Landscape Urbanism: a Way to Water Resilient City by tugcealp

IAUD- INTERNATIONAL PROGRAM in ARCHITECTURE& URBAN DESIGN Graduate School of Science and Technology, Meiji University

LANDSCAPEURBANISM: aWAYtoWATERRESILIENTCITY Through a case study of Tokyo Bay Area

Masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Thesis by TUGCE ALP SUPERVISOR: Assoc. Prof. HIROYUKI SASAKI

Acknowledgement This thesis would not have been possible without the guidance and the help of several individuals. First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Hiroyuki Sasaki whose support and encouragement thoroughly guided my research. He consistently advised me with his enthusiasm and interest for this study and steered me in the right direction whenever he thought I needed it. I would also like to thank to Masami Kobayashi, Manuel Tardits, Davisi Boontharm, those who allow their time to discuss and provide their suggestions. I gratefully acknowledge the funding received towards my master education in Tokyo, Japan from the Republic of Turkey, Ministry of National Education’s Scholarship for Graduate Education in Foreign Countries. Moreover I would like to thank all I-AUD members and students who helped me a lot during my master education in Tokyo, whenever Turkish Mama needs their help. Also I want to show my heartfelt gratitude to my dear friends, Cigdem, Esin, Bahadır, Ceren and Esra for they always be there whenever I need a warm voice and motivation. Among those, there are the most precious people without whom I would not have finished the hardest time of my life: my family. With their motivation, understanding and love, I was able to overcome from this 2 year process. They were by me during the happy and hard moments, reminding me that there is a fun life out there. I would like to express my deepest thankful and love to them: my dear father and mother, my sisters Ozge and Zeliha and their husbands Emir and Emre; and one little naive creature, to whom just to think of the idea coming together was making me relax when the times I was stressful and blasé: my little niece, Sude. Thank you for making this processes a more bearable and memorable one. 2

Abstraction Increasing concentration of people, economic activities, industry, transportation, agriculture and consumer practices in urban areas across the planet have led to ever-increasing levels of carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases in our atmosphere- climate change. Climate change is likely to increase the frequency, intensity, and duration of extreme events in unpredictable ways such as sea level increase, more intense rainstorms, droughts and heat waves. Although, todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s world cities are facing with different kind of risks caused by climate changes, beside natural disasters, not enough attention and solutions are given to improve the susceptibility of the cities. Resilient city is one of the recent terms in urban agenda that refers to a city with high capacity to withstand the impact of these risks through resistance or adapt, while keeping its essential functions and bounce back after a shock (UNISDR, 2012). Moreover as spatial designers, our challenge is to find out design solutions to make cities more resilient. Water resiliency is one the categories under the resiliency topic and in a spatial design manner it considers how much cities under the water related hazards risks are prepared, durable and adaptable to future possible risks. What kind of preventions, solutions or interventions are developed, what kind of approach is held both in small and large scale urban development projects, etc. Moreover the most important thing is how to deal with it: adapt or avoid. Nature as a resilient and complex system by itself, is a fundamental element for us to understand; and to achieve resiliency of urban areas, its features should be integrated into our works. Landscape urbanism is one of the urban planning theories which puts landscape and ecology in a central place in the structuring and planning of living, built environment and try to create rich and varied opportunities to interact with nature. This research aims to understand the landscape urbanism theory from a water resiliency perspective and via reviewing of literature on the topics of landscape urbanism and water resiliency; so on linking these themes to each other and analyzing different case studies to find out spatial design principles and strategies, and further applying these findings on design of the study site, which is Harumi Island, Tokyo Bay.

Keywords: climate change, resilient city, water resiliency, ecology, landscape urbanism 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction

1.1 Future Challenges & motivation of the research 1.2 Overview of the Study

1.3 Aims & Objectives 1.4 Methodology

PART I RESEARCH CONTEXT and FRAMEWORK 2. Theoretical Framework

2.1 Resiliency in Urban Context 2.2 Water Related hazards as Results of Climate Change 2.3 How to reach Water Resiliency in Urban Context under the threat of Climate Change? 2.4 Landscape Urbanism: a way to Water Resilient city?

2.5 Emergence of the Landscape Urbanism Theory& Debates 2.6 Understanding Landscape Urbanism Theory

2.7 Landscape urbanism practices

3. Case Studies and Practices

3.1 FRESHKILLS PARK, STATEN ISLAND, NEW YORK 3.2 DRYLINE, New York

3.3 WATERISLAND, Neuilly-sur-Marne, France

4. Study Site Introduction

4.1 Tokyo under the threat of climate change

4.2 Tokyo Bay: Historical Development 4.3 Tokyo Bay Future Challenges

4.4 Design Proposal for Tokyo Olympics, 2020 4.5 Tokyo Bay: Challenge of Olympics 2020

PART II EXPLORING DESIGN SOLUTIONS

5. Design Study

5.1 Analysis for Tokyo Bay and Harumi Island 5.2 Design Conceptualization for Tokyo Bay 5.3 Harumi Island, Athlete’s Olympic Village for 2020- Tokyo Metropolitan Government’s Proposal

5.4 Harumi Island, Design Proposal by Author 5.5 Design Principles

PART III DISCUSSION and CONCLUDING REMARKS

6. Conclusion

6.2 Further research

6.1 Concluding Remarks

REFERENCES 4

PART I

RESEARCH CONTEXT and FRAMEWORK 5

â&#x20AC;?You are only two hundred thousand years old, but you have changed the face of the world. You benefit from a fabulous four-billion-year-old legacy bequeathed by the Earth.â&#x20AC;? (HOME Documentary, 2009)

1. Introduction 1.1 Future Challenges & motivation of the research 1.2. Overview of the Study 1.3 Aims & Objectives 6

1.1 Future Challenges & motivation of the research

figure1. Interconnections between people, biodiversity, ecosystem health and provision of ecosystem services, WWF living planet report, 2012

Increasing concentration of people, economic activities, industry, transportation, agriculture and consumer practices in urban areas across the planet, which is called as urbanization; is affecting the cities more and more day by day in the globalized world. According to researches, 70% of people will live in urban areas by 2050. This rapid urbanization is causing negative effects not for the city involved, but also to the entire world by the accumulation of all. Decreasing the level of natural resources like food, water etc., which result from unsustainable use of the world resources s another problem that we are on edge of. Also, ever-increasing levels of carbon dioxide and greenhouse gasses in our atmosphere across the planet causes one of the most significant changes that world cannot ignore, that is, climate change. Beside environmental degradation, this rapid urbanization pattern obviously leads to social degradation in societies; such as, increasing level of poverty, lack of access to public open spaces and public facilities (education, health), public health problems resulted from pollution and GM food consuming that people are not aware of; is increasing in societies. 7

“The urban, as the site of complex relations (economic, political, social, and cultural), requires an equally complex range of perspectives and responses that can address both current conditions and future possibilities.”

1.2. Overview of the Study Why? Given the challenges that world is facing with, this thesis is going to focus on the challenges that cities are facing with caused figure2. Verde, A., 2013 Changing considerations of urban systems subject to the changing conditions of urban environment

by climate change from the perspective of a person who can shape natural and living environment, spatial designer. Climate

As designers who are building the living environment for all, in the changing behaviors and nature of the world, to leave a sustainable and livable environment for future generations, essentially for all living creatures; we should try to seek and integrate different kind of solutions to our studies before it is too late, by looking the past theories and practices and at the same time understanding the right and wrong approaches that were held. Personally, as a person who lived and got bachelor degree in Ankara, Turkey, and now getting graduate degree in Tokyo, Japan, to see the results of the results of these changes in the cities that I lived and living, moreover in all over the world, make me think about how I can contribute to change the way of this ongoing even on a

change is likely to increase the frequency, intensity, and duration of extreme events in unpredictable ways such as sea level increase, more intense rainstorms, droughts and heat waves. Cities are becoming more and more vulnerable to the forces of nature. Although, today’s world cities are facing with different kind of risks caused by climate changes, besides natural disasters, not enough attention and solutions are given to improve the susceptibility of the cities. “Resilient City” is one of the recent concepts that try to achieve to improve cities to those risks that cities are about to face with. Moreover, a resilient city is “one that has developed capacities to help absorb future shocks and stresses to its social, economic, and technical systems and infrastructures

small scale, first as a human being and then so as to still be able to maintain essentially urban designer, with the knowledge that I the same functions, structures, systems, and identity” (reslientcity.org). learned and continue to learn. 8

Moreover, they are part of the natural world and together with nature, they should live in harmony. As urban designers, architects, and the fields related to creating living environments, we should try to understand how nature works, how it exists and with the findings we should contribute to our studies. Landscape urbanism is one of the urban planning theories which puts landscape and ecology in a fundamental place in the structuring and planning of living, built environment and try to create rich and varied opportunities to interact with nature.

figure3. climate change effects

How? Cities are perfect examples of complex adaptive systems. To make cities more resilient to the potential risks nature is an essential element for us to understand. The use of ecological (rather than engineering) resilience as a powerful metaphor is one of the important ways for connecting ecology with urban planning and for achieving the resilience of these systems(Wu& Wu, 2013). Nature is resilient by itself. A natural event becomes a natural disaster only when the loss of human life and property is involved. Cities are ecosystems and habitats that different kinds of organisms dwell.

Site Tokyo is one of the advanced cities that find itself at the forefront of such environmental challenges. Beside, as the city that I am living now, in this research thesis, Tokyo will be the study site. The upcoming Olympics in 2020 in Tokyo looks like going the affect the city`s physical and social structure in a significant way. Tokyo Bay, one of the newest constructed areas in Tokyo, has been chosen as Olympics area that the sports events will be carried out. Hence new design and plan notes are proposed for the area recently. Further of this thesis research, features of the Bay Area and new design proposal for Olympics will be analyzed and criticized according to water resiliency spatial design principles. Moreover, in the design phase of the thesis study, a new design concept eliminate in will be proposed in the light of the information that will be explained in research part of the thesis. 9

1.3 Aims & Objectives This thesis aims to look at the landscape urbanism theory literature from a water resiliency perspective and to understand and as well as try to criticize the meaning and the practices of the theories and definitions; via reviewing of literature on the topics of landscape urbanism and water resiliency, so on linking these themes to each other and analyzing and criticizing of different case studies that have been practiced. In this sense, emphasis is given to understand the underlying factors behind the problems and the theories, and to find out how urban and landscape design; landscape urbanism, can be a tool to solve the problems related with climate change water related risks while at the same time being an objective. Briefly the two main topics are elaborated to construct a framework to present landscape urbanism as a powerful tool for 1.4 Methodology creation of water resilient environments. Firstly, resiliency in urban context and water resiliency will be explained and the theory Landscape becomes the medium through of landscape urbanism will be examined thwhich to formulate and articulate solutions rough the case studies and practices. for the integration of infrastructure with viab- In design part, the site will be analyzed from le programming that can address the pres- different time- space scales (long term- bigsing issues facing many cities around the ger scale, short term- smaller scale) and world. In effect, landscape plays a more stru- perspectives (history, environment, future ctured role in the development of new inf- projections, etc.). After analysis, design work rastructure, raising the question: can lands- will be done for these different scales whicape itself be considered infrastructure, ch are: Tokyo- Tokyo Bay- Olympic Village. when acting as a kind of conveyance or dis- With the light of knowledge from research tribution network capable of moving peop- part, different design solutions that are conle and supporting a variety of living systems? nected with each other will be proposed. 10

2. Theoretical Framework 2.1 Resiliency in Urban Context 2.2 Water Related hazards as Results of Climate Change 2.3 How to reach Water Resiliency in Urban Context under the Threat of Climate Change? 2.4 Landscape Urbanism: a way to Water Resilient city? 2.5 Emergence of the Landscape Urbanism Theory& Debates 2.6 Understanding Landscape Urbanism Theory 12

2.1 Resiliency in Urban Context The concept of resilience is applied in urban context several times. Moreover it is borrowed from the researches on ecological systems that challenge by the external factor related stresses and disturbances (Jabareen, 2012). One of the wider definition of urban resilience made by Meerow, Newell and Stults: figure4. ARUP, City Resilience Framework Dimensions of City Resiliency

figure5. ARUP, City Resilience Framework How a resilient city gets effected by a shock?

“Urban resilience refers to the ability of an urban system-and all its constituent socioecological and socio-technical networks across temporal and spatial scales-to maintain or rapidly return to desire functions in the face of a disturbance, to adapt to change, and to quickly transform systems that limit current or future adaptive capacity.”(2015) This definition of urban resilience shows us that there is a lot of dimensions and disciplines that we should consider and work together when it comes to city which is a complex, multi-dimensional and adaptive system., from social to spatial, technological to ecological, from large scale to small scale’ etc. As people involving in the act of creating resilient cities, resilience should be addressed in all dimensions. Aiming the resiliency in urban systems, is an opportunity for that city to create for systemic innovation and new development paths for that city. On the other hand if a city ha ‘vulnerable` urban systems to the risks, even in a small shock, the results can be dramatic in many ways(Wong& Brown, 2009). 13

2.2. Water Related hazards as Results of Climate Change Many urbanized areas in worldwide generally located in deltas, along costs and rivers. Moreover these areas are more under the exposure to accelerated water related risks by climate change, on their urban infrastructure, social and ecological systems. According to ARUP, one of the most significant problems that climate change has effect on cities, is water supply and to supply the demand for water, city administrations are searching for different solutions at the same time dealing with the other problems that occurs as a result of climate change: extreme rainfall and drought, rising sea levels and flooding (2011). Sea level rise is one of the long term result of climate change and according to projections of the latest International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) sea level rise could be 480 millimeters by the year 2100, that account changes in the ice sheets, make this figure four times higher, melting ice. In accordance with this rise in sea level, hundreds of millions of people who live in cities situated close to vulnerable coastlines, river flood plains and river deltas, are under a great threat. Even the non-coastal cities, located besides rivers or in the foothills of mountains, will also face the problem of flooding as a result of extreme and intense frequency of rainfall. While some of the cities will suffer from extreme rainfallsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; some will from droughts more extreme than ever before. Moreover cities will be dealing with reduced levels of fresh water sources (ARUP, 2011).

image1. Illinois state fair flooding, 2016 Retrieved from : http://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-midwestflooding-20151230-story.html

image2. Chennai flooding, 2015 Retrieved from : http://edition.cnn.com/2015/12/03/asia/gallery/ india-floods/index.html

Today world cities already started to face with these extreme events, beside other hazards that Mother Nature creates. With the experiences of us today and past and also with these future predictions that we have, we should start to act to decrease the level of the possible losses on society, ecology and economy. As mentioned above, urban resiliency as a concept is one of the important movements that aims these issues and tries to find solutions and applications that can be implemented to those areas under the possible risks. In this sense, water resiliency in urban context is one of the categories under the vast resiliency issue. 14

figure6. Urban Water Management Transitions Framework (Brown et al., 2008)

2.3. How to reach Water Resiliency in Urban spatial planning and urban design, improContextunderthethreatofClimateChange? ving drainage network, aiming Water Sensitive City by different kind of spatial design In this sense, water resiliency in urban con- solutions, harvesting rainwater and rechartext in spatial design manner, considers ging groundwater. Although there is plenty how much cities under the water related of new technologies and infrastructure dehazards risks are prepared, durable and velopment on urban water sustainability adaptable to future possible risks. What goal over the last 20 years, it is seen that kind of preventions, solutions or inventi- the effect of these developments remains ons are developed, what kind of approach too small and slow. Hence many cities are is held both in small and large scale urban seeking for new kind of approaches rather development projects, etc.. Moreover the than conventional ones on sustainable or most important thing is how to deal with water sensitive alternatives (Wong& Brown, it: adapt or avoid? The choice is obvious. 2009). As also ARUP mentioned, consideARUP (2011), under the reality of flooding ring Water Sensitive Design approaches on and other water related hazards, suggest cities to create a water and flood management systems; such as, retention, storage, and reuse strategies that are integrated into

shaping urban and natural environments for small or bigger scale urban developments, is one of the important principles to reach Water Resiliency in urban context. 15

2.4 Landscape Urbanism: a way to Water Resilient city? As Wong& Brown stated above, to achieve the Water Sensitive city which is more adaptable and resilient, there need to be a comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach on social, ecologic and economy dimensions of the movement. Hence, after these results of the researches on water resiliency and water sensitivity in urban context, I searched different kind of approaches on urban design that include all of these features in itself. Although it can

changes in urban areas ( rapid urbanization, climate change related problems, etc.) is likely to be a way to water resilient city that can represent all these features in its content. However we cannot say that it is not a design theory that introduce special design principles or solutions into water resiliency even not into its own content It is an approach to examine the complex urban conditions through the lens of `landscape`. Although there is plenty of theories use landscape as their one of their design element, generally they are considered from the view of aesthetics and spatial amenities. However in the urban landscapes must be functional

be said that there are plenty of comprehensive and interdisciplinary movements and approaches in the past or recent decades, that include water sensitivity as one of their aspect, from the point resiliency, most of them are not effectively explanatory and practiced yet. According to ARUP`s definition of resiliency, a system should present the features shown in the graphic below. Landscape urbanism as a comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach that developed to deal with the previously mentioned

beyond providing spatial amenities’ they should be a way to achieve of sustainable water management, micro-climate influences, facilitation of carbon sinks and use for food production on the edge of effects of climate change(Wong& Brown, 2009). So the focus of this research is as a tool for creating functional landscapes to water resiliency is landscape urbanism theory which is one of the theories emerged against to traditional approaches of landscape design. In coming parts, emergence of the theory and the meaning and aims will be explained in detail.

figure7. “Resilient Landscapes’ cycles” (Verde,2013)

figure8. “Resilient Landscapes’ urban standards renovation” (Verde,2013)

2.5 Emergence of the Landscape Urbanism Theory& Debates “If there is to be a ‘new urbanism’ it will not be based on the twin fantasies of order and omnipotence; it will be staging of uncertainty.” Rem Koolhaas, 1994

In the 21st century world`s changing conditions, today, city planning and design major is getting more significant than ever before to find out how cities should be shaped by the people who is majoring in spatial design. Landscape urbanism emerged in recent decades, at United States with Harvard Graduate School of Design and University of Pennsylvania, as an alternative to “New Urbanism” trend. One of the main critiques that landscape urbanism mentions is that neo- traditional urban design perspective is not adequate to deal with the rapid change in urban areas that is ascendency urbanization pattern (Waldheim, 2011). Hence it aims to change this urban design perspective with a new understanding that can contribute to changes in urban environment effectively.

There are a lot of debates and movements on nature& ecology related spatial design issues in past& current literature and practices. Like landscape urbanism; ecological design (Hough 1995, Van der Ryn and Cowan 1996, Thompson and Steiner 1997, Corner 1997, Johnson and Hill 2002, Berger and Brown 2009, Saunders 2012), landscape planning (Steiner 2002, Leitão and Ahern 2002, Saunders 2012), sustainable design and planning (Calthorpe and Van der Ryn 1986, Lyle 1994, Hester 2006, Benson and Roe 2007, Newman and Jennings 2008, Newman et al. 2009), green infrastructure (Spirn 1991, Wenk 2002, Benedict and McMahon 2006, Ahern 2007), green urbanism (Beatley 2000, Lehmann 2010) are some of the movements puts nature in the center of urban planning and design. Assargard in her master thesis states that, general discourse is that the theories like landscape urbanism, ecological urbanism and green urbanism are all focus on urban and landscape ecology via drawing attention to ecological, social and other aspects of urban and natural landscapes as well as by focusing on design issues. 17

However,

what

differentiate

landscape

“In many ways, the environmental crisis is design

urbanism from others is that its vast and boundless context extends beyond issues of sustainable cities (2011). While main approach of green urbanism and ecological urbanism is to reach sustainability by focusing on more urban areas and using landscape as an one of the ecological elements to reach that aim, landscape urbanism consider the landscape and urban environment together as a tool and as well as an aim to create adaptable living and natural environment. On the other hand, some researchers states that ecological urbanism is improved version of the landscape urbanism theory in and it widens lands-

crisis. It is a consequence of how things are made, buildings are constructed, and landscapes are used. Design manifests culture and culture rests firmly on the foundation of what we believe to be true about the world. Our forms of agriculture, architecture, engineering, and industry are derived from design epistemologies incompatible with nature’s own. It is clear that we have not given design a rich enough context. We have used design cleverly in the service of narrowly defined human interests but have neglected its relationship with our fellow creatures.” (Wu& Wu’ 2013)

cape urbanism context and it answering the climate change issues more effectively. All of these theories and movements are somehow related to each other. This variety of related topics and divergence of landscape urbanism sometimes cause difficulty the define what the theory is about; however, the concept of “using landscape as a model” for urbanism holds the framework together (Assargård, 2011).

figure9. conceptual drawing by author 18

2.6 Understanding Landscape Urbanism Theory Professionally landscape architecture and urban planning, in practice, generally have been applied separately from each other which is caused by conflicting approaches and working scales. Moreover by society, maybe because of as a result of this gap between this professions, city and nature are generally perceived as separately. We work in cities (urbanized areas), and we go to recreational areas inside the city (parks and gardens) or to the nature (forests, beaches, etc.) outside the city to rest. Also the life styles of today`s society that imposed by the modernized world, cause the decline of the communication between nature and people day by day. However landscape urbanism seeks a way that integrate nature and urban area spatially as well as socially. It examines for ways of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;the city in the landscape and landscape in the city` (Levy, 2011). It merges two majors into a hybrid way of thinking and technique and aims to combine the strong points of both landscape design and urban planning. Rather than putting visual approaches of landscape architecture as the main aim, it takes this feature as a tool and integrate it with urban planning`s strategic development features and create an interdisciplinary approach of strategically development of urban planning. 19

figure10. conceptual drawing by author

James Corner states that landscape urbanism is concerned with the “vast organizing fields that establish new conditions for future development” and “orchestrating a collective of experts and ideas towards a new synthesis” (Weller, 2008). Moreover Weller lists the main aims of the theory like listed below in his article, Landscape (Sub)Urbanism in Theory and Practice: • include within the purview of design all that is in the landscape- infrastructure and buildings, etc., and shuffle across scales so as to bridge the divides between landscape design, landscape ecology, and landscape planning • bring greater creativity to planning and greater rationality to design operations

• conceptualize and then directly engage the city and its landscape as a hybridized, natural, chaotic ecology • emphasize the creative and temporal agency of ecology in the formation of urban life as opposed to envisaging an ideal equilibrium between two entities • formerly known as culture and nature • understand and manipulate the forces at work behind things and less with the resultant aesthetic qualities of things • interpret and then represent landscape systems so that these systems can in turn influence urban forms, processes, and patterns • prefer open- ended (indeterminate and catalytic) design strategies as opposed to formal compositions and master plans Landscape urbanism (2008). 20

These aims maybe not new for landscape architects and definitely there are a lot of examples in the history of city planning, architecture and landscape architecture that tries to form the city via landscape like Boston Back Fens by Olmsted, Garden Cities of Ebenezer Howard and Villa Radieuse by le Corbusier .

7) architectural and landscape architectural design as the produc¬tion of isolated objects; superficial contextualism and commercial styling of places either aloof to, or in some way merely compensat¬ing for the instrumentalities of the world around; 8) modernist planning and its pretence to control and contempo¬rary planning which is devoid of the creative processes common to design processes; 9) McHargian binary coding between natu-

However, as Hight says landscape urbanism suggest “ neither a new formalism nor a renewed emphasis on landscape in the city, is not a theory of design, but promises to innovate at the level of design practice. It has emerged from a perceived crisis in which the traditional disciplines of architecture and urbanism are thought to be incapable of engaging the contemporary built environment.” (Muir, 2011) Moreover in his another article, he also states that landscape urbanism rejects:

Another significant researcher on the topic, James Corner divides landscape urbanism into four themes that help us to understand the dimensions of the theory: time-space relations to space- human relations in the article Terra Fluxus (2006):

1) the Garden (paradise) as landscape architecture’s ur-metaphor 2) the landscape as urbanism’s other, as a repressed, gendered, and passive layer; 3) a puritanical nature that needs to be reinstated as such to effect equilibrium between nature and culture; 4) designing toward fixed and final objects or aesthetic intuitions regarding formal composition; 5) style, image, scene, and symbolism as dominant aspects of design; 6) neo-conservative new urbanism on the one hand and avant-garde originality on the other;

• Processes over time – “how things work in space and time.” As one of the main feature of the theory emphasizes on process, time is an evolving’ dynamic and flexible design factor • The Staging of Surfaces – horizontal surface as “field of action” • The operational or Working MethodNew modes of representation and techniques for design to be established. • The Imaginary – public space as “containers of collective memory and desire” and “places for geographic and social imagination to extend new relationships and sets of possibilities.”

re and culture. ( Weller,2007)

3. Case Studies and Practices 3.1. FRESHKILLS PARK, STATEN ISLAND, NEW YORK 3.2. DRYLINE, New York 3.3. WATERISLAND, Neuilly-sur-Marne, France 22

Landscape Urbanism is one of the theoretical approach that explains general aim of the theory rather than giving certain defined design rules and codes- a priori (conceptually defined) and a posteriori knowledge (proven through experience). Hence we cannot define or categorize design rules exactly for the theory but we can try to understand the theory through the practices by analyzing and comparing them according to their applications and the results.

3.1 FRESHKILLS PARK, STATEN ISLAND, NEW YORK- James Corner and Field Operations New York City’s Fresh Kills, James Corner and his Field Operations is one of forefront practices for us to understand the theory. Fresh Kills Landfill was opened as a temporary waste land for New York City in 1947, along the western coast of Staten Island to accommodate an increasing levels of waste as a result of explosion in population and so on consumption in post-World War II United States. As the population exploded, so did its consumption of unrecyclable and disposable goods. However it became a 50- year solution for the waste from all five boroughs the city. “Thus the landfill - once

In this part, according to the issues mentioned before, 3 case studies are chosen from the world which are similar problems and approach which is practicing landscape urbanism theory to achieve the resiliency of the site. The aim of the case study part is to understand how water resiliency is con- a 2,200-acre, sea level wetland - turned into sidered by professionals and what kind of 2,200 acres of hills as high as 200-feet that principles and approaches are developed buried nearly 30,000 tons of trash daily by to solve the problems by putting landscape the 1990s.” It became the largest landfill in on center. the world until it was shutdown in 2001. 23

image 3&4. Freshkills Park, before& after Retrieved from : http://www.cbc.ca/radio/

“One thing is for sure: The future of Freshkills’ humanengineered ecosystem looks a hell of a lot better its recent past. It’s laudable that the city has made ecological balance a priority at all—environmental interests could have just as easily been cast aside in favor of a more traditional, people-centric park. Now, it’s about balancing the needs of all the various creatures clamoring for a breath of fresh air and clean grass in an intensely urbanized landscape.” (Bliss, 2017)

After the negative impacts of the landfill to the surrounding neighborhoods, socially and environmentally, were recognized by the city and the state, it is decided to close the site. Moreover, a 30-year master plan developed for the restoration of a large landscape and includes reclaiming much of the toxic wetlands that surround and penetrate the former landfill. The park includes five main areas that provide natural habitats for wildlife, the recovery of the natural topography, programming for a variety of activities and circulation throughout the 2,200-acre expanse. The plan is divided into three ten-year phases the first of which includes opening South and North Park and the Confluence to the public, completing a roadway to connect to the West Shore Expressway, opening of recreational facilities, early programs for non-profit and commercial development, and closing and capping the East and West mounds of the landfill, according to the Draft Master Plan. Currently, Fresh Kills Park hosts an annual Sneak Peak at the park’s development which allows the public to preview its transformation. 24

figure11. growing a parkland over time retrived from: http://www.archdaily.com/339133/landfill-reclamation-fresh-killspark-develops-as-a-natural-coastal-buffer-and-parkland-for-staten-island

They developed a layered design plan that each layer create an ecology developing over time and all these layer constitute the park as one identical public place. According to Czerniak, Cornerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s team give more importance to parkâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s function itself rather than its image and the park design reflect a resilient and legible approach for the site. Moreover she explains that to be open to changes over time while keeping its identity is one of the important indicators to show a parkâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s resilience capacity with its functional organization (2007). Layers which are threads (linear pathways and circulation), mats

(surfaces and fields) and islands (clusters and groups) ensure the resilience of the park Hurricane Sandy showed how important the developing coastal areas as green areas for protection of the inland areas because of that the permeable soil of wetlands absorb much of the storm surge and redistribute the accumulating water, which concrete and asphalt cannot. The wetlands and natural vegetation of the park, which has grown in since the landfill being filled in 2001, helped buffer the impact on neighboring residential areas in Travis, Bulls Head, New Springville and Arden Heights.

figure12. habitat diversification over time retrived from: https://katarinamilos.wordpress.com/2014/03/26/freshkills-park/

3.2 â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;BIG U- Dryline, New York Afterthe HurricaneSandyruinedalotofareas and caused lots of damage socially, environmentally and economically. The state started to put laws and regulations to increase the resiliency of the city. To prevent a possible future damage before, a big infrastructure project is designed by BIG, that is called `Dryline` which is a perfectly named for New York where the successful `High Line` and underground `Low Line` project that is under construction . The results of Hurricane Sandy was big: over 300,000 homes were left damaged or destroyed and nearly 20 billion dollars of destruction was caused in total (Kohlstedt, 2015 ). The cost for the first part of the project recorded as few hundred million. However to prevent bigger lost on economically, especially socially and environmentally, to take measures investing money on such projects are more effective and significant. Building it piece by piece to reduce onetime costs and providing room for change and taking citizen`s opinions into account are some of the important lessons applied in the project that learned from previous projects like High Line.

By the BIG, the design involves a lot of mechanisms of action and through easy-to-understand sketches and diagrams, they explains the project effectively. Some of the design interventions are: - creation of grand plan that involves various steps which are indented to strengthen the low fragment of the city that is affected by the incoming tides; - from terms that double as parks to sliding barriers that move into position during unusually high tides as individual interventions etc. (Kohlstedt, 2015 ). We can say that BIG takes this project as an opportunity to increase the importance and existence for the city and create more parks and civic spaces at the same time increasing the resiliency of the space. Which makes us to think the Landscape Urbanism theory`s emergence and principles: using landscape as a control tool for future challenges in the city.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;[BIG U is] a string of pearls of social and environmental amenities tailored to their specific neighborhoods, that also happens to shield their various communities from flooding.â&#x20AC;? Bjarke Ingels 26

image 5,6 and figure13. Big ‘U’, DRYLINE project images Retrieved from : https://www.lafargeholcim-foundation.org/projects/the-dryline

“The Dryline consists of multiple but linked design opportunities; each on different scales of time, size and investment; each local neighborhood tailoring its own set of programs, functions, and opportunities. Small, relatively simple projects maintain the resiliency investment momentum post-Sandy, while setting in motion the longer-term solutions that will be necessary in the future.” (Description from the video Retrieved from: https://vimeo.com/117303273) 27

image 7. WATERisLAND project images Retrieved from : https://divisare.com/projects/188316-alberto-verde-federicapennacchini-claudia-awad-europan-11-_-neuilly-sur-marne

3.3 WATERisLAND, France

Neuilly-sur-Marne, According to designers one of the most important approach they have is to work interdisciplinary. The problem cannot be solWATERisLAND is a project that aims to res- ved only by one major. Landscape as main tructure a contaminated area at high risk of focus, the relationship between urban and flooding in the suburbs of Paris. It is a lands- architectural design is emphasized. The cape project for urban reclamation, a pro- project merges natural elements together ject which intervenes, through hydraulic en- and the new landscape that created genegineering works, to reduce the flood risks. rates a strong identity and become the very Those works have been thought as daily life landmark of the territory. Finally the proareas, intermingled with nature. ject create a urban frame that is arranged It is an interdisciplinary project that fra- by empties and fillings and by fragments mework based on a urbanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, engineering, which are still connected to each other, the architectural landscape plan: a large, spre- project turn up to complex organism that is ad, botanic park, per phases that creates a unique whole. There is no clear separatiareas of leisure, formation, connection and on between urban fabric and park to provirelationship for the residents. Physical, fun- de a a continuity where different categories ctional and social aspects are reflected and intersect and with one another and invade aimed in the project. each other, but never lose their identity. 28

figure14& 15. WATERisLAND project layers& sections Retrieved from : https://divisare.com/projects/188316-alberto-verde-federicapennacchini-claudia-awad-europan-11-_-neuilly-sur-marne

â&#x20AC;&#x153;WATER isLAND recognizes the potentiality of landscape urbanism of grounding itself on town-planning dynamic processes, where the possibilities of changing a long time are favored, if compared with a static vision of a master plan. If landscape is recognized as a regenerative agent, as an active, drawing element, not only as a mere architectural background, this project can take you towards a vision of a city understood as a urban landscape, a town pervaded with a greater number of green and natural areas, able to improve the habitat together with the air and water quality, able to create new recreational places.â&#x20AC;? (Verde et al., 2011)

As Dryline project, WATERisLAND project is another intention to put landscape urbanism as a design approach to create resiliency beside socially and environmentally pleasant areas. Rather than visual aspect of landscape, the functionality is being centered.

“If woodblock prints are to be believed, the metropolis was once awash in greens and blues. Reedy riverbanks, grassy hillocks and marshes draped with willows all feature in “One Hundred Famous Views of Edo,” the 19th-century series of woodblock prints of the capital (then called Edo) by master artist Utagawa Hiroshige. Above all are the waterways, wide rivers and narrow canals colored a deep Prussian blue, crisscrossed by gently arching wooden bridges. Boats — cargo boats, piled high with barrels and steered by stooped men in sampans; pleasure boats, their blinds drawn on the courtesans and being swamp espartos within — make their way up and down these causeways. One hundred and fifty years ago, Tokyo, at least from the right angles, looked downright romantic. So the question is: What happened?” Rebecca Milner, 2014

4. Study Site Introduction 4.1 Tokyo under the threat of climate change 4.2 Tokyo Bay: Historical Development 4.3 Tokyo Bay Future Challenges 4.4 Design Proposal for Tokyo Olympics, 2020 4.5 Tokyo Bay: Challenge of Olympics 2020 30

image 8. Retrieved from : http://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2014/07/19/lifestyle/rediscovering-lost-tokyo/#.WUBeL1WLSpo

4.1 Tokyo - under the threat of climate change? Although megacities as the result of urbanization are considered as centers of economic and social development, they are the ones became the most at-risk areas for environmental challenges, particularly in developing countries in the changing world climate (Dewan, 2013). In Tokyo considers as one of the most advanced megacities, the overall planning and development trend (high riseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; high density developmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; large inf-

ment facilities and energy (Sorensen, 2011). Now it find itself at the forefront of these environmental challenges: global warming and the ongoing concretization and asphalting in the city that causing heat-island effect. Moreover the risk that city to be affected by either typhoons or sudden and short but massive downpours that is called `guerilla storms`, is much greater than ever before. (Otake, 2011). rastructure projects, create more vulnerab- According to 2015- 2025 Llyodâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s City Risk le areas and this approach will require ever Index, Tokyo is the 2nd most riskiest city larger infrastructure investments to keep behind Taipei; hurricanes, earthquakes and them supplied with water, wastewater treat flooding, etc. (Johny, 2016). 31

According the Science Council of Japan, the land in Kanto alluvial plain in which most land are locates below river flood levels and more than one- fourth of the population of Japan settles in this area; some parts of Tokyo in the river mouth delta which are below the sea level and most of the population and assets concentrates, are highly vulnerable to flooding and storm surges. Also Osaka and Nagoya in addition to Tokyo are reported as some of the most urbanized areas that facing such risks (2008). Moreover when we look at the number of

image9. Typhoon Violet,Tokyo, 13th October 1961 Retrieved from: http://vintagephoto.livejournal.com/5813115.html

days of heavy rain with a daily rainfall of 200mm over the past 30 years, it is seen that image10. Heavy flooding, Miyagi Prefecture, 2015 it is increased to about 1.5 times than the Retrieved from: http://edition.cnn.com/2015/09/12/asia/japanfirst 30 years of the 20th century; which supfloods/index.html posed to be as a result of climate change. Predictions tell that there is a certain temperature rise about 2°C, ongoing global warming and sea level rise. It is also stated that although enterprises paying attention to decrease the levels of greenhouse gases emission, t is clearly seen that there is a lack of consideration about adaptation to water related disasters (Science Council of Japan, 2008). According to Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology “ Tokyo has shown great resilience in reco(MEXT), Japan Meteorological Agency vering from the destruction of the twenti(JMA), Ministry of the Environment (MOE)`s eth century; however, recent and current report, Climate Change and Its Impacts in planning approaches, with their failure Japan, the estimated flood areas causes by to address Tokyo’s vulnerability to flood storm surge due to changing sea levels and and fire, have reduced the city’s resilience typhoon strength are in western Japan in and provoke the risks of future disasters” 2100, are the ones less precautions are ta(Sorensen, 2011). ken. The map created by them, shows three major bays in danger (Tokyo Bay, Ise Bay and The question is what kind of attituOsaka Bay) for 2100 and those vulnerable de that Tokyo will represent to theareas are comparatively old landfills (2009). se ongoing changes and future risks. 32

4.2 Tokyo Bay

- Historical Development

image 11. Tokyo according to the “First Capital Region Plan” and the proposal by Kano Kuro for reclaiming lands in Tokyo Bay in 1958 (Pernice, 2007)

(This part of the research is mainly referenced from the article of Raffaele PERNICE, The Issue of Tokyo Bay’s Reclaimed Lands as the Origin of Urban Utopias in Modern Japanese Architecture, 2007). Tokyo Bay was used as a food resource to the people of Edo by supplying animal protein. Today it is also used for fishing but in smaller scale as it is now a ground for accumulating waste from the industrial lands and ports built on reclaimed lands in the past. Reclamation started in the late Meiji era, for a commercial seaport includes combination of anchorage and port facilities(Yamazaki& Yamazaki, 2006). After WWII, reclamation projects got intense.

figure16. Reclaimed lands of Tokyo Bay

Before WWII, year 1940 decided as the Tokyo Olympics in 1940 and Tokyo International Exposition and following it reclaiming waterfront lands in some areas between Tokyo and Yokohoma as a project was proposed, however it had no major changes. After WWII, economic growth period and Tokyo Summer Olympics in 1964 were potentials to build the city economically and spatially. Most of the waterways were buried underground and their traces paved over (Milner, 2014). 33

image 12. Plan for the urban reorganization of Tokyo by Tange Kenzo (from the article of Raffaele Pernice, 2007)

image13. Tokyo Bay Planâ&#x20AC;? by Otaka Masato (1958, general layout of the plan and detail of the residential area) (from the article of Raffaele Pernice, 2007)

As it stated at the beginning, this research`s Moreover several sectors were included for study site, Tokyo Bay Area, which is one of the development of the area: such as, rethe water vulnerable area, mostly reclaimed sidential and industrial use, electric power as a result of this period. Indeed reclama- plants, an airport, piers etc. and most of the tion of the Bay area was an extensive de- land was indented tom be used as green bate in Japan especially concerning the area. This proposal attracted many architefuture urban expansion of Tokyo and the cts and urban planners to create alternative idea originated from Tokugawa Era acts solutions and urban models for the future that reclamation started for creation of re- development of the Bay Area than can ansidential area for both working and aristoc- swer the needs and prevent problems. rat class. In 1950s, with the rapid economic growth, because of that the coastal areas are specific and strategic locations for import and several other reasons, to locate the new industrial factories, coastal areas started to become a topic for reclamation (Pernice, 2007). Furthermore, at that time `sea` was also seen as an object of economic value by real estate and also by the new laws and regulations as a result the number of people who live in the area increased (Yamazaki& Yamazaki, 2006). In 1958, to create more land to instruct by using a system of dams which is inspired from Dutch practices, president of Japan Housing Corporation Kano Kuri suggested a way to create more land for construction activities.

A lot of projects have been created by important architects and urban designers. They are called `urban utopias`. Although their architectural design were flexible â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;when we move from architectural scale to urban scale because most of their design considerations lacked analysis of urban environment, social, economic and cultural consequences. Although Metabolists had deep analysis of the area according to historical and social perspectives, and proposed a responsible, innovative design including new technologies and new urban models, because of the inflexible urban design that has rigid guidelines , their models couldn`t have been applied. 34

4.3 Tokyo Bay -on the edge Future Challenges? (This part is mainly referenced from the article: Climate Change And Coastal Defenses In Tokyo Bay by Hoshino S., Esteban M., Mikami T., Takabatake T., Shibayama T.â&#x20AC;&#x2122; 2012) Though the cities around Tokyo Bay are generally protected by coastal structures against storm surge. Moreover it is expected that the combination of sea level rise and an increase in typhoon intensity could eventually affect the area strongly. From the point of an engineer, in the article it is stated that strengthening of these defenses to mitigate against these effects of climate change is required. The combined effect of an increase in typhoon intensity and sea level rise could pose significant challenges to coastal area in Tokyo. Moreover current Japanese construction policy specifies that coastal defenses in the Tokyo Bay area should be constructed to a level of +4m above Tokyo water level (+4m T.P., representing

image14: Neo-Tokyo, from the movie â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Akiraâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

Moreover they state that when the population density and elevation map at Tokyo Bay are considered, it can be said that the damage will be more severe at Tokyo city than in other areas, given that a large part of the city is low-lying and that it concentrates a significant proportion of the population and economic activity of the region. They conclude their article by stating that, the level of defenses could be inadequate by the end of the 21st century, and that consideration should be given to alternative defensive measures or an inc-

rease in the required protection level from the point of view of engineering. Howe3m against storm surge and 1m against ver as Spatial designer we should seek high tides), though many old structures more adaptive and innovative ways to crehave been located to a lower level areas. ate a city not depending on engineering. 35

image15. Olympics Venues` Locations

4.4 Official Design Proposal for Tokyo Olympics, 2020 -a criticism â&#x20AC;&#x153;We expect further development of Tokyo Bay to particularly benefit landownersâ&#x20AC;? Peter Eadon-Clarke and Nat Ishino, analysts at Macquarie Securities Ltd Tokyo Bay Area Design for Tokyo Olympics is revealed currently with the renderings that looks fancy with the big green and building facilities. There is a big expectation from the event economically from this upcoming event especially on construction sector just like the summer Olympics in 1964. Tokyo 2020 Bid Committee stated that about 90 percent of the competition venues will be located within 8 kilometers (5 miles) of the Olympic Village in Harumi, where is a reclaimed land about 2 miles southeast of downtown Tokyo .

image16. Tokyo 2020 Olympic Village

image17. Tokyo 2020 Olympic Village

image18. Tokyo 2020 Olympic Velodrome

In the Olympic Village complex site which will be located in the middle of two main competition zone, luxury apartments with the view of Tokyo Bay, will be built and 10,860 residential units will be spread across about two-dozen buildings, along with training gyms, dining halls, seaside restaurants and parks (Chu& Kuwako, 2013). 36

According to The Tokyo Organizing Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games, sustainability on design of the area is one of the major aims. Wide range of emphasis on sustainability (environmentally, socially and economically) is given and the unique features and values of Japanese environment and culture is aimed to be reflected by their principles which are listed as below in the Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympics Games High-level Sustainability Plan report: - emphasizing Japanese values and aesthetics such as Japanese Omotenashi (spirit of selfless hospitality), the Japanese concept of Mottainai (sense of avoiding waste), Taru wo Shiru (what you have is all you need), and Wa wo Totte Toutoshi to Nasu (harmony is the ultimate value); - communicating Edomae (the traditional Tokyo style) and the view of nature having roots in socio-ecological production landscapes to the world; and - using cutting-edge technologies (advanced energy saving, renewable energies, recycling and other green technologies, etc.) and incorporating these into the social system (2016).

When we look at the expectations from The Olympics we can say that Japan is waiting a great development in Tokyo city especially economically by using this event as a chance to create new constructions and tourism attractions. Social and environmental issues are also considered according to their statements and sustainability and high-tech developments are emphasized by their conventions.

4.5 Challenge of Olympics 2020 -on the edge an OPPORTUNITY or a THREAT? My conclusion about the past urban development in Japan, because the problems and the conditions of 1950s the considerations on urban development strategies by administrators and spatial designers were mainly on creating an economy and the pressing need for additional space in rapidly expanding city that recovering from WWII. However, environmental and social considerations were lacking. After 1980s when the rapid urbanization in Tokyo started to show its effects, these issues become more important. At the same time, in the world social and environmental awareness were increasing due to the problems that world cities were facing as the result of same issue, that is urbanization. Many urban and architectural movements, like ecological urbanism, sustainability, etc., appeared to find the solutions to these problems in worldwide. In Japan, although the solutions to these environmental issues were mainly technological innovations through engineering and architecture construction, less interest is given to landscape and urban design approaches. 37

image 19. 100 views of Edo by Utagawa Hiroshige Retrived from: http://traveljapanblog.com

image 20. Shibuyagawa-river Retrived from: http://shibuya246.com

Tatsuya Hiraga says that the city Edo, the old name of Tokyo, constitute as the original form for Tokyo`s urban structure and it had been the first capital in Japanese history to be built within a downstream area. There were a lot of implementations in early Edo period like adjusting the flow channel of the Tone River and the improvement of Tamagawa Canal, that lead to shape a beautiful townscape and stable society by connection of various water basins(2015). However the relationship between the city and its water started to lost as a consequence of the materialistic society of 20thcentury: the waterways started to be replaced by modern transpiration systemsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; railways and highways. As Hiraga`s assumption because of the connections between water and mineral sources which is benefitted for over several tens of thousands years is destroyed, the self-recovery functions of the city of Tokyo, that is nature, will be lost. Today Tokyo is going to once again hold an important event, Tokyo Olympics, 2020. And as most of the cities that held such an event, faced with a lot of changes and challenges, spatially and socially, after and before the event was held, Tokyo is also on the edge of these challenges. In this globalized world, most of the city administrators see this kind of a situation as an opportunity to create economy and attractiveness for the urban development generally 38

thinking by globally and as a result different kind of design projects is proposed. Although there are some good design examples of these event areas, the design considerations by most of them were about the attractiveness of the environment and get attention mostly from outsiders. This kind of approach having lack consideration on local people and environment, existing conditions and future projections of the areas, generally caused gentrification of the areas that constructed and afterward social and environmental problems occurred. Hence for Tokyo, now, it is important to consider the local environment and people, while at the same time considering the risks that the current climate change may incur and the problems that city is facing with. As the architects did in 1950sâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (considering conditions of the dayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, economy and rapid growth), the architects, urban and landscape designers of today should try to find the ways to solve the problems and take preventions for the future risks of today by working together. However the question is although the sustainability and green environment emphasized by the Olympics` committee by the principles that they listed for the design of the site: according to challenges that mentioned in previous parts, how much water resiliency and future risks are considered and is there any attention to solve this upcoming problems that Tokyo is already on the edge 39

PART II

EXPLORING DESIGN SOLUTIONS 40

5. Design Study 5.1 Analysis for Tokyo Bay and Harumi Island 5.2 Design Conceptualization for Tokyo Bay 5.3 Harumi Island, Athleteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Olympic Village for 2020Tokyo Metropolitan Governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Proposal 5.4 Harumi Island, Design Proposal by Author 5.5 Design Principles 41

5.1 Analysis for Tokyo Bay and Harumi Island Tokyo is one of the world cities located on a place that is already risky for natural hazards, beside she is going to face with future risks of climate change; like sea-level rise, extreme rainfalls, etc. Before going into design state, I tried to create a conceptual design for larger scale of Tokyo. What kind of strategies can be developed to create more resilient city to future risks in larger scales? In larger scale, I conceptualized my vision for Future Tokyo, 2100 under these 3 strategies. To decide which strategies should be applied to which areas, firstly vulnerable areas have been founded out according to some spatial analysis and researches. Analyses have been done in Grater Tokyo Bay area and Tokyo Bay area scale. ANALYSIS Most of the land in Bay area has been reclaimed in the past to provide land for industrial production and landuse map shows that heavy/light industrial production is maintained on these areas also with some commercial activities. However, the elevation map shows us that although most of these areas are located under sea-level, there is quite dense urban development on these areas. Moreover most of these are areas will be flooded in future according future sea-level projections for 2100. ( http://sealevel.climatecentral.org/) Another analysis map, which is soil vulnerability map, also indicate that areas on the shoreline has high risk for liquefaction. When all of these maps layered; soil vulnerability, landuse,elevation,sea-levelriseandreclamationmaps;itisobvious that lands located on shoreline and the riverbeds, are the most vulnerable areas to water related hazards. 42

5.2 Design Conceptualization for Tokyo Bay Tokyo has always been Japan’s largest city and grew from a small village. In the 1720s, it was the first city in Asia with a population of more than 1 million people. During the Meiji Restoration, 1860s, there was a great development of the city and by 1900, population exceeded 2 million. By the start of the 1940s, the wider metropolitan area had population more than 7 million. However after WWII, a major population decline has occurred. Although this rapid decline, the city recovered rapidly and population passed 8 million in 1956. Now the city is home for 35 million people. Today, Tokyo is one of the most urbanized and dense cities in the world. However, a future population projections show that population of Tokyo will decline by half by 2100, as birth rate is decreasing. Beside, experts states “The number of people in their most productive years will decline, while local governments will face severe financial strains” (Ryall, 2012).

In the history, the areas below sea-level were wetlands and agricultural lands were located on these areas, near the water resources. During 20th century, Tokyo faced with rapid urbanization due to rapid industrialization and population growth and the agricultural lands became get lost. In future, the city is going to lose population and it will be having more accommodation than it needs. Moreover, the city already on a hazardous place and in future it will face with the risks occurred as a result of climate change, even now effects of climate change has shown up, like extreme rainfalls. According to Okata and Murayama, the major planning problem for 20th century Tokyo, was to promote and expand urban areas’ development due to provide land for rapid population growth (2011). Hence, my question is “What should be the urbanization approach for future Tokyo? Under this information’s light, my concept is bringing back the city’s roots today by applying landscape urbanism theory into practice: nature+ urban.

Strategies In the report of Building Futures and Institution of Civil Engineers of Britain (2009) ; named Facing up to Rising Sea-Levels;3strategiesforlongtermfutureofcoastalcitiesofBritain,havebeendeveloped:RETREAT?DEFEND?ATTACK? To retreat is to move critical inf- To defend is a way to prevent To attack is to build city onto the rastructure and housing to safer ground and to allow the water into the city to alleviate flood risk. An advantage of this strategy is to reduce the flood risk of vul-

the built environment from potential the sea water move. To build defenses is most common way for this strategy to provide the standard of protection for

water. This strategy also could help to reduce the sprawl of the cities and provide ensures social and economic vitality. Stilts that allow waters to rise, fall and surge un-

nerable sites further inland and along the coast by balancing the tide and wave energy. Inter-tidal habitat is also created, such as salt-marsh and mud-flats..

future sea-level rise. The question should be if we could design a sustainable infrastructure that function as both a place for public and a defense that protect the built environment from flood risk.

derneath inhabitable space, floating structures, land reclamation to create new land for development. This action might be flexible way for 21st century cities to develop. 44

FUTURE IMAGE OF TOKYO 2100

5.3 Harumi Island, Athlete’s Olympic Village for 2020Tokyo Metropolitan Government’s Proposal Specific design site is Athletes’ Olympic Village Area, for 2020 which is located on Harumi Island in Tokyo Bay. Tokyo Metropolitan government already have a plan for the village which is going to be completed on December, 2019: HYDROGEN TOWN. Their vision focuses on energy production from hydrogen for facilities in the site and they advertise this as being ‘largest experiment employing the new energy source’. The electricity and hot water generated with hydrogen energy are expected to be furnished to a school, and commercial and other facilities to be constructed on the village site (Mathew, 2015). During the Olympics, the accommodation for athletes will be met in 21 buildings ranging from 14 to 18 storeys. After games, existing buildings will be converted into condominium and rental apartments by private developers. Moreover two 50-storey high-rise apartment will be constructed too (Ward, 2016). The village will turn to be a town with a population about 10,000. However when we look at the spatial design of the site we cannot see principles behind, there is no consideration for future or possible risks that the site and city is going to face with. The design reflects the government’s approach on urban development, which is depending on engineering rather than creating public realm by space design. 47

figure17. Landscape Urbanism Princples (Jakarta Workshop, 2014)

5.4 Harumi Island, Design Proposal by Author

Made in Jakarta workshop (2014), has developed a diagram that divides Landscape Urbanism Princip-

I have chosen the Harumi Island as it is already a vacant and future project area located on the bay. My

les into 3 categories which have different scale strategies under. Together with the information from

aim is to find out design strategies to make the site more resilient by using Landscape Urbanism theory

research and case studies, I used this diagram to figure out the design solutions for the site context.

principles and information from the case studies. Designisdevelopedaslong-termprojectbyconsidering the changes through time. One of the most important

From the analysis part, I have used the flood plan mapping and sea-level rise projection map to deci-

changes that can affect the design is: SEA-LEVEL RISE. Moreover flood risk is an already existing problem. Questions that I asked to myself to create my design are:

de which areas are vulnerable and prior to solve the problem. Main Strategies to answer the questions are:

•

• • • •

What kind of strategies can be developed to make site more flexible and resilient to sea-level changes and flooding? How to adapt the existing site characteristics into my design? How to create safe public spaces different characteristics that are adaptable to changes in time? How to create places that are connected with water rather than blocking it to be more safe? How to provide more habitats for animals and increase the biodiversity?

•

To create artificial topography to making site more flexible to sea-level changes (0-10 m level change) (pull up- push down) Bringing water and the green into the site as a spine that carry and connect different functions of the site (wetlands, grasslands, forest) Using sun path, wind directions (summer& winter), etc. to create more environmental- friendly and sustainable site

5.5 Design Principles

have tried to apply the themes that James Corner, divides Landscape Urbanism, mentioned in the research part (part 2.6); into my design and explain them with different schemes of my design. • Processes over time • Horizontality • Ecology • The Imaginary

Process Over Time - ‘how things work in space and time.’ The schemes below show the change in sea-level rise in time which is between 20302100. Projections for sea-level rise for future are varying from resource to resource as their criteria and measurements vary. While some says, it will be 2 m rise for 2100; some says it might be 5-6m at most. Hence in my design I used the higher value to make it more reliable in all situations.

2030

2050

2100

HORIZONTALITY publıc spaces

Hence, most of the buildings are located above the 6m level. Buildings under 6m level, has special design principles like, having permeable structure construction and more public uses on ground level. Main transportation road is also built on 6m level and above. As population projections for Tokyo shows a decline for 2100, I predict that the residential need also will have a decline. Moreover commercial and office need for the Bay area might increase or the commercial areas may show a shift to Bay area in Tokyo.

pedestrıan cırculatıon

green areas

Horizontality- ‘Horizontal surface as field of action’ As clearly seen that the functions are spread horizontally over the site for open spaces. Moreover also in building level, buildings are permeable for pedestrian use and circulation ground level with passages and arcades. Rather than being a barrier between indoor and outdoor areas, a system of pedestrian ways located between and inside buildings that link the ground level and also elevated level which are connects buildings to each other and create another level of horizontal circulation. Most of them continues with retail and community functions and create a public realm.

transportatıon

BUILDING TYPOLOGIES

1. ‘u’ shaped block- edge of wetland

2. worm blocks- edge of grassland

3. parallel blocks wıth steps- on water boulevard

4. ‘u’shaped blocks- on the edge of sea

5. worm blocks- edge ofagrıculture park

Imaginary- ’collective memory and desire’

To create public spaces to engage people with nature, and to create “places for geographic and social imagination to extend new relationships and sets of possibilities” is one of the important aims of the project.

wetland way on sports park- 2050

wetland way on sports park- 2100

wetland park

agrÄąculture park

Ecology- â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;How to contribute to nature?â&#x20AC;&#x2122; By bringing wetlands, grasslands and forest spaces along the site, the habitat for animals are provided. As the strategies are long-term strategies which will show the results in a process of time, biodiversity on the site also will be increasing and at the end there will be new ecological habitat of the site that has a lot of positive effects like clean air, cooling effects, etc.

FUTURE IMAGE OF HARUMI 2100

A magnificent life is waiting just around the corner, and far, far away. It is waiting like the cake is waiting when there’s butter, milk, flour and sugar. This is the realm of freedom. It is an empty realm. Here man’s magnificent power over nature has left him alone with himself, powerless. It is the boredom of youth without a future.” Henri Lefebvre

PART III

DISCUSSION& CONCLUDING REMARKS 58

6. Conclusion 6.1 Concluding Remarks 6.2 Further research 59

6.1 Concluding Remarks This paper set out to bridging the landscape urbanism and water resiliency concepts together. Through the analysis of texts and projects concern¬ing both contexts I aimed to make connections and find out main characteristics regarding strategies and principles of landscape urbanism theory and water resiliency. I further reflect and apply these finding in practice in order to make them reliable and applicable. This thesis structured around five main strategies: 1) Understanding the context of urban resiliency and water resiliency, 2) Understanding Landscape Urbanism 3) Finding the strategies for further design study by research on case studies 4) Understanding study site 5) Applying the findings on design study on the site Several factors encouraged my motivation: climate change and its effect on our living environment and less concern of these negative effects by authorities and majors that can have a touch to change this ongoing situation, etc. Also I want to promote spatial designers to think about possible future risks that our living environment facing with, and make them to engage in the landscape urbanism discourse to unravel ways to solve the problems.

In first chapter future challenges and motivation of the research, overview of the study, aims and objectives has been explained. In second chapter the theoretical framework of the study has been examined. Firstly, to understand what is resiliency and resiliency in urban context, what are the dimensions of the context and what are water related hazards and future risks related to water and resiliency in this manner were main aims in this chapter. If we summarize shortly summary of this chapter, resilient city is the one that has ‘the capacity to withstand or absorb the impact of a hazard through resistance or adaptation, which enable it to maintain certain basic functions and structures during a crisis, and bounce back or recover from an event’ (UNISDR, 2012). Moreover world cities are getting more vulnerable to the potential hazards and the frequency and the strength of the hazards and other extreme events are increasing day by day as a result of climate change. Sea-level rise, extreme showers, flooding are some of the water related hazards, that should be considered as an important issue in city making process as cities are getting un¬der the exposure of these risks more and more. Resilient city concept is one of the important topics in spatial designer’s agenda that tries to make cities stronger to those risks and tries and examines the solutions and strate60

gies. Water resiliency is one the categories under the resiliency topic and in a spatial design manner it considers how much cities under the water related hazards risks are prepared, durable and adaptable to future possible risks. What kind of preventions, solutions or inventi¬ons are developed, what kind of approach is held both in small and large scale urban development projects, etc.. Moreover the most important thing is how to deal with it: adapt or avoid? Secondly, Landscape Urbanism as a way to Water Resilient city has been researched and tried to be understand deeply. Landscape urbanism is a comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach that developed to deal with the previously mentioned changes in urban areas and it gives importance of the functions and operational aspects of landscape, rather than its aesthetic qualities. Hence the focus is given to landscape urbanism theory as a tool for creating functional landscapes to water resiliency. After the literature review and the research on background of the theory, aims, principles and the dimensions of the theory has been listed.

France) have been examined. This chapter helped me to see different approaches and strategies by different people for different sites and it enlightened me for further part of the research, which is design work. Fourth chapter is a part to understand the study site, which is Tokyo Bay area. Looking from the larger scale, Tokyo as under the threat of climate change; and after focusing on Tokyo Bay, Tokyo Bay’s historical development and future challenges that it is facing with, design proposal for Athletes’ village for Olympics 2020 on Harumi Island, and challenge of Olympics 2020 have been explained. It is questioned, how much water resiliency and future risks are considered and are there any attention to solve these upcoming prob¬lems that Tokyo is already on the edge of, on the design of the site by the Olympics` committee. In the fifth chapter, methodology for the design work has been showed on a table. In the sixth chapter, the design work has been explained and the images of the work have been provided. Firstly, the analysis of the site from large scale to smaller scale has been done and according to findings, strategies have been developed. In larger scale conceptual design has been created according to Retreat- Defend- Attack strategy. In

In third chapter three case studies that uses landscape as a tool to solve the problems related with water hazards in the context of resiliency, which are: Freshkills Park (Staten Island, New York), Dryline (BIG ‘U’, New York), WATERisLAND (Neuilly-sur-Marne, smaller scale which is Harumi Island Scale, 61

a new design has been proposed that is created according to landscape urbanism theory principles and dimensions. The ecological features like the sun path, wind directions, etc. has been considered and the dimensions of process over time, horizontality, ecology, and the imaginary have been tried to reflect to the design.

6.2 Further research This research has presented the theory of landscape as a tool to achieve resiliency of cities according to water related hazards. Major emphasis has been on the amalgamation of the theory with the practice. However, there are a few research topics that can further contribute to the discussion on if landscape urbanism theory is the best way for these aims or what are other potential theories or practices to provide solutions for future potential risks that cities are facing with. Other fundamental aspects of resiliency and the landscape urbanism theory are implementation and management. Hence, further research of this work might be on these aspects and management plan can be developed for the design project to 62

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