Falconry - Its Influence on Biodiversity And Cultural Heritage in Poland And Across Europe

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This,6%1 q q q q publication is based on the materials from an international scientific conference titled: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Falconry â&#x20AC;&#x201C; its influence on biodiversity and cultural heritage in Poland and across Europe / Sokolnictwo '58. â&#x20AC;&#x201C; wpĹ&#x201A;yw na bioróşnorodnoĹ&#x203A;Ä&#x2021; i dziedzictwo kulturowe w Polsce i w Europieâ&#x20AC;? SupraĹ&#x203A;l, 16â&#x20AC;&#x201C;17 October 2015.

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Contents Introduction Urszula Szymak and Przemysław Sianko Acknowledgements Conference “Falconry – its influence on biodiversity and cultural heritage in Poland and across Europe / Sokolnictwo – wpływ na bioróżnorodność i dziedzictwo kulturowe w Polsce i w Europie” in Supraśl 2015 BIODIVERSITY AND FALCONRY Janusz Sielicki Falconry as a biodiversity conservation tool

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Vladimir M. Galushin, Alexander G. Sorokin Large Falcons in Northern Eurasia: recent population trends and conservation status 29 Sławomir Sielicki, Janusz Sielicki The restoration of the Peregrine Falcon in Poland in 1990–2015 and the falconry

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Alena Lustina Hunting limitations aimed at preserving biodiversity in Belarus from the earliest times until the 19th century

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CULTURAL HERITAGE AND FALCONRY

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Andrei V. Zinoviev Early Falconry In Russia: Recent Finds In Novgorod The Great And Tver

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Agnieszka Samsonowicz Falconry in Medieval Poland

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Cezary Tryk Falkenfang – Falcon Trapping in 15–16th century Prussia

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Toma Zarankaitė Falconry in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 15th–16th centuries

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Sviatlana Kul-Sialverstava Hunting and natural resources described in estate and crown lands (starostw) inventories in Belarus and Lithuania in the 16–18th century

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Natalino Fenech Raptors and falconry in Malta: culture, history and conservation

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Leor Jacobi The Rabbis on the hunt: from Palestine to Poland

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Atef Jenhani The Cultural heritage of falconry on Cap Bon (Tunisia). Brief history

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Bogdan Burliga Subici potestati hominum: Falconry as an Exercise in Spiritual (and Social) Snobbery in the “De arte venandi cum avibus” by the Emperor Frederick II

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Marlena Wilczak The Position of Mateusz Cygański’s “Myślistwo ptasze” [„Bird hunting”] in Old Polish Literature and its influence on the development of ornithology

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Piotr Gołdyn The theme and symbolism of the falcon in heraldry. An outline

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Aliaksei Biletski Veterinarian training and developments in the study of biodiversity at the turn of the 245 18–19th century in the area of Grodno Daria Misiak Representation of owls in Polish folklore ECOLOGICAL EDUCATION AND FALCONRY

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Ewa Łukaszyk A falconry lesson. The experience of introducing falconry into a transdisciplinary curriculum of studies 279 Artur Gaweł Ecological Education Centre of the Podlaskie Museum – Falconry Centre as the Museum’s novel practice in environmental education

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Iwona Lewkowicz Nature in preschool education

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NEWS REPORTS Elisabeth Leix A view on falconry and education in Europe

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Nicola Dixon School Links Programme: using falconry & falcon conservation to instigate international links between schools 323 Jevgeni Shergalin Interviewing Old Falconers – one of the projects of Falconry Heritage Trust

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Introduction It is with great pleasure that we present to you this tome on falconry mainly in Europe. This is the first publication of the Białystok Open Air Museum, a subdivision of the Podlaskie Museum in Białystok, and the Ecological Education Centre – Falconry Centre, to so widely explore the subject of birds of prey in the context of nature, culture, and education. The authors of articles collected in this book did their best to present the issues concerning the protection of birds of prey and their impact on culture in Europe, Asia, and Africa.

The participants of the international conference titled: “Falconry – its influence on biodiversity and cultural heritage in Poland and across Europe / Sokolnictwo – wpływ na bioróżnorodność i dziedzictwo kulturowe w Polsce i w Europie”, and took place in Supraśl on 16–17 October 2015, debated on the effects on falconry on three spheres: biological diversity, culture, and environmental education. Their presentation touched upon numerous topics that the Readers will surely wind interesting.

The first aspect, relating to biodiversity (within and between species and ecosystems), entails understanding the importance of nature and its protection.

The first regulations on nature conservation in Poland included royal decrees from the 11th century, when Bolesław the Brave issued a ban on unauthorized hunting for beavers. Later decrees, such as the Wiślica Statute of 1347 by king Casimir the Great started the protection of valuable tree species; Władysław II Jagiełło’s decree of 1423 imposed restrictions on hunting and made it illegal from April 23rd (festival of St. Wojciech) to the harvest of winter and summer crops; a 1426 decree issued a fine for setting a forest on fire. An important document from the era of Sigismund I the Old, the “1st Lithuanian Statute” (1523), introduced partial protection of bison and peregrine falcons. A decree issued by Stefan Batory (1578) protected fish during spawning and banned the use of nets with too fine meshes (Wolter 2006: 42–51). The first Polish nature conservation laws also prohibited the destruction of nests or disturbing birds of prey used in hunting.

By ensuring the safety of forest areas and wild game, the monarchs initiated the process of nature protection. Yet it was only until the 19th century when professor

5

Introduction

Ernst Haeckl coined the word “ecology” which outlined the relationship between human communities and the social and natural environment (Wolter 2006: 157).

Hugo Conwentz, the director of the Provincal Museum in Gdańsk, was the man who initiated nature protection on Polish territory annexed by Prussia. Thanks to his efforts the Office of Nature Conservator was established in 1906. Conwentz contributed to the setting up a protection area in the Białowieża Forest (Hoffmann 2003: 67–77). Moreover, one of the first Polish as well as global acts of law concerning the protection of animal species was launched by Maksymilian Nowicki, a professor of the Jagiellonian University in Kraków, and was approved by the Galician Sejm in Lviv by 5 October 1868 and signed by Emperor Franz Joseph I in the following year.

Contemporary national and international laws on nature protection in Poland are aimed at ensuring the survival of endangered species of plants and animals. Under Polish law, all wild birds are covered with strict protection and special protection areas were designated for nesting and regular stay sites of selected species.

Today, falconry is often limited to flight demonstrations as well as keeping and training of birds, although historically speaking it is mainly a form of venery, hunting with birds of prey, capturing quarry, with a whole body of knowledge and tradition. Hunting culture has been the focus of numerous authors. In Polish culture, falconry was discussed by, for example, Zygmunt Gloger, a folklore scholar from Jeżewo near Tykocin. His “Old Poland Encyclopedia” (1900–1903) includes entries for “falcon” and “hunting”, describing the history of the terms since the Piast dynasty. Gloger also mentions various falconry-related vocabulary – a falcon that could be tamed was called a “gnieźnik”, an adult bird was a called a “dziwok”, and any trained for hunting were called a “maiż”. He also wrote about different uses of birds: eagles and falcons were used for hunting wild geese, herons, cranes, while hawks were used for hunting grouse, ducks, partridges; sparrow hawks were used for hunting quail, pigeons, larks (Gloger 1974, t. IV: 263), and noted on the right to possess a falcon, which often related to a noble status.

Falconry flourished in Poland in the 16th century under the rule of king Stefan Batory, whose efforts included establishing a “falcon school” in Grodno (Gloger 1974, t. III: 167) and obtaining falconers and birds from abroad. This was the time when the first publications on capturing, breeding and hunting with birds of prey appeared, such as: Pietro de’ Crescenzi’s “Ruralia commoda” (translated into Polish in 1549) and Michał Cygański’s “Myślistwo ptasze” (Bird Hunting, 1584). As time went by, hunting with birds in its traditional form started to diminish and disappeared almost completely in the 19th century, as indicated by Kazimierz Wodzicki in his book, “On falconry and hunting birds” (1858).

Falconry started to reappear in Poland just before the Second World War with the publication of August Dehnel’s “On taming birds of prey for hunting”

6

Introduction

(1937). The first post-war falconers, Czesław Sielicki, Zygmunt Pielowski, and Wacław Lesiński started to work with birds of prey by the end of 1950s. In ten years two falconry “centres” were established: in the Forestry School in Tuchola and the “Falconer’s nest” falconry section of the Polish Hunting Association in Czempiń.

The elements that made Polish falconers stand out from the rest of the world included hunting music, St. Hubertus masses, hunting vocabulary and the customs and traditions cultivated for many years.

The lifestyle and multitude of hunting methods and technical expressions laid the foundation for a language of hunting. This specialist vocabulary was described by Wiktor Kozłowski in his work, “The origin of hunting terminology” (1822) and later expanded in his “Forest, Beekeeping, amber and rafting dictionary” (1846–1847). There were works of poetry and prose on hunting and trapping, as well as a journal “The Polish Hunter”, publishing articles on the language of venery. Examples of the rich vocabulary of Polish hunters include: “gaik” or “pólko ptasznicze” [a small grove or a fowling field] – a place where fowlers set their traps and nets; “jastrzębnik” [hawker] – a person hunting with hawks; kwilić [to wail] – to use bird calls; “majak” – a type of canoe used by hunters which was decorated with branches or reed to imitate a bush or a reed patch; pielesz – a nest of a bird of prey; “ptaszynka” – a shotgun used for shooting small birds. Numerous terms were used to describe hares: “gac”, “kot”, “ślepak”, “skotak”, “korpal”, “koszlon”, “wacho”, “jepur”, “wytrzeszczak”, with various subspecies called: “szarak”, “bielak”, “siniak”, “kamieniak”; hares born in early spring were called “marczak”, and in the fall – “nazimek” (Gloger 1974 t. III: 246–248).

Apart from a specialised language, there are numerous customs connected with hunting, and disrespecting them was sometimes punishable with a “hunter’s penalty” – the offender was laid on a killed deer, boar or doe and hit three times with the flat of a sabre, with a characteristic call of “Ho Ho!” each time (in the name of the ruler, the hunting party, and the law of the hunt) (Gloger 1974 t. III: 246). Gloger believed that the jargon and hunting laws were the elements which helped to preserve the traditions and customs connected with the hunt.

This publication is divided into three parts relating to falconry in the context of biological diversity, cultural heritage, and education. The articles collected herein touch upon various subject matters; they complement each other to form an image of falconry as a world heritage both in terms of nature and culture.

Janusz Sielicki in his article suggests using falconry as an instrument of maintaining biological diversity. In the article co-written with Sławomir Sielicki the authors analyse the process of reintroducing Peregrine Falcons in Poland.

Vladimir M. Galushin and Alexander G. Sorokin discuss the results of research on large falcons in Northern Eurasia – including their populations and conservation

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Introduction

status. The historical context of nature conservation in central-eastern Europe is analysed by Alena Lustsina.

The second unit of the conference, falconry and cultural heritage, was met with a significant interest from the participants. Falconry has been well documented in many European countries in the form of iconography and literature, and the history and heritage of falconry survived also in oral tradition.

Various works on falconry are discussed by Bogdan Burliga, who expands upon the monumental ornithological treatise of Emperor Frederick II Hohenstaufen, and Marlena Wilczak, who analyses the impact of Mateusz Cygański’s “Myślistwo ptasze” (Bird Hunting) on the development of ornithological research.

Hunting in Poland in the Middle Ages has been the focus of Agnieszka Samsonowicz, who looks into matters related to birds of prey such as trapping, keeping, training and using the animals. Cezary Tryk, a scientist researching falcon trapping in old Prussia, discusses the methods of capturing birds, presenting an interesting range of maps and drawings. Historical context is extremely important for looking at falconry as a part of cultural heritage. Articles

by Andrei V. Zinoviev – on archaeological findings in Russia, Toma Zarankaitė – on the development of falconry in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Svietlana KulSialverstava – focusing in old estate inventories, Piotr Gołdyn – presenting falcons in heraldry, and Daria Misiak – on representation of owls in Polish folklore, all form a huge contribution to the study of falconry in Central and Eastern Europe. Natalino Fenech presents an extensive description of falconry in Malta, discussing its origin, development, and current status, referring both to cultural and environmental issues and deliberating on its future. Extremely interesting papers: Leor Jacobi’s article on hunting in Jewish culture and Atef Jenhani’s richly illustrated work on falconry in Tunisia, both prove that falconry is an element of global heritage of mankind. Aliaksei Biletski writes about the need for training veterinary doctors in higher education schools in the area of Grodno in the 19th century. By discussing the historical aspects of taking care of animals, including birds of prey, the author highlights the need for specializing and improving the qualifications of veterinarians.

The third most important area of focus is falconry and ecological education.

“Ecological education” as a concept is concerned with increasing awareness and shaping pro-environmental attitudes, expanding knowledge about nature conservation and forming the natural environment. Institutionalised education relating to ecology, as Iwona Lewkowicz points out, should already start at the preschool level, making use of the increasing curiosity of children. In terms of falconry, Ewa Łukaszyk points out that there are two paths of passing on the knowledge: through practical training conducted by hunting associations and as a subject of interest of various fields of science, focusing more on historical

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Introduction

falconry. Jevgeni Shergalin touches upon an equally important element of education – the passing of wisdom from one generation to the next – and analyses a project by Falconry Heritage Trust on pioneers of contemporary falconry from around the world.

It is also important to note how a tradition like falconry is presented to the modern audience. This is the focus of articles by Artur Gaweł, who writes about the Podlaskie Museum’s Ecological Education Centre – “Falconry Centre”, Elisabeth Leix, who discusses projects developed by the Women’s Working Group of IAF, and Nicola Dixon, who outlines an international educational project called the School Links Programme.

Wishing you a pleasant reading, The Editors.

Literature: Gloger Z. 1974. Encyklopedia Staropolska [Old Poland Encyclopedia] Vol. III and IV. Wiedza Powszechna. Warszawa.

Hoffmann M.J. 2003. Hugo Conwentz – przyrodnik, prahistoryk, muzealnik oraz twórca konserwatorstwa archeologicznego i przyrodniczego Prus Zachodnich [Hugo Conwentz – environmentalist, prehistorian, museum expert and creator of archaeological and nature conservatory in West Prussia]. P. 67–77. Echa Przeszłości IV. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Warmińsko-Mazurskiego. Olsztyn.

Wodzicki K. 1858. O sokolnictwie i ptakach myśliwskich. [On falconry and hunting birds]. Warszawa.

Wolter E. 2006. Historyczne aspekty edukacji ekologicznej w Polsce [Historical aspects of environmental education in Poland]. Warszawa.

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Acknowledgements We wish to sincerely thank the members of the Scientific Committee: chairman – Janusz Sielicki (Society for Wild Animals “Falcon”), joint chairman – Andrzej Lechowski (Podlaskie Museum in Białystok), joint chairman – dr Artur Gaweł (Białystok Open-Air Museum), prof. Ewa Łukaszyk (Warsaw University), dr Agnieszka Samsonowicz (Polish Academy of Sciences), Gary Timbrell (IAF), Mark Upton (British Archives of Falconry), dr Jevgeni Shergalin (Falconry Heritage Trust), for their help in organizing an international scientific conference “Falconry – its influence on biodiversity and cultural heritage in Poland and across Europe / Sokolnictwo – wpływ na bioróżnorodność i dziedzictwo kulturowe w Polsce i w Europie”. Your support made it possible for the conference to have the highest possible standard.

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Conference “Falconry – its influence on biodiversity and cultural heritage in Poland and across Europe / Sokolnictwo - wpływ na bioróżnorodność i dziedzictwo kulturowe w Polsce i w Europie” in Supraśl 2015 The international scientific conference that formed the basis for this publication was titled: “Falconry – its influence on biodiversity and cultural heritage in Poland and across Europe / Sokolnictwo – wpływ na bioróżnorodność i dziedzictwo kulturowe w Polsce i w Europie”, and took place in Supraśl on 16–17 October 2015 the conference was organized by: Białystok Open Air Museum, a subdivision of the Podlaskie Museum in Białystok, Ecological Education Centre of the Podlaskie Museum – Falconry Centre, as well as the Society for Wild Animals “Falcon”, International Association for Falconry and Conservation of Birds of Prey – IAF, British Archives for Falconry, the Collage of Artes Liberales at the University of Warsaw, and the Falconry Heritage Trust.

The aim of the conference was to spread awareness about birds of prey and their importance to the natural environment, including protection of endangered species, and falconry as an immaterial cultural heritage. The conference covered contemporary and historical aspects associated with keeping raptors, environmental impact, the effects of maintaining biodiversity, and the role of environmental education in conservation of birds of prey. Speakers from Poland, Russia, Malta, Great Britain, Holland, Israel, and Belarus discussed the results of their research and shared their experience in education concerning birds of prey, touching upon also the images and representations of these animals in culture.

One of the points of the conference was a study visit at the Ecological Education Centre of the Podlaskie Museum Falconry Centre in the grounds of the Białystok Open Air Museum, which allowed scientists, aficionados, and keepers of birds of prey to exchange experience in terms of protecting, breeding and taking care of these animals.

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Falconry – its influence on biodiversity and cultural heritage 8UV]XOD 6]\PDN DQG 3U]HP\VãDZ 6LDQNR HGLWRUV

FALCONRY AS A BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION TOOL JANUSZ SIELICKI ,QWHUQDWLRQDO $VVRFLDWLRQ IRU )DOFRQU\ DQG &RQVHUYDWLRQ RI %LUGV RI 3UH\ ZZZ LDI RUJ

Abstract Falconry is one of oldest human activities, goes back thousands of years.

It is defined as ‘taking quarry in its natural state and habitat by means of trained birds of prey’. It was for centuries using wild birds of prey. Falconry is sustainable, as the numbers of birds used are small comparing to the natural mortality rates.

Protection of nests of birds of prey were amongst the oldest conservation laws in Europe.

Falconry techniques are widely used in conservation and rehabilitation of birds of prey. They have proved through millennia to be effective in taming birds and to keep them healthy and in good condition.

Falconers were the first to notice the decline of Peregrine numbers in Britain and in other countries. They also started the studies to unveil the reasons for this decline. As a result DDT was banned and birds of prey populations started to grow.

Falconers learned how to intensively breed Peregrines, the methods used later for many other birds of prey species. Large projects for the breeding and reintroduction of Peregrines were started by falconers in the USA, Canada, Germany, later also in Poland. Falconry techniques were used even in the

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Janusz Sielicki

countries where falconry was not practiced, like Sweden. Reintroduction was the only way to recover Peregrines in areas where they we extinct. Falconers in the USA organised a largest birds of prey protection organisation in the world â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The Peregrine Fund.

Large crisis in vultures of Asia was also unveiled in 2004 thanks to projects financed by TPF. The reason for the catastrophic decline of vulture populations was diclofenac. Its effect was disorder of the kidneys and rapid death, effecting in decline of even 99% by 2008. Falconers are working to restore vulture populations by breeding and reintroduction projects.

Currently we see a large decline in Saker Falcon in Asia. Large studies undertaken in Mongolia by falconers have proved that at least 5 thousand Sakers are killed annually by electrocution on mid-voltage lines.

Falconers involved in conservation of huntable species. One of first large scale programmes by falconers was the establishing of the North American Grouse Partnership in 1999. The aim of this organisation is the protection of the habitats of the North American grouse species and their sustainable use. The latest initiative of IAF is a Perdix portal, aimed at conservation of habitats of European partidge, sharing knowledge on their management and best cases of sustainable use.

Falconry is inscribed on UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. Falconry today is not only hunting, but also conservation, culture and education.

Key Words: falconry, biodiversity, sustainable use, cultural heritage

Introduction We cannot be sure exactly how old falconry is because a significant problem with recorded history is that history can only be recorded where records exist.

The earliest written records found describe a highly organised and technical falconry that must have taken many hundreds, if not thousands of years, to evolve to that level of sophistication. There are artefacts depicting falconry which are at least 4,000 years old and such date was used in the UNESCO submission (UNESCO 2016).

There are some petroglyphs in Golpaygan, Isfahan, Iran, depicting a horseback hunter with a bird, which could be a falcon, and a cheetah or salukilike sighthound. They can be dated as far as ca. 8000â&#x20AC;&#x201C;10 000 B.C., what means that falconry is even older.

For at least 10 000 years of sustainable falconry falconers have been using wild hawks, falcons and eagles, sometimes in very large numbers, as in the time of Chinggis and Kublai Khan whose hunting campaigns included as many as 5000 falcons.

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LARGE FALCONS IN NORTHERN EURASIA: RECENT POPULATION TRENDS AND CONSERVATION STATUS VLADIMIR M. GALUSHIN1, ALEXANDER G. SOROKIN2 :RUNLQJ *URXS RQ 5DSWRUV RI 1RUWKHUQ (XUDVLD 0RVFRZ 5XVVLD 1

Zoology and Ecology Dept., Moscow Pedagogical State University; Kibalchicha St. 6, Moscow; v-galushin@yandex.ru; 2 All-Russian Institute for Nature Conservation, Znamenskoe-Sadki, Moscow; agsorokin@mail.ru

Abstract In accordance with recent publications and conference discussions population states and trends of three Large Falcons much differ from each other in Northern Eurasia while their conservation statuses are almost similar.

The Peregrine Falcon populations are mostly stable or locally increasing, for the Gyrfalcon they are also relatively stable or locally decreasing, while the Saker populations and range continue to be rapidly reduced mostly due to illegal trapping and electrocution. Major threats to these species are considered and measures for their protection are suggested.

Key words: Peregrine, Gyrfalcon, Saker, population state and trends, threats, conservation measures

The paper is based on a review of falcon data presented mostly at XIV International Ornithological Conference of Northern Eurasia (Almaty, Kazakhstan, 18â&#x20AC;&#x201C;24 August, 2015) as well as in some recent publications on the matter.

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FALCONRY AND THE RESTORATION OF THE PEREGRINE FALCON IN POLAND IN 1990â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2015 6â$:20,5 6,(/,&., -$186= 6,(/,&., 6RFLHW\ IRU :LOG $QLPDOV ´)DOFRQÂľ ZZZ SHUHJULQXV SO

Abstract The tree-nesting population of the Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus peregrinus formerly inhabited a large part of Central and Eastern Europe. Its range covered northern-eastern Germany, eastern Denmark, Poland, southern Sweden and Finland, the Baltic States, Belarus, northern Ukraine and the lowlands of Russia up to the Ural Mountains. In 1950s Peregrine populations drastically decreased through its whole worldwide range, as a result of environmental contamination (mainly Persistent Organic Pollutants, including DDT). Some populations became extinct, including the whole tree-nesting European population. The last tree nest in Poland was found in 1964.

Falconers started to breed Peregrines and developed methods for intensive breeding and reintroduction, at first in the US, then in Germany and other countries. With the ban on DDT in most countries, the situation of the Peregrine began to improve and populations that survived the crisis began to rebuild.

Reintroduction significantly accelerated the restoration process in many places, some populations were restored from absolute zero. Unfortunately, the treenesting population did not begin to regenerate naturally and so the only way to restore it is reintroduction.

41

Sławomir Sielicki, Janusz Sielicki

The tree-nesting project was successfully conducted in eastern part of Germany. The tree nesting project was started after the German reunification and conducted between the east German protectionist organisation “Arbeitskreis Wanderfalkenschutz (AWS)”, the hunter’s organisation “Landesjagdverband Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (LJV)” and falconers from German Falconers Orden (Deutscher Falkenorden – DFO). In Germany there are circa 50 pairs breeding on trees now.

In Poland falconers started their first attempts to breed Peregrines at the end of the 1970s, with the first results in mid 1980s. Reintroductions in Poland started in 1990 and were conducted mainly in forest areas, with some in mountains (Pieniny) and cities (Warszawa, Kraków). The first breeding attempt in Poland was in Warsaw in 1998, with first success in 1999. The population established in cities and mountains in south.

Since 2010 the whole restitution program is being conducted by the Society for Wild Animals Falcon. In 2010–2015 a total of 543 young Peregrines were released in forests. In Poland the first chicks from a nest on tree were ringed in 2012, with 5 known nests on trees in 2015.

Tree-nesting population recovery is based on idea of imprinting on place of birth. That proved to be successful with established and growing population in Germany and seed population in Poland.

Poland is a key country for the success of the tree-nesting Peregrine recovery in Europe. Currently the work on this ecotype is also being conducted in Germany and projects are planned for Lithuania, Belarus and Russia. The necessity to conduct the tree-nesting recovery project was included by IUCN/ Birdlife International into the Species fact sheet, the Peregrine on a global level has a Least Concern status, except for the tree-nesting population which requires further active conservation actions.

Keywords: Peregrine, reintroduction, tree-nesting, conservation, falconry

First synthesized in the end of the 19th century, DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) appeared to be an extremely efficient insecticide, awarding its discoverer a Nobel prize in 1948. DDT made it possible to overcome lice among troops during World War II, and after the war, in the 1960s, it was widely used agriculture to protect crops. Although seemingly harmless to higher animals in initial testing, DDT revealed its destructive properties after prolonged use.

DDT takes a very long to decompose and is not removed from the body but is deposited in the adipose tissue, transferring to and accumulating in subsequent levels of the food chain. It results in hormonal changes impacting, for example,

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HUNTING LIMITATIONS AIMED AT PRESERVING BIODIVERSITY IN BELARUS FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES UNTIL THE 19TH CENTURY ALENA LUSTSINA Yanka Kupala State University of Grodno %LHODUXV *URGQR 3DYORYVNRJR ² HOHQD OX#PDLO UX

Abstract The aim of this article is to present the impact of certain human activities, such as hunting, on the natural environment. It also tries to answer the question of what measures should be taken to preserve biodiversity. The author attempts to describe the origin, history, and the development of the issues concerned with biodiversity preservation in the area of Belarus, from the earliest times until the beginning of the 19th century, referring to the attitudes towards the environment and hunting, both being characteristic elements of the traditional culture of Belarus. The article also describes the beginning and evolution nature preservation laws, limitations on hunting, and the preservation of certain species of animals and birds.

The author tries to identify the motives behind certain limitations on hunting. Paradoxically, in the times of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Republic, the control measures which were aimed at limiting hunting were aimed

49

Alena Lustsina

at keeping hunting interesting. Consequently, only those animals which were most attractive to hunters were protected. Thanks to the rulers’ interest in hunting and the preservation of biodiversity, certain nature protection rules were established in the Białowieża Forest along with the creation of “inventories” of forests and hunts. Also, the methods and technology of hunting were constantly improved.

In the times of the Russian Empire forests were mainly perceived as a source of income from the sales of timber and therefore only tree resources were protected, completely ignoring the preservation of animals and birds.

Key words: nature preservation, hunting, animal kingdom, Białowieża Forest, biodiversity, hunting with falcons.

Bearing in mind the current condition of the environment, the issues of preserving biodiversity and ensuring proper breeding conditions for many species remain unchangeably valid.

Biodiversity is the one of the foundations of the natural environment, enabling the constant growth of ecosystems and the preservation of habitats and biological resources.

The World Charter for Nature states that every form of life is unique, warranting respect and preservation (see: http://www.un.org/documents/ga/ res/37/a37r007.htm).

The analysis of the history of man and nature’s mutual relationship clearly shows that respect and care are our innate quality. This fact is visible in numerous pagan rituals of our ancestors, which often referred to particular trees, animals, and birds (Vasilevich 2010: 99–213).

In Belarus, the interest in hunting, seen as one of the aspects of human activity, changed through time. The attitude towards hunting was changing, just like its purpose, methods, ways and meaning.

Research determines, changes, and improves the rules of preservation of the animal kingdom.

Our ancestors’ understanding of the significance of nature preservation is illustrated in taboo, a prohibition against killing some animals or cutting magical plants. This taboo also protected birds, including falcons. In Belarusian mythology the falcon had extraordinary strength and was considered as a symbol of masculinity’s origin, of warrior’s courage. Also, the falcon was present in funeral rites. Maciej Stryjkowski’s description of the funeral rites of the grand dukes of Lithuania note that duke Kiejstut was cremated with his servant, horse, dogs, and falcons (Stryjkowski 1846: 65). This indicates that the falcon was a symbol of its owner high social status.

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EARLY FALCONRY IN RUSSIA: RECENT FINDS IN NOVGOROD THE GREAT AND TVER ANDREI V. ZINOVIEV 'HSDUWPHQW RI %LRORJ\ 7YHU 6WDWH 8QLYHUVLW\ 7YHU 5XVVLD =LQRYHY $9#WYHUVX UX

Abstract Starting at the beginning of the State in 9th cent. AD, falconry has a long history in Russia. Being primarily the leisure activity of nobility, falconry in Russia has been influenced by both Oriental and Western traditions. Recent finds of bones and artifacts on the course of archaeological excavations in two cities of the Central Russia, Novgorod the Great and Tver, support this observation.

Key words: Falconry, Asia, Western Europe, Russia, raptors, owls, trading

Falconry in Russia has a long history, encompassing more than thousand years of practice (Zinoviev 2016). Due to the position of the country, Russian falconry has elements of both Western European and Asian hunting traditions.

Vast country now, early Russia or Rus has covered only a moderate part of Eastern Europe, stretching at the beginning of 16th cent. only to the Ural Mountains.

The early falconry is restricted to the ancient Russian cities with strongholds, such

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FALCONRY IN MEDIEVAL POLAND $*1,(6=.$ 6$06212:,&= Instytut Archeologii i Etnologii PAN Editor’s note: the following article is based on the book by Agnieszka Samsonowicz, Łowiectwo w Polsce Piastów i Jagiellonów [Hunting in Poland during the rule of the Piast and Jagiellonian dynasties], Wrocław–Warszawa–Kraków 1991.

Abstract The type of hunting known as falconry was practiced in Arabian countries since the early middle ages. It was popularized in Western Europe by knights returning from the crusades (11–12th c.). The development of settlements and increasing deforestation resulted the rapid decline of aurochs and European bison populations in these countries. In the beginnings of Poland in the 10th century, the country’s vast primeval forests made it possible to preserve the most precious specimens hunting game. Hunting with falcons was known here even around the 11th century and was one of the branches of the hunting economy of the Piast dynasty. The organization of falconry was based on establishing servants who guarded the nests of raptors and collected nestlings before they learned to fly, feeding and teaching them to cooperate with men during hunts. Organized falconry is seen in surviving place names, such as Strzelce [relating to shooters], Bobrowniki [relating to beavers], Psary [relating to dogs], and the most frequent, Sokolniki [relating to falcons]. All of these servants made use of the obligations set on the general population: to provide them with accommodation, food and transportation. Along with the systemic transformation during the Polish and Lithuanian rule, organized hunting and falconry services were gradually diminishing. These groups gradually became based around the royal estates

69

Agnieszka Samsonowicz

of the two courts which were used seasonally by the rulers. The surviving court ledgers make it possible to assume that falconry was practiced as a form of sport entertainment. The significance of big game hunting was determined by the amount of prey preserved and stored before a planned war campaign.

Key words: Middle Ages, Poland, falconry

In Western Europe, hunting with birds of prey was known and practiced among Germanic tribes in the early Middle Ages, as well as in the various states in the Carolingian era. It was only during the crusades when the European knighthood came into contact with a ceremonious court hunts utilizing birds of prey, developed in Islamic countries under the influence of Persian traditions from the 7–8th century.

Adopted to the courts of Christian rulers in Europe by the knights and pilgrims returning from the crusades and with the support of literature translated or created by its practitioners, the practice of training birds of prey quickly became a popular form of entertainment among the privileged population. These circles both inspired the translation of renowned Arabic treatises into Latin and – based on these – wrote their own material, such as the famous piece by Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, “De arte venandi cum avibus.” Translations from Arabic texts were prepared by the Emperor’s court doctor, Theodore of Antioch (Vire 1980: 190).

In the Polish sources on falconry from the 10–14th century, two Latin terms are used with the highest frequency: falco and accipiter, with the corresponding Latin names for the servants who guarded and trained these birds: “falconarii” or “falconistes”, and “accipitrarii”. More rarely, the Latin term “herodiumerodium” was used in reference to the Saker Falcon. Today we know that the largest family of birds of prey includes the species from the “falco” family, which stand out because of their speed and agility. Other species of birds occurring in Poland include: the Peregrine Falcon, Merlin, Eurasian Hobby, Common Kestrel, Lesser Kestrel, and the Saker Falcon. Apart from birds from the falco family, the term falcons also included Eagles, Gyrfalcons, Bearded Vultures, Kites, Buzzards, Harriers, Sparrow hawks And Hawks – often discerned as a separate family. Eagles and Gyrfalcons, as well as Peregrine Falcons, were used for hunting swans, herons, cranes, bustards and wild geese. Saker Falcons and hawks were used for hunting partridges, ducks, and hares, while hobbies and Sparrowhawks were used for hunting pigeons, quails, larks, and other small birds.

The Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) is very rare in Poland, and is called the “foremost” eagle, or “sys”, “zys”, with a wingspan of 2 m.

The earliest information on hunting with eagles comes from the 16th century in the works of Kromer and Cygański (Kromer 1977: 46; Cygański 1914: 209) who

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FALKENFANG â&#x20AC;&#x201C; FALCON TRAPPING IN 15â&#x20AC;&#x201C;16TH CENTURY PRUSSIA CEZARY TRYK XO 7HDWUDOQD ² :HJRU]HZR FH]DU\WU\N#RS SO Editorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s note: The article uses fragments of another work: C. Tryk, Sokolnictwo w Prusach KrzyĹźackich i KsiÄ&#x2026;ĹźÄ&#x2122;cych od XIV do XVII w. [Falconry in Teutonic and Ducal Prussia from the 14th to the 17th century. â&#x20AC;&#x201C; submitted for publication]. Olsztyn 2015.

Abstract Falconry or, simply, hunting with birds of prey was known and practiced in Prussia even before these lands were taken over by the knights of the Teutonic Order. When the Order dominated the territory of former Prussia, falconry started to flourish, although not merely as a hunting practice. The Teutonic Knights decided to make use of falcons for their own ends, or, more precisely, to exploit them as contemporary form of diplomacy. Already in 1354, the Grand Master Winrych von Kniprode issued a â&#x20AC;&#x153;decreeâ&#x20AC;? that prohibited the export of falcons from Teutonic Prussia without his knowledge and consent. Since then the right was granted only to Grand Masters. This very moment can be considered as the subordination of all falconry affairs to the Grand Master. Already in the 1370s there was a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;falconâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s keepâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; in Konigsberg. At the end of this century another â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;falcons schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; was created in Malbork. It received falcons caught in all of Prussia and even beyond that region. From here Prussian falcons were sent to Germany, France, England, and various principalities or minor lands. At the beginning of fifteenth century the Order was sending from a few dozen to over a hundred falcons per year, to more than 30 courts. The shipments varied depending on the number of birds captured by the Teutonic falconers. Prussian falcons immediately gained recognition and were perceived as a desired gift in most European courts.

81

Cezary Tryk

Capturing and supplying the Teutonic ‘falcon schools’ with such large numbers of birds of prey obviously raises questions. How did knights trap falcons?

Where did they capture them and what species exactly?

Establishing the area where the Order quite frequently trapped birds of prey is possible through source records. Mainly it is the ledger of the Malbork Treasurer (Marienburger Tresslerbuch) which, recording the amount of money paid for the delivered birds, noted the place where the falcons were trapped. Also, some information is provided by correspondence (letters to or from the grand masters) archived in the Ordensbriwvarchiv.

Medieval Prussia was rich in forests (in the 14th century they covered nearly 80% of the country). However, falcons were not obtained from heavily forested areas. According to sources, the area most frequently penetrated by hawkers was the one on the Curonian coast, along the winter and autumn migration routes.

How the Teutonic falconers trapped birds remains a mystery. Neither sources nor literature there mentions anything on that subject. Such mysteries may only be tackled by analogies. This method is justified by the fact that falconry shows considerable versatility since the earliest times. Many capturing methods or elements of training were widely used throughout medieval Europe. Some details may be different but the main principles were similar. A famous Polish falconer, Mateusz Cygański, wrote in the sixteenth century about “Prussian” methods of catching falcons. He stated that they are too difficult to describe and have to be witnessed (miewają też Prusacy jeszcze inaksze przyprawy do tego [łapania sokołów – Author’s note], ale ty w to nie trafisz ażbyś uyźrzał) (Cygański 1584).

The case is similar with determining the species of falcons being caught in Prussia. Most records generally describe the number of delivered ‘Falcken’, which simply means falcons. Most researchers believe that they should be linked precisely with noble falcons (Edelfalke). Sometimes also other expressions occur.

Information about the naming of birds caught in Prussia, except for sources listed above, is provided mainly by records of falcons sent as a gift to foreign courts (Ordens Folianten).

Key words: Falkenfänger, Capturing falcons, Curonian spit, falcon gifts, falconers

A German journal for hunters and foresters from the 19th century published an article by an anonymous author about trapping and training falcons in old Prussia (Allgemeine Forst-und Jagd 1854) which started with the words: “While historians note that already in the 13th century Prussian people specialised in capturing falcons and sending them to various countries, in the 14th Prussia was renowned throughout Europe in this respect. There was no other specific product, perhaps apart from amber, that was more valuable than falcons from

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FALCONRY IN THE GRAND DUCHY OF LITHUANIA IN THE 15THâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;16TH CENTURY TOMA ZARANKAITE 9LOQLXV 8QLYHUVLW\ )DFXOW\ RI +LVWRU\ 3K' VWXGHQW WRPD ]DUDQNDLWH#JPDLO FRP

Abstract In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania during the Middle Ages and early modern period, various types of hunting had a very large impact on the mundane life of the rulersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; estate. In addition, hunting was used as means of political communication.

The same was practiced throughout Western Europe at the time. It is little wonder that the ruler of the grand Duchy of Lithuania had special hunt officers for different types of hunting. In the 15th century, hawking was very popular among the mighty of Western Europe and it was a widespread â&#x20AC;&#x153;fashionâ&#x20AC;? in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as well. The position of the great falconer (cОкОНŃ&#x152;ниŃ&#x2021;иК, sokolniczy, lt. sakalidininkas) in the court of the grand duke of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was very elite. It is important to note that usually great falconers worked on their own and did not submit to Great Master of the Huntâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s authority. Great falconer organized and supervised the economy of hunting birds. During the royal hunts they coordinated their actions with the ruler and the Great Master of the Hunt.

The analysis of this topic is based on diverse sources, including data from account books, noblemenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s recollections, letters. Moreover, a lot of important information is found in regulations, inventories, officersâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC; registers, judicial cases, and privileges contained in the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Lithuanian Metricaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;sâ&#x20AC;? books. These small or even

99

Toma Zarankaitė

microscopic pieces of information scattered throughout all of the mentioned groups of sources demonstrates the importance of falconry in the cultural heritage of Europe and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania because until now this subject has not received proper attention from historians specialising in Lithuanian historiography. Also, this analysis reflects one of the most popular and vivid occupations practiced in the Middle Ages and early modern period and depicts the multicultural relationships among the mighty of Western Europe.

Key words: falconry, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, falconer, great falconer

The game hunt and various types of it during the Middle Ages and early New Times had a very large impact on the mundane life of ruler’s estate in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In addition, hunting, also, was used as political communication. The same was popular in the whole Western Europe during the 15th – 16th centuries. So, it is little wonder, that the ruler of the grand Duchy of Lithuania had special hunt officers for different types of hunt. In the 15th century hawking was very popular among the mighty of Western Europe.

It was wide spread “fashion” in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as well, so the incumbency of great falconer (cокольничий, sokolniczy) in the court of the grand duke of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was very elite. It is important to notice, that usually the great falconer worked on his own and he did not submit to Great Master of the Hunt’s authority. Great falconer organized and supervised the economy of hunting birds. During the royal hunts he regulated his actions with the ruler and the Great Master of the Hunt.

The sources to analyse this object are various. One of the most important source of data are the letters of the grand duke Vytautas. They where prepared and published by Antoni Prochaska (CEV 1882) and reveal us the habits due with falconry of the grand duke Vytautas in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Data from account books (LDKAJ 2007; LDKZA 2009; KEKN 1997) also are very important for our investigation because we can see, how the economy of birds of prey was leaded. Also lots of information about keeping birds of prey and their supervision we kan know from records of “Lithuanian Metricas“ books (LM. 3 1998; LM. 4 2004). Here we find inventories, officers‘ registers, judicial cases, privilegies. Another base of sourses for investigation are regulations (Устава на волки 1925) which determed the usage of hunting economy of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. About the special relation with hunting birds we can adjudicate from noblemens‘ recollections (Герберштейн 2008). Mentioned sources let us discover the importance of falconry in cultural heritage of Europe and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania because until now, this subject has not received proper attention from historians in Lithuanian historiography.

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HUNTING AND NATURAL RESOURCES DESCRIBED IN ESTATE AND CROWN LANDS 67$5267: ,19(1725,(6 IN BELARUS AND LITHUANIA ,1 7+( ² TH CENTURY SVIATLANA KUL-SIALVERSTAVA %LDã\VWRN 7HFKQLFDO 8QLYHUVLW\ %LDã\VWRN XO =ZLHU]\QLHFND G P DMVD#WXW E\

Abstract The article analyses documents estates inventories in the 16â&#x20AC;&#x201C;18th centuries in the territory of Belarus, which describe their natural resources, as well as the condition of hunting and hunting grounds. Focus is put on information that may reveal problems related to hunting with falcons. On the basis of the analysed documents it is concluded that the decline of falconry on the territory of Belarus in the second half of the 18th century, among other subjective circumstances, was due to the reduction of hunting grounds and the decline of wild animal and bird populations, which was the result of the land owners desire to increase profitability by expanding arable land and use forests for industrial purposes.

Key words: inventories of estates, Belarus, hunting, wild animals and birds, falconry

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RAPTORS AND FALCONRY IN MALTA: &8/785( +,6725< $1' &216(59$7,21 NATALINO FENECH University of Malta

Abstract Apart from looking at documentary evidence to trace the history of falconry in the Maltese Islands, the significance of falconry in Malta is also discussed by analysing the etymology of Maltese names of birds of prey and popular expressions involving birds of prey. The paper also looks at earliest known references to migration in Malta from the 1600s, where birds of prey are mentioned.

The research shows that falconry in Malta existed before 1239. Falcons from Malta were very much esteemed as in 1240, Emperor Frederick the Great sent a team of at least 39 men with horses to Malta for two whole months to trap falcons for him. This implies that the practice of falconry was already well established in 1239 and this ties in with the issue of bird names and language. The fact that there are several names of clear Semitic origin for birds of prey, as well as expressions in Maltese involving birds of prey, continues to prove that a strong bond with these birds existed for a very long time.

The research also shows that a degree of politics seems to have surrounded the appointment of falconers and lobbying seems to have taken place. Falconers in the Middle Ages in Malta were well paid and enjoyed several privileges.

Evidence of payment to Maltese falconers exists in 1374.

121

Natalino Fenech

Demand for falcons from Malta was high and various European Monarchs received falcons as gifts until 1800. Under the reign of the Knights of the Order of St John from 1530 onwards, falcon trapping was a very official and highly regulated practice. Trapped falcons were passed to the Royal Falconer in a very formal way and notarial deeds were drawn up registering the species, very often also the sex and age of the birds, the quantity caught and expenses involved. The number of falcons sent varied from year to year and there was a whole protocol of how these were to be presented to the King.

The research shows that falconry was so important for several Knights of the Order of St John that a French Knight wrote a treatise about it in 1641.

Some Knights had falconry related images on their shield of arms. This paper also looks at images of birds of prey in coins and art and at how birds of prey were and are now looked at in Maltese literature and the shift in attitudes is discussed.

The practice of falconry died down under British Rule after 1800. It was resurrected more than 200 years later by Lawrence Formosa, a former hunter who learnt about falconry by rearing injured birds of prey. He managed to form the first Maltese Falconersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; association, the Fridericus Rex Malta Falconers in September 2008. Because of the size of the island and the extensive urbanisation and other environmental issues, including illegal hunting, at the moment one can speak more about flying to the lure than hunting of wild quarry. There are now two falconers clubs, as The Malta Falconers Club, was formed in June 2015 under the wings of the Federation for Hunting and Conservation and includes some members who left the original group.

Falconry in Malta has so far served as a tool to educate hunters against shooting of birds of prey, which though illegal since 1980, was still a considerable problem until quite recently. It has also helped in hacking back to the wild injured birds that had been treated for gunshot. Hacked birds included an Eleonoraâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Falcon. Falconry has also been used as one of the tools to scare birds and assist in the prevention of bird strikes at the Malta international Airport.

Key words: Falconry, Malta, birds of prey, raptors, Grand Falconer, falconer, Maltese Falcon, Peregrine Falcon, Saker, Lanner, heraldry, conservation, language, proverbs.

Methods Research for this paper was carried out by analysing old and current Maltese bird names and expressions involving birds of prey in a bid to trace etymological roots and date them to be able to create a tangible timeline through which one can demonstrate an active interest in birds of prey. A thorough examination was also made of a number of edicts and regulations as well as notarial deeds and accounts

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THE RABBIS ON THE HUNT: FROM PALESTINE TO POLAND LEOR JACOBI Bar-Ilan University

Abstract The practice of “Jewish Hawking in Medieval France” is documented in my 2013 paper of that name. This practice did face Rabbinic opposition in France, Germany and Catalonia, but for purely technical legal reasons: dietary laws and prohibitions on use of animals. Kυνηγέω, cynegeticus, on the other hand, faced strident Rabbinic opposition in both authoritative Talmudic sources and in the medieval period contemporaneous to the actual Jewish practice of falconry. A five-hundred-year lull of Rabbinic expression was suddenly broken in a highly nuanced legal opinion of R. Yechezkel Landau (“Noda Biyehuda”, 1713–1793), a native of Opatów, Poland, and one of the most influential Polish Rabbi of all time. His response has become the definitive locus classicus for Rabbinic opinion on hunting. We explain the reason for the lull and show that Rabbinic opinion on hunting is generally, though not always, consistent. Variance of Rabbinic attitude is usually the product of different forms of hunting explicitly under discussion, such as subsistence hunting and sport hunting. Surprisingly, cruelty to animals and needless loss of life or property, Talmudic concerns expressed elsewhere, are not significantly relevant

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to hunting. The Rabbis are concerned primarily with dietary laws, interaction with gentile society, and proper character development.

Key words: Talmud, hunting, falconry, Noda Biyhuda, ethics

How strongly developed this sense of the sanctity of life is in the Jewish people is admirably illustrated by a little remark which Walter Rathenau once made to me in conversation: “When a Jew says that he’s going hunting to amuse himself, he lies.” The Jewish sense of the sanctity of life could not be more simply expressed.

Albert Einstein (1954: 187)

The Sages frowned upon hunting and associated it with negative violent aspects of gentile culture. On the other hand, we have incontrovertible proof for “Jewish Hawking in Medieval France”, as I detailed in a recent article by that name, and for other Jewish hunting practices. The topic of hunting touches on many aspects of Jewish law and thought which will be addressed here chronologically.

Biblical Period Nimrod and Esau are the two great aristocratic hunters mentioned in the Bible (Gen. 10:8–9; 25:27). Esau, the “man of the field who understands hunting” is juxtaposed with the patriarch Jacob, who dwells in tents and tends sheep. As Esau represented neighboring Edom, the hunters were associated with surrounding gentile nations. Furthermore, two wives of Esau the hunter were Hittite women and ancient falconry has been associated with the Hittites (Gen. 26:34; 36:2; See: Canby 2002)1.

To quote Mark S. Smith (Smith 2007: 15–16): Genesis 25, which attributes hunting to one ancient hero and cultivation to the other, sounds like the representation of the twin culture heroes in Philo of Byblos… Of course, the biblical chapter markedly differs in contrasting the two figures in terms of the audience’s identification with them: Esau (Edom) is not Jacob (Israel). The Jacob–Esau narrative presupposed a perception that the hunt was, emblematically speaking, characteristically Edomite and not Israelite. At the same time, this perception could well represent a relatively agricultural perspective generally or an urban perspective among Israel’s elite.

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THE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF FALCONRY 21 &$3 %21 781,6,$ %5,() +,6725< JENHANI ATEF 7XQLVLD DWHIMHQKDQL#\DKRR FRP

Abstract The aim of this article is to give a brief idea about the history of falconry in Tunisia (Fig. 1) hoping that it will be interesting and rewarding and will help better to understand the chronology of the history of falconry in this country perhaps not in the world. I tried to search the origin or roots of this art in the past, to prove that it is antique, returns to the Roman period in North Africa and probably before this era. I also tried to show the relationship that may exist between falconry from the east on one side and Tunisia on the other side.

Key words: Mosaic, the Roman era, the Arab caliphate period, the Ottoman period

Introduction The peninsula of Cap Bon (Fig. 2) is a very rich area with its customs, traditions, and with its tangible and intangible heritage. Cap Bon also has superb wildlife and is a relay of vital importance for migratory birds from Africa to Europe by the Strait of Sicily (Italy) – El Haouaria (Tunisia).

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SUBICI POTESTATI HOMINUM: FALCONRY AS AN EXERCISE IN SPIRITUAL $1' 62&,$/ 612%%(5< ,1 7+( DE ARTE VENANDI CUM AVIBUS BY THE EMPEROR FREDERICK II BOGDAN BURLIGA University of Gdansk

Abstract The aim of the paper is to investigate the problem to which extent the sentiments and ideals expressed in the Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen’s famous treatise may be regarded as snobbery associated with falconry. It is argued that a sense of snobbery is present in the handbook but in this case the term has less in common with a usual meaning of this word. The Emperor is essentially not interested in falconry as a manifestation of privileged social position. Instead, for the author of the manual ‘snobbery’ of such kind of hunting is a matter of hard toil and efforts made by a falconer who loves his job and treats it as a vocation. It may be, then, regarded as a ‘way of life’ that positively influences the character of a hunter.

Key words: snobbery, Middle Ages, hunting, falconry

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THE POSITION OF MATEUSZ CYGANSKIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S â&#x20AC;&#x153;MYSLISTWO PTASZEâ&#x20AC;? [â&#x20AC;&#x153;BIRD HUNTINGâ&#x20AC;?] IN OLD POLISH LITERATURE AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF ORNITHOLOGY 0$5/(1$ :,/&=$. )DFXOW\ RI $UWHV /LEHUDOHV :DUVDZ 8QLYHUVLW\ XO 'REUD ² :DUVDZ PDUOHQ ZLOF]DN#JPDLO FRP

Abstract The aim of the article is to present the beginnings of the art of training birds of prey in Poland based on the first known ornithological treatise written by Mateusz CygaĹ&#x201E;ski, a noble man from Mazovia who lived under the rule of king Stefan Batory.

Apart from Jan Ostrogaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s â&#x20AC;&#x153;MyĹ&#x203A;listwo z ogaryâ&#x20AC;? [â&#x20AC;&#x153;Hunting with houndsâ&#x20AC;?]

(1618), â&#x20AC;&#x153;MyĹ&#x203A;listwo ptaszeâ&#x20AC;? [â&#x20AC;&#x153;Bird huntingâ&#x20AC;?] is one of the oldest monuments to professional works on hunting, as well as to Polish literature. Scholars see Old Polish hunting literature as a part of the history of writing about agriculture. It comes as no surprise that CygaĹ&#x201E;ski uses the information contained in book 11 of the Polish 1549 translation of Pietro deâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Crescenzi â&#x20AC;&#x153;Ruralia commodeâ&#x20AC;?. Deâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Crescenzi based parts of his book on another mediaeval work, â&#x20AC;&#x153;De arte venandi cum avibusâ&#x20AC;?

by Emperor Fredric II (approx. 1250), which influenced, although indirectly,

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Polish hunting literature and popularized the views of antique and mediaeval agricultural authors, which unfortunately often survived until modernity.

Mateusz Cygański’s work is also an original piece based on his own experience as a nobleman and a hunter, a work on birds that is the source of Old Polish bird vernacular. Providing the Polish names and description of birds occurring in Poland, the books has an important place in the history of ornithology.

Key words: Mateusz Cygański, aviculture, history of ornithology, Old Polish literature

Hunting was an integral aspect of aristocratic landowners’ economy and lifestyle. Most of the products of Old Polish hunting culture were created by the nobility and land-owning gentry, “as clearly seen in the specificity of hunting vocabulary and proverbs, hardly understandable today, as well as the various works on hunting – both artistic and professional” (Dynak 2001). The existence of guide books shows that this social group had a need for professional literature that would facilitate rational management of aristocratic estates. Although, in agriculture, hunting served as an additional activity, works on farming contained separate sections devoted to hunts. Stefan Inglot in the preface to Anzelm Gostomski’s “Gospodarstwo” [“Farming”] notes that the first works on agriculture were written in the second half of the 16th century. The first Polish original works on farming include: Adam Miciński’s “O świerzopach i ograch tj. o przyswajaniu dzikich koni” [“On the training of wild horses”] (1570); Olbrycht Strumieński’s invaluable “O sprawie, sypaniu, wymierzaniu i rybieniu stawów, także o przekopach, o ważeniu i prowadzeniu wody” [“On preparing, maintaining and stocking fish ponds, and water management in general”] (1573), and “Myślistwo ptasze” [“Bird hunting”] by Mateusz Cygański (1584) (Inglot 1951).

“Myślistwo ptasze” [“Bird hunting”], an ornithological treatise containing specialised information on bird hunting, is listed among works on agriculture

by Old Polish literature scholars because its author describes the benefits and uses of hunting in farming and the effects that birds have on farms. Polish works on agriculture, and also hunting, were preceded with the publication of Pietro de’ Crescenzi’s “Ruralia commode”, translated in 1549. Władysław Dynak notes that this translation popularised the ideas and views of antique and mediaeval writers on agriculture, permeating Polish farming literature. The person who edited “Staropolskie księgi o myślistwie” [“Old Polish books on hunting”] writes that de’Crescenzi’s work was influenced by a piece of mediaeval literature, “De arte venandi cum avibus” (approx. 1250) by Emperor Frederick II. In turn, Cygański based his “Myślistwo ptasze” [“Bird hunting”] on “book

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THE THEME AND SYMBOLISM 2) 7+( )$/&21 ,1 +(5$/'5< $1 287/,1( 3,275 *2â'<1 $GDP 0LFNLHZLF] 8QLYHUVLW\ LQ 3R]QDQ

Abstract Heraldry is a field which conveys a specific message by means of various symbols, with wildlife a dominating theme. Emblems often feature representations of birds, including the falcon, which, apart from the eagle, is one of the most common symbols. The following analysis focuses on two main aspects. Firstly, it explains the symbolism of the falcon in various religions and cultures, as this immediately determines the choice of the coat of arms. Secondly, it presents selected crests which feature the representations of the falcon and explains the basis of using this symbol.

Key Words: falcon, heraldry, local coats of arms

Introduction When traveling around Poland and Europe, or even worldwide, we consciously or unconsciously encounter coats of arms which are the basic hallmarks of a city or a place. We sometimes go past them unknowingly, but when we do look at them we try to decipher their hidden symbolism. And it is quite diverse.

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VETERINARIAN TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENTS IN THE STUDY 2) %,2',9(56,7< $7 7+( 7851 2) 7+( ² TH CENTURY IN THE AREA OF GRODNO ALIAKSEI BILETSKI Yanka Kupala State University of Grodno VDEYLG#PDLO UX

Abstract This article is devoted to the training of veterinary experts from around Grodno and those who practiced veterinary medicine in the area at the end of the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth century. The aim of the study was to examine the process of formation and development of veterinary education, determine the main directions of its development, and training of veterinarians in the Grodno province in the late eighteenth century and the first half of the nineteenth century. The article presents the earliest attempt to organize the training of veterinary surgeons in the area of Grodno, the inspirer and founder of which was Professor J. E. Gilibert. In 1776 a school for doctors and vets was founded where much attention was paid to training in the field of veterinary medicine. The school, due to the short time of its existence, certainly could not prepare many medical and veterinary specialists. However, according to Polish researchers, this was the first school of this kind not only in the Duchy

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Aliaksei Biletski

of Lithuania, but also in the whole Republic. A botanical garden was established for the sole purpose of teaching. J. E. Gilibert conducted his study of the local flora and fauna. He left behind a fundamental work describing the local plant species and was the very first scientifically describe the bison. In the present article presents the process of creation and development of the Department of Veterinary Medicine at the Vilnius University, whose professor L. G. Bojanus lectured on epizootiology and veterinary police, in order to teach students the practice with principles of the fighting against infectious diseases of animals.

Some of the graduates of the department worked in the Grodno province. Many of the examined archival materials emphasise the leading role of the first Veterinary school at the Vilnius University, and then the department of the Medical-Surgical Academy, in the training of veterinarians in the Grodno province. Students of the University and the Academy were the first veterinary specialists trained in their native region. They created a special, independent, educated team in the field of veterinary medicine. The article also tries to analyse the social, religious, territorial and quantitative composition of veterinary school students of Vilnius University and branches of the Academy, to determine the level of substantive and scientific disciplines taught, lists the conditions for the recruitment and training of students as well as the structure of the educational process. Furthermore, the article describes the training of junior veterinary workers in accordance to the program of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Empire, who worked in the 1840s in the Grodno province with practicing doctors of veterinary medicine.

Thus, despite previous attempts to create the first veterinary schools on the former north-western territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ,organizing such educational institution at Vilnius University and then at the Medicine and Surgery Academy can be regarded as the beginning of the preparation of veterinarians in the region of Grodno, considering their importance for development veterinary medicine in these areas. Since the end of the eighteenth century, Vilnius became the centre of research in the field of natural sciences, the botanical garden was transferred here from Grodno and numerous works were created in the field of biology.

Key words: history of veterinary education, Veterinary School, Vilnius University, Vilnius Medico-Surgical Academy, veterinary doctor (physician), doctor of medical and veterinary, Grodno province, research in the natural sciences

Introduction Since the end of the eighteenth century, after the expulsion of the Jesuits, and also due to the increase in public awareness in Belarus, Lithuania and Poland,

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REPRESENTATION OF OWLS IN POLISH FOLKLORE DARIA MISIAK 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 6LOHVLD LQ .DWRZLFH GDULD PLVLDN#JPDLO FRP

Abstract The owl in the Polish folklore can be understood as a meditative creature.

The etymology of the Polish word sowa (owl) itself indicates that the owl is a summoning bird. Although one can spot an owl during a daytime, the main activity of this bird comes during the evening and night-time. Apathetic by day and frequently attacked by other birds, the owl spreads fright in the night – it is a swift, agile hunter, silently lurking in the darkness. In human beliefs it inhabits both the real and the mystical world, wherefrom it can bring divinations. It sees what is kept hidden from the sight of man and its screeches are unrepeatable – they confirm that the bird belongs to the magical world. The owl intermediates between the world of the living and the world of the dead, from which it can carry requests for christening or for the revenge. The presence of the owl is an omen of a change: it can mean the incoming dusk as well as the major change in messaged person’s life – being even more important as an owl’s screeching call resembles words. Dangerous during its life, the owl preserves its magical features after death: the appropriate use of a dead owl’s body its parts provides protection against evil forces and illness or may otherwise impact reality.

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Daria Misiak

Next to swans, swallows, storks and ravens, owls are the most “meaningful” (i.e. revealing, heralding) birds. Carefully prepared descriptions of owls, including its behaviour, appearance and calls (as well as the associations related to them) prove how much these birds boggled people’s minds and, at the same time, how important they are in the folklore.

Key words: owls, folklore, folk demonology, magical folk

In this article I would like to discuss the representation of owls in Polish folk culture interpreted as, according to “Ethnological dictionary” by Zofia Staszczak “a group of cultural elements developed within the lower layers of a society, defined as the folk”, although it should be noted that “folk culture is historical construct changing in time, formed from three major sources: the original (ethnic) culture, the one that was acquired from the culture of the upper classes, and the one creatively adopted to suit the needs of life and interethnic influences […]

It reached its climax in the 19th century, after the abolition of the feudal system, and after that began its gradual degradation; typical for differentiated society, it co-existed with the current elite culture, so it was not fully independent, but it formed the so-called small tradition and partial culture in the general culture of the society; in contrast to elite culture it showed regional disparity as the result of relative isolation and environmental conditions” (Staszczak 1987).

I refer to the material collected in Poland (mainly in field research), obtained by historians and ethnographers. Some beliefs, however, are not necessarily of Polish origin. It must be remembered that borders changed, peoples migrated, and some beliefs permeated each other. Similar ideas about owls are present in the majority of Slavic cultures, the researchers cite beliefs from the area of the Czech Republic, Russia, Slovenia, Slovakia, as well as Lithuania, Romania, Prussia and France. Some owl calls, for example the little owl’s (Pl. “pójdźka”), in different languages are perceived in the same way: in Poland they are associated with the word “go” (Pl. “pójdź”), in Germany – “Komm mit”, “come”. Although these words sound completely different, cultural significance of these hoots is the same in many cultures: the announcement of death (Biegeleisen 1930: 412). Completely different ideas of owls are represented in Greek culture, in which they are a symbol of wisdom – the aforementioned little owl is an attribute of the goddess Athena.

It is difficult to specify the period in which described beliefs had functioned.

Publications I am referring to were released between the 18th and the 20th centuries, but some of the described beliefs could be much older. Some of them may function even in the present-day.

This article can be therefore considered to be a collection of representations of owls, related beliefs (documented by researchers), and magical practices,

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$ )$/&215< /(6621 THE EXPERIENCE OF INTRODUCING FALCONRY INTO A TRANSDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM OF STUDIES (:$ â8.$6=<.

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Abstract The article deals with problems and open questions concerning the inscription of the falconry lore in the academic institution, teaching practice and production of knowledge, referred mainly to the emergent transdisciplinary field of anthropozoology (human/animal studies). It presents the experimental falconry seminar realized at the College of Liberal Arts, University of Warsaw, commenting on its concept, outcomes, the response of the academic public, as well as the perspectives and obstacles on the way toward the permanent presence of falconry at the university.

Key words: falconry, anthropozoology, education

Falconry has always been a living cultural practice, transmitted from generation to generation through close observation of older masters of the art and

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ECOLOGICAL EDUCATION CENTRE OF THE PODLASKIE MUSEUM – FALCONRY CENTRE AS THE MUSEUM’S NOVEL PRACTICE IN ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION $5785 *$:(â %LDã\VWRN 2SHQ $LU 0XVHXP

Abstract The article presents a project carried out by the Białystok Open Air Museum aimed at increasing public awareness on the role and significance of birds of prey in their natural habitats and this way improve the conservation of biodiversity. The project was was co-financed by the Norwegian Fund and European Economic Area Financial Mechanism for 2009–2014. Carried out in 2014–2016, the project covered developing educational programmes for children, young people, and adults used in classes and raptor displays conducted in the bird aviaries in the open air museum. The classes are conducted by the personnel responsible for looking after the birds with years of experience in falconry. The article also summarises the current activity of the Ecological Education Centre and its future perspectives.

Key words: museum education, falconry, ecological education centre

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NATURE IN PRESCHOOL EDUCATION ,:21$ /(:.2:,&=

Abstract Environmental education is extremely important to the didactic and educational influence of a preschool. Early childhood is the best time to begin a gradual formation of correct attitudes towards nature. Preschools have numerous opportunities to develop environmental sensitivity in children through contact with the animal and plant kingdom. Developing children’s sensitivity to beauty of nature and the need to protect it increases their awareness of threats to the natural environment and creates a right response to inappropriate behaviour of other people. That is why a right attitude to nature must be fostered from an early age.

Particular attention must be paid to developing children’s respect and sense of responsibility for the condition and reproduction of natural resources. This may be achieved by direct contact with nature, for example, by taking frequent walks or trips to various ecosystems. Such “expeditions” are aimed at showing children the diversity of nature throughout different seasons. Being in direct contact with the environment, children go through many distinct experiences and feel the need to protect that which is precious. Ecology becomes an important part of their lifestyle and the child shifts from being a passive observer to an active propagator of environmentally friendly attitudes.

Key words: preschool, environmental education

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A VIEW ON FALCONRY AND EDUCATION IN EUROPE ELISABETH LEIX 6DQGEXHKO '² 'LHWPDQQVULHG HOLVDEHWK OHL[#JP[ GH

Abstract Together with my friends Dianne Moller (USA), Tula Stapert (Netherland) and Ellen Hagen (Norway) of the WWG-IAF we worked out our thoughts about Falconry in relation to education in Europe. Falconry is unique and we are working to protect this valuable tradition. Since Falconry was recognized as a World Heritage in November 2012 in 13 countries, each year it has become more affiliated with other countries. In modern society with the lose of understanding for natural processes, it is often very difficult for the public to accept a tradition where one animal preys on another although this occurs every day in the wild. From a womanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perspective and our own experience we contribute to this topic to comment on falconry and education in its context. We explain how falconry is perceived by the general public and what can falconers do to strengthen the tolerance for falconry in public. Another topic is the importance of education about falconry in public. With a view of the general situation of falconry, we want to characterize what problem has arisen in respect of the lack of awareness in Europe and with dangers this entails.

Finally, we want to point out some examples of what is possible to present falconry objectively and attractively to the public, so that it can be perceived more positively in the future. Therewith we can continue to share active a global heritage.

Key words: falconry, education, cultural heritage

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SCHOOL LINKS PROGRAMME: USING FALCONRY & FALCON CONSERVATION TO INSTIGATE INTERNATIONAL LINKS BETWEEN SCHOOLS NICOLA DIXON ,QWHUQDWLRQDO :LOGOLIH &RQVXOWDQWV /WG 32 %R[ &DUPDUWKHQ 6$ </ 8. QLFROD#IDOFRQV FR XN

Falconry is a widespread and culturally important practice in many parts of the world. Falconry incorporates aspects of heritage, history, literature and science, making it an ideal subject for educational programmes as it represents a common theme that cuts across a diverse range of cultures.

The School Links Programme (SLP) was established in 2011 as part of a conservation and wildlife management project targeted at Saker Falcons in Mongolia, where artificial nests have been used to increase the breeding population of this endangered falcon species. Schools in the 20 districts where artificial nests have been erected have been provided with educational resources to help students understand why 5,000 artificial nests were established on the Mongolian Steppe.

The primary aim of the SLP was to link 20 Mongolian schools with international schools in order to increase local awareness and develop local custodianship of the artificial nests in each district. Presently there are 42 schools actively involved

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Nicola Dixon

from Europe, North America, the Middle East, Africa and Asia, with a planned additional two schools joining before the end of 2015. The SLP gives children from Mongolia and other countries the opportunity to exchange knowledge and culture using falconry and raptor conservation as a means of introduction.

A scheme of work was written to introduce students to falconry and the sustainable use of falcons for falconry.

Figure 1. Students from schools in Mongolia, USA and UAE participating in the School Links Programme.

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INTERVIEWING OLD FALCONERS â&#x20AC;&#x201C; ONE OF THE PROJECTS OF FALCONRY HERITAGE TRUST JEVGENI SHERGALIN )DOFRQU\ +HULWDJH 7UXVW 3 2 %R[ &DUPDUWKHQ 6$ </ :DOHV 8.

Falconry is a living human heritage of humankind and since 16 November 2010 is recognized as such one by UNESCO within the frames of its Intangible Cultural Heritage Convention [http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/00732].

Due to development of modern technologies and moving of people from countryside into towns, falconry schools in many countries over the world become on the brink of extinction. With loss of old generations many names, skills, knowledge and experience can disappear forever. Preventing that the Falconry Heritage Trust (FHT) [www.falconryheritage.com] since 2012 undertakes a project on interviewing old falconers over the world. For some countries where falconry is a young sport, speech goes about recording the way in falconry of pioneers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the first falconers in respective countries if even they are not very old. The main purpose â&#x20AC;&#x201C; to stimulate people in own countries to record experience, achievements and mistakes of falconers of old generation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; carriers of unique knowledge, i.e. preserve disappearing heritage. Questionnaire for interviewing is compiled by Dick ten Bosch, David Horobin and author. Information about this project was circulated with help of E-Newsletter of IAF [http://www.iaf.org/]. Programme-

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Jevgeni Shergalin

minimum – to record video-interviews with old falconers in own languages and programme-maximum – to insert then subtitles in English. There are two sorts of interviews: a) when falconers tell about their own way in falconry b) when they tell about their friends and colleagues who already passed away.

Duration of interviews varies from 25 to 40 minutes. Some of them are recorded in the form of monologues after short introduction of interviewer, while some – in the form of dialogues. So far 23 interviews in 70 parts are recorded from 23 falconers from 10 countries: Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Georgia, Japan, Kazakhstan, Poland, Russia, USA, Uzbekistan in 4 languages: English, Flemish, Russian, Spanish. These interviews were recorded in 5 countries: Argentina, Belgium, Kazakhstan, Qatar, Russia. The first one in this series was an interview with Janusz Sielicki who kindly told about his father the late Czesław Sielicki – the falconer who restored falconry in Poland in the 1960’s–1970’s.

Janusz Sielicki tells about his father – Czesław Sielicki (1933–1996) – Doha, Qatar, January 2014.

Soso Jgomadze – Georgian bazieri (in Georgian: falconer with Sparrowhawk) – Doha, Qatar, January 2014. He is one of the oldest falconers in Georgia who fly sparrowhawks (Mimino). He is a teacher of many young Georgian bazieri.

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