work for their occupants, making their lives easier and more free to develop, rather than forcing individuals to conform to a certain way of living. As designer Christoph Behling suggests: “We need to give consumers something where they can see that the future is not going to be hell or all about living in recycled clay houses... above all we need to get away from the word alternative, as in alternative living, and the idea that it means we will have to make do with something slightly less good or less pleasant.”21.

Trey Garrison, Trulia: American homebuyers prefer new homes 2 to 1, (2014) <http://www. housingwire.com/articles/29915-trulia-american-homebuyers-prefer-new-homes-2-to-1> [accessed 30 December 2014]. 19 ibid. 20 Tony Guerra, Demand Media, Is it cheaper to build a house or buy one? (Demand Media) <http://homeguides.sfgate.com/cheaper-build-house-buy-one-48693.html> [accessed 30 December 2014]. 18

Dominic Bradbury, New Natural Home (London: Thames and Hudson, 2011), p. 9.

Dominic Bradbury goes on to suggest: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Inspiring change will be key to the success of the green revolution, which will ultimately become every bit as profound as the Modernist revolution of the twentieth centuryâ&#x20AC;?.22

Dominic Bradbury, New Natural Home (London: Thames and Hudson, 2011), p. 9.

2.4 New Construction Case Study: Single-Family Residence, Chemung County, New York For those looking for an energy-efficient, healthy and well-designed home, the most affordable option is to build. My case study interviewee, Karen McCarthy, in New York State, who just built her own home, explained the clear set of reasons for choosing this route: Having previously lived in inefficient houses, with lots of rooms she did not use, they cost a fortune to run, required substantial maintenance and did not offer the flexibility she wanted. She had a very tight budget, representing the cross section of middle-class families in the Tri-State area. Having scoured existing houses within proximity of good schools, the only ones that fitted the bill needed extensive renovations, and were just too big. Having just battled with cancer and the loss of her mother, she decided this was a good time to go ahead and realise the healthy, efficient home with the Mid-Century inspired concept she had always wanted. For her, the most cost-effective option was to purchase a ready-made plan and customize it. The entire frame was completed in a matter of months, and she was able to move in for a fraction of the price tag. The house is modest, but uplifting, full of natural light from northwest clerestory windows and sheltered sliding doors to the south-eastern living space. It also uses a small palette of natural materials including bamboo floors and a handmade birch ply kitchen, complemented by a select few mid-century pieces she brought with her. The house has a full, partially finished basement which she plans to inexpensively convert to a workshop, studio, entertainment room and guest bed, which will greatly increase the value of the home, ready to sell and move on in a few years when her sons move to college. Right, top: Fig 9. Karen McCarthyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s kitchen, Chemung County, NY. Right, botton: Fig 10. Natural light and clerestory windows <http://relyme.com/contemporaryliving-room-furniture-design-idea/>

2.5 The Hatch House & Midcentury Modern The Midcentury Modern period produced some of the most innovative contemporary designs, which aimed to find innovative ways of using materials, and ways of better integrating people and buildings with their environment: “Building on the revolutionary Bauhaus philosophy...Modernism is fundamentally essentialism: a quest to find the inherent qualities and possibilities of spaces, materials, colors, and light, and use them to design elegant solutions without historical reference or quotation”.23 Many post-war Modernist architects were drawn to Cape Cod, Massachusetts, with its ever-changing tidal landscape calling for innovation and problem solving. Projects were generally low budget and experimental, and used as “temporary” vacation homes, almost exclusively timber framed and built on stilts. Designed as getaways from the stresses of city life, they were all about improving peoples’ lives. Kenneth Frampton explains: “Their summer homes were laboratories, thought experiments, places to revisit problems and work through ideas without spending much money... they took cues from colonial cottages and fishing shacks, including the classic pitchedroof cottage now known universally as a Cape. Borrowing from traditional materials (such as cedar siding), methods, and precepts, they fashioned basic lumberyard materials into new designs that solved genuine problems”.24 The Hatch House in Wellfleet by Jack Hall Associates (1962), is an innovative timber framed vacation home commissioned by Ruth Hatch and her husband to summer. The structure consists of a modular space frame of untreated fir, with Peter McMahon and Christine Cipriani, Cape Cod Modern: Midcentury architecture and community on the outer cape, (New York: Metropolis Books, 2014), p. 16. 24 McMahon and Christine Cipriani, Cape Cod Modern, p. 15. Left: Figs 11-12. Halprin House, Hayden Walling, 1965 <http://www.architecturaldigest. com/> Next: Fig 13. Lechay House, Hayden Walling, 1960 <http://www.thehandandeye.com/> 23

panels attached to form roofs, walls and decks. The panels enclose three cubic volumes, comprising living space, master suite & studio, and children’s or guest suite, separated by external breezeways of timber slats. The exterior wall panels are full-height operable shutters, hinged at the top, raised to form shaded verandas or lowered to provide protection during the winter. The interior wall panels have screened clerestory openings for cross ventilation and extra light. The interior is timeless: sophisticated but unpretentious, and still looks contemporary 50 years on. Lined with natural timber, and finished with seagrass carpeting, the openplan living area is the largest interior space: “The sea-facing wall disappears in three layers: sliding Plexiglas doors, a fixed mosquito screen (hand sewn because no screen on the market was large enough) and finally, the wooden shutters”25. This simple plan created a highly flexible, extremely private group of spaces with a unique connection to the environment, using cheap natural materials and minimal foundations. “By going outside, one’s eyes are drawn up to the sky to take in sun, stars or clouds. Changes in temperature, humidity and light become part of the daily pulses of inside to outside, outside to inside experiences.”26 The building was originally designed with no connection to the grid, and remained comfortable throughout the intense heat of the summer. The water was pumped manually from a well, and tall-chimneyed, mantled kerosene lamps were used for light. Ruth used to stay in Wellfleet into November, when the Cape becomes impossibly inhospitable, the only source of heat being the wood McMahon and Christine Cipriani, Cape Cod Modern, p. 63. Being There, (Friends of the Pleistocene) <https://fopnews.wordpress.com/2013/06/29/ being-there/> [accessed 30 December 2014] Previous Left: Fig 14. Walling’s Saltbox typology: <http://www.klatmagazine.com/> Previous Right: Fig 15. Master Bedroom, Hatch House, Jack Hall: Cape Cod Modern. Left top: Fig 16. Living room, Hatch House, Jack Hall: <https://gavelandgrand.com> Left bottom: Fig 17. Entrance breezeway, Hatch House, Jack Hall: <https://gavelandgrand. com> 25 26

stove in the living room. This just goes to show how simple design decisions could create a comfortable and sustainable indoor environment before the days of insulation, efficient glazing and solar panels. Twentieth Century design has so many examples of innovative timber framed houses which adopt these innovative concepts. In Long Pond is Breuer’s Kepes house (1949), displaying many of the qualities found in Hall’s work as well as Walling’s Lechay House (1960) and Halprin House (1965) in Wellfleet, with their shed-style roofs. These seemingly timeless pieces of architecture are cheap and easy to repair and update, which has allowed them to last much longer than originally intended. Borer and Harris argue: “For a building to be “green”, it is essential for the environmental impact of all its constituent parts and design decisions to be evaluated. This is a much more thorough exercise than simply adding a few green elements, such as a grass roof or a solar panel”27 Sustainable design is about improving our relationship with buildings and their surrounding environment, whilst breaking that rigidity and creating flexibility. More recently, modular and prefabricated designs have become popular again with much more accomplished and sophisticated manufacturing techniques. The precision, efficiency and flexibility of this method makes it particularly favourable for self-builders on a tight budget. The Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture’s Taliesin Mod.Fab in Arizona is an entirely prefabricated Prairie style home, using the breezeway plan in conjunction with SIP construction, and uses a combination of natural and passive ventilation, photovoltaics and water catchment to produce an entirely “off-grid” home. Harris and Borer, The Whole House Book, p. 47. Previous Left: Fig 18. Hatch House, Hall’s photos: <http://www.boutique-homes.com/dispatches/cape-cods-secret-artist-enclave/> Previous Right: Fig 19. Hatch House Entrance: <https://www.kinfolk.com/kinfolk-hometours-hatch-house/> Right: Figs 20-21. Ruth Hatch and the breezeway, Cape Cod Modern. Next: Fig 22. Taliesin Mod.Fab, Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture: <www.studiolimited.com> 27

CHAPTER 3 HEALTH

3.0 Health 3.1 Metrics for Healthy Homes Healthy living is a top priority when designing a sustainable home. The movement towards healthy living has been promoted extensively over the past few hundred years, and is nothing new to the field of Architecture. ‘Our Homes and How To Make Them Healthy’, published in London and New York in 1883 considered every aspect of design and building and goes to show how health considerations have shaped the built environment. Only recently, however, has health been considered part of the greater umbrella of ‘sustainable design’. Design is not only about efficiently providing the essentials to live comfortably, it is also about the psychological connection we have with different materials, association and promoting wellbeing. Borer and Harris suggest: “Even a building with the best green credentials can fail to delight and inspire. It is very important that in the search for the perfect eco-friendly house, we do not lose sight of peoples’ desire for beauty, richness and variety. A soulless building will win few friends and no converts.” Feeling comfortable is greatly to do with arrangement of space, colour and interaction with materials. Borer and Harris suggest: as a species, we have evolved to live in contact with natural materials such as wood, wool and other fibres”28. There may also be a case for reverting to more natural ways of heating homes; it was Frank Lloyd Wright who highlighted the importance of “the hearth” at the centre of home life, and we are seeing a resurgence in the number of new homes that use wood fires.

Harris and Borer, The Whole House Book, p. 47. Right: Fig 23. Passive House Retreat, New England, Zero Energy Design: <http://www. zeroenergy.com/p_valette.html> 28

Light; the type and quality of it, and our exposure to it also has profound effects on wellbeing. “Blue” light, such as fluorescent and LED lighting has been found to suppress melatonin production, affecting our circadian rhythm and causing sleep disorders29. These kinds of light are reported as harsh and “cold” compared to traditional incandescent and halogen lighting, and there has been widespread reluctance to adopt these kinds of lighting, demonstrating the difficult balance between saving energy and improving comfort. Ensuring all spaces have good exposure to natural light, with the ability to reduce glare through better window and reveal design and orientation makes a big difference. Other aspects such as controlling sound transmission, ergonomics, user interfaces and interaction with the outside also promote wellbeing. These issues are best addressed from the outset, and overcome in practicable ways, adopting a “prevention vs. cure” approach (the mantra used by Henk de Bruin, Global Head of Sustainability at Phillips, ironically). Some design aspects are more technical and quantifiable, but are as much a reflection of the designer’s consideration toward occupant behaviour as the physical solutions themselves. A study by Glasgow University conducted a systematic review into the metrics for physiological health in homes. After conducting an extensive set of randomised controlled trials, they found inconclusive evidence that improving thermal efficiency had any benefit on health30. Unbelievably, the research failed to consider the effects of thermal improvements on air quality, and also ignored psychological issues, highlighting how science can overlook basic schools of thought in architecture. Major improvements can be made here by reverting back to basics and identifying the fundamental needs of the occupant. Judy Siegal-Itzovich, ‘The Dangers of LED-Blue light-Melatonin-Insomnia-CancerRSH’, Applied Environmental Nutritional Technologies, (2012), in Harvard Health Publications <http://www.westernartandarchitecture.com/articles/western-art-andarchitecture/fall-winter-2008/61/green-by-design.html> [accessed 30 December 2014]. 30 Hilary Thomson, Sian Thomas, Eva Sellstrom and Mark Petticrew, Housing improvements for health and associated socioeconomic outcomes, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2 (2013), 1-189. 29

3.2 Materials & Air Quality When specifying timber as a structural material, there are a number of ways to promote occupant health and mitigate long term maintenance by carefully selecting siding materials, internal finishes, heating/ventilation strategies and insulation. The US was the first to widely insulate timber framed homes, using fiberglass batt insulation between the studs. This was available exclusively from Owens Corning up until the 1950’s31. Since then, thermal efficiency has improved to the detriment of air quality. The EPA has determined that indoor air quality is one of the top five environmental health risks in the US today. In addition, asthma is now the number one chronic childhood disease, with one in 13 children suffering32. Historic materials such as asbestos and lead paint have had catastrophic effects on our health. According to the EPA, elevated levels of lead in children is still a serious problem today, particularly among urban and minority families, despite the lead paint ban in 197833. Certain construction practices also lead to “sick building syndrome”, a variety of chronic symptoms resulting from poor air quality, pollutants, dust mites, radon, mould, damp, humidity and drafts34. In 1970, following the energy crisis and the disastrous winter of 1962-63, which had started to necessitate better thermal efficiency35, oil embargo led building designers to make American homes more airtight, with less ventilation, in order Mark Richard Miller, Rex Miller and Eugene Leger Audel, Complete Building Construction (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Publishing, Inc., 2004), p. 404. 32 CDC Healthy Housing Reference Manual, (Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services, 2006) pp. 81-102. 33 David A. Turcotte, ‘Developing Sustainable Housing: Moving Beyond Green’, Progressive Planners Magazine, (2007), in Planners Network, The Organization of Progressive Planning <http://www.plannersnetwork.org/2007/07/developingsustainable-housing-moving-beyond-green/> [accessed 01 January 2015]. 31

Harris and Borer, The Whole House Book, p. 47. J. Burchell and F. W. Sunter, Design and Build in Timber Frame, (Essex: Longman Scientific & Technical, 1987), pp. 1-13. 34 35

to improve energy efficiency36, reducing ventilation to 5 cfm/person, found to be inadequate in maintaining health and comfort. Contemporary buildings using synthetic materials can also exacerbate health problems. Elements such as foam/fiberglass insulations, VOC’s, PVC and formaldehyde-based adhesives have been shown to cause indoor air pollution, the leading cause of asthma and allergies. The EPA states there is no safe exposure level to isocyanates, and recommends no foam used internally, however, no building codes have been amended. As well as spray foam, rigid foam board used extensively during the 80’s in the US is considered the worst culprit for off-gassing. This material is commonly used as duct board lining for HVAC, along with fiberglass board, another carcinogen37. VOC’s emitted by paints, organochlorides from PVC and formaldehyde from cutting MDF and particleboard are also on the EPA’s ‘Red List’ of “harmful materials”. If the health reasons for avoiding these substances are not compelling enough, their disastrous environmental impacts should be a reason to limit use. As well as chemical pollutants, the CDC identifies the dangers of biological pollutants such as dust and spores, highlighting increased public and media attention to residential “toxic mould” and “black mould”. Mould is caused by humidity and condensation, and timber framed structures are particularly vulnerable. Vapour barriers, which became common practice in the late 1990’s to mitigate interstitial condensation have actually exacerbated the problem. They effectively seal in the moisture resulting from inadequate ventilation, poor installation practices and excessive humidity, causing condensation at thermal Sumedha. M. Joshi, The Sick Building Syndrome, Indian J Occup Environ Med., 12(2) (2008), 61–64 (p. 2). 37 Carmelo Abbate, et al., ‘Changes Induced by Exposure of the Human Lung to Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastics.’, Environmental Health Perspectives, 11.114, (2005), 1725-9. Right, top: Fig 24. Rigid foam duct board installation: < http://www.safe-energy.cl/productos/ fibra-de-vidrio/panel-duct-board/> Right, bottom: Fig 25. Spray foam installation: <http://www.ottawacitizen.com/life/Block+moist ure+make+stucco+last/7594628/story.html> 36

bridges and around the base of walls, window reveals and electrical outlets. In air-conditioned zones, moisture can form on the outer side of the barrier, causing condensation, rot and mould inside the wall.38 Due to the fact that no buildings used vapour barriers up until this point, Chapter 5 considers: is there a case for reverting to more breathable building fabrics? Limiting our exposure to most indoor air pollutants is a case of using low VOC paints and finishes, avoiding synthetic materials including carpets that encourage dust mites, choosing natural/recycled materials, and installing systems which filter and replace stale air more adequately.39 Moisture control can become a challenging problem with this push for ‘airtight’ structures, which is not so much about education, but amending building codes to adapt to poor building practices. In terms of occupant behaviour, laundry is a particular source of excess moisture; air drying one load of laundry indoors leads to a 30 % increase in humidity. 79 % of US households own a vented dryer, however, in the UK, where only 45% of households use a dryer, often the re-circulating type, 87 per cent of occupants air dry clothes indoors during cold weather40. 75 % of UK homes have moisture levels above the recognised threshold41. Whilst appliances such as dryers are considered energy intensive, designers rarely consider alternative ways of performing daily chores more sustainably. More efficient gas dryers, increasingly popular in the US are one solution, however, integrated drying rooms, common in Germany and Scandinavia are an example of a simple, efficient method of cutting energy consumption. Joseph Lstiburek, ‘So, What is The Problem?’, Understanding Vapor Barriers, 1.1, (2011), 1-29 (pp. 1-3), in Building Science Digest <file:///C:/Users/Tom/Downloads/BSD-106_ Understanding%20Vapor%20Barriers_2013.pdf> [accessed 01 January 2015]. 39 Paola Sassi, Strategies for Sustainable Architecture (Oxon: Taylor and Francis, 2006) pp. 116119. 40 Andrew Gregory, ‘Clothes Hoarse: Drying your washing indoors can make you ill’, The Mirror, 02 November 2012, p.1. 41 ibid. Right: Fig 26. Asbestos fibres: <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/banksandfinance/ insurance/8464396/Asbestos-the-key-facts.html> 38

CHAPTER 4

APPROACHES TO SUSTAINABLE DESIGN

4.0 Approaches to Sustainable Design 4.1 Values Based vs. Targets Based: LEED & BREEAM There are two approaches to assessing sustainable design: the values-based approach considers a building in terms of fundamental occupant needs, improvements to quality of life, and an innovative design idea or ethos. The Hatch House and Karen’s house are good examples of this approach: by pushing the boundaries of what we consider ‘typical’, the designs fundamentally work for their inhabitants. Second is the targets-based approach, which operates by fulfilling certain criteria, rigorous measuring and check boxing, and weighing the overall benefits of different aspects. This is the approach used in projects like Uphill and Crossway, which use systems such as LEED and BREAAM to analyse performance, and give credits based on ‘eco credentials’. The problem with these systems is that an excellent rating can be gained by fulfilling a set of disconnected criteria which may not be in the best interests of the occupants. For example, a building may be constructed heavily from toxic, artificial materials, which perform well thermally but have long-term health and maintenance question marks. Credits can also be gained in areas such as ecology, native landscaping, bird boxes and recycling, which again, are good improvements in isolation, but have little real benefit on the overall building performance. In terms of energy, a building may have a poor connection with the outside and lack natural daylight, but the artificial ventilation, air conditioning and lighting may have a sophisticated control system or be powered by renewable energy, which gains credits. It is very easy to ‘bolt on’ these kinds of solutions without actually improving the design of the building. The AIA has identified this problem, and, in Deep Energy Retrofits: An Emerging Opportunity, attempts to separate energy performance indicators in terms of the Architect vs. Engineer approach42. Focusing on upfront cost and savings as opposed to carbon emissions or environmental concerns, this American paper American Institute of Architects, Deep Energy Retrofits: An Emerging Opportunity, An Architect’s Guide to the Energy Retrofit Market, pp. 1-63. 42

highlights the difference between an engineer specified system, and the more holistic ‘deep’ approach, requiring fundamental changes in building design. This is the added value of having an architect on board, whose prerogative is to ensure the functioning of the building as a whole. The success of systems such as LEED is dependent on the designer’s ability to use common sense and good judgement, not just follow guidelines blindly. LEED has been adopted worldwide, and is tailored to US construction, with over 195,000 LEED accredited professionals in the US43, mostly architects, many residential, making it very accessible to individuals looking for a sustainable design team through websites like houzz.com. With around 45,000 LEED accredited buildings in the US (USGBC)44, there is a heavy focus on occupant benefits, satisfaction and monetary incentives, with credits given based on cost, and expenditure on sustainable alternatives. Compare this with BREEAM, which is tailored to the UK and focused on carbon emissions and environmental impact, with very few architects accredited. It is also a particularly prescriptive standard; for ‘outstanding’ certification, a building must undergo an ASHRAE performance analysis, which is prohibitively expensive. Research by the LCRI in the ‘Low or Zero Carbon Built Environment’ demonstrates how the European approach to reducing energy consumption focuses on forcing individuals to change by imposing restrictions such as smart metering and LED lighting. By prescribing measures, the element of choice is being stripped from individuals. Moreover, forcing individuals to use less energy without addressing the reasons for using it in the first place is nonsensical, and the ramifications are evident in the highly engineered, ill-performing buildings we see on a regular basis.

Eric Adler, ‘Sustainability Strategy Statement’, Sustainability Report 2012, (2012), 1-17 (p. 15), in Pramerica Real Estate Investors <http://www.pramericarei.com/pramerica/ realestate/pdf/2012_PRA_Sustainability_Report.pdf> [accessed 5 January 2015]. 44 Salami, R.O and Olaniyan, M.K, ‘Towards A Sustainable Built Environment’, pp. 4550. 43

The big cultural difference with US citizens is the reluctance to adopt involuntary change. In 2008, congress Rep. Ted Poe, R-Texas, objected to the bill banning incandescent lightbulbs by 2014: “The Constitution doesn’t authorize Congress to do anything remotely like banning a product that has been used safely and efficiently for more than 100 years in favor of Chinese-imported light bulbs that pose considerable health and safety risks.45 Since 2008, LED lighting has taken on, but not without its drawbacks and pitfalls. Americans are likely to continue to have a greater amount of choice, and it is critical for systems such as LEED to focus on empowering individuals, and allowing them to decide for themselves where they are willing and able to make improvements. The US energy star system operates on this basis. Additionally, the inherent accessibility to LEED scoring as a benchmark for residential projects offers more achievable targets for the everyday architect or self-builder.46 The targets-based approach can be beneficial, but it can be complicated and expensive to meet criteria, individuals are not willing to give up some aspects, and some of the exceptional designs are simply not replicable on a larger scale. Expensive ‘eco’ buildings are unsustainable in principle, especially for those setting out to build on a budget. Therefore, certification schemes should be used as a guideline. What then, is the alternative approach-what can the exceptional teach the ordinary?..

Alyssa Farah, Constitutionality of light bulb ban questioned: Congressman doubts China imports answer to U.S. energy crisis (WND, 2008) <http://www.wnd. com/2008/06/67573/> [accessed 01 January 2015]. 46 Dave Cheshire, LEED vs BREEAM: What’s best? (2012) <http://www.edie.net/library/ view_article.asp?id=6124> [accessed 2 January 2015]. 45

CHAPTER 5

CONSTRUCTION

Fig 27. Early US Balloon Framing48

5.0 Construction 5.1 Framing Developments Advanced construction methods and better use of materials in timber framing have developed over many centuries in the US. The primary mode of construction for homes today is platform framing, accounting for 86% of all buildings, primarily residential. This is a development of earlier “balloon” framing, revolutionized in 183247. Balloon framing was a transition from “heavy” to “light” framed construction, using smaller dimensional lumber, consisting of vertical 2x4’s, running continuously from one level to the next. This early method was particularly vulnerable to fire spread, and fairly restrictive in terms of layout, as each wall stud was directly load bearing. The development of platform framing allowed for virtually any desired configuration, shape and height, with LVL beams and composite trusses able to span great distances. The method also uses even less lumber with larger wall cavities for insulation. 5.2 Advanced Framing Systems Advanced construction practices have developed to consider the combination of framing, insulating materials and HVAC equipment as one single system48, easily adapted for any conceivable climate. This approach considers the interaction of each building feature and enables architects, engineers, and builders to design and construct more efficient structures49. As many different trades are able to work in unison, it is more efficient for insulating, installing plumbing, electrical and HVAC, drylining and integrating architectural features such as storage and built-ins, streamlining the process. Stephanie M. Berkland, ‘A Comparison of American, Canadian, and European Home Energy Performance in Heating Dominated – Moist Climates Based on Building Codes’ (unpublished masters thesis, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, 2014), pp. 20-22. 48 ibid., pp. 29-30. 49 ibid. 47

The familiarity with timber framing amongst US contractors is what makes this system so efficient and favourable. When importing US kit home designs to other countries, it is beneficial to have an American team onboard to oversee construction, with communication between different trades being essential. The specification of suitable products such as air-tight electrical boxes and sealed gaskets are also vital when specifying details such as vapour barriers. Forced-air systems are most commonly installed for HVAC in the US, due to the low thermal mass of timber, and the ease of installing large ducts through the structure. Low temperature systems which move alot of air work well with heat pumps and solar collectors, and distribute top-up heat more evenly than radiators. Dust filters, ionisers, dehumidifiers and heat recovery ventilators are all integrated components with ducted systems, aiding to improve air quality. The importance of regular filter changes and duct cleaning is generally common knowledge among US homeowners, however, methods of installation can greatly vary in quality. Rigid metal sheet ducting has always been the method of choice for installers, ensuring maximum air flow, prevention of mould growth and durability. PVC flex ducts have recently been used more extensively, but have shown to off-gas pollutants into the air, restrict air velocity and sag, leading to condensation. Static charges on the surface of PVC have also been proven to attract dust particles, and cause the build up of mould.50 When specifying construction methods in sustainable timber framed construction, the benefits of American expertise and opting for robust, tried and tested methods is invaluable. Experimental or cheap alternatives can be a false economy in the long run, and lead to problems of maintenance and health.

Fine Homebuilding, The Best of Fine Homebuilding: Energy-Efficient Building, (Newtown, Connecticut: The Taunton Press, 1999), pp. 54-57. Right, top: Fig 28. Sheet metal ducting and flex ducts: <http://bscconstruction.files.wordpress. com/2009/12/11-11-09-am-027.jpg> Right, bottom: Fig 29. Inefficient flex ducts: <http://www.greenbuildingadvisor.com/blogs/dept/ building-science/lipstick-pig-million-dollar-home-syndrome> 50

5.3 Building Smart In the 1970’s, the NAHB developed a technique known as Optimum Value Engineering (OVE), designed to increase the efficiency of timber framing and reduce the use of lumber by adopting a range of simple practices:

• Designing on two-foot modules

• • •

• •

•

to make the best use of common sheet sizes and reduce waste and labor. Spacing wall studs up to 24 inches on center, rather than 18. Spacing floor joists and roof rafters up to 24 inches on center. Using “California corners” and inexpensive drywall clips or scrap lumber for drywall backing instead of studs to reduce insulation breaks Eliminating headers in non-loadbearing walls. Using in-line framing in which floor, wall, and roof framing members are vertically in line with one another and loads are transferred directly downward. Using single lumber headers and top plates when appropriate.51

Fig 30. Optimum Value Engineering52

The concept received bad press during the 1980’s, and contractors only started implementing this on a wider scale from the late 1990’s. With more stringent energy codes, requiring thicker framing lumber to achieve required R-values, 2x6 studs are now typically used as standard, instead of 2x4’s, gaining a US R value of 20 instead of 12. 2x8’s can be required for achieving Passivhaus standards, which

Berkland, ‘A Comparison of American, Canadian, and European Home Energy Performance in Heating Dominated – Moist Climates Based on Building Codes’, pp. 25-30. Right, top: Fig 31. Smart framing illustration: <http://www.builderonline.com/tag/constructionwaste-recycling> Right, bottom: Fig 32. Smart framing in construction: <http://www.greenbuildingadvisor.com/ green-basics/green-job-sites-are-organized-and-efficient> 52

can be prohibitively expensive. Contractors are often hesitant to adopt advanced framing methods, as they call for a very rigid, orthogonal plan, with direct load paths. Architect Greg Lavardera has conducted extensive research into this area, and sought solutions in Swedish standards of practice, which use very similar construction methods much more efficiently. He proposes an incremental set of “American New Wall” drawings, which use the Swedish Platform frame to cut thermal bridging and wasted lumber using standard methods and materials. The most simple improvement involves installing furring strips on top of the vapour barrier, creating a service void to run electrical, preventing the holes that inevitably get punched into the barrier by installers, drywallers and fitting shelves e.t.c. The floor joists are also hung onto the frame by a ledger beam, instead of passing through the wall and resting on sill plates, which are notorious thermal bridges. Robert argues, it is possible to design one-off complex designs, which use new technologies to great effect, however: “These methods are valid and they certainly can be executed successfully, but they require the builder to take on new trade activities and stray into unfamiliar ground... the USA new wall can be adopted incrementally, allowing a builder to take small steps to improving the performance of his construction. Good, Better, Best, as his comfort level and experience increases they can forge a path to improving the quality and energy performance of their product.52 Whilst working for a residential architect in Connecticut, I quickly realized this myself, when a project called for SIP’s on the roof, but our architect knew his local contractors would not be familiar with installing them, and it would be a waste of time specifying them. Gregory La Vardera, Swedish Platform Framing and the American New Wall, (La Vardera Architecture Design) <http://blog.lamidesign.com/p/swedish-platform-framinginfo.html> [accessed 01 January 2015]. 52

Right, top: Fig 33. California Corner: <http://www.finehomebuilding.com/item/32685/learnmore-about-advanced-framing> Right, bottom: Fig 34. Swedish Platform Framing & American New Wall : <http://blog. lamidesign.com/p/swedish-platform-framing-info.html>

5.4 High Tech vs. Low Tech What can the exceptional teach the ordinary? Often what separates exceptionally well-performing structures from standard ones are small details. A standard contractor in Vermont, Robert Riversong has been developing a simple construction system, combining the Swedish platform frame with Larsen trusses of simple 2x4 and 2x2 local rough-sawn hemlock. The process of framing is very similar to standard practice, and requires no specialist skills or materials, but creates an extremely efficient wall, which requires no external sheathing, uses cheap cellulose insulation, and costs less to construct than a conventional 2x6 wall. As the wall is breathable and uses hygroscopic materials, Robert also does not use vapour barriers: “I haven’t used vapor barriers for 20 years. On new construction, there’s really no need and they can even be counterproductive by concentrating moisture problems at weaknesses. Full-scale season-long tests at the Univ. of Ill. Building Science Department have demonstrated that of the total winter-season moisture accumulation in a typical wall section, 99% comes from exfiltration of moist air and 1% is due to diffusion through building materials. If a house can breath (absorb and release moisture daily or seasonally), then vapor diffusion is not the problem as long as indoor moisture remains within normal limits.”53 The majority of interstitial moisture originates from the outside, and gets locked into the wall by external sheathing, vapour barriers and insulation. Most drywall, finished with a latex-based paint or foil-faced and installed with airtight electrical boxes is capable of protecting the wall from moisture, and any unlikely condensation occurs in plain sight. Dense-pack cellulose/recycled jeans is hygroscopic, breathable, and allows moisture to evaporate, but also acts as a Gary Reysa, A Cost Effective Larsen Truss Design, (Build It Solar, 2008) <http:// www.builditsolar.com/Projects/SolarHomes/LarsenTruss/LarsenTruss.htm> [accessed 02 January 2015]. Left: Fig 35. Exterior insulation: <http://www.greenbuildingadvisor.com/blogs/dept/qaspotlight/can-exterior-foam-insulation-cause-mold-and-moisture-problems> 53

natural air barrier like spray foam, preventing the direct draughts and ventilation loss. This is not the case with fiberglass batt, which is hydrophobic, and allows air to flow freely, leading to that familiar sight of dark staining behind drywall penetrations. Fiberglass must be used in conjunction with a correctly installed vapour barrier. Hygroscopic mineral wool is an alternative, in conjunction with a breather membrane such as the “MemBrain” vapor retarder by CertainTeed. Unlike PVC, the CertainTeed “smart membrane” becomes more permeable as moisture increases, creating an equilibrium between the inside/outside environment and the insulation. This theoretically allows moisture to pass to the drier side. “...To create an effective vapor barrier with 6 mil poly or equivalent is... nearly impossible and a lot of trouble. I’ve done it, with caulked or French-folded seams, sealed at top and bottom plates and around electric outlets and at each door and window opening... there is some evidence that wrapping the walls with plastic creates a static charge which draws negative ions (the ones that make us feel good at beaches and waterfalls and contribute to health) out of the indoor environment.”54 Air ionisers are designed to improve air quality by negatively charging dust particles, and making them ‘stick’ to surfaces, rather than floating in the air and being inhaled. If plastic surfaces attract negative ions, dust and dirt particles will stick to these surfaces, promoting hidden mould growth. “...I have no interest in building a hermetically-sealed house, which means no plastic vapor barrier and no plastic foam. A house envelope is a third skin - after our biological skin and our clothing... it must breath to maintain a healthy and livable indoor environment. All building materials used in the last 10,000 years met this criterion, until the last few decades. What I DO use, to meet codes or Energy Star standards, is the Air-tight Drywall System, and a latex VB primer”.55 Gary Reysa, A Cost Effective Larsen Truss Design, (Build It Solar, 2008) <http://www. builditsolar.com/Projects/SolarHomes/LarsenTruss/LarsenTruss.htm> [accessed 02 January 2015] 55 ibid. Right, top: Fig 36. Interstitial condensation, vapor barrier: <http://www.buildingscience.com/ documents/bareports/ba-0202-basement-insulation-systems> Right, bottom: Fig 37. Fiberglass batt, staining around penetrations: <http://diy.stackexchange. com/questions/10098/whats-the-proper-method-for-installing-new-studs-in-existing-frame> 54

He also explains why he does not use MVHR systems: “I don’t use them, because I try to keep my houses as low-tech as possible to reduce costs and long-term maintenance. Since code and Energy Star requires bath and kitchen exhaust fans, why not use those as the central exhaust system with no additional ducting? The heat load of my homes is so low that the small amount of recoverable heat from an HRV system seems hardly worth the initial and long-term cost. In addition, because my homes include a woodstove, which is an exhaust fan, they will ventilate even during a power outage.”56 For one of Robert’s homes in Vermont, “The house was rated 5+ stars by the Vermont Energy Star home program with a HERS rating of 46. The HERS (home energy rating system) Index is an energy efficiency range from 100 for a reference home built to the International Energy Conservation Code to 0 for a net zero energy home. The Vermont Energy Code requires an index of 85 (15% more efficient than an IECC house) and Energy Star requires an index of 80 for northern climate zones 6-8... this modified Larsen truss home is expected to consume 64% less energy than an IECC house, and 34% less than a threshold Energy Star home. According to the VT Energy Star administrator, this house tested in the top 5% of Vermont’s Energy Star homes.”57 Considering Passivhaus standards require a HERS rating of 20 or less, how is minimum code of 85 acceptable? Low-tech modified construction like Robert’s is comparable with a modular or prefab, using high-tech SIPs, floor cassettes and MVHR in terms of mid-range energy efficiency. In Prefabulous + Almost off the Grid, The New England Farmhouse by Zero Energy Design in Boston, Massachusetts is completely modular and has numerous “green aspects”, using open-cell spray-foam insulation, MVHR, and a carefully designed “chimney” Reysa, A Cost Effective Larsen Truss Design <http://www.builditsolar.com/Projects/ SolarHomes/LarsenTruss/LarsenTruss.htm> [accessed 02 January 2015] 57 ibid. Right: Figs 38-41. Robert Riversong, Innovative tow-tech Vermont home: <http:// riversonghousewright.wordpress.com/about/11-pictures/> 56

stack ventilation system58, but from the outside, looks no different to any other New England-style home. This has a HERS rating of 50, and is “Energy Star certified”. Another case study looks at the Schaller Eco-Home in Portland Oregon, another very ordinary looking home which ticks all the same LEEDstyle ‘green features’, using SIP construction, yet has an exceptional HERS rating of 4, and an Energy Star classification of 5+ stars59. Both projects have a strong focus on low or non-VOC paints, recycled materials, water efficiency and indoor air quality. Other projects have no energy star or HERS ratings and do not mention health concerns, yet use cellulose insulation. Some are exceptionally airtight, gaining ‘Passive House Certification’, whilst others are not. Some list triple glazed windows, whilst others fail to mention glazing at all. Some designs perform relatively poorly in terms of energy, but list fairly obscure ‘green features’ such as native landscaping, and ‘eco-friendly countertops’, which have helped gain ‘LEED Platinum Certification’. The experimental Taliesin Mod.Fab, one of the more innovative, lowest impact designs has no rating or certification whatsoever. What does this then say about rating systems? It is all very confusing, and on closer inspection, the main differences are actually just the efficiency of the appliances installed, and whether or not they have solar panels or heat pumps. These aspects are not fundamental to the design process, and are just collateral when no energy-saving methods have been implemented. Heat pumps and Photovoltaics can be vital in many designs, but when they are only balancing out poor performance to achieve a good rating, it is very difficult to ascertain how the actual building design relates to performance and sustainability. Additionally, as long as aspects such as spray foam, vapour barriers and MVHR are considered reliable and safe, check-boxing aspects such as low-VOC paints and formaldehyde-free cabinetry is a fairly arbitrary exercise, and should be done by default. Likewise, if methods used equate to exceptional commissioning performance which rapidly deteriorates from occupant behaviour, minor damage or modification, this is fundamentally unsustainable, and more flexible/robust methods should be chosen instead. 58 59

Koones, Frefabulous + Almost off the Grid, pp. 28-35. ibid., pp. 210-217.

Left: Fig 42. The New England Farmhouse, Zero Energy Design: <http://www.zeroenergy.com/p_ new_england_farmhouse.html >

Fig 43. Schaler Eco-Home, Portland, Oregon: <https://www.ctzeroenergychallenge.com>

Fig 44. Taliesin Mod.Fab, Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture: <www.studiolimited.com>

CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY

6.0 Summary There is no one clear set solution to “building sustainable” when it comes to timber construction. The advantages to the method include aspects of economy, health, well-being, flexibility, lifestyle, efficiency and the environment, however, there needs to be a great deal of rigour and understanding on both the designer’s and the contractor’s part to ensure decisions are as sustainable as possible. This should take into consideration the pros and cons of different methods and the experience of those involved. Simple changes to the standard can make a big difference when implemented on a large scale; for the everyday home, lowtech strategies can be just as effective as the high-tech. Reinventing the wheel is beyond the ability of most contractors, and for innovative designs to be more replicable, they need to make use of conventional construction techniques in more efficient ways. Even when high-tech designs are implemented successfully, there is no guarantee they will perform as intended. If lessons can be learned from the failings of previous attempts to improve efficiency, rather than rolling out the same substandard designs and hoping for the best, this alone will make a big difference. This is not to say that architects should be afraid of pushing the boat, quite the contrary, but design approaches, however elaborate, need to consider issues such as energy performance, health, ecology and longevity in the context of basic lifestyle trends, human habits and changes in fashion. Reaching more sustainable end goals need not rely on changing peoples’ habits, but instead seek practical solutions to improve our lives without throwing away resources. An exert from ‘Smart Architecture’ suggests: “The ultimate architectural plan so far has been an illusion... slowly, very slowly, designers are beginning to realize that the future has no final stasis in store... Everything, including ideas about building, will always be changing... The efficiency of building functionality needs to increase drastically. It is the human challenge of all times: do more with less. What is meant by ‘more’ and ‘less’ needs to be redefined over and over again. In some cases this may lead to flexibility and even throwaway buildings... in others the message is 78

durability. The common factor is sustainability achieved by tuning quality to the foreseeable future.”60 Sustainability in design has an important role to play, not just in reducing environmental strain, but also allowing individuals to live on a budget, make our lives easier and create healthier environments to live in. Health should be considered holistically, not just in terms of physical metrics, but also social and psychological. The World Health Organisation states: “Health is a state of complete physical mental and social well-being and not merely an absence of disease.”61 The buildings that stand the test of time are the ones that make us feel good, with the special attention to detail that makes them worthy of the job. Performance indicators such as LEED can be misleading for individuals, and steps should be taken to understand why a home is Energy Star or Passivhaus certified, and whether the strategies involved are appropriate for other designs. Designs also need to be much smarter, by combining the science of building with the ‘wants’, ‘needs’ and behaviour of the occupants and developing solutions which are replicable on a larger scale. Avoiding “one-size fits all” approaches helps prevent over-engineered cookie-cutter designs, which do not work for their owners. By paraphrasing John Ruskin, Borer and Harris summarize: “An environmentally-friendly building has to be people-friendly too. This usually means being designed and built in such a way that it can respond to changing demands of its function, layout and technical performance. Buildings designed to be flexible and adaptable, with an obvious and accessible structure and built-in ease of maintenance, are the most loved and cared for and therefore the most long-lasting.” 62

Hinte, Neelan, Vink and Vollaard, Smart Architecture, pp. 12-13. Borer and Harris, The Whole House Book, p. 45. 62 ibid., pp. 3-4. 60 61

People often look for commodity in a new home, and ways of saving money, as well as reduced maintenance. These aspects equate to flexibility when considered in terms of future potential and economy; gimmicks and fashion trends are short lived in architecture, and the test of a building is in how well it stands when these aspects are stripped away and replaced for something new. When uncertainties make it impractical to design for the future, designs might allow for much greater margins of uncertainty in how people will use their homes, and their knowledge of maintaining them. It should be assumed that every technical component and cosmetic aspect will be changed or updated, from surface finishes and light fixtures to mechanical systems. Even structural alterations will likely be made, and designs should make it as easy as possible for this to happen, whilst minimising the financial and environmental cost of doing so. It may involve more robust, low -tech, low-cost and low-maintenance solutions for mainstream construction, or it may involve more complex solutions which focus spending on long-term aspects, whilst saving money on areas more likely to change. Whatever the case may be, designs need to be much “looser” for their occupants, make allowances for future generations and consider the role of short-term design decisions on the long-term sustainability of the building.

Right: Fig 45. Irby House, The Sea Ranch, California: James Grayson Trulove, 25 Houses Under 2500 Square Feet (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2002).

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