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(11 1.
CONTENTS
ii)
The Internet is "the most important single development in the world of computing since the IBM PC was introduced in
1981".
(Bill
Gates: The Road Ahead) How would you account for the popularity of the Internet? 2.
How far should scientists be held responsible for the effects of their discoveries?
3.
5. 6.
10.
. . 30
.
The genetic revolution is not an unmixed blessing. Discuss.
... .34
It is said that technology will "allow mankind to live, work and exist
.
.
.
.. ...38
"Science and technology nowadays are far too much concerned Comment on this
statement, giving examples to illustrate your answer.
9.
.
What changes can be expected as a result of the communications
with quantity at the expense of quality".
8.
.... 26
revolution?
on the move". What are the possibilities?
7.
. ....22
Unnecessary fear of technology should not deny us its benefits. Consider this view in the light of any technological development.
4.
... .. 18
'Science claims no finality for any of its conclusions'.
.
Discuss
....42
this, giving examples from the progress of the theories of the atom.
.....46
What do you think is the value of science in the general education of a person who is not intending to be a scientist?
.. ..49
What are the advantages of specialisation? What are its perils
.
for both individuals and society?
..... 52
11.
What are the dangers of radiation?
..... 56
12.
The aim of education must be 'the fuller realisation of mankind and not manpower'. Discuss.
..... 59
13.
'Discipline must be the basis of all achievement - even of learning". Discuss.
.....63
14.
Why study history? Is it perhaps to learn from past mistakes, to yearn for lost glory or for some other reason?
.....67
15.
How far is the knowledge of history important to understand the .....70
contemporary politics of a country? 16.
How far is the consumer society responsible for the damage .....74
inflicted upon common global resources?
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17. 18.
19.
20. 21.
22.
23. 24.
Discuss some of the issues identified by feminists relating to . ....79
women. Examine some forms of prejudice in the world and consider the ways in which they might be tackled.
. ....83
'Nature's supreme masterpiece'. Consider this description of man.
.....88
There is an urgent need to invest the best in the young. What are .....92
your views? Young people often accuse adult society of hypocrisy
Write an . ....96
essay to support or deny this charge. The problem of 'brain drain' in many developing countries is the lack of opportunities for professional development.
How far is
this true?
....100
What are some of the problems of the aged?
....104
In your opinion, what sort of an environment would best nurture the development of the individual's intelligence and learning potential?
....108
25.
What are some of the issues related to sports today?
....112
26.
Why is it feared that the family is doomed?
..,.116
27.
How important is it to preserve the balance of nature?
....120
28.
In the animal kingdom, killing is necessary to ensure the survival of the fittest. Discuss.
....123
29.
Are experiments on animals necessary?
....126
30.
Assess the benefits derived from artificial dams and the problems
31.
that have been created.
....129
Examine the view that the sea is a rich source of food.
....133
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32.
Discuss the ways in which the great deserts of the world can be used for the benefit of humankind.
33.
Depletion of natural resources.
.... 136 How may this problem be
.. ..140
overcome?
34.
How is soil erosion brought about, why is it so damaging and what means can be taken to prevent it?
35.
41.
.... 163
Would food scarcity be an issue in the coming years?
.... 168
What are some of the health problems in developing countries
.... 180
How would you account for the phenomenal growth of tourism in .... 184
Discuss the causes and consequences of the refugee problem in the world.
46.
.... 176
"Bring more tourists: they take nothing but pictures and leave
recent times ? How far has it been beneficial to Third World countries ?
45.
.... 172
Examine the extent, nature, causes and prevention of offence
nothing but footprints". How far is this statement true?
44.
... 159
deal with excessive population growth?
committed by juvenile delinquents.
43.
.
How far do government policies determine the measures taken to
and how may they be addressed?
42.
. ... 155
The world is becoming more and more economically interdependent. Discuss.
40.
.... 15 1
How would you explain the term, 'the shrinking world'? What are some of its implications?
39.
... 147
What are the primary factors which determine the variations of climate over the surface of the earth?
38.
.
Suggest the reasons for this and consider
possible remedies.
37.
... 144
The practical problems of disposing of toxic wastes are causing increasing concern.
36.
.
.... 188
Why do people migrate and what are some of the effects of this process?
.... 191
47.
48. 49.
Examine briefly the role of the United Nations Organisation in the peaceful settlement of disputes between nations.
. ... 196
What in your opinion are the essentials of democracy?
.
" Two cheers for democracy - one, because it admits variety,
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and, two, because it permits criticism". Comment.
50. 51.
52.
53. 54. 55. 56.
57. 58. 59.
60. 61.
.. .200
....204
What are some of the attributes that nationalism in the new nations seems to hold?
.
Should liberty and equality always be subordinate to law and order?
.
.. 208 .
.. 2 12 .
"He who confuses political liberty with freedom, and political equality with similarity has never thought for five minutes about either". Explain what is meant by this statement.
... 2 15 .
How far do you consider freedom of speech and freedom of the
. .2 19
press as essentials of good living?
. .
". . . the idea of absolute freedom is .. . unattainable by individuals in society". Do you agree?
. .223
How do citizens involve themselves in the politics of their country?
. . .227
. .
.
What do you understand by the term 'good' as applied to government?
... . 231
Make out a case for a world government.
. .235
What are the qualities of a statesman?
. .
Illustrate your answer
with examples.
. ...239
We have witnessed political and economic changes in the world. Referring to some international developments in the past few decades, examine the validity of this statement.
.. .. 243
Citizen organisations have become a force for good in the world today.
What are your views?
. ... 247
"Industrialisation in its present unquestioned and uncritical form can tum out to be a source of terrorism and underdevelopment".
62.
Discuss.
.
Examine the role of the military in a nation state.
.
...25 1
...255
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63.
Why have military coups been so common in Third World countries?
64. 65. 66.
....259
How far is it correct to say that the twentieth century has been an age of revolution?
....263
Why are there wars?
....267
"It is an unfortunate fact that we can only secure peace by preparing for war" ( JohnF. Kennedy). How would you account for the military quest for national security?
67.
....271
It has been stated that war has never achieved anything and never will. How far do you agree with this statement?
....275
68.
Why is arms control an issue today?
....278
69.
Account for the concern today for human security (as opposed to
70. 71.
national security).
....282
"Violence is unjustifiable under any circumstances". Discuss.
....286
Discuss the view that the West have considerable influence on Asian popular culture.
72.
How essential is a knowledge of the life and background of an artist, writer or musician to the appreciation of his work?
73.
....300
"The short story, like any other form of art, is a matter of adaptation". Discuss.
76.
....296
Have the contributions of art added to the enrichment of modern living?
75.
....293
" ... works of art come into existence for a host of reasons ... " Discuss.
74.
....289
.... 304
" The greatest achievement of mankind is language". How far do you agree?
.... 307
77.
Give an account of photography as an art form.
. ... 311
78.
What makes a work of art?
....315
79.
What is the place of music in life?
....318
. . . 322
80.
Why study literature?
.
81.
What is the point of reading, apart from teaming facts?
. . . . 326
82.
'General and cultural education are fundamental and without these the technicians will not take us far'. Discuss
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83.
84. 85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
. . . . 329
What do you understand by 'culture contact'. What problems are raised by it?
.... 333
Culture change. How does it come about and what are some of its implications?
. . . . 337
The appeal of folklore, myths and legends.
.... 341
"Adherence to traditional customs is detrimental to national development". Do you agree?
.
. 345 ..
"Material progress is followed by a weakening of community ties". Explain.
. ... 348
"All fundamental human values are in danger of being destroyed by the new attitude towards morals". Discuss.
. ... 351
"I see things that never were and say why not". R. Kennedy. With reference to the above statement, comment on the spirit of invention and research in this modem age.
.
... 354
"It is the human mind, not the physical environment, that determines the ways in which life is lived on this planet". Do you agree?
. . . 358 .
What kinds of books would you choose for your own private library, and why?
. . . 362
92.
Consider the importance of trees.
. . .. 366
93.
Consider the case for the preservation of biodiversity.
. . . . 369
94.
Discuss the view that recycling is the key to a viable future.
. ... 372
95.
Why are we concerned about global warming? What measures have been taken to counter it?
96.
.
. . . . 377
Do you think that poetry has any relevance to the present day? Give reasons for your answer.
. . . . 381
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97.
Critics of plays, films and music have a vital function to perform. What are your views?
98.
99. 100.
....384
"The primary function of education is to teach us how to learn". Discuss this statement.
....387
What is happiness?
....390
"It is always a pity when a man's education alienates him from his own people". Discuss this view in the light of your own experience.
....393
101. Do you think that we should be free to use animals for our benefit?
....396
102. Globalisation is not an unmixed blessing. It has raised certain serious concerns. What are your views?
....399
103. How far do you agree with the view that G. M. Crops (Genetically Modified Crops) should increase food production and benefit us? 104.
....403
Explain some of the ways in which technology has transformed society.
....406
105. Our Earth's resources are limited. What can be the effects of population increase on the available resources?
....409
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Composition is simply the art of saying what we mean - an art which sounds easier than it really is. * ,
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G.H. THORNTON
"'"
'l. Introduction " '
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Essay-writing is saying what we really mean. E.M. Foster
How the devil do I know what I think till see what I've written? Ideas lead to expression. Where
once asked, I
the G.P. essay is concerned, the examiner wants the honest reactions of a student to a particular question and he is particularly interested in knowing if he/she can express correctly.
his/her thinking,
simply,
naturally and
General Paper essay-questions pre-suppose
knowledge of certain topics and this can be acquired by reading. You will have your favourite topics and you may read widely about these and you will be armed with the necessary knowledge.
Your reactions to a question will
be fostered by your liking for a topic and influenced by your experience.
But commonsense always rules. There
is enough scope to exercise it, especially to determine the approach.
This commonsense must be governed and
informed by taste
and
judgement,
and taste and
judgement are born of reading and reflection.
Writing
compositions involves many aspects of English - sentence construction, vocabulary and paragraphing. Writing essays is largely a matter of deciding what to say (thinking) and then saying it (expressing) clearly and interestingly.
We say something that is worth saying.
Often a good G.P. essay is a combination of facts and opinions. You should be in control of the subject matter, and to gain this control, you should gather material from books, magazines, newspapers, etc.
Reading must be
analytical, i.e. asking questions about ideas you come across.
An analysis of the past question papers shows
that there is a wide range of subjects from which you can
1
choose to read about and gather material. It is important to have some personal knowledge of a few topics so that in the examination you
will find the topic that best fits
your interest. Essay-subjects are usually set to give scope to candidates of differing interests.
We write best about
what we know best, and hazy knowledge results in poor essays.
Let your thinking and analysis guide your
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approach. Before starting to write the essay, it
will be advisable to
go through two preliminaries: brainstorming and drawing You brainstorm to generate ideas: you
up an outline.
activate your thinking process.
An elaborate plan is not
really necessary, but a scratch plan - a brief outline to guide your writing will be necessary so that you can
arrange your ideas the best way.
Your essay would then
hang together. "
2.z /,
Brainstorming /
xz )!'.
The time allowed for a G.P. essay is one hour and a half, and the candidate is expected to make the most of his time.
To avoid the grim prospect of sitting there in the
examination room knowing
not how to begin or develop
the points and then reach the final conclusion, one must prepare adequately.
It may not be possible to answer a
large number of essays, but it is possible for the student to think by way of preparation and at times to write down
what he thinks.
But if you have some ideas and yet you
are not sure if you can turn out a good composition, do
not think there is anything unusual the matter with you. Thinking, or we may call it brainstorming, will solve the
problem.
The point to remember is that no topic will be
impossible, if you spend a little time thinking and looking
at the topic from different angles.
When you let your mind play freely and list ideas related to the topic,
you are brainstorming.
You open your
mind to a flurry of ideas and you do not worry about the
nature of your ideas.
You may list these ideas or have
them in your mind. There should be bad ideas with good ones, and you can make your choice.
Brainstorming is a
mental activity and it is often associated with sudden, unexpected inspiration.
You are in fact opening your
mind to all related ideas and you are controlling your mind from wandering away from the topic.
2
It is possible
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that your ideas come tumbling out and when you want to set them down you hardly know where to begin.
(Do not start with the first idea that comes to your mind, hoping others will follow in the right order.) The brainstorming
process should be completed and with the array of ideas in
your
mind,
you
can
proceed
with
Brainstorming does not usually take long. topic.
planning. Let u s t ry a
At this stage, we are only engaged in the thinking
process and not organising the ideas that come to mind. Example:'Money is the root of all evil'.
(a)
Do you agree ?
We have to get and we have to spend and none can dispute the value of money.
(b)
What is obnoxious is the excessive love of money to the exclusion of all other good things.
(c)
Why is money necessary? (i) (ii)
We are engaged in creating wealth. Earning one's own income is a legitimate part of life.
(iii)
We may associate the desire for money with savings and one must
save for the family,
for contingencies, etc. (iv)
Money economy makes it necessary to desire for money.
(c)
Excesssive desire is harmful: (i)
Man ignores humanity.
(ii)
He adopts devious ways.
(iii)
Pursuit of wealth leads to pursuit of power
(iv)
Political leaders have amassed wealth and ruined nations.
(v)
White-collar crimes.
and power can corrupt.
(d)
Spirituality is lost. When the obsession conflicts with spiritual values, one may become soulless. "What does it profit a man if he gains the whole world and suffers the loss of his own soul?"
(e)
(f)
One can be money-oriented but should not give
in to the lure of lucre. We must learn to
value humanity,
love
and
compassion and the aim should be to ensure a
3
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and our views will be considered narrow and parochial. By stating opposite views we get a chance to contradict them and thus strengthen our argument. If we are writing in support of the advance of science, we cannot be blind to the problems it has created. However, your emphasis should be on the advantages. By giving consideration to counter-arguments we can develop our argumentative material and convince the examiner. But remember that we can be c onvincing by emphasising our views rather than condemning opposing views. ;;
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Each question will have a direction to determine the treatment of content and it is important that you are quite clear about what it means. Below are some of them:
Explain :
(already discussed)
Do you agree?
This requires the argumentative
approach.
Justify:
This requires arnvmg at a conclusion. Adequate reasons are to be given for arriving at a conclusion or decision. If the question is has the UNO justified its existence, you may take one of these stands: it has or it has not or it has a mixed record; in each case supporting material is to be given. The opposite point of view should also be considered, though not in detail, to make yourself convincing.
Discuss:
Discussive answers require you to examine by argument. The topic will be debatable and reasons for and against are required. Let us examine an example: It is always a pity when a man's education alienates him from his own people. Discuss. There is an implication in this question: Estrangement is a consequence of education. This implication has to be addressed. Does education which is to develop the personality
10
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Ol'ENING 'VIGNETTE
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The Internet may be considered the most astonishing
technological development of the twentieth century.
It provides services better than any other available means. A network of networks, it comb ines the p ower of the computer and telephone: it processes and stores information and it reaches millions of people round the world .
By
1974 the format in which all data sent over the Internet
was designed and it was formally introduced in 1983, the year considered to be its starting point. It is available for anyone to use and this open quality has stimulated a surge of creativity. There is no regulator and anyone can create a "site" which others can access. The Internet is the cheapest
way of communicating irrespective of distance and length of time. We are inclined to associate the Internet mainly with electronic mail; it serves to send out forms, pay
electronic bills and keep families in touch. One of its most
beneficial uses is the access to information and most of the information available is free. The Internet is altering ways by which companies reach their customers, influencing advertising, shopping, distribution, etc. It makes possible price comparison, exerts increased pressure on middlemen
or agents, provides new payment techniques and has an increased global reach. However, the Internet is vulnerable to hackers and viruses; ironically, security has not kept pace with the growth of the Internet. In a sensational larceny case, Russian hackers transferred $ 10 million out of Citibank's cash management network. Viruses or rogue programmes that can disable a computer or data are often p lanted by hackers. The Internet today often gets congested. .It can become a better mass medium if it becomes more secure and less congested .
18
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The most astonishing technical phenomenon of the twentieth century has been the growth of the I nternet. I n 1990 only a few academics could claim they had heard of it. Yet within a decade, the number of its users has increased exponentially and the number of people tapping i nto the I nternet doubles every month. It is set to equal, if not supersede, the current stock of telephones. Its growth has been due to the spontaneous demands of millions of users and not any corporate marketing techn ique. It is expected to transform communication further.
Introduction
The Internet which grew from ARPANET which initially linked four university sites in the USA is a product of publicly financed academic research. It is a network of networks - a global network of commercial and non-commercial computer networks. It is built on a single standard or "protocol'' which is public property, available for anybody to use. This open quality has stimulated a surge of creativity. It has no central command. Though its traffic runs mainly over lines leased from telecommunications companies, they do not manage it or are responsible for it. There is no regulator; anybody can send a message across it or create a "site" which others can access. French President Chirac referred to it as an "Anglo-Saxon network" pri ncipally because the language most commonly used is English, but it will become less Anglo-Saxon when the number of sites in other countries grows. Today it is a vehicle for exporting American ideas to the rest of the world.
Unique fec:Ltures
The Net became a craze four years after the invention of the World Wide Web when the Mosaic, the multimedia Web browser, was created. The Web brought multimedia to the I nternet and allowed the display of colourful pictures, moving images and data and text. The introduction of the hypertext, a tool for crossreference, allowed users to move from words and p h rases highlighted on the screen to related information stored in other computers in quite different places. By 1997 more than a quarter of a million Web sites were available for browsing. The Web cannot be considered synonymous with the I nternet and many I nternet applications like electronic mail are separate from the Web. However, the Web made the Internet user-friendly.
The role of
The I nternet is by far the cheapest way of communicating irrespective of distance and length of time. It is less expensive than the telephone because technology allows it to pack more messages i nto the same transmission space than a standard 19
the Web
The cost CL:nci the role of the PC
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telephone call. To gain access to the I nternet, there are mainly two options: a line leased from a telephone company can be used or users can dial up the I nternet from a modem , as most people calling from home do. The cost to subscribers, therefore, can be influenced by the cost of leased lines or the price of local telephone calls. The PC has helped the wide use of the I nternet and vice versa. The PC gave a new dimension to computers and the tool to use the I nternet. Countries with a large number of PCs per person are likely to have a relatively high rate of I nternet use.
By far the most popular I nternet service is the electronic mai l . It is estimated that 200 million e-mail messages are sent through cyberspace everyday, and the number of e-mail boxes is forecast to double soon. E-mail messages have the ease of perfect digital reproduction and many copies can be sent to many people. Loan forms or tax forms can be filled in on-screen and then clicked to submit the completed form. Bills can be paid electronically. Medical reports can be sent to a doctor on the other side of the world by simply attaching them to an e-mail . One of the biggest advantages is the access to information. This allows I nternet users to become their own librarians and do research; the mouse and the key-board will make these possible. Most of the information available is free. Voluntary organisations put on the I nternet out足 of-copyright books. The I nternet can be a vehicle to distribute radio programmes. The software called "Real Audio" allows users to listen to sound as it is transmitted . A user can run a radio station on the World Wide Web and the broadcasts will be available to listeners anywhere in the world. Webcasting puts live video pictures on the World Wide Web. A Rolling Stones concert was transmitted over the Internet in 1994. It allows users, instead of visiting a site or pulling information out, to have information on t h e i r computers. There are companies t h at use i n -house broadcasts to distribute company information .
Some of the uses
The I nternet is a more effective se l l i n g medium than television. There is the observation that television is a great way to advertise but and not to sell and that it is a screen-based version of the studio store. The I nternet makes possible catalogue shopping, dispensing with the costs involved in paper and postage. Tod ay, therefore, many compan ies have set up shop on the I nternet. The goods widely available on the I nternet are computer software and hardware. The I nternet provides travel services and leisure goods such as CDs and books. On-line retail marketing is in its infancy and it is soon to overtake television shopping. Another
On-line commerce
20
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area for development of sales through the I nternet is distance shopping, but it can run into obstacles of language, culture and regulations. The I nternet reduces entry barriers and cuts cost. A Web site can provide customer information for millions of people for less than the cost of a poster or a billboard. Customers can make decisions and order goods and services and pay for them without going to any outlet. I n the US, Amazon. com , displays on its web site a catalogue of books and passes customers' orders to book-sellers to be wrapped and delivered . Relying on the information about products that are processed and presented on足 line, customers can compare prices and qualities and settle for the best bargains. Price comparison can also create downward pressure on prices. The I nternet will eliminate the agent or the m iddleman . Accord i n g to Bill G ates of M i c rosoft, the new technologies will create ''friction-free capitalism" and the I nternet will "extend the electronic market place and make it the ultimate go-between , the universal middleman". The I nternet is by far the most astonishing phenomenon of the twentieth century. It is being increasingly used in different fields and its astronomical growth is to continue. It provides a high-quality, reliable, fast and secure network. As the I nternet combines the quality of service of the telephone and the fun of television , it may overtake both these media and emerge as the most sought-after information superhighway.
21
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�[-)1 1111•111111� Ol'ENING VIGNETTE
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Scientists make convenient s c a p e g o a ts . For generations they have been blamed for nuclear weapons, environmental pollution and the dilemmas thrown up by advances in biology; now they are blamed for uncertainty of the modem world. We do not blame ourselves for poverty, unemployment, want of accommodation of any kind for the poor, the high incidence of most categories of crime and the uneven development of the world .
We
seldom pause to consider these problems as consequences of economic and social policies of governments elected by us.
As someone has said much of modem science has
been developed by policies shaped by society. There is often shrill protest a gainst almost any application of scientific findings. We have to remind ourselves that we get the scientists we deserve. Scientists cannot be made accountable for the future consequences of the application of their discoveries. Research is necessary for the progress of science and knowledge and there should be no complaint because scientists, as members of society, are influenced by the same moral considerations and attitudes of nonscientists. They can be expected not to undertake any work considered unethical and destructive; even if they do, they will be censored by the scientific community. Projects that will have deleterious consequences will not be funded. The fierce argument among scientists not to use the data gathered by Nazi scientists who performed cruel unethical experiments on human beings is a case in point. Physicists a greed to develop nuclear weapons when there was mounting evidence that Germany was developing them with the clear intention of using them. It was a race against time during the war and they could not be blamed for the belief that such weapons were necessary and were desirable for the good of their societies. It is to be emphasised that policies on weapons development are decided by poiiticians and not scientists.
22
• • •
• • •
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Scientists are blamed for our social malaise. There was a time when scientists inspired fear among the defendants of entrenched intellectual positions. Their correct interpretations of nat u ral phenomena overtu rned many of the traditional and cherished beliefs. We may attribute the on-going challenge presented by scientists to centu ries-old beliefs and the woes of the world that science has not removed to the distrust of scientists by people who are unwilling to accept new ideas.
Introciuctioft
There is a temptation among pol icy-makers and antiscientists to exonerate themselves from the complexity and uncertainty of the modern world and blame scientists for the ills of t h e worl d . C e rta i n ly, t h e re are p roblems. T h e re i s h i g h unemployment in many parts of the world, much of it, i t i s claimed, is due to replacement of man by technology and there is mounting illiteracy. Children are not adequately clothed and starvation is the lot of many. Metropolises contain vagrants who sleep in the open for want of accommodation of any kind. People are mugged on the streets and are afraid of going outdoors after dark. The incidence of all categories of crime is on the rise. Uncongenial environment breeds drug-addicts and drug pushers. Terrorism c o n t i n u e s u n abated a n d t e r r o r i s t s are n ow a r m e d w i t h sop h i sticated weapons. Violence i n schools is increas i n g . Scientists are blamed for the malaise for the social and national problems that are the consequences of the social and economic policies of governments elected by the democratic process, and not by scientists. Much of modern science has been developed by policies shaped by society, but any scientific finding that can be used for human progress in the long run is greeted with protest. Scientists cannot win.
The easy temptci.tion
Scientists cannot be blamed for the consequences or uses of their discoveries. They carry on disinterested research to perfect the existing knowledge of the world around us. They are propelled by cu riosity and discipline, and a discovery for them is an end in itself. It is true that Dr Alex Wood, a pacifist, was prepared to take the blame for the use of the atomic bomb. He taught the science that enabled the emergence of the atom bomb, but he failed to dissuade those who embarked upon the production of the lethal weapon. Many continue to hold him responsible for the cataclysm that resulted or the consequences that were detrimental to society. Scientists should not be indicted for the consequences of their findings. It is unfair to attribute responsibility to a scientist if his discovery is used for destructive or anti-social uses, for he cannot
Slc:ime fer the unfereseeci.'ble
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be expected to foresee that his discovery would have adverse c o n s e q u e n ces. The s c i e n t i st i s res p o n s i b l e o n l y for t h e consequences he can visualise in the immediate future; h e cannot be held responsible fo r the unforeseeable. If a discovery is used for destructive purposes, the burden of responsibility is on those who are given power by society to determine its use.
When scientists are blamed for the harmful consequences of their discoveries, their benefits to man are completely fo rgotten . The outcry against the use of DDT and the consequent banning of it is a case i n point. It is worth recalling that the compound was patented in 1 943 and was introduced as a substitute for insecticides based on arsenic nicotine. It was first used to kil l the lice that transmitted typhus to humans. It is true that it had adverse ecological effects. However, the consequences of the prohibition of DDT are documented i n Sri Lanka where the spraying of DDT to destroy the mosquito - the principal carrier of malaria in Asia - was started in 1 948 when 2.8 million cases of malaria were reported. I n 1 963 there were just 1 7 cases. After the ban, by 1 969 the number had risen to 2.5 million. The fear of the adverse effect of the use of DDT on ecology and consequently on humans has led to great harm to h umans, in the form of malaria. The current attitude to DDT is symbolic of our fear of the future and we are indirectly blaming scientists for our fear of what is to come.
Scientists are blamed for i nvolvement i n research fo r war purposes. There is the view that they cannot free themselves from the responsibility for the consequences that their discoveries would produce and that conditions and restraints must be placed on them. This view ignores man's instinct for aggression and the peculiar circumstances that prevail in a country. Science is not responsible for man's belligerent nature, nor is it responsible for the use of discoveries for war purposes. The humble knife is an indispensable tool in the kitchen; if it is used to destroy a l ife by a violent pers o n , its maker can not be blamed. Even before sophisticated weapons were produced, using scientific knowledge available, there were wars. Primitive men used bones and stone weapons to gain control over their enemies. If science is used for destruction of man by man, the blame should be on the policymakers. It is true that science has enlarged the mechanism of war, but it has done so at the behest of society. Dr Bronowski says in h is Commonsense of Science, . . . warlike science is not more than a by-product of warlike society. Science has merely provided the means, for good or for evil , and society has seized it "
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The blinc:l eye
to DDT
WCLrlike society
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for all". Scientists are accused of promoting material i s m , for tech nological developments have led to the proliferation of household gadgets for man whose avarice is unrestrained. Scientists are considered responsible for the creation of wealth and the competition among men to upstage one another in the possession of earthly things. We consume more than our fair share of the world's resources, ignoring the coming generations. Scientists do not set the examples on which we model our lives, possessing material goods and consuming at a level which our grandparents would have found a downright waste. This trend of high consumption may be attributed to political and economic developments that have nothing to do with scientists. O u r economic system is based o n production a n d consumption . Scientists do not support consumerism, as the slogan says, ''The consumer is in charge". We are, in fact, persuaded that we need goods w h i c h we re a l l y do not by vast adve rt i s i n g a n d merchandising agencies. We are ruled by o u r self-interest and acquisitiveness. Scientists cannot be blamed for the acceptance of wealth as good. However, scientists cannot be completely free from blame. Science and technology have created the vision of a utopia and our experience shows that we have had more than we had bargained for. With all the benefits like the increase in human life-span, improved food production, ease and speed of travel, etc. we have also reaped a harvest of substantial disadvantages. Technology has produced demands and all demands cannot be met. One wonders if science and technology can produce enough wealth to banish grinding poverty in which many developing countries find themselves.
Promote mc&tericdism.
Science supplies reliable information on which we construct our understanding of our world and this supply of information will be enhanced by continued research. Society decides how this information is to be used. Scientists are not responsible for human avarice or propensity to fight. If there is unease or a sense of doom, it is because society is out of step with science. Science creates and it does not destroy.
Conclusion
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Technological developments in agriculture and the
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G reen Revolution w e re e x p e c t e d to inc re a s e food
Commentciry
production indefinitely, but population grows and meat足 centred diet continues to spread and fa rmland per person decreases too fast. Experts who scanned the technological
horizon have developed the GMO technology and with it the dominance of industrial agriculture which will eventually d i s p l a ce the traditional farmers in the developing world. Biodiversity which prevailed before the introduction of new technologies is fast eroding. If
Indian peasant farmers in the past cultivated thirty thousand different varieties of rice, they are expected to grow only fifty, with ten accounting for three-quarters of
the planted acreage.
Genetically modified organisms
(GMOs), which are said to improve crop production, have
their opponents. The process involves isolating one gene from an organism and putting it into another and getting the desired characteristics. The main issue is if it is ethical to alter living organisms. Proponents of GMO argue that
evolution is a natural process and technological intervention only accelerates the process.
Another issue is if GMOs
would hinder efforts to revitalise conservation traditions.
Agricultural engineers are not worried about a global ecological crisis; they believe that transgenic crops are the answer to increasing scarcity of food .
Though the
prevailing fear cannot be ignored, genetically modified crops can be expected to ensure food security and nutrition. Continued research and the adoption of safeguards are certain to preclude harmful consequences.
Genetic engineering that has cloned Dolly and has marked the second agricultural revolution continues to stir up controversy. O p i n i o n about genetical ly mod ified organisms or G M Os is polarised. While geneticists consider the transgenic process as speeding up evolution of plants that continues to take place even
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Introduction
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without human interference, anti-geneticists fear that GMO will have adverse effects on food security, human nutrition and the environment. Any scientific or technological development can have adverse results, but there are advantages that outweigh adverse effects.
The origin of the GMO technique can be traced to the early 1 970s when Stanely Cohen of Stanford University and Herbert Boyer of the U niversity of California created a life form that had not existed before. The technique that involved DNA set in motion a revolution leading to the formation of new organisms. New seed varieties could be produced by the technique. Genetic modification of crop species made possible by the technique has the advantage of not only improving the resistance of crops to pests and their nutritional value but also increasing output. After GMO trials in the U.S.A in the 1 980s, the first generation of transgenic or GMO crops were made commercially available in 1 996. The new field crops that i n cluded maize, soyabean and cotton were insect resistant. Hundreds of biotechnology firms are engaged in capitalising on this technology.
Thou g h G M Os h ave t h e advantage of m a k i n g agri c u l t u re sustainable, there is the lurking fear that the new technology can have devasting consequences. It is feared that dangerous bacteria can be transferred to humans who consume transgenic crops. The potential dangers are echoed by envi ronmentalists and activists all over the world. Britain , France, Germany and Greece are considering a moratorium on GMO releases. Some aspects of the controve rsy ove r the tech nology are ecolog ical and e nvi ron m e ntal safety, monopoly by huge f i r m s , social and economic equity and legal and ethical considerations. Critics of GMO are concerned about patent rights over these developments. Bioengineered organisms can accelerate biodiversity erosion because patents and monopolies will in the long run destroy the capacity of countries and small producers to protect biodiversity. Gene banks that stockpile collections of seeds and shoots evolved in the gene-rich South are stored in the North and are considered not as property of the South but of the North. In a sense, biological resources have become the property of those who had stolen them. Anti-GMO activists are concerned that some twenty crops that account for 95% of all human nutrition and originated almost entirely in the South will soon become dependent on the use of hybrid seeds that must be continually refreshed with genes banked in the North . There is also the danger of large areas being covered
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WbCLt is GMO
The cia.nger of GMO technology
with just one geno-type. Pepsi's tomato cultivation in Punjab and Cargill's sun flower cultivation in Karnataka - both in I ndia - are cited as examples of biodiversity destruction , and not biodiversity protection .
Fc:tvou.rc:U:ite c:tspects
Pro-GMOs argue that in the long run agriculture practised today will not be sustainable, for today top soil is being lost; pesticides and chemicals have altered soil composition and forest and crop land have been used up. Populations rise and affluence grows and with these developments people desire for more nutritious food. The situation necessitates higher productivity that can only be ensured by science and technology. Agriculture can be made sustainable by growing plants with better characteristics and the use of less fertilizers and water. Plants that are resistant to pests and diseases are said to meet future demands. Any technological development will have its opponents, but what is more important is not the process but the result. What is crucial is the spread of information about the new technique. By working together across all levels, misconceptions can be removed and productivity, quality and sustainability of agriculture can be ensured.
The :nee d. to meet growing d.emcLnd.s
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Proponents of GMO claim that there is nothing new about the new technique; it is only an extension of the historical process of manipulation . They hail GMOs as the future of agriculture. Crop varieties have evolved through selection , domestication and b reeding, and some varieties take years to evolve, and the transgenic technique speeds up the process. Those who lobby for transgenic crops are asked of the danger of monoculture or cultivation of only one crop. They believe that it is just not possible because of the existence of diverse agro-climatic regions. A region suitable for growing tea cannot be used for planting rice. Thus biodiversity can be preserved. Precautions, including regulations, are important to spread the use of this technology. Transgenic plants are to be monitored in the laboratory and in the field. When such plants are transferred to the greenhouse it is to be subjected to regulations. It is to be made known how it was engineered and the risks, if there are any. An uncompromising regulatory system and its implementation by the government are of paramount importance. The seed companies that are profit-driven can be prevented from raising prices of engineered seeds. The state should fix the price of such seeds and ensure that farmers get better seeds at the right time. The government should play a pro足 active role in helping farmers not only to increase their productivity but also to perpetuate sustainable agriculture.
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Unreasonable fear of science or genetic engineering should not deny us the benefits. Genetic modification of plants resistant to pests has the advantage of shelving pesticides that are destructive of the environment. We can avoid chemical preservatives by improvi ng the keeping qualities of plant products. I nformation resulting from genetic research will greatly enhance our knowledge of ou rselves and our world. Fear of technology should not stand in the way of research and progress.
29
Conclusion