UV Journal of Research Vol.9 December 2015 by University of the Visayas Center for Research and Development

Journal Officer Content Editors Line Editors Copy Editors Layout Editor Finance Manager Circulation Manager

Mr. Jhon Kevin A. Mirafuentes Ms. Jedidiah K. Singco Ms. Harlene Jane C. Mayordomo Ms. Jane P. Canoy Mr. Jhon Kevin A. Mirafuentes Ms. Harlene Jane C. Mayordomo Mr. Victor Christopher A. Seno Ms. Mary Ann A. Aranas Mr. Gene Paul R. Cueva Dr. Rosemarie C. Espanol, CPA Dr. Aileen B. Catacutan

OREWORD Greetings and welcome to the 9th edition of UV JOR for 20

The goalmouths of cult ating research skills and competency along with, e olving the research culture in the Un ers ty of the Vis yas, continuously m e the Center for Research and De elopment of the uni ers ty to support elucidate the faculty researchersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; aspi ation of h ving each research articles put into publication. This olume is the outcome of se al research competency t ainings. As an exhibition of the cente s promise, this publication ser es as an evidence of dynamism and an action of seriousness in safeguarding the hegemo y of research in t ailing academic responsibilities en route to cellence. W are also publishing contributions from other un ersities. Let us continuously appreciate learning thru research and theory de elopment. Enj y reading.

Brian A. Vasquez dit

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o o o o o

Title – The paper must state its title without any abbreviations Author/s’ Demographics – The paper must write the complete list of authors all in GMIS form, individual name of institution and country Abstract – The paper must no more than 250 words contains introduction, method, and result and discussion (IMRAD) Introduction – The introduction is engaging, states the main topic and previews the structure of the paper Research Objectives – The paper must clearly and concisely states the paper’s purpose which is engaging, and thought provoking Body - Each paragraph must have a thoughtful supporting detailed sentences that develop the main idea Organization and Structural Development of the Idea – The writer demonstrates logical and subtle sequencing of ideas through well-developed paragraphs and transitions are used appropriately Conclusion - The conclusion is engaging and restates the thesis Mechanics – The paper must have no errors in punctuation, capitalization and spelling Usage – The paper must have no errors in sentence structure and in word usage In-Text Citation - All cited works, both text and visual are done carefully Reference List – The paper must include more than ten (10) major references all in APA Format

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Reviewers will enumerate explicit suggestions. The suggestions will be consolidated by the publication officer. When comments are contradictory, the editor-in-chief may intervene. A third referee may be invited if the editor-in-chief cannot arrive in a decision. The consolidated report will be communicated with the author(s). Double-Blind Process. UV Journal of Research operates a strictly double blinded peer review process in which author/s and reviewersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; names are withheld from each other. Referee Recruitment. The peer reviewers will be chosen according to their subject and major concentration. Qualification of Reviewer. Reviewers must have at least 5 published researches for the last 5 consecutive years in refereed journals. Each of them will be invited according to their subject and major concentration. All reviewers are external. Selection of reviewers is the responsibility of the editorial board. UVJOR have a pool of invited reviewers. If there are no identified/qualified experts from the pool to review the submitted paper, the editorial board, with the assistance of the publication officer, will facilitate the identification and invitation. If the board cannot identify one, especially when academic topics are highly-specialized, authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s inputs may be solicited in enumerating a list of experts in the specific specialized field. Scoring System. The research manuscripts will be rated according to the evaluation criteria of UVJOR. Score

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The Board decides for the Ď?inal

Figure 1. Accepting/Rejection Process

Figure 2. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Guide for rejected manuscript

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Table of Contents Editorial 1 The Synergy of Creativity and Scholarship: Flexibility in Crafting Autoethnographic Fiction Brian A. Vasquez

Fractal Statistics 15 Statistical Fractal Inference

Roberto N. Padua, Dexter S. Ontoy, Daisy R. Palompon and Joy M. Mirasol

23 On the Construction of a Fractal Spectrum for Data Analysis

Roberto N. Padua, Daisy R. Palompon, Efren O. Barabat, Mark S. Borres and Randy K. Salazar

Pure Math 27 On the Marking-Tadpole and Marking-Shell Ramsey Numbers of Graphs Mark L. Caay

29 On the Relations of Fibonacci to the Determinants of the Sum of the Fibonacci-Hessenberg Matrices Mark L. Caay

Theory Development and Modelling 33 Discovering Experience-Based Theory Building: Offshoot of Classical and Pragmatic Grounded Theory Brian A. Vasquez

43 Evolutionary Models for the Interaction of the Higher Education Labor Force and Higher Education Market Mark S. Borres and Felix M. Diano, Jr.

49 Gender Inequality Among Association of Southeast Asian Nation Countries Lorlaine R. Dacanay

55 Modeling and Forecasting of Agricultural Crop Production and Economic Stability Based on Gross Regional Domestic Product Neil L. Egloso and Sherwin O. Seville

Health 67 Acceptability of Condom Use in the Prevention of Sexually Transmitted Infections Resty L. Picardo, Salina A. Loquellano, Mary Ann A. Aranas and Emelita C. Las Marias

75 Variation Analysis of the Top 100 High Lead Content Lipstick Brands

Ma. Feibe M. Pastoril, Victor Christopher A. Seno, Kathyrine D. Gingoyon and Gene Paul R. Cueva

Management and Administration 81

Investigating the Mediating Effect of Work Motivation on Work Engagement Chin-Yi Shun and Dony Halomoan Siregar

Engaging of Southeast Asia: The Political Economy of Regional Leadership Competition between Japan and China Hung-Hwei Liu and James W. Y. Wang

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Policy Enhancing Delivery of Public Services Amelia Girly L. Aranas

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The Relationship Between Nurses’ Emotional Intelligenceandtheir Perceived Work Performance Ann Bernasyl E. Vestal

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Work Motivation and Organizational Citizenship Behavior of Employees by Eden Rose P. Malanao, Edsel P. Inocian, Geronima Emma A. Amores and Joan P. Bacarisas

Reading and Literature 135

Readability of Grade 7 English Learning Module Jhon Kevin A. Mirafuentes

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Reading Comprehension Skills Using SQ3R Method Jhon Kevin A. Mirafuentes, Nerissa S. Lopez and Felix M. Diano. Jr.

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Dickinson’s Poetic Themes and Figurative Language: Model Lesson in Poetry Nathaniel G. Gido, Emardy T. Barbecho, Don Roel G. Arias, Lorlaine R. Dacanay and Sarah M. Nemenzo

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Human Ethos of Paulo Coelho’s Selected Novels: A Critico-Thematic Analysis Jhon Kevin A. Mirafuentes, Ma. Armelyn A. Alegria, Liza L. Chua and Nilda L. Arcipe

EDITORIAL

UV Journal of Research 2015

The synergy of creativity and scholarship: Flexibility in crafting Autoethnographic Fiction Brian A. Vasquez Center for Research and Development University of the Visayas, Philippines brianquez@gmail.com

ABSTRACT This methodological article trailed my journey in the conduct of my autoethnographic study. I commenced by grounding on my stances from existing naturalistic assumptions that were deliberately amalgamated with social constructivism and interpretivism. The process allowed me to appreciate the beauty of the different philosophical positions learned inside the four walls of the classroom. This exposé additionally demonstrated my experiential learning activity that confirmed formally learned concepts in practice. Furthermore, it allowed me to appreciate new knowledge that my formal classroom setting failed to instill. With the domain of inquiry that is crafted in a general form, my own journey was scrutinized. The domain of inquiry prompted me to fathom that my own experiences were not solely owned by myself, but shared with others. This realization provoked me with ethical concerns that were addressed. I was able to hoax these concerns utilizing narrative fiction strategies - masking the real with the imagined while maintaining contextual truth, substance and subjectivereality logically. My fortuitous appreciation of fiction as a form of expressive humanities brought me to awareness that the art can be a medium of voicing subjective truth and reality. The article established the beauty of flexibility and emergent design expressed in my compliance with reflexivity and positioning. My unpredictable methodological decisions were pushed by the need for change - and this change caused me to learn and appreciate. Keywords/phrases: autoethnography, emergent design, flexibility, method, narrative fiction reflexibility I. INTRODUCTION Behind each qualitative research is a story on the involved processes in the actual course of the investigation. In each undertaken process, there are reasons behind each decision. Documenting the procedures of one’s study is not enough. This also calls for reflexivity. Gilgun (2010) defined it as the idea of awareness. He further claimed that qualitative researchers are reflexive when they are conscious of the numerous influences they have on research processes and on how research processes affect them. It has a significant role in the many and varied qualitative methodologies (Dowling, 2006). It consequently conceptualizes a particular relevance with a fundamental

utility in the inquiry. In addition, it is associated with the concept of objectivity in a positivist paradigm (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998). Therefore, a qualitative researcher’s attempts to make a naturally subjective form of inquiry ostensibly objective. I documented the utilized methods in my autoethnographic study. I enumerated and described the research designs and procedures with its corresponding philosophical grounding. I tracked the emergence of a new design during data collection and analysis. I also explained the rationale behind its modification. Reflexivity is trailed to warrant the choices

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I made. Furthermore, it provides an avenue for readers to comprehend the processes and its influences. Itincludesthedifficultiesanddilemmas I experienced (Colbourne & Sque, 2004; Mauthner & Doucet, 2003; Freshwater & Rolfe, 2001). Continuous self-critique was engaged to explain how my own experiences persuaded the stages of the research process (Koch & Harrington, 1998; Gouldner, 1971). It is my effort in demonstrating the importance of revealing what truly had truly transpired and resisted the temptation to look righteous and all-knowing (Furman, 2004).

context based processes. Furthermore, I subscribed to the worldviews of social constructivism that is naturally interwoven with interpretivism. I sought to develop inductively subjective meanings to the world where I live and work. These were formed through my interactions with others; thus, social constructivism. These worldviews allowed me to draft a broad and general domain of inquiry that allowed me to construct the meaning and process of the situation. I fully recognize that my background helps in shaping my interpretation (positioning the self).

II. OBJECTIVES OF THIS METHODOLOGICAL IV. METHODOLOGICAL PROCESSES ARTICLE Identifying the Domain of Inquiry Reconnoitering my journey as a researcher was pursued via autoethnography as a research tradition and reported through autoethnographic fiction, poetry and monologue. It acknowledged and dissected: (1) my lived-in experiences from formal, informal and non-formal trainings to practice; and (2) personal, professional, and social challenges; confronted in my journey. If you notice, my domain of inquiry was crafted in general terms. It disallowed me to put III. MY PHILOSOPHICAL STANCE the situation inside the box. I believe that stringent I commenced with the philosophical research questions would have greatly limited my assumptions that structured my procedural exploration. decisions. It was integrated with my personal worldviews that shaped my study. Thus, Reasons in Using an Autoethnography assumptions influenced the conduct of my study. This article enunciated my personal philosophical stances and the design and methods that I utilized in my autoethnographic fiction. It documented the: (1) involved processes; and (2) rationale behind each decision made throughout the progression of the study. It further documented my awareness of the multiple influences on the research processes and how each route affects the crafting of my design and methods (Gilgun, 2010).

The following are my assumptions (based on Creswell, 2007 and Polit & Beck, 2008):

“… a self-narrative that critiques the situatedness of self with other in social contexts.” Spry, 2001, p. 710

Reality is multiple and subjective as viewed by each actor;

The researcher needs to lessen the distance between the self and the object of inquiry;

Values are inevitable and desirable, and prejudices are always present;

Literary artistry is an expression of relative truth and reality; and

Reality is determined with inductive logic and Since we are required to produce a theory in emergent design observing the flexibility and our dissertation, I decided to ground it from my

“… texts democratize the representational sphere of culture by locating the particular experiences of individuals in a tension with dominant expressions of discursive power …” Neumann, 1996, p. 189

Vasquez, B. A. personal experience. I employed autoethnography (Maréchal, 2010) as a commencing point and continued in theory development in the later part. However, this paper discusses only the autoethnographic part. This stratagem allowed me to document my experiences as a qualitative researcher being scrutinized by quantitative researchers. Pratt (1995) writes, “We cannot move theory into actions unless we can find it in the eccentric and wandering ways of our daily life.” This statement activated my advocacy by putting “flesh and breath (Pratt, 1995).” My personal research experience was turned to an explicit cultural site towards clarification and criticism of the self and other actors (Alexander, 2002, 2008). It is yearned in driving and charging non-qualitative critics in gaining insights, clarity, connection and change (Holman Jones, 2008 in Denzin & Lincoln). What is an Autoethnography? According to Anderson (2006), autoethnography has recently become an accepted method, although Duncan (2004) believed that it still did not enjoy its popularity and respect compared to its predecessors. I attempted to document my personal journey and challenges in my search for inquiry: from a positivist-prepared to naturalistic investigator. I analyzed my personal experiences in the research-cultural context. According to Ellis (2004), this method connects the autobiographical and personal to the cultural and social milieu. “This scholarship has been linked, explicitly and implicitly by different authors, to various ‘turns’ in the social sciences and humanities: the turn toward blurred genres of writing, a heightened self-reflexivity in ethnographic research, an increased focus on emotion in the social sciences, and the postmodern skepticism regarding generalization of knowledge claims.” Anderson, 2006

Autoethnography is used in a wide-range of disciplines (McIlveen, 2008; Anderson, 2006; Ellis & Bochner, 2000; Etherington, 2004; ReedDanahay, 1997; Roth, 2005). According to McIlveen (2008), it involves executing personal account analysis relevant to a particular phenomenon. It is not identical with autobiography since it is not just modestly expressing a life story, but it is a definite form of critical investigation entrenched in theory and practice. Authoethnography as a Movement As a confrontation to my personal narrative accounts, the report was crafted to disclose the inter-relativity of entities in the struggle to cuddle campaigns for both knowing and showing (Jackson, 1993; Kemp, 1998). It emphasized my personal sentiments and how I used the impervious form of privileged communication (Conquergood, 2002; Daly & Rogers, 2001; Jones, 1997; Stewart, 1996) that is inseparable from my thought (Alexander, 2000; Gingrich-Philbrook, 1997; Jackson, 1998; Pineau, 2002; Stoller, 1997). It emphasized my emotionswiththehopeofstressingtheimportance of understanding and positing the relationship of myself, power of critics or adjudicators, and lifeways of the practices (Bochner, 2001; Ellis, 1995; 1997; Jago, 2002; Spry, 2001). The construction, disclosure and implication of my revelation are hoped (Becker, 2000) to enable movement and change (Gornick, 2001; Bochner, 2001; Ellis, 2002; Garrick, 2001; Hartnett, 1999; Lockford, 2002; Neumann, 1996; Pelias, 2002; Richardson, 1997). My story is utilized as a means of interpreting the past, translating and transforming context and envisioning the future (Holman Jones, 2008 in Lincoln & Danzin). Emergent Design: Flexibility Flexibility simply means that the design is neither fixed nor prescriptive. In qualitative research design, it is often referred to as emergent: a design that unfolds throughout the progression of data assemblage as researchers make ongoing design decisions based on their reflections on what has already been learned (Polit & Beck, 2008). Merriam (1998) defined emergent design as an operation with the data side-by-side with the collection that allows opportunity to cultivate

UV Journal of Research

emerging insights, hunches, and tentative hypotheses that signals for the refinement or reformulation of questions, gathering procedures and analyses. Deductivists often criticize this as a get away from comprehensive literature review. Lincoln & Guba (1985), however, argued that it is not a product of disorderly or slothful behavior, but contemplation - an attempt to describe reality from the objects of inquiry that is not known and understood in the beginning. They say that experience is the best teacher, and I believe I have provided enough evidence to support this. I had been discussing the concepts of flexibility and emergent design with my undergraduate and graduate students. I had even applied both concepts during my master’s degree thesis. However, I did not appreciate it much probably these experiences failed to enlighten me with the philosophy behind the practice. During this time, I was able to appreciate its relevance. I had to experience certain confusion before appreciating its practical value. Sometimes a preplanned strategy just does not work and most of the time we have the tendency of forcing things. The process of forcing something inapplicable allowed us to rethink and ponder—puzzlement then leads to education. Honestly, I dumped most of the things specified in my proposal paper considering the issues I encountered during my journey (entries in the research questions and methodology). Preplanned measures just did not work. Truly, the methods and the specific questions in qualitative research are neither fixed nor prescriptive. Inductive Process: Atheoretical Stance towards a Substantive Theory Most of the institutions throughout the world prescribe students to draft structured concept papers and propose them in a panel. I appreciate its intention, but I notice that this practice is engineered for deductive process. Naturalistic paradigms usually commence with a very general domain of inquiry (Willis, Jost & Nilakanta, 2007), which can be modified as data come in (Creswell, 2007). It is similar to Lincoln & Guba’s (1985) suggestion that the research question in a qualitative inquiry is preferred to be with general boundaries that are not casted on stone - “can be

altered and … will be.” In this research, searching for a substantive theory or theoretical framework was done after data collection. The framework was identified: (1) vis-à-vis the result; (2) after data collection; and (3) along with analysis. The identified framework to anchor on was chosen to fit in the data and not the other way around. Initially, one can think that it is totally impossible to have an atheoretical stance considering the analyzed data were based on personal experiences. It is true that no researcher commences a study in a tabula rasa state. However, an atheoretical position does not mean an empty mind, which is the usual misconception. It is simply an observance of dismissing theoretical predilections that may bias and narrow outlooks and what is being looked for (Rubin & Babbie, 2001). Suspending a priori conceptualization means bracketing what is already theoretically known and suspending literature review after data collection. When I looked into my experiences, I intentionally see them as the basic unit of analysis. The involved processes in the different research traditions that I am already informed were bracketed temporarily in my consciousness yearning that they will not taint my initial procedures and analyses. They were only placed into consciousness when I analyze the data by putting it side-by-side with alternative perspectives and weighing the gravity of their features. This process is termed “theoretical naiveté”, which is unequivocally exasperating to hold preconceived opinions of the phenomenon being observed. Reading frameworks to ground the method is another thing. Inherently, research traditions provide central frameworks that provide a bricoleur with theoretic foundation. However, its concern is not to explain the phenomenon of interest but only to chaperone the researcher on how to congregate and dissect the information. It is not the same with the substantive theory that deductivists use vis-à-vis the objects of interest. Its role is to provide direction on how to proceed and analyze the study. It is not also fixed and prescriptive. It is only a starting point. Along the way in data collection, I changed and modified some strategies depending on how data come.

Vasquez, B. A. Reasons in Using an Autoethnographic Fiction Initially, the design was simply autoethnography. However, when I started scribbling my drafts, I arrived into an awareness that distorted the equilibrium of my scholarship. I realized that my personal experience is communal. People were involved and they have rights. Upon recognition of possible ethical problems, I explored different options in counteracting such potential issues. Narrative fiction based on autoethnography is the finest remedy. Though fiction, I utilized this method in the conviction that it is a (Paley & Eva, 2005): (1) naïve description of incidents; (2) foundation of idiosyncratic truth and/or reality; and (3) system of enlightenment. Overcash (2004) writes, “[it] is the ear of the intimate accounts and personal thoughts.” It provides information that underpins practice (Frid, Ohlen & Bergdom, 2000) highlighting its relevance for remedial implications in response to confronted issues (Williams & Keady, 2008). For the tenacity of the study, I am personally defining autoethnographic fiction report as a fusion of truth from experience and creativity of imagination. Creativity of imagination treats the ethical concern as consideration for involved parties in the real world - known or unknown by the writer. Real personalities are masked in a fictional character, setting or environment with similar features to the original. Sampling Utilized in an Autoethnography I am sampling my personal experiences in the study. I utilized autosampling technique which I personally coined in my previous autoethnographic research (Vasquez, 2012). I orientationally (Leininger & McFarland, 2005) define it as “purposively culling (sampling) personal experiences of the researcher himself that is substantial to the domain of inquiry.” When I presented this topic to a renowned research expert in the Philippines, he told me to get rid of the word sampling. He claimed that the word is highly affiliated with statistics, which is highly quantitative. He proposed to use the word culling. Autosampling or autoculling, whatever you prefer to call it, either of the two mean the same thing to me. Furthermore, seven

ancillary informants were interviewed, two written documents, one thesis, one dissertation, two textbooks, written communications, and 49 articles were culled to confirm my claims and to provide parallel evidence to my experiences, observations, and assertions. Instrumentation and Data Collection I am the main instrument on the study (Jackson, Daly & Davidson, 2008; Polit & Beck, 2008; Creswell, 2007, Tollefson, Usher, Francis & Owens, 2001; Britten, 1995). This concept is frequently used to describe the researchers’ significant role in analyzing and interpreting cases, texts and phenomena. For data collection strategies, I followed the recommendations suggested by Chang (2008): 1. Compiling Personal Memory a. Chronicling the Past - I selected and listed in chronological order of events or experiences from my life which are relevant to the domain of inquiry. From the timeline, I selected events of significant cultural self-discovery, that I identified descriptions and explanations of its importance. b. Inventorying the Self - I listed important personalities that have made significant influence in my life, which are relevant to the domain of inquiry. c. Visualizing Self - I utilized this technique to facilitate the retrieval of data from memory. 2. Self-observational and Self-reflective Data. Participant observation was the primal characteristic for this autoethnography because of the value of my personal experience that is relevant to the domain of inquiry. It was the core practice through which reflections were developed, and all other data collection activities were organized (Duncan, 2004). My challenge involved conquering the art of self-reflection. 3. External Data: Interview, Documents, and other Artifacts. Duncan (2004) claimed that although autoethnographic reports are presented in the form of personal narratives, this research tradition does more than just telling stories. It provides academic and reasonable elucidations

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grounded on numerous sources of evidence. It means that they are not solely based on my opinion. It is reinforced by other data that confirmed or triangulated my outlook. I had also undertaken the following data collection methods: (1) participant observation; (2) self-reflections; (3) multiple semi-structured interviews; and (4) collecting documents and artifacts. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Through writing exercises of chronicling, inventorying, and visualizing self, you are encouraged to unravel your memory, write down fragments of your past, and build the database for your cultural analysis and interpretation.â&#x20AC;? Chang, 2008 Rigor and Quality To facilitate rigor and trustworthiness of the study, I observed the following criteria (Duncun, 2004; Ellis, 2004; Bochner, 2002, 2001; Richardson, 1997; Lather, 1993; Olesen, 2000; Eisner, 1991; Plummer, 2001a, 2001b): 1. Describing the Environment and Setting. I consciously narrate the background of the sampled incident. I demarcated the descriptions in terms of period, setting, situation and point of view to clarify the issues of transferability. The data were my recollection from 2000 to present. It covered my experience with research-related activities from formal, informal, and non-formal trainings to practice - enclosing my personal, professional, and social challenges. I intended to demonstrate the appropriateness of applying the lucid methodology. As an insider to the domain of inquiry, I had the opportunity to reflect on the task and recorded the influences from which conceptualization transpired. However, for ethical considerations, events were repackaged to avert inobservance of the right to privacy and confidentiality. It was previously discussed and supplemented in the ethical consideration part of this paper.

inexplicable and complicated; (2) anticipate future possibilities and scenarios; and (3) utilize the results as guidelines for practice. I am not claiming full accuracy of the reality or truth in all the entries, considering that results of the study were presented in an autoethnographic fiction format. Furthermore, personal conceptions are highly personal processes - each concept relatively interprets reality and truth. Ellis (2004) suggested that the manuscript should be judged based on its expediency rather than merely on accuracy. As a form of art, with rhetoric freedom and aesthetic liberty, it is also argued that it should be scrutinized based on: (1) application; (2) significance; and (3) utility. 3. Triangulation. Multiple triangulation techniques were employed on the data sources and the content to increase the credibility and quality of this paper. Manifold sources of verification were laterally expended with my personal account. As described previously, these sources of evidence included personal communications, memos, journals, interviews, and printed related materials. A manacle of evidence was established wherein data were assembled, and developing conceptualizations were noted to expedite reviewing. My adviser reviewed my drafts; thus, backing-up authentication on how I depicted both process and content. 4. Narrative Truth. I endeavored my best to construct the narration as close to the real experience. Analysis of each experience facilitated the revelation of meaning and purpose. It is not so imperative for narratives to represent accuracy (Bochner, 2002, 2001). It is possible magistrating one narrative interpretation of events against another, but it is impossible to gauge a narrative with the events themselves since its unblemished essence emanates only in their narrative expression. My concern is to document the essence expressed via the narratives that are narrative truth. This statement brings me to a safer ground in presenting the results utilizing autoethnographic fiction.

2. Instrumental Utility. The presented results in an autoethnographic fiction helps readers 5. Reflexivity. Though fictional in nature, to: (1) understand the situation that is both the emotions, presuppositions, and personal

Vasquez, B. A. biases raised in the context were my actual documentation of my personhood. I scrutinized myself with partiality and interpersonal transactions to the real world actors. My reflective posture is my continuous reply to how my erstwhile involvements, ideals, background, and predispositions fashioned my analysis and interpretation. I added another criterion which I think contributed to the rigor and quality of the study. I personally call it Readersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Insight Induction. There are some points in the results wherein I intentionally ask questions rather than giving information. The intention is to resist personal analysis leaving the reader to conceptualize personal insights and interpretation (Hilbert, 1990). Passing the buck to the audience is aimed towards conceptual induction. I presented these questions in confessional-emotive monologue format. It is my integration of performance autoethnography (Alexander, 2008; Madison, 2008; Holman Jones, 2008) within narrative fiction. By showing rather than telling (Denzin, 2003) the scenarios and instigating the issues towards social awakening disrupt the traditional forms of representation and orientation (Chase, 2008). Ethical Considerations I conducted this research following the principles annunciated in the Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association, 2008). In autoethnographic research, gaining permission to characters in the narratives is often challenged. However, since autoethographers are already fully immersed in the focus situation, issues of accessibility, permissibility, and unobtrusiveness do not present such obstacles. However, when narratives are reported and published, researchers face a dilemma on whether there is a need to take permission from the characters or not. Though most ethnographic studies do not follow these procedures, I felt the need to observe the following practices: Process Consent Taking. Process consents were taken to all interviews and observations. It was constantly renewed in all sessions. Consents were completed by the participants at will after they

understood its contents. The participants were given ample time to review the written document. I signed the consent and both parties retained a copy. However, there are some characters of the narratives that: (1) were not interviewed; (2) consent taking is impossible; (3) I have no access; (4) some issues are sensitive that may catechize their credibility; and (5) I do not know them personally - only that, I have access to the context of the scenario. I instigated some favorable measures to counteract these ethical issues: 1. For accessible characters, permission was sought after the finalization of the draft. They were asked for an opinion regarding specific entries even after employing autoethnographic fiction as a strategy. If they opt to delete some entries, I can only compromise repackaging of the characters, portrayals and scenes while retaining the context. It is my argument that the context of the phenomenon was sampled and not the personhood. Though the actual actors share ownership of the context with me in the real experience, isolating the personhood to the context is a more honorable action. Deletion of an important scene also violates the readers and consumers to their right to be informed. Weighing the risks and benefits, I am convinced that the benefits supersede the probability of risks. 2. Since some events were sensitive that may question some actorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; credibility, what I did was simply to abstract the context of the situation isolating the individual and assigning a character that would symbolize the personhood. The identified assigned character is counterpart in terms of description with minimal repackaging to quarantine privacy issues. Reissman (1993 as cited by Williams & Keady, 2008) argued that the coverage of narratives as a system has been stretched afar representation. It means that they are now identified as partaking not solely a personal but public dimension, neither they commence nor terminate with the investigation setting, and they share with the material of the societal realm (Lawler, 2003 as cited by Williams & Keady, 2008). Using autoethnographic fiction to present the result increases the power in the observance of anonymity and confidentiality.

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Privacy. Anonymity and confidentiality were strictly observed. Data from the participants and uniterviewed characters were not linked to them in the report. All audio recordings were destroyed after being transcribed. Written memos were kept safely and were not linked to any of the characters. Characters were given fictional names and designations in the report. Fictitious names of setting were also given; however, the context and essence of the phenomenon were preserved. Reporting the results as an autoethnographic fiction is the safest and ethical form of presentation for the study. Data Analysis Initially, I planned to utilize Spradley’s (1979) developmental research sequence as a method in analyzing my autoethnography. It is centered on the premise that language is the principal contrivance that recounts cultural significance (Polit & Beck, 2008). However, after forcing the four levels of data analysis, I suddenly realized that it was not working well. The planned method does just not fit. The following are the stages with its description and my personal explanation of my quandary:

I find Spradley’s (1979) recommendation relevant only for a classical ethnographic design. When I tried it on my own personal experience, I could not see the track. It is just like running in an extremely impenetrable jungle and not in the marathon oval. It seems that I am lost, and it calls for flexibility. My story is chronological and thus favors an analysis and presentation strategy that follows the same linear and sequential logic (Denzin, 1989). A new method needs to emerge. So, I was left with no choice but to read the literature and to look for a more applicable approach.

Then I arrived into a decision of picking narrative analysis as a strategy. Denzin (1989), echoed by Lawler (2003), postulated an ingenuous structure that guides the researcher or narrator on how to properly analyze the data. The narration: (1) must have a beginning, middle and end; (2) is both linear and sequential; (3) must have a plot; (4) is past-oriented; and (5) makes sense to the storyteller. As narrative beings, we have a distinctive feature to consume language in the construction of personal experiences (Goncalves, Henriques & Machado, 2004). Osatuke and colleagues 1. Domain Analysis: Identification of relational (2004) argued that narratives provide “meaning patterns among terms in the domains that are bridges.” The focus of my analysis is both form and used in the culture focusing on the communal content. Form which asks, “How do I approach meaning of the terms and symbols (objects and the narrative?” and content, which asks, “What is events) and their interrelationships. the focus of analysis?” (Lieblich, Tuval-Mashiac & Ziber, 1998): 2. Taxonomic Analysis: Deciding how many domains the data analysis needs to encompass 1. Holistic-content approach - I approached an by classifying, organizing the developed terms all-encompassing case study of myself illustrating and illustrating the internal organization, and the general themes and emerging emphases of the the relationship among the subcategories of the narratives. It involved me to read the materials several times from written memos, timelines, domain. observation and reflection notes, and external 3. Componential Analysis: Examining the data sources. I started to draft the storyline aiming multiple relationships, similarities or differences, to appreciate an emerging pattern. A pattern then among the terms in the domains. emerged that became the contextual highlight of the entire story. The emergent overview was 4. Theme Analysis: Uncovering cultural themes. drafted and served as the initial impression. I Domains are linked in cultural themes that aid reread the draft and improved it by featuring to deliver a holistic outlook of the culture being some contradictions. I made sure that the focus studied. The discovery of cultural meaning is the must dominate the text from beginning to end. I enhanced it by constant reading and rereading. outcome.

Vasquez, B. A. 2. Holistic-form approach - In addition to the emphasis on context, I deliberately embraced the importance for form. I carefully focused on the formal aspects of the structure as an expression of my personal perspectives. I drafted the storyline by identifying the beginning, middle and end, then, efficiently progressed using this linear and sequential chronology. To expurgate the boredom of linearity, I utilized a progressive narrative approach, which allowed me to build up my personal tension through the accumulation of my experiences that highlighted my counteractions, hilarities, regrets, passion, frustrations and advocacies to build up the storyline with elements of tragedy, comic, heroic, romantic and satire. These elements allowed further analysis and aimed to be felt by the reader. Behar (2003), Frank (2000) and Shostak (2000) emphasized the explicitness about the inter-subjectivity of the researcher and the domain of inquiry to gain understanding in the cultural context. Furthermore, I turned the spotlight or the analytic lens more to myself in terms of how I interacted with others and the phenomena. I then analyzed, interpreted and presented the data as a culturally significant experience. “Cultural data analysis and interpretation… this process transforms bits of autobiographical data into a culturally meaningful and sensible text. Instead of merely describing what happened in your life, you try to explain how fragments of memories may be strung together to explain your cultural tenets and relationship with others in society. In this sense, autoethnographic data analysis and interpretation distinguish their final product from other selfnarrative, autobiographical writings that concentrate on storytelling. Analysis and interpretation enable researchers to shift their focus from merely ‘scavenging’ or ‘quilting’ information bits to actively ‘transforming’ them into a text with culturallymeaningfulexplanations…

You are expected to review, fracture, categorize, rearrange, probe, select, deselect, and sometimes simply gaze at collected data in order to comprehend how ideas, behaviors, material objects, and experiences from the data interrelate and what they really mean to actors and their environments.” Chang, 2008 Rhetoric Style Integrated with the descriptive-confessionalemotive layered accounts (Ellis & Berger, 2002; Ellis & Bochner, 1996), I employed relevant literature as a framework for analysis and interpretation (Chang, 2008). Furthermore, I have integrated creative-imaginative style (Chang, 2008; Chase, 2008) through narrative fiction, poetry and monologue. Rhetoric liberty allowed autoethnographers like me to amalgamate, although one style can be dominant. VI. SUMMARY In summary, I trailed the following cyclical and retroductive procedures: (1) commencing in a philosophical stance that positioned the ontology, axiology, methodology and rhetoric assumptions of my study: (2) identifying a general domain of inquiry that guided data collection and analysis without limiting the coverage and implementation of control; (3) identifying the design and method that is continuously visited as data come in which serves as the basis for decisional activities; (4) observing qualitative, researcher-identified and design-specific rigor and trustworthiness; (5) observing qualitative, researcher-identified and design-specific ethical principles; and (6) exploiting personalistic and artistic rhetoric style. VII. REFLECTION Doing qualitative research is an individual process. Its uniqueness is stretched from research: (1) commencement to culmination; and (2) philosophy to rigor. Now, I effusively comprehended why most qualitative researchers from the past avoid suggesting stringent and prescriptive rules, procedures and philosophy. In my journey, it taught me that each study is an

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performance based on Tami Spy’s Tatoo experiential-based and adventure-based learning Stories. Text and Performance Quarterly, that is unique to each other. It is highly dynamic; 20, 97-114. thus, highly structured forms are not or less preferred. Similarities are available in philosophy Alexander, B. K. (2002). Performing culture and cultural performance in Japan: A critical and method; diversity, within its similarities, is (auto) ethnographic travelogue. Theatre numerous. Annual: A Journal of Performance Studies, 55, 1-28. VIII. CONCLUSION Alexander, B. K. (2008). Performance ethnography. In Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.), How to Describe Personal Reality via Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry (3rd Ed., Scholarship Artistry? pp. 75-117). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication. Autoethnography may be expressed Anderson, L. (2006). Analytic autoethnography. via narrative fiction Journal of Contemporary A noble escape to counteract an Ethnography, 35(4), 373-395. ethical question doi:10.1177/0891241605280449 Masking the actors free the writer Becker, B. (2000). Robbie McCauley: A journey for expressive liberation towards movement. Theatre Journal, 52, Anonymity and confidentiality 519-542. adherence towards emancipation Behar, R. (2003). Translated women: Crossing the Privacy concerns tricked with border with Esperanza’s story (Original intellectualization work published 1993). Boston: Beacon For artistry is scholarship and Press. subjective truth expression Bochner, A. P. (2001). Narrative’s virtues. Qualitative Inquiry, 6, 266-272. There is no singular formula in Bochner, A. P. (2002). Perspectives on inquiry III: The describing personal reality moral of stories. In Knapp, M. L., & Daly, Multiple methods can be engaged J. A. (Eds.), Handbook of interpersonal with ingenuity communication (3rd Ed., pp.73-101). Behind picking a method, reason Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication. and philosophy are involved Britten, N. (1995). Qualitative interviews in medical Not merely interest makes you say research. British Medical Journal, 311, it is already solved 251– 253. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/ For shifting and modifying a bmj.311.6999.251 method is a rational move When the predetermined plan is Chang, H. (2008). Autoethnography as method. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. not the best option to groove Chase, S. E. (2008). Narrative inquiry: Multiple lenses, approaches, voices. In Denzin, Originality Index: 96 % N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.), Collecting Similarity Index: 4% and interpreting qualitative materials (3rd Ed., pp. 57-94). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Paper ID: 321762346 Publication. Grammarly: Checked Colbourne, L., & Sque, M. (2004). Split personalities: Role conflict between the REFERENCES nurse and the nurse researcher. Journal of Research in Nursing, 9(4), 297-304. Alexander, B. K. (2000). Skin Flint (The garbage doi:10.1177/136140960400900410 man’s kid): A generative autobiographical Conquergood, D. (2002). Performance studies:

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UV Journal of Research 2015

Statistical fractal inference Roberto N. Padua1 Dexter S. Ontoy 2 Daisy R. Palompon2 Joy M. Mirasol 3 NORSU - BSU, Philippines1 Cebu Normal University, Philippines 2 Bukidnon State University, Philippines 3 dexter_s_ontoy@yahoo.com Date Submitted: September 7, 2015

Date Accepted: September 22, 2015

ABSTRACT The inverse power law distributions are used as the model for fractal probability distributions that have fractional exponents (λ) and such that the transformation X(1-λ) is uniformly distributed. The paper examines aspects of point estimation and tests of hypotheses about statistical fractals. It is shown that the maximum likelihood estimator of the fractional dimension λ is uniformly minimum variance unbiased estimator (UMVUE) using the Lehmann-Scheffe’s theorem and also that the likelihood ratio test for H0: λ= λ0 is uniformly most powerful (UMPT) by the Neymann-Pearson Lemma. The paper likewise explains that the test for equality of two medians of two fractal distributions is equivalent to a test for the equality of the fractal dimensions. In fact, the result is generalized to the test for the equality of two αth quantiles of two fractal distributions. The test for the equality of two fractal distributions is compared with the Mann-Whitney U test and with the Student’s t-test for independent samples in terms of robustness and asymptotic Pitmann efficiency. Keywords: fractal dimension, maximum likelihood, quantiles, test of hypothesis

Indeed, this mathematical tractability of x ̅ is enshrined in the famous Central Limit Theorem as postulated by De Moivre which is often cited as a justification for using the simple average in most statistical analysis. When the mean (μ) does not exist, however, the entire classical statistical

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inference based on normal distribution collapses. However, most situations or phenomena in the real world involve a mean that does not exist such as earthquakes, stock market crashes, student test scores, and the like (Selvam, 2008). It is for this specific reason that statistical fractals are developed. This branch of statistics is in its infant stage despite a long history of recognition that most data/observations do not subscribe to a normal probability distribution. Indeed, mathematical statisticians attempted to fit an otherwise highly rugged, self-similar and irregular set of observations to a comfortable and safe normal theory. For instance, in the 1990’s, large or unusually small observations

were treated as “outliers” or deviants which can be treated by Robust Statistics. The notion that these outliers were not deviants but really part of a usual phenomenon came much later. In fact, in an attempt to put Robust Statistics as part of classical statistics, some proponents suggested “throwing away” the outliers (see Huber [1981] for an excellent account of Robust Statistics). Stochastic self–similarity at various scales is a notion that most probably account for most of natural processes. Such a view provides new lenses from which to study cold data in order to extract information lost by the smoothing process of classical statistical inference.

II. Fractal Statistical Inference Let ࣣ be the class of power law distributions parameterized by ߠ, ߠ ൒ ‫ݔ‬for all x, and ߠ, th ractal dimension: ] ՜ߠ ି |ߠఒ(‫= )ݔ‬ ( 1) …ࣣ = ቂߠఒ: [ ߠ, λ ߠଶ

ఒି ଵ ఏ

௫

ିఒ

ቂ ఏቂ ൠ. Let ȳ= {( ߠ, ߠ) ‫ି ߠ ك‬ଶ } be the parametric domain, ȳ‫ك‬

‫ݔ ݔ‬ ‫ݔ‬ ߠ ‫ߠݔ‬ . Let ଵ , ଶ,…, ቂ be a random sample from ఒ( ; )

‫ߠא‬ . On the basis of the informatio

. Let . On the basis of the informatio ; ) contained in ‫ݔ‬ଵ, ‫ݔ‬ଶ,…, ‫ݔ‬ቂ , we wish to develop tests of hypotheses about ߠ and ߠ. II.1 Point Estimation The likelihood function L(‫ )ߠ ;ݔ‬can be derived as: ( ቂߠ (2) … ߠ = ςቂቂି ଵߠ ఒ‫ݔ‬ ; ) =ቂ

ఒି ଵ

ቂ

൒ ቂ ςቂቂି ଵቂ ௫ቂ ఏ ఏ

ିఒ

The corresponding log – likelihood function is: (3) …ߠߠߠ ߠ = ߠ ߠߠߠ

ఒି ଵ ఏ

௫

ቂ ൒ െିߠσ ቂି ଵ ߠߠߠ ቂ ఏ ቂ .

The maximum likelihood estimators (MLE) of ߠ and ߠ respectively are: ିଵ

௫൒ ቂ (4) … ߠቂ = 1 + ߠ ቂ σ ቂି ଵ ߠߠߠ ቂ ఏ ቂቂ

ߠቂ = min{‫ݔ‬ଵ , ‫ ݔ‬ଶ , … , ‫ݔ‬ቂ ,}

Padua, R. N., Ontoy, D. S., Palompon, D. R., and Mirasol, J. M.

ቂ Properties of the Estimators ߠቂ and ߠ We show that the MLE for ߠ is unbiased for ߠ. Proof: Take ߠ = 1 and ߠ =ቂ 1 + ቂߠߠߠ ቂఏ௫ቂቂିଵ and so: ଵ

ߠ൫ߠቂ ൯ = 1 + ߠ ቂ

ି

ቂቂቂ ቂ ഇ ቂ

ቂ

ି

=1+

( ఒି ଵ ఏ

ߠ ) ఏ

షഊ

ቂഇቂ ஶ ቂ൒ ቂቂ

ି

ቂ

ߠ‫ݔ‬

ഇ

௫

Let ‫ ߠߠߠ = ݑ‬ቂ ఏቂ, ‫ ߠ ߠ =ݔ‬௨ and ߠ‫ ߠ ߠ = ݔ‬௨ ߠ‫ݑ‬ ஶቂ ߠ൫ߠቂ ൯ = 1 + (ߠ െି 1) ߠቂ

ష (ഊషభ)ೠ

௨

ߠ‫ݑ‬

Now: ஶ ቂ ష (ഊషభ)ೠ ௨

ߠቂ

ஶ

ߠ‫ߠ = ݑ‬ቂ ‫ିݑ‬ଵ ߠ ି(ఒି ଵ )௨ ߠ‫ݑ‬. ଵ

We recognize the last integral as a Gamma function with ߠ = 0, ߠ = ఒି ஶ ቂ ష (ഊషభ)ೠ ൒ቂ ‫ ݑ‬௨ቂ

ஶ ቂ

ିଵ ି(ఒି ଵ ) ௨

భ

. Thus:

ଵ

బ

ቂ ഊష భ ቂ ቂ(ቂ)

= = 1. ‫= ݑ‬ ቂ ଵ ‫ݑ‬ቂ ቂ Alternatively, we can use Complex Integration to show this last statement. Hence: ߠ൫ߠቂ൯ = 1 + (ߠെି 1) = ߠ.

ିଵ

௫ Now, for a sample of size n, ߠ൫ߠቂ ൯ = 1 + ߠ ቂߠ ൬ σቂቂି ଵ ߠߠߠ ቂఏቂ ൰൨ (ఒି ଵ) becomes: ߠ൫ߠቂ൯ = 1 + ߠ ή ቂ =ߠ.

Since is the MLE of , it possesses other of sufficient statistics, we are only required to desirable properties, namely that it is consistent show completeness of the distribution of X to be and also asymptotically normal with mean and able to use Lehmann Scheffe’s Theorem to prove variance equal to where is the Fisher’s that it is UMVUE. information number. Likewise, since it is a function

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Theorem 1: The random variable X from a fractal distribution comes from a family of complete distributions. ( ) Proof: Let ߠ ‫ݔ‬

ఒିଵ

any

function

௫ ߠఏ ‫ߠݔ‬ఏߠ ቂߠ(‫)ݔ‬ ‫ ۽‬ቂ ቂቂ ఏ

ஶ

where

௫ି

( )

ߠ‫ =ߠ ݔ‬0. This െ ି ߠ reduces ߠ to: ߠఏ

ଵ

( )

such

that

ߠ( ߠ(‫ = ) )ݔ‬0. Then:

ߠ( ߠ(‫= ) )ݔ‬

ஶቂ ௫

ିఒ

ஶ

and so:

ఏ

௫ఒ

ቂ

௫ ഊశି

ߠ‫ = ݔ‬0. For the improper integral to exist, ቂ ቂ λ

ߠ‫ = ݔ‬0. Hence:

ଵିఒିఋ

ή ௫ ഊశି

ቂ

షభ

= 0.

The last equation implies that: 1 ఒି ఋିଵ

ቂ

=0 Further implying that since is finite. It follows that and thus: a.e. so X comes from a complete family of distributions. By the Lehmann-Scheffe’s theorem, we conclude that λ must be a uniformly minimum variance unbiased estimator of λ ( U.M. V. U. E.): Theorem 2: Let λ be the MLE of λ. Then, λis function of complete sufficient statistics; λ ̂ is unbiased for λ and so λ is the uniformly minimum variance unbiased estimator (UMVUE) of λ. Proof: Since λ is the MLE of λ , it is always a functionof sufficient statistics. Theorem 1 shows that it is complete while we have shown that E(λ )=λ. It follows from the Lehmann Scheffe’s theorem that λ is UMVUE of λ.

Before performing any of the statistical test of hypotheses suggested in this paper on a set of observations, it is expedient to ascertain that the observations indeed come from a fractal probability distribution. To do this, we use Theorem 2 of the paper of Padua et al. (2013) which required: (a.) that the maximum likelihood estimator of the fractal dimension be fractional (non-integral), and (b.) that the distribution of X(1-λ) be uniform. We recommend the analytical representation of a Q-Q plot to test the latter (see Ryan-Joiner test). The simplest situation in statistical inference is when we are interested in testing: Ho: λ=λ_0 versus Ha: λ≠λ_0. For instance, we may be interested in determining whether or not x_1,x_2,…,x_n are non-fractal observations viz: Ho: λ=0; Ho: λ=1; etc. If they are not, then we can use classical statistical inference in pursuing the study.

The likelihood ratio test (LRT) statistic:

(5) … Ȳ

௦௨൒൒(௫; ఒ) ഊ

൒௫ ఒ

బ

( ;

)

൒൒ቂ ൒

rejects Ho if Ȳ maximizes ( ;

)ቂ ‫( ݔ‬ቂ ቂ ‫ ݑ‬ቂ

where > 0. However, ; = ; ) and is the MLE. It follows that the likelihood ratioఒtest (LRT) becomes: > 1 or equivalently, where

ߠ ‫ߠ ݔ‬

ߠቂ

ቂ൯ቂ ‫ݔ‬൫ ቂ

(6)

ቂ షഊቂ ቂ ഊషభ ି ൰ ήቂ భቂ ഇ ഇ

൬

ߠ = ቂ

‫ڮ‬ቂ

ቂ ି ቂ షഊ ቂ ഇ

‫ڮ‬

Padua, R. ିN., Ontoy, D. S., Palompon, D. R., and Mirasol, J. M. ቂ షഊ బ

ഊబషభ ቂ ି భ ష ቂ ቂ ഇቂ ഇ ഊబ

൫ቂ ఒ ିଵ ൯

௫

ߠ = (ఒ ିଵ ) ή ቂ ఏభቂ బ

ቂ ఒ బିఒ

ቂ

ഇ

ቂ

௫

‫ ڮ‬ቂ ఏቂቂ

ቂ ఒ బିఒ

Padua, R. N., Ontoy, D. S., Palompon, D. R., and Mirasol, J. M.

or equivalently: (7)

ቂିଵ ൯ ൫ఒ

log ߠ = ߠߠߠ Let ߠ =

(ఒ బିଵ)

ቂ ିఒ బ ఒ ቂିଵ , ఒ

+ ൫ߠ ቂ െିቂߠ൯σ

ቂ ቂି ଵ

௫

ߠߠߠ ቂ ൒ቂ > 0 ఏ

then the left – hand side of (7) becomes: ି

(8)… ߠ =

൒ ൫ቂ ఒ ିఒ బ൯ ൒ቂ ൒ సభ ቂ൒ ቂ ቂ ഇ ቂ ቂିଵ൯ି୪ ୭ ቂ( ఒ బ ି ଵ ) ୪୭ ቂ൫ ఒ

< ߠఈ

) ௧ቂ quantile of with a decision criterion that says, “reject Ho iff ‫ ݖ < ݖ‬ఈ, ‫ ݖ‬ఈ is the (1 െି ߠ the distribution of z under Ho.” We note that Z is close to zero when Ho is true. In order to derive the null distribution of z, we can use a simpler form of (8) : ௫൒ ቂ (9)… ߠ = ൫ߠቂ െି ߠ ቂ൯ σ ቂି ଵ ߠߠߠ ቂ ఏ ቂ ௫

We find the distribution of ‫ = ݕ‬൫ߠቂ െି ߠ ቂ൯ߠߠߠ ቂ ൒ቂ first: ఏ

( m va ri a ble Theorem 3: T he nu ll distribu ti on of t he rando ( ) = ఒఏ ) ఏ ିఒis: = ቂ బ ఏ௫൒ if ఒ ௫ బିଵ ‫ ݕ‬൫ߠቂ െ ି ߠ ൯ ߠߠ ߠ ቂ ቂ ߠ ‫ݔ‬ ቂ ቂ (ഊషభ)

(ఒିଵ )

ߠ(‫= )ݕ‬

( ଵఒబ)

ି(భష ഊ

బ)

(௬ିଵ)

, 1 < ‫ < ݕ‬λ,

an exponential distribution. Proof: From: ‫ݕ‬

‫ݔ‬ቂ ൫ߠቂ െି ߠ ൯ ቂ ߠߠߠ ቂ ቂ ቂ ߠ

௫

= (1 െି ߠቂ ) σߠߠߠ ቂ ఏ൒ ቂ + ߠ ௫

‫ ݕ‬െି ߠ = ߠ σߠߠߠ ቂ ఏ൒ ቂ where r = (1 െି ߠቂ ) Let n=1: ௫

‫ ݕ‬െି 1 = ߠ ߠߠߠ ቂ ఏ൒ ቂ ௫

ߠߠߠ ቂ ఏ൒ ቂ =

௬ି ଵ ቂ

‫ߠߠ=ݔ‬

ቂష భ ቂ

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So that the Jacobian of the transformation is: It follows that: ௬ି ‫ݕ‬െି 1 ߠߠ ቂ ߠ(‫ = )ݕ‬൬

ߠ(‫= )ݕ‬

൰ቂ

ି ௬ ଵ ఒ

ቂ

ఏ ቂ

ቂష భ ቂ

௬ି ଵ

ή ߠቂ ߠ

( ) ଵ) ഊషభ ି (௬ିଵ)

(ఒି

ቂ

ି

(ఒିଵ )

ߠ(‫= )ݕ‬

ି ௫

(భషഊబ)

(ଵఒబ)

(ഊషభ)

(௬ିଵ)

The moment – generating function of y is: (10)… ߠ௬ (‫= )ݐ‬

ଵ ଵିቂ௧

, ଵ

and so the mome nt – generating function of ‫= ݖ‬

ቂ

σቂቂି ଵ ߠቂ where ‫ݕ‬ଵ, … , ‫ݕ‬ቂ are iid from (10) is:

ቂ

ଵ (11)… ߠ൒ (‫ = )ݐ‬ቂଵିቂ ௧ ି ቂ ቂ

which is the moment-generating function of a Gamma random variable with ቂ = It follows that the null distribution of z is: ൒ ቂ (12)

ଵ ߠ(‫ = )ݖ‬ቂ షቂ

ቂ

ቂ(ቂ)

ቂ

‫ ݖ‬ቂିଵ ߠ ି ቂ ௭

and

ቂ

= .

ቂ

, ‫ ݖ‬൒ 0.

The (1 െି ߠ)௧ቂ quantile of z can be obtained from (12). Relationship Between – Fractal Dimension (ቂ) and the Median (ቂ ቂ). In this section, we show that if ߠଵ > ߠଶ then ߠቂଵ > ߠቂଶ, that is observations with higher fractal di mension also have higher medians. Let ൒ ൒ ‫ݔ‬ఒ(‫) ݔ‬, then: ~

ߠఒ(ߠቂ) = ఓ ଵିఒ ቂ

ଵ ଶ

1 െି

ଵ

= ଶ.

ቂఏቂ (13)…ߠቂ = ఒ ିଵ ఒ ିଵ 2ఒିଵߠ It follows from (13) that if ߠଵ > ߠଶ, then 2 so ߠቂଵ > ߠቂଶ is equivalent to a test for the >2మ భ equality of the median of two fractal distributions.

Padua, R. N., Ontoy, D. S., Palompon, D. R., and Mirasol, J. M.

Theorem 4: The likelihood ratio test (LRT) for the purpose that the spacing between adjacent for the equality of two fractal dimensions is values will not be assumed as constant (Motulsky, equivalent to a test for the equality of the median 2007). of two fractal distributions. Robustness. Since Mann-Whitney compares the sums of ranks, it is less likely to falsely indicate Alternative Non-Parametric Test significance than the t-test because of the presence of outliers. It means that Mann-Whitney is better When the interest is on comparing two than t-test in terms of robustness as a statics (2) probability distributions (rather than their test. This holds as well for the proposed test for roughness), we can use a non-parametric method the equality of fractal dimensions i.e. the test for called Mann-Whitney U test. The Mann-Whitney equality of fractal dimensions based on the MLE U test is a non-parametric method for testing of ? is less affected by outliers (Motulsky, 2007). hypothesis that one of two samples of independent Efficiency. MWW has an (asymptotic) observations tends to have larger values than the efficiency of or about 0.95 when compared to the other. t test if the data distribution adheres to normality. Important assumptions necessary for a very For distributions that do not follow normality and general formulation of the Mann-Whitney U test for those with large sized, the MWW can better is discussed at length in the papers of Nachar than t in terms of efficiency (Mann, & Whitney, (2008), McKnight & Najab (2010), and Fay & 1947) When non-normality holds and the Proschan (2010). From these assumptions, a convenient distributions are actually fractals, the MWW has formula for this test can be derived as follows: an asymptotic efficiency of relative to the The ranks will be added for the observations test based on fractal dimensions (FDT). Note that from the sample 1. The sum of ranks in sample 2 MWW can be more efficient than the test based on will then be determinate, because the sum of all fractal dimensions for low dimensional fractals but the ranks is equal to N(N + 1)/2 where N is the can also be quite inefficient for high dimensional total number of observations. fractals. In this case also, the asymptotic efficiency of the test based on fractal dimensions (FDT) is 100% relative to the t-test (note that the mean U is now given by: and variance do not exist in the case of fractal where n1 is the sample size for sample 1, and R1 is distributions). In the event that the distributions involved are the sum of the ranks in sample 1. actually fractal distributions, MWW and FDT are Note that it does not matter which of the two competing tests and it may, in fact, be more reasonable samples is considered sample 1. An equally valid to use the FDT for higher fractal dimensions than the Mann-Whitney test. formula for U is The smaller value of U1 and U2 is the one used when consulting significance tables. The Kruskal-Wallis-Like Test for Fractal Distributions sum of the two values is given by knowing that R1 The Kruskal-Wallis test assumes that the shapes + R2 = N(N + 1)/2 and N = n1 + n2 , and doing of the distributions are identical and are scaled for some algebra, we find that the sum is comparable each group, unless there are any differences in the to Student’s t-test and to the Likelihood Ratio Test medians (Gargantini & Fraser, 2011). In the case of for Fractal Dimensions. The U test is useful in the same situations as random variables distributed according to a fractal the independent samples Student’s t-test, and the distribution, the scales are different (but the random pattern persists for each scale). For this reason, we question arises of which should be preferred. Ordinal data. Choosing the U remains the perform the log-transformation: most logical action when the data are in the form Yij = log(Xij/θ) , i = 1,2,…ni, j = 1,2,..g prior to of ordinal measurement and not interval scaled, undertaking a Kruskal-Wallis test.

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Originality Index:

96 %

Similarity Index:

Paper ID:

664740066

Grammarly:

Checked

References Devaney, R. L. (1988). Fractal patterns arising in chaotic dynamical systems. In H. O. Peitgen & D Saupe (Eds.). The science of fractal images (pp. 137-168). New York, USA: New York. Fay, M. P., & Proschan, M. A. (2010). WilcoxonMann-Whitney or t-test? On assumptions for hypothesis tests and multiple interpretations of decision rules. Statistics Surveys, 4, 1-39. Gargantini, A., & Fraser, G. (2011). Generating minimal fault detecting test suites for general Boolean specifications. Information and Software Technology, 53(11), 12631273. Huber, P. J. (2011). Robust statistics. In M. Lovric (Ed.) International encyclopedia of statistical science (pp. 1248-1251). Switzerland: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Mandelbrot, B. B. (1967). How long is the coast of Britain. Science, 156(3775), 636-638. Mann, H. B., & Whitney, D. R. (1947). On a test of whether one of two random variables is stochastically larger than the other. The annals of mathematical statistics, 8(1), 5060. McKnight, P. E., & Najab, J. (2010). Mann-Whitney U Test. Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology. New Jersey, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Motulsky, H. J. (2007). Prism 5 statistics guide, 2007. GraphPad Software, 31(1), 39-42. Nachar, N. (2008). The Mann-Whitney U: A test for assessing whether two independent samples come from the same distribution. Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 4(1), 13-20. Padua, R. N., Barabat, E. O., Borres, M. S., & Salazar, R. K. (2013). Some Results on Multifractal Spectral Analysis. Recoletos Multidisciplinary Research Journal, 1(2), 57-63.

Selvam,A.M.(2009).Fractalfluctuationsandstatistical normal distribution. Fractals, 17(03), 333349.

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On the construction of a Fractal Spectrum for Data Analysis Roberto N. Padua1 Daisy R. Palompon2 Efren O. Barabat3 Mark S. Borres 3 Randy K. Salazar3 Negros Oriental State University, Philippines 1 Cebu Normal University, Philippines 2 University of San Jose – Recoletos , Philippine 3 mark_borres@yahoo.com Date Submitted: February 2, 2015

Date Accepted: March 1, 2015

ABSTRACT Multifractal probability distributions are defined as mixture of n monofractal distributions. The exponents are the fractal dimensions which determine the information- filling property of an observation from this distribution. A useful device for examining multifractal observations is the multifractal spectrum. The fractal spectrum was shown to be a one–to–one function, monotonically increasing with x on a logarithmic scale for non–fractal distributions. Similarly, multifractal distributions viewed on a larger scale (s) have a spectrum that behaves like power function but when viewed on a smaller scale, it behaves like a concave downward quadratic function where A, B and C are parameters to be estimated.

Keywords: fractal distribution, fractal, fractal spectrum, multifractal, power law I. INTRODUCTION The utility of multifractal analysis in the analysis of seismic data in Italy was demonstrated by Lapenna, Macchiato and Telesca (1998), in the Philippines by Panduyos, Villanueva and Padua (2014), and in other countries by various authors. Of these multifractal models of seismic data, the main tool used was Legendre’s multifractal spectrum which essentially involves finding a

sequence of multifractal manifolds which can be expressed in terms of power laws. In Padua and Barabat & Regolado (2013) a simpler multifractal spectrum λ(s) was found useful in fractal data analysis. Multifractal probability distributions are define as mixture of m monofractal distributions in the sense of Tukey (1972):

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The exponents are the fractal dimensions which determine the information- filling property of an observation from this distribution. In several papers, authors claimed that fractal observations are, in fact, more pervasive in real– life than normal observations Selvam (2009); Lapenna, Macchiato, and Telesca (1998); Padua, Borres and Salazar (2013). As such, fractal distributions need to be examined more closely and classical normal-based methods, reviewed. A useful device for examining multifractal observations is the multifractal spectrum. The current multifractal spectrum in use is the Legendre’ spectrum but its application is largely confined to scientists in specialized fields because of its complexity. Padua, Barabat, Borres, and Salazar (2013) suggested a simpler version of a is obtained. multifractal spectrum, namely: The fractal spectrum (7) was shown to be a one–to–one function, monotonically increasing with x on a logarithmic scale for non– fractal distributions. Instead of examining the observations on the data space, we propose to examine them in the spectral space. The value of θ used in (8) serves as a powerful “microscope” that enhances the detailed picture of the spectrum λ(s) in terms of its finer structures. We note that if x comes from fractal distribution with fractal dimension λ, then

that behaves in exactly the same way as the Legendre’s spectrum. Thus, monofractal λ(s)spectrum is a cluster of points or a single point while multifractal spectra are single–humped, continuous functions of scale s. We present some results in relation to decreases with increasing x and the behavior of λ(s) in this paper. These results describe the behavior of the λ(s)–spectrum when decreasing θ. For a fixed observation x, we can applied to various probability distributions, increase (decrease) by decreasing θ (increasing θ), so that the value of θ serves to sharper the focus including the multi–fractal distributions. on the features of a fractal set. Viewed on a large scale, monofractal distributions have singular 2.0 The – spectrum spectra but when viewed Let be iid G(.) where G(.) is an on a lower scale, the spectral function forms a unknown absolutely continuous distribution with horizontal line (slope = 0). Similarly, multifractal respect to a Lebesque measure. Suppose also that distributions viewed on a larger scale (s) have a for each i and . The idea is to fit a spectrum that behaves like power function but when viewed on a smaller scale, it behaves fractal distribution: like a concave downward quadratic function where A, B and C are parameters to be estimated.

Padua, N. R., Palompon, D. R., Barabat, O. B., Borres, M. S. and

Originality Index:

99 %

Similarity Index:

Paper ID:

622502050

Grammarly:

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REFERENCES Lapenna, V., Macchiato, M., & Telesca, L. (1998). 1/f^Î˛ Fluctuations and self-similarity in earthquakes dynamics: observational evidences in southern Italy. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 106(1), 115127. Padua, R. N., Barabat, E. O., Borres, M. S., & Salazar, R. K. (2013). Some Results on Multifractal Spectral Analysis. Recoletos Multidisciplinary Research Journal, 1(2), 57-63. Padua, R., Barabat, E., & Regalado, D. Y. (2013). A simple test for mono and multifractality of statistical observations , NORSU Prism Journal of Higher Education, 23-24 Panduyos, J. B., Villanueva, F. P., & Padua, R. N. (2014). Fitting a Fractal Distribution on Philippine Seismic Data: 20112013. SDSSU Multidisciplinary Research Journal, 1(1). Selvam,A.M.(2009).Fractalfluctuationsandstatistical normal distribution. Fractals, 17(03), 333349. Tukey, J. W. (1972). How computing and statistics affect each other. The Babbage Memorial Meeting: Report of Proceedings. London: British Computer Society

Salazar, R. K.

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On the Marking-tadpole and Marking-shell Ramsey numbers of graphs Mark L. Caay College of Education University of the Visayas, Philippines markycaay126@yahoo.com Date Submitted : August 13, 2015

Date Accepted : September 1, 2015

ABSTRACT Given two graphs G and G2, the Ramsey number R(G ,G2) is the smallest integer N such that for any graph G of order N, either G1 is a subgraph of G, or G2 is a subgraph of the complement of G. Let Cn denote the cycle of order n and Pk be the path of order k. The Tadpole Graph Tn,k is the graph created by concatenating Cn and Pk with an edge from any vertex of Cn to a pendant of Pk for integers n = 3 and k = 0. A Shell Graph Sn,n−3 is a cycle graph with (n-3) chords sharing a common end point called the apex. Defined the Marking-Tadpole Graph Mp is a graph derived from Tadpole Graph Tn,k where every vertices are adjacent to every vertices of the graph. Moreover, the Marking-Shell Graph Jp is a graph originated from Shell Graph where every vertices are adjacent to every vertices of the graph as well. In this study, we show the combinatorial relationships and identities of R(Mp,C4) to R(Jp,C4) for every p ≥ 6 and the subscript p = n+3 of M. Keywords: marking-tadpole, marking-shell, Ramsey numbers I. INTRODUCTION Marking-Tadpole Graph M p is a graph derived from Tadpole Graph Tn,k where every vertices are adjacent to every vertices of the graph. Moreover, the Marking-Shell Graph Jp is a graph originated from Shell Graph where every vertices are adjacent to every vertices of the graph as well, where the subscript of M is p = n+1. This implies that M p and Jp are complete graphs. In this study, we consider graphs with complete graphs. For the sake of simplified notations the same with Zhang (2014), we consider a nonempty proper subset S ⊆ V (G) and let G[S] and G − S denote the subgraph induced by S and V (G) − S, respectively. Let Ns(v) be the set of all neighbors of a vertex v that are contained in S, let Ns(v) ∪ {v} and let ds(v) = |Ns(v)|. If S = V (G), we write N(v) = N G(v),N[v] = N(v) ∪ {v} and let d(v) = dG(v). For two vertex-disjoint graphs G1 and G2,G1 + G2 is the graph obtained from G1 ∪ G2

by joining every vertex of G 1 to every vertex of G2. In this study, we denote Cn for a cycle of order n. Moreover, we denote M p and Jp for MarkingTadpole and Marking Shell respectively. Like in Zhang (2014), we still use the ∆(G),δ(G) and α(G) to denote the maximum degree, the minimum degree and the independence number, respectively, of a graph G. Given two graphs G1 and G2, the Ramsey number R(G1,G2) is the smallest integer N such that for any graph G of order N, either G 1 is a subgraph of G, or G2 is a subgraph of the complement of G. To deal with the Ramsey Number, the MarkingTadpole and the Marking-Shell have been developed from Tadpole and Shell respectively, in order to provide the identities and relationship in terms of Ramsey Numbers of Tadpole and Shell. Below are some facts regarding the MarkingTadpole and Marking Shell Graphs:

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1. Cn and Pk is a subgraph of M p, where p =

n + k.

2. 3. 4. 5.

M p is a complete graph. Cn is a subgraph of Jp, where p ≥ n Jp is a complete graph Kn ⊆ M p

REFERENCES Harju, T. (2011). Lecture Notes on GRAPH THEORY. [pdf handout]. Retrieved from BMEVISZAA02,University of Turku, Finland Online: http://cs.bme.hu/fcs/ graphtheory.pdf Parsons, T. D. (1975). Ramsey Graphs and Block Designs I. Transactions of the American Mathematical Society, 209(1), 33-44 Ezhilarasi, H. S., & Jesintha, J. J. (2012). Butterfly Graphs with Shell Orders m and 2m+ 1 are Graceful. Bonfring International Journal of Research in Communication Engineering, 2(2), 1-5 Zhang, Y., Broersma, H., & Chen, Y. (2014). A remark on star-C4 and wheel-C4 Ramsey numbers. Electronic Journal of Graph Theory and Applications (EJGTA), 2(2), 110-114.

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On the relations of Fibonacci to the determinants of the sum of the Fibbonacci-Hessenberg matrices Mark L. Caay College of Education University of the Visayas, Philippines markycaay126@yahoo.com Date Submitted : August 13, 2015

Date Accepted : September 1, 2015

ABSTRACT The Fibonacci sequence is defined by fo  O, f 1  1 and fn  fn  1  fn  2; n  2. An n  n matrix A is called a (lower) Hessenberg matrix if all entries above the superdiagonal are zero. A Fibonacci-Hessenberg matrices are matrices whose determines are in the form tfn  1  fn  2 orfn  1  tfn  2 for some real or complex

number t . Define n  n and an n  n matrix  n, t , a new matrix is formed by adding one row of weight one and starting with alternating 1’s and 0’s, starting a 1, to the left of the obtained matrix. Let i denote the usual complex unit with

i2  1 . Replacing the entry of  n, t located in the ith row (i 1)th column, 1  i  n,

with (1)in i , we obtain another Hessenberg matrix denoted Hn,t. In this paper, we take the sum of n,t and Hn,t and show that the determinants of the sum of the two hessenberg matrices are not equal to the sum of the determinants of the two hessenberg matrices. We also provide illustrations and fibonacci relations of the determinants of the resulted sum. Keywords: Fibonacci sequence, Hessenberg matrices, Fibonacci-Hessenberg matrices, determinants I. INTRODUCTION This study provides expositions and extensions of the works of Esmaeili (2006) where the author definedthe Fibonaccisequenceas fo  o, f1  1 and f

n  2.

A

 a 11

a 12 

,   we a a  21 22  define the determinant of A, (also denoted by n1

n2,

Given a matrix

In Esmaeli Hessenberg

(2006) states that Fibonaccimatrices are matrices whose

An n  n matrix A is called a (lower) Hessenberg matrix if all entries above the superdiagonal are

determinants

are in the form

zero. Setting A1  (1) and defined A as:

Define 1,t  (t 1) and an n  n matrix n,t; a

det A to be scalar det A  a 11a 22  a 12a 21.

fn1  tfn2

tfn1  fn2 or

for some real complex number

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new matrix is formed by adding one row of weight

A and B; that is

one and starting with 1 to the top of n,t and then A  B  [a ij ] [b ij ]  [a ij  b ij ] adding a new column with alternating 1’s and 0’s, Definition 2.1. version 1: Define starting a 1; to the left of the obtained matrix.

M n,t   n,t  Hn,t

Let i denote the usual complex unit with i2  1. Replacing the entry of 1,t located in the i

row

th and the (i 1) column, 1  i < n , with (1)in i; we obtain another Hessenberg matrix denoted by

Definition 2.1 show that the Mn,t is formed by re-

Hn,t.

placing the

 n,t

located in the i row and (i 1)th

column, 1  i < n, with 1 (1)in i, and replacing the 1 by 2. Define 1,t  (t 1) and an n  n matrix n,t , a new matrix is formed by adding one row of weight To show the result of this paper; we introduced the following results:

one and starting with 1 to the top of n,t and then adding a new column with alternating 1' s and 0' s , starting a 1; to the left of the obtained matrix.

Remark 1.1. According to Ching (1993) The

n,0,n  1, is fn .

Theorem 2.1. The determinants of Mn,t , denoted

Preposition 1.1. The determinants of  n,t and denoted by e and h , respectively, are H

by mn,t is m  2n (t 1)n  1

n,t ,

e 1,t

n,t

h n,t

n,t

 t 1 and e

 f for n  2

 h  tf n,t

n,t

n1

Thus n,t and Hn,t are Fibonacci-Hessenberg matrices. 2. Main Result: The Sum of Two Hessenberg Matrices

n,t

Proof. Note that Thus , the statement is true for n1. Suppose that the formula holds for n , that is mn,t  2n (t 1)n  1. By Definition 2.1, and consider Mn,t be the matrix obtained from Mn,t by means of deleting the first row and second column. It easy to see that using the co-factor expansion

Let A  [a ij ] and B  [b ij ] be of the same size. Then along the first row on both Mn,t and Mn,t results the sum matrices A and B , denoted by A  B is n obtained by adding the corresponding elements of in mn,t  2 (t 1). Therefore, the results follows.

Caay, M. L.

Remark 2.1. The determinants of the sum of

n,t and Hn,t are not equal to the sum of the determinants of n,t and Hn,t . To see this, note that Preposition 1.1 shows that

en,t  h n,t  tfn1  fn

for n  2

and from

Theorem 2.1 mn,t  2n (t 1) in which mn,t is the determinants of Mn,t , where Mn,t  n,t  Hn,t Remark 2.2. mn,t  cn,t  h n,t ,  positive t REFERENCES Ching, L. (1993). The maximum determinant of an n× n lower Hessenberg (0, 1) matrix. Linear Algebra and Its Applications, 183(1), 147153. Esmaeili, M. (2006). More on the Fibonacci sequence and Hessenberg matrices. Integers, 6, A32.

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UV Journal of Research 2015

Discovering experience-based theory building: Offshoot of Classical and Pragmatic Grounded Theory Brian A. Vasquez Center for Research and Development University of the Visayas, Philippines brianquez@gmail.com Date Submitted : March 15, 2015

Date Accepted : April 23, 2015

ABSTRACT This is a methodological article that documented my theory building process. Inspired by the recommendations of Glaser, I fashioned my own methodology in creating my own theory. It is an observance of: (1) autonomy; (2) originality; and (3) contribution. The process is an amalgamation of: (1) Classical Grounded Theory; (2) Pragmatic Grounded Theory; and (3) Practitioner-based theory building. The method is coined as Experience-Based theory building. To facilitate abstraction and get away with plain description, it exploited autosampling technique initially and theoretical sampling dominantly. This approach is highly retroductive, a synergy of: (1) induction; (2) deduction; and (3) abduction. Keywords: experience-based, grounded theory, research I. INTRODUCTION Glaser (2006) claimed that doctoral students are expected to create their own theory and methodology in doing their dissertation. Autonomy, originality, and contribution are the three key elements he emphasized (Glaser, 2006). The Doctor of Philosophy (Phd) candidate must be autonomous in their quest for knowledge. Their pursuit for innovative and novel: (1) procedures, and (2) information; are highly personal. The product of their autonomy and originality are their contributions. I personally believe these contributions may not be expedient at present, but have enormous utility in the future. With this challenge, I was able to discover a theorybuilding technique amalgamating: (1) classical GT (Glaser & Strauss, 1967, 2006); (2) pragmatic GT (Charmaz, 2006); and (3) practitioner-based theory building (Nielsen, 2010). This paper documented the discovery of experience-based

theory building. The method I have fashioned guises similar to practice or practitionerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s theory building (Nielsen, 2010). It is the induction of a theory based on experiences (Bendassolli, 2013). What makes my own methodology novel is that it is initially based on my own personal experience and corroborated with the experiences of others. Unlike those discussed by Nielsen (2010) and Bendassolli (2013), they are induced from the informants who were practitioners or those who had experienced the phenomenon. Thedataanalysisutilizedtrailedconceptsfrom both classical and pragmatic GT. Methodological decisions were based on my philosophical stances in the conduct of this particular exploration. The method was shaped based on: (a) how I see the reality of the phenomenon; and (b) what I think is the best approach to arrive in conceptualization.

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J. CONDITIONS The following are the conditions to the experience-based GT: 1. Data are initially induced from the researcher’s experiences; 2. The inquiry embarked atheoretical; 3. The researcher’s experiences must be a cluster of conceptually similar events: 3.1. Single incident experience shall be treated as contaminant when it cannot be confirmed with other means; 4. Researcher’s personal experiences must be confirmed with the experiences of others: 4.1. Confirmed experiences must be taken as data saturation, and 4.2. Experiences of others that are deviant from the researcher’s experiences must be recognized as alternative realities: 4.2.1. It must be confirmed until data saturation arrives; otherwise it is treated as a contaminant; 5. Incidences are sampled and not persons: 5.1. Incidences are taken from any or a combination of the following: 5.1.1. Interviews, 5.1.2. Observations, 5.1.3. Existing databases, or 5.1.4. Literature. K. PHILOSOPHICAL STANCE This method was initially naturalistic (Thales ascitedby Roper, 2010). Iintegratedinterpretivism (Boas, 1887a,b,c) and constructivism (Dewey, 1938). I believed that my experiences should be studied in context (Botan & Kreps, 1999). I examined the object of inquiry without any presumptions or expectations. Although I never commenced in a tabula rasa state (Glaser & Strauss, 1967, 2006), I attempted to bracket out personal biases and neutrally scrutinized the context (Ray, 1985). It marked objectivity in qualitative inquiry amidst its subjective or relative nature. The following are philosophical guides for novice researchers who will adapt my methods in their inquiry: Using the interpretative approach, one cannot

get away from personal viewpoints. However, this procedure must only occur in the analytic process. Researchers must be careful not to exploit personal interpretations before data collection. The interpretative analysis should be done simultaneously with data collection. It is essential since it provides a conceptual agenda that is useful to substantiate the data. It is the unique feature of the naturalistic inquiry since it does not interpret data based on a predetermined framework. Conceptualizations are induced and grounded from the data. Data analysis, apart from the researcher’s personal interpretation, may look into the data as personally constructed by the informant. Although the researcher’s interpretation is constructivist in nature, other sources of data, aside from the researcher’s experiences, must be interpreted from their own lenses and must be presented side-by-side with the researcher’s personal interpretation. The researchers are reminded that there is no single truth (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008; Creswell & Planno Clark, 2011). Truth is relative. It is constructed by each actor with different perspectives. It must be scrutinized carefully to document the multiplicity of realities that make theorizing more substantial. In other words, truth or reality, whether it is objective or subjective, must be treated equally. In GT, there is no such divide. Conceptualizations are the same regardless of sources and procedures. The interpretative conceptualizations of the researcher are based on data. Though conceptual induction of data is technically relative in nature, it must be honestly done and empirically deduced with another incident. It is its positivistic and objective nature. Therefore, this particular GT process involved two paradigms: (a) initially naturalistic; and (b) as a confirming point, positivistic. L. PROCESS OF INVESTIGATION I trailed a retroductive research process (Wallace, 1971). The involved processes were induction, deduction and abduction that were amalgamated to produce a substantive theory. I was convinced by the recommendations of Foot, Warnick and Schneider (2005) wherein identified concepts or constructs were derived between

Vasquez, B. A. thoughts and confirmation that links both inductive and deductive approaches in theory building. Each route nourished the progression of conceptualization. It is a mechanism that allowed the triangulation of concepts (Downward & Mearman, 2006). Although, abduction was not mentioned in the GT literatures my readings support that it be part of retroduction. Technically, it is considered as a specialized form of induction. Induction. Initially, data were induced from my personal experiences that allowed the identification of concepts or initial codes. Polit and Beck (2012) defined it as a process of making inference based on observations or experiences that are paired with critical analysis. This analytic process provided purposive culling of relevant data. The researcher then integrates the data to formulate a theory that aids in explaining the phenomenon (Polit & Beck, 2010). Deduction. Conceptualizations induced from personal experiences are deductively verified. The induced data serve as a theoretical framework or an a priori that are verified by another incident or case. Polit and Beck (2012) defined the process of deduction as a mechanism for descending hypotheses. Relationship of concepts in a theory can never be verified unswervingly. Through deduction, tentative hypotheses induced from data are confirmed through theoretically sampled incidents. It is to confirm authenticity. It provides a clearer and thicker theoretical substantiation. The researcher just needs to be aware of the difference between conceptualization and description. The focus of GT is theorizing and not describing. It is further discussed later in the text. Theoretical Sampling. Theory-based culling embroils the miscellany of incidents based on a priori conceptualization that is being qualitatively scrutinized (Polit & Beck, 2008). According to Charmaz (2006), theoretical sampling means looking for relevant data to progress an emerging theory. It aims to intricately polish the: (a) group of concepts; and (b) relationship of categories. Incident culling culminates when no new concepts emerge. This procedure keeps the researcher away from unfocused analysis. I must make it clear that initial sampling in the study was not theoretical sampling. I must remind the reader that the initial utilized sampling in this

GT was autosampling that I personally coined and defined as â&#x20AC;&#x153;purposively culling personal experiences of the researcher himself that is substantial to the domain of inquiry.â&#x20AC;? Charmaz (2006) made clear that GT must start with an initial sampling (most of the time purposive in nature). She further explained that initial sampling in GT is where one starts, and theoretical sampling directs the GTist where to go. Therefore, it is correct to claim that initial sampling is an inductive approach while theoretical sampling is a deductive approach. Charmaz added that its logic began with the data. Tentative thoughts are induced and probed through empirical and deductive reasoning. It means that one must move back and forth with data (Hood, 1983). Moving back and forth is a retroductive approach. Theoreticalsamplingasanemergentapproach (Charmaz, 2006): (1) confirms the intuitions about categories; (2) saturates the properties of a category; (3) differentiates categories; (4) elucidates interaction between categories; and (5) recognizes process variation. It is emergent because one cannot determine what to sample not until new conceptualization based on induced analysis requires it. Conceptualization vs. Description. One is no longer doing GT if description is focused and conceptualization is put aside (Glaser, 2005). The researcher must avoid describing details of the incidence and must put emphasis on the determination of the involved processes through conceptualization. It means that: (a) concepts are identified; and (b) relationship of concepts with each other is determined. Consequently, researchers must situate their thoughts in its general form and not in a specific fashion (Padua, 2013). Specific discussion happens when researchers are engrossed in describing a phenomenon, failing to conceptualize. Conceptualization only happens when analyzers process the information in its general form. Conceptualization vs. Accuracy. In GT, concepts do not change when facts change. Glaser and Strauss (1967, 2006) emphasized that GT aimed to discover a theory. Therefore, it is germane to generate general categories, their properties and the general relationship with each other. The substantiation from which conceptualizations

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occurred exemplifies the concept. GT is not concerned with accuracy. The evidence needs not be precise. Regardless of exactitude, these concepts are undoubtedly significant conceptual abstraction. Researchers verify by qualifying the enormous conceptualization beyond relative accuracy. Glaser (2007) pronounced that the product of GT is transcending abstraction and not accurate description. The researcher must not be disturbed whether the data is accurate reality or truth. It can be relative. Accuracy is not a GT concern. However, it is the researcher’s responsibility to do constant comparative analysis honesty. It dictates the researcher not to guide analysis on how he or she wants to see things but on how it was induced from data. Abduction. There were times when I did not know where to go to. With this experience, I decided to gather information without knowing what to do with them. By abducting data without a priori, my conceptualization extended by: (1) objectively making sense from nothing (Habermas, 1978); and (2) introducing new ideas (Meyer & Lunnay, 2013). Abductive extrapolation allowed me to see all conceivable hypothetical explanations. I empirically scrutinized them via deductive approach and hunted for the most reasonable explanation (Glaser & Strauss, 1967/2006). Again, this process allowed me to move back and forth with data (Hood, 1983). This approach intensified my theorizing process.

abstraction regardless of the process. In my study, I started with the data from myself. I purposively culled my experiences relevant to the domain of inquiry. My experiences were documented through reflection notes. Theoretically sampled incidences were derived through: (1) interviews of people with similar experiences; (2) interviews of people who had witnessed my experiences; and (3) documented incidence of people experiencing similar experiences(literature). Thefirsttwowereneither audio-recorded nor transcribed in verbatim. They were only field noted. Glaser (2004) recommends field noting over verbatim transcriptions. Although Glaser (1978) cautioned the researcher to avoid reading the literature before the theoretical framework is stabilized, he also mentioned that GTist may flex this prescription depending on the need of the inquiry. I cautiously made sure that the codes were not initially derived from the literature. Literatures were only theoretically sampled to: (1) confirm my personal experiences; and (2) sanction theoretical fit. Constant Comparative Analysis A process called constant comparison was dawdled to conceptually progress and cultivate germane categories. Categories induced from the data were constantly compared with the new data for commonalities and variations. Data gathering proceeded by concentrating on evolving conceptualizations. Icomparedconceptsemerging from the data with comparable concepts from another data source, existing theory or literature to gauge which segments have promising fit with the generated theory (Polit & Beck, 2012; Glaser & Strauss, 1967/2006; Glaser, 2001). Specific to my study, I constantly compared each incidence culled from my experiences. Each comparative process identified universal and diverse conceptualizations. I confirmed my personal experiences with theoretically sampled incidences from: (1) other researcher’s experiences via interviews and recollection of actual observations; and (2) existing literature exposing analogous occurrences. These incidences were constantly compared from each other.

All is Data Glaser pronounced “all is data.” It means that everything that is derived from the investigatory scene is data regardless of the source (Glaser, 2007). Sources may include: (a) interviews; (b) observations;or(c)documents.Onemustrecognize that taken information from these sources are not the actual data themselves. The actual GT data were discovered from conceptualization through constant comparison that generates categories and its properties. These are either: (a) baseline; (b) properline; (c) vague; (d) interpreted; or (e) conceptual. With this dictum, there is no such thing as: (a) bias; (b) objective or subjective; or (c) interpreted or misinterpreted. It is anything the researcher is formulating for transcending Transcription, Formulation of Concepts and

Vasquez, B. A. Categories, Initial Coding, and Memoing Initially, I was transcribing my personal experience. The transcripts were subjected to initial coding wherein concepts were identified. I must emphasize that the transcriptions were not verbatim write-up of interviews. These are field notes and reflection notes of (Glaser, 2004): (1) the recall of my experiences; (2) the reflection of interviews; and (3) field notes from observations. Glaser suggested that the use of tape-recorded data is not necessary since it is a waste of time. Field notes are preferred since they are already a product of the analytic process. I further coded some of the incidences I theoretically sampled. I noticed that I was not doing GT since I failed to do conceptualization. I was focused to the descriptive part which is not the intention of GT. Although coding transcripts is necessary to formulate initial codes, I was trapped by the QDA (Qualitative Data Analysis) process and failed to trail the GT process. My dilemma is further discussed later in the text. I opened the literature and found my answer to my quandary. Glaser (2005) noted that GTist must not focus on the prescription of QDA (utilized by ethnographers and phenomenologists) but directed towards conceptualization. After doing QDA with (5) incidences that I theoretically sampled, I shifted to memo writing that trailed me to the actual conceptualization and prevented me from concentrating on descriptions. According to Charmaz (2006), memo writing points unswervingly to theoretical sampling. It is a tactical, explicit and methodical process that anticipates to intricately contextualize and identify my theoretical categories. This sampling technique is contingent to the identified categories. The identified categories are the result of writing the memos. Although identification of specific concepts is dependent from coding the transcripts, one must transcend the process to theorizing. Furthermore, theoretical sampling may not go back to coding transcripts like doing QDA - although this can be done in appropriate cases. This fundamental GT approach assisted me to demarcate and advance the properties of my categories including the width of its variations. Writing memos allowed me to identify the completeness or incompleteness of my categories.

Gaps were then analyzed and aided with theoretical sampling technique. This engagement prodded me to foresee the direction of looking for more data that plugged the gap and saturated the categories. Take note that what we want to saturate are categories and not specific concepts. It is another feature of GT that is distinctive from other QDA processes. Writing memos, therefore, aided my analytic process. It guided me to start writing the theory and stop doing endless and unnecessary QDA techniques. The memos emerged from grounded comparative analysis of cumulative data. Incompleteness signaled the gap that prompted further data collection. This time, I trailed the collection of relevant data and not the unnecessary ones. It then expedited me increasingly to write more abstract and conceptual memos. You notice that the process I trailed is not linear. It is a cyclical process of: (1) data collection; (2) coding; and (3) writing memos (analyzing). Sampling stopped when the constructs were chockfull. Robustness was reached when relationship between categories was clear. It is effective memo writing that I invigorated to reflect on and designate patterns in the data, interactions among categories, and nascent conceptualizations. Openness Dey (1999) suggested that there is a big difference between an open mind and an empty head. Openness is ascertained by Glaser (1978, 1992) to get away from the deduction based from a priori (theoretical frameworks) and put affinity to induction. We only need to bracket out what we previously know. Remaining open is trying to understand what we can learn while coding and where it can take us (Charmaz, 2006). It may or may not be congruent to what we already know. Glaser (1978, 1998) constantly reminds GTist to remain open to theoretical possibilities. The analytic process concentrates in interrogating what the data represents. It must be put in mind in the initial step of the analytic process. With this question in mind, it allowed me to pursue the most essential response that fits the domain of inquiry. In the process of analysis, I ascertained specific meanings and actions that proposed theoretical relationship to convincing conceptualizations that

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were not revealed in the existing compilation of culled incidences. With an open mind, it allowed me to search for theoretical possibilities. It then called for more theoretical sampling that further refined conceptualization towards robustness. I was directed to remain open to all possible theoretical directions in the earlier stages of the analytic process. When categories were clear, more focused theoretical sampling occurred. Remaining open does not necessarily mean remaining open all the time. It only suggests remaining open when categories (or a specific category) are still unclear. A more focused approach proceeded when theoretical integration begun.

the descriptive baggage. My realization of not producing conceptual theory of illuminating the essential communal patterns that are functional to the domain of inquiry marked me to realign my methods to the GT process. With my realization, I started to analyze my theoretically sampled codes with memo writing. It is in the memo writing procedure that allowed me to (1) document my reflection; (2) describe the patterns induced from data; (3) identify relationships between categories; and (4) generate conceptualizations (Polit & Beck, 2012). It was when I shifted to this approach that I started to feel that I am doing GT. It was never a linear approach. In fact, the emergent process My Mistake with QDA was a continuous and a cyclical amalgamation of: My mistake started with my use of qualitative (a) data collection; (b) coding; and (c) conceptual data analysis software HyperResearch version analysis (Glaser, 2004). These were constantly 2.8.3. Fairly, it did help me in the initial part of my documented with my memos. data analysis: open coding. It was then acceptable when I was still doing my initial purposive GT Data Analysis sampling. I was autosampling my personal Substantive vs. Theoretical Codes. experiences and constantly compared my personal Glaserian data analysis was used to formulate incidence to incidence. I induced initial codes and conceptualizations: data into patterns. The partially identified categories with its properties. elements of the domain of inquiry were abstracted With the interest of induction, I continued the through substantive codes and theoretical codes procedure with other cases (not incidence; (Polit & Beck, 2012). Theoretical codes provided experiences of others through interview and from awareness on the relationship of each substantive those documented in the literature). I noticed that code. Substantive codes were processed in two I was doing something similar to phenomenology stages (Polit & Beck, 2012; Charmaz, 2006): (1) and ethnography. I was not doing GT. I was not open; and (2) selective or focused. conceptualizing but rather describing. Open coding was the first stage of my constant My dilemma in doing data analysis using comparative analysis. Openness mandated to QDA brought me to reading the article of Glaser detain the grounded concepts from the data. (2004) titled Remodeling Grounded Theory. Incidences were scrutinized for similarities and There, I realized that I was trapped with the QDA differences. It allowed me to identify categories approach which leads me to: (1) description and its properties (Glaser, 1978). In this stage, I rather than conceptualization; and (2) qualitative inaugurated: (1) line-by-line; (2) paragraph; and data analysis block. (3) document coding. It covered the Level I codes. First we need to revisit the concepts of QDA. When initial codes were developed, theoretical QDA is focused on accuracy, truth, trustworthiness sampling took place. I then started to write memos or objectivity of data. Stringent procedures are to condense Level I codes. The condensed codes prescribed in enhancing these issues. With my enclosed the Level II codes. When categories and worry to develop accurate codes from data to get properties were identified, Level III coding was rid of subjectivity issues, quarantined me to the done. Level III codes are theoretical constructs. QDA trap. Unluckily, these are not the concern of Level I codes are basic concepts while Level III GT. codes are more abstract ones. As cited by Polit and The trap of QDA eroded me from the goal Beck (2012), these constructs add scope beyond of conceptualizing a theory and brought me to local meanings (Glaser, 1978) in generating the

Vasquez, B. A.

theory. This process allowed the identification of constructs. Open coding culminated after ascertaining the core category. Glaser identified nine criteria in determining the core category. It must: (1) be central to many or all categories; (2) saturate from data frequently; (3) take some time to saturate compared to the other categories; (4) have a significant relationship with other categories; (5) be clear, seizing insinuations for formal applications; (6) have substantial carrythrough; (7) be completely variable; (8) be a dimension of the domain of inquiry; and (9) be a theoretical code. The next stage was selective or focused coding. This stage involved multiple levels of abstraction. I only coded those data that were relevant to the core category. It then led me to theoretical coding. This stage allowed interlacing the fragmented pieces of data back together. The codes allowed theoretical capture (Glaser, 2005). It delivered superior explanatory power that heightened meaningful abstraction of the relationships between categories. Data Analysis, Memos and Fit. During coding and analysis, I documented my ideas about the data, categories, and conceptual scheme emerging from the memos. The actual memos preserved the substantive application. GT does not necessitate the discovery of novel categories. It means we do not ignore those previously identified by literature. The mission is to progress an emergent fit between the data and category that might work. Pre-existing categories were not simply borrowed but earned its way to the theory. GT is concerned with generating categories and hypotheses rather than testing them. The product is usually a theoretical model that endeavors to explain most of the involved processes in the domain of inquiry (Glaser, 2001). Although GTists are warned in referring to the available literature before a theoretical framework is stabilized, this process is also emergent and flexible in nature (Glaser, 1978) depending on the need of the domain of inquiry.

It is safe to say that this is a novel research methodology based on existing procedures and modified to suit the need of my inquiry - a synergy of three methods with personal inputs based on my personal philosophical stances. What you want to know dictates what you do. Although recommendations are available, tailored-fit procedures allow better discovery. Forcingrecommendationsordogmaticprocedures compromise the analytic process and is a misuse of the forced methodology. Investigators must realize that doing research need not follow strict doctrines prescribed or suggested by research methodologists. One must think and do things outside the box. Novel innovations and discoveries were derived from new methodologies. Scholars need not replicate what had been done before. It is noteworthy however, to recognize them as helpful guides on how to commence and proceed with their scholarship. Along the way, researchers can always deviate from what is normatively accepted. For me, that is true scholarship. We should not think the same way, otherwise, we end up searching and researching similar things. I am sure that other scholars will scrutinize and critique this methodology. That is why they are there. It is their role. It is in disagreements where scholars came into being. The arena where exchanges of ideas and stances that transported debate and divide allowed the progression of disciplines rapidly. It takes revolutionary steps to challenge the status quo. It needs another Albert Einstein to create unacceptable discoveries for utility after decades from its discovery.

M. CONCLUSION I shall claim that this research is neither a dogmatic classical or constructivist GT nor a practitioner theory building methodology.

Bendassolli, P. F. (2013). Theory building in qualitative research: Reconsidering the problem of induction. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social

Originality Index:

99 %

Similarity Index:

Paper ID:

394400781

Grammarly:

Checked

REFERENCES

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Research, 14(1), Art. 25, Retrieved June 18, 2013 from http://nbn-resolving.de/ urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs1301258. Boas, F. (1887a). The occurrence of similar inventions in areas widely apart. Science, 9, 485-486. Boas, F. (1887b). Museums of ethnology and their classification. Science, 9, 587-589. Boas, F. (1887c). Museums of ethnology and their classification. Science, 9, 614. Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative analysis. London: Sage Publication. Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Sage Publications. Denzin, N., & Lincoln, Y. (2008). The discipline and practice of qualitative research. In Denzin, N., & Lincoln, Y. (Eds.), Strategies of qualitative inquiry (pp. 1-44). Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage Publications. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Macmillan. Dey, I. (1999). Grounding grounded theory. San Diego: Academic Press. Downward, P., & Mearman, A. (2007). Retroduction as mixed-methods triangulation in economic research: Reorienting economics into social science. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 31(1), 77-99. 2007. doi:10.1093/cje/bel009 Foot, K. A., Warnick, B., & Schneider, S. M. (2005). Web-based memorializing after September 11: Toward a conceptual framework. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11(1): 72-96. Frey, L., Botan, C., & Kreps, G. (1999). Investigating communication: An introduction to research methods (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Glaser, B. G. (1978). Theoretical sensitivity. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. Glaser, B. G. (1992). Emergence versus forcing: Basics of grounded theory analysis. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. Glaser, B. G. (1998). Doing grounded theory: Issues and discussions. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. Glaser, B. G. (2001). The grounded theory perspective: Conceptualization contrasted with description. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology

Press. Glaser, B. G. (2004). Remodeling grounded theory. The Grounded Theory Review, 4(1), 1-22. Glaser, B. G. (2005). Staying open: The use of theoretical codes in grounded theory. The Grounded Theory Review, 5(1), 1-20. Glaser, B. G. (2006). The roots of grounded theory. The Grounded Theory Review, 5(2/3), 1-10. Glaser, B. G. (2007). All is data. The Grounded Theory Review, 6(2), 1-22. Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967/2006). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago: Aldine. Habermas, J. (1978). Knowledge and human interests. London: Heinemann Educational. Hood, J. C. (1983). Becoming a two-job family. New York: Praeger. Meyer, S. B., & Lunnay, B. (2013). The application of abductive and retroductive inference for the design and analysis of theory-driven sociological research. Sociological Research Online, 18(1), 12, 10.5153/sro.2819. Nielsen, R. P. (2010). Practitioner-based theory building in organizational ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 93(3), 401-406. Padua, R. N. (2013). Aspects of theory development. [Powerpoint Slides]. Unpublished manuscripts, Intensive Faculty Research Training of the University of the Visayas and San Jose-Recoletos. Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2008). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice (8th Ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2010). Essentials of nursing research: Appraising evidence for nursing practice (7th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2012). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice (9th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Roper, C. E (2010, July 8). Naturalism, another philosophy to consider. Retrieved July 15, 2013 from http://www.atheistnexus. org/profiles/blogs/naturalism-another-

Vasquez, B. A.

philosophy Wallace, W. L. (1971). The logic of science in sociology. Now York, NY: Aldine.

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Evolutionary models for the interaction of the higher education labor force and higher education market Mark S. Borres 1 Felix M. Diano, Jr. 2 Center for Policy, Research and Development Studies 1 University of San Jose-Recoletos, Philippines1 College of Education2 University of the Visayas, Philippines 2 mark_borres@yahoo.com Date Submitted : September 22, 2015

Date Accepted : October 25, 2015

ABSTRACT The higher education market portends to be a huge market in the future that traditional systems of delivery of services will be insufficient. This paper proposes a model that links two (2) global markets: the higher education market and the labor market, as dramatic changes are taking place in the 21st century. A modeling and simulation strategy has been employed in this paper predicting the impact of higher education market to the labor market. Results indicated that with the rapid expansion of the higher education market, the size of the higher education labor force will inevitably expand. The labor market tolerates a maximum expansion capacity for HE graduates beyond which the excess HE graduates will bifurcate into two (2) channels of productive sector, namely: (a) the creation of new economies; or (b) the integration of HE graduates into the skilled labor force. This dynamics necessarily yields a highly fragmented labor force configuration. In essence, the evolution of the labor market is a replica of Darwin’s Biological Theory of Evolution where only the fittest will survive, i.e. evolution through mutation and adaptation whose equivalent concepts in this setting are “innovation” and “adaptation” respectively. It is well-established in Evolutionary Biology that “mutation” is the shortest-route to evolution and so we posit that “innovation” is the shortest route to the labor market evolutionary ladder. Therefore, a good university must be able to produce graduates who are innovative and adaptive at the same time to survive in a competitive labor market. Keywords: evolution, global labor market, HEIs, higher education graduates, market configuration I. INTRODUCTION Education, in particular, higher education is undergoing a dynamic change. Two (2) key driving forces are the market and the product (Cheong, 2014). The UNESCO Statistics Unit (2014) estimates that there are currently between 100M-180M tertiary education students and that these numbers are expected to increase by 100% over the next 10 years. Indeed, the higher education market portends to be a huge market

in the future that traditional systems of delivery of services will be insufficient. Of course, the huge size of higher education market directly impacts on the labor market configuration as soon as students complete their higher education and training. Upon joining the labor market, higher education (HE) products (graduates) disrupt the labor market configuration in two ways: (a)

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their quality as perceived by the industries; and (b) their sheer number. Cranner (2014) averred that industries perceived the university graduates to be inadequately trained, hence, the rise of corporate industries at the turn of the century. Harvard’s Vice President for Strategy (2014) adds that their sheer number (graduates) disrupts the traditional labor market configuration in the sense that the number of knowledge generators may exceed the number of knowledge implementers (technologists/technicians). Cheong (2014) claims that on the issue of “quality” products of higher education, one may eventually re-define and re-examine the entire paradigm of higher education quality for the 21st century. This paper proposes a model that links two (2) global markets: (a) the higher education market and (b) the labor market, as dramatic changes are taking place in the 21st century. The model can be used both as a descriptive model and as a predictive model to aid educational policy matters.

II. MODEL DEVELOPMENT The basis for the model development is the statement of Harvard’s Vice President for Strategies (2014) when she averred that “higher education is a key driver of the economy.” How higher education drives the economy is something that requires deeper analysis of the link between labor force and national productivity. Higher education produces knowledgegenerators (researchers) traditionally. These higher education graduates join the labor markets as researchers/innovators upon whose outputs the technicians/technologists/skilled workforce develop the technologies which eventually enhances productivity. Figure 1 illustrates the traditional labor market configuration. With the rapid expansion of the higher education market, the size of the higher education labor force will inevitably expand. However, the labor market configuration acts as the natural ecosystem regulator and will not allow for a disproportionate expansion of any of the two (2) sectors. This dynamical regulation of the labor force is illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 1. The Traditional Labor Force Configuration

Figure 2. Impact of Higher Education Expansion on Labor Market Configuration

Borres, M. S., and Diano, Jr. F. M. The figure shows the impact of a rapid production of higher education graduates to the labor force configuration. The labor market tolerates a maximum expansion capacity for HE graduates beyond which the excess HE graduates will bifurcate into two (2) channels of productive sector, namely: (a) the creation of new economies; or (b) the integration of HE graduates into the skilled labor force. This necessarily yields a highly fragmented labor force configuration. When the excess HE graduates establish new economic niches, these niches compete in a rugged and fragmented market economic environment. Their long-term survival depends on their abilities to produce innovative products (new products/ services) and for those who can (innovate and adapt) will survive while those who are not able will eventually perish. In essence, the evolution of the labor market is a replica of Darwin’s Biological Theory of Evolution where only the fittest will survive, i.e. evolution through natural selection. The key concepts in Darwin’s Evolution Theory are “mutation” and “adaptation” whose equivalent concepts in this setting are “innovation” and “adaptation” respectively. It is well-established in Evolutionary Biology that “mutation” is the shortest-route to evolution and so we posit that “innovation” is the shortest route to the labor market evolutionary ladder. On the other hand, those excess HE graduates who join the already huge pool of skilled workers will accumulate until a maximum carrying capacity limit is reached and that pool will split into specialized fragments. These specialized fragments consist of highly trained HE graduates who are “essentially underemployed” i.e. job specifications are less than what the graduates possess. For example, BS Nursing graduates may be employed as caregivers. Consequently, the HE graduates who are immersed in the labor force feedback to the Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) the relevant experiences they had while being “underemployed”. The HEIs then critically review its existing curriculum such that either the system is enriched or the system is completely changed. When the system is enriched (the adaptability feature of a good university), programs are ladderized to accommodate the only needed skills

and competencies in the labor force. Meanwhile, if the system is completely changed (the mutation ability of a good University), an entirely new form of HEIs are placed e.g. the presence of Corporate Universities to address the labor market evolutionary needs. This fragmentation into new forms of HEIs bring about a significant expansion of the amount of knowledge and new ideas again to affect the labor market configuration. This cyclic give-and-take relationship fuels the proliferation of production boosting the economy. To obtain important information of the elements of the model, we perform the simulation experiment. The simulation starts by using random numbers to represent the randomness of the real-life situation. III. ENROLLMENT ASSUMPTION The researchers also maintained the fact that there are relatively less enrollees in a Research University than that of a Teaching University. The objective of a university of research, to paraphrase Nobel Prize winning physicist Leon Cooper, is an institution that discovers how the world works and what new knowledge can be added to this world. Knowing this stringent scholastic requirement, only a minimal of student enrollees is projected as compared to the traditional Teaching University setup. At time zero (0), Teaching University has one hundred (100) students while there are fifty (50) students in Research University. On the other hand, higher education market (knowledge generator) has one hundred (100) students as presumed maximum carrying capacity and one thousand (1000) workers presumed maximum carrying capacity for skilled workforce. The maximum number of individuals that can be supported sustainably by the academic institutions is known as its ‘carrying capacity’ (Garrett-Hatfield, 2015). The conditions are given: (a) if each working environment reach its maximum carrying capacity, the excess graduates will go out in its original working environment (some will form new economies and the rest will join other fields e.g. Research University graduates will go to skilled workforce); and (b) fragmentation will happen in each University if the sum of the feedback

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in Teaching University is less than or equal to as Oliver (2015) points out from the Australian negative ten (-10) while in Research University if Government Office for Learning and Teaching. sum is less than zero (0). The graduates now in the present work environment will go back to the schools where Completion Assumptions and Fragmentation they graduated and give some feedbacks. of Labor Market The feedbacks might be positive or negative At time one (1), 12 %, as reflected in the Open feedbacks. In Teaching University the feedback Innovations Forum on Dynamics in Education is positive if the graduates landed a job in the New Players and Models of Disruption of the skilled workforce and/or in the higher education existing one hundred (100) students from the market and negative if the graduates create new Teaching University will graduate and 10 % economies which are not under their field and (smaller percentage to signify the nature of the a negative response to them. On the other hand, research university setup) of the result will go to feedback to Research University (RU) is positive the higher education market while 90 % will go if the graduates landed in a job and/or create new to skilled workforce. The excess of the Teaching economies, creating new economy is positive in University’s carrying capacity will create new RU since this is part of its practices, and negative if economies in their field. the graduates join the skilled workforce. The 12% of the fifty students (50) from the Research University will graduate and these IV. VERIFICATION OF THE MODEL: SIMULATION graduates will go to the higher education market. Verification is the process of determining that The excess of the maximum carrying capacity will a model implementation and its associated data be scattered in which 60% of it will form new accurately represent the developer’s conceptual economies and the 40% will shift and join the description and specifications and determining skilled workforce. the degree to which a simulation model and its associated data are an accurate representation Feedbacking and Fragmentation Assumptions of the real world from the perspective of the of Higher Education intended use of the model (Law, 2007). The gathering of systematic evidence about The simulation is run over a period of ten graduates’ and employers’ perceptions (in the (10) years, twenty-five (25), and fifty (50) years form of feedbacks) about what is expected, and to glance the extent of effects of the universities what is evidenced, in relation to the capabilities to the fragmentation of the economies in the labor required of new graduates are very important market. Figure 3. Within 10 years (simulated)

Impact of Respective Graduates to New Economies 4 3 2 1 0 1

5 RU

6 TU

Borres, M. S., and Diano, Jr. F. M. As seen in the simulation experiment on the impact of the respective graduates to new economies within ten (10) years, the graph of the RU contribution increases from first (1) year to fourth (4) year and slowly decreases with stabilizing afterwards. It is seen that the RUs highest point in the graph is in the fourth (4) year. On the other hand, the graph on the impact of the graduates from TU slowly increases from the first

year to the tenth year. Between universities, the impact of RU graduates is very much higher than the TU graduates to new economies. The researchers continue the simulation experiment on impact of graduates from the different universities within 25 years. After the tenth year, the graph of RU slowly stabilized up to the end of twenty-fifth year while the graph in TU starts to stabilize in the thirteenth year.

Figure 4 Within 25 years (simulated)

Impact of Respective Graduates to New Economies 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 RU

Figure 5 Within 50 years (simulated)

Impact of Respective Graduates to New Economies 4 3 2 1 0 1

9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 RU

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The graph within 50 years, show no changes Law, A. M. (2007). Simulation modeling and analysis (4th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill. on the impact of the respective graduates (from RU and TU) as the graphs continue to stabilize. There Oliver, B. (2015). Assuring graduate capabilities: evidencing levels of achievement for graduis no chances seen that a Teaching University can ate employability. go with the impact of Research University for both graphs stabilized in a certain point far from each United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2014). Higher other. The researchers view that the Teaching Education in Asia:Expanding Out, ExpandUniversity must mutate to a Modern Teaching ing Up The rise of graduate education and University wherein some practices from Research university research . Montreal, Quebec: University must be adapted or practiced. UNESCO Institute for Statistics. V. CONCLUSION The dynamic changes in the academic sector stir a significant pulse to the labor market. It is then imperative to Higher Education institutions that its graduates must be able to respond to this intricate dynamism caused by this interplay. A quality Higher Education Institution must be able to craft a curriculum and an academic environment that produce graduates who are innovative and adaptive at the same time to survive in a very competitive labor market. Originality Index:

98 %

Similarity Index:

Paper ID:

662911451

Grammarly:

Checked

REFERENCES Garrett-Hatfield, L. (2015). What Factors Affect the Carrying Capacity of an Environment? Retrieved February 6, 2015 from http://education.seattlepi.com/factors-affect-carryingcapacity-environment-6190.html Hill, C., Cheong, K. C., Leong, Y. C., & FernandezChung, R. (2014). TNEâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;Trans-national education or tensions between national and external? A case study of Malaysia. Studies in Higher Education, 39(6), 952-966. Knorre, A. (2014). Meeting with Leah Rosovsky, Vice-President for Strategy and Programs at Harvard University. Retrieved from European University at St. Petersburg: https:// eu.spb.ru/en/news/13281-meeting-withleah-rosovsky-vice-president-for-strategyand-programs-at-harvard-university

UV Journal of Research 2015

Gender inequality among Association of Southeast Asian Nation countries Lorlaine R. Dacanay College of Arts and Sciences University of the Visayas, Philippines ldacanay@gmail.com Date Submitted : February 2, 2015

Date Accepted : March 17, 2015

ABSTRACT The study describes the social issue on gender inequality among Association of Southeast Asian Nation Countries. The study uses descriptive method through data mining from online sources. This data set was subjected to a Cluster Analysis. The study finds out the following interesting points: Gender Inequality is not about women’s religious practices but by not exercising political and economic careers, and by not having been protected and educated. For women to be considered equal to men, they must not be underrepresented in the political seats, workforce and learning institutions. Women’s confinement in the house exposes themselves to subjugation and deprivation of rights. Keywords: ASEAN countries, cluster analysis, gender inequality, women I. INTRODUCTION The study maintains that women in ASEAN countries experience inequalities because of their less educational attainment, political underrepresentation and economic instability. Despite the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Council’s (2011) report claiming that women have gradually attained equal rights with men. Ridgeway (2011) postulates that gender inequality would persist even in the modern world because century-long traditions and practices cannot be eradicated at once. Related readings reveal differing points of view regarding gender inequality. Other studies maintain the causes and reasons of gender inequality; while other studies posit the direct and indirect effects of gender inequality. For instance, OECD Council (2011), Durand (2010), Assman (2014) and Lofstrom (2008) parallel gender equality with women having access to education, economics and entrepreneurship. Moreover, Kanbur (2002) adds empowerment to the equation. Another study by Jacobsen (2011)

finds out that gender inequality results in losses over the years because of the inefficient under utilization of women labor. Some authors however do contribute to a future that seeks to wipe away gender inequality altogether; for example, Mikkola and Miles (2007) affirms the relationship between gender equality and development. The advocacy of Wall (2014) is on finding ways on ceasing violence on women. Yet, Ridgeway (2011) has been skeptical about it because the existence of gender inequality still persists even in the modern world. The previous studies have mentioned about the total dissolution of gender inequality which has deeply rooted into the culture. However, the apparent research gaps are imminent. First, consistent with Ridgeway’s skepticism, the inequality is evident in the developing countries. In the study, this gap is addressed because the Association of Southeast Asian Countries (ASEAN) which are mostly having developing economies (Gross Domestic Product per capita) will be

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under investigation. Second, religious practices have not been taken into consideration, although, the studies include this in the socio-cultural explanations why women have to be subjugated. In the current study however, this particular gap is not focused on and may very well be addressed through another study altogether. Third, there has never been a comparison among countries on whether or not gender inequality index is the sole determinant if women in a country have not enjoyed much liberation and empowerment. As a result, the study would reveal the various aspects among women in the ASEAN countries. One is to compare women from countries in the ASEAN region by describing their mortality/fertility rate, political career, educational attainment and working conditions. Two is to group these countries based on their similarity index in order to see patterns to prove whether getting the lowest gender inequality index means that women have not enjoyed other forms of freedom and empowerment. Three is to intersperse the other variables that the study would be focusing on in order to get a total picture of gender inequality among ASEAN countries. II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The study establishes that gender inequality is caused by unequal opportunities given to men and women. This is explained in Israeli Kibbutzâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Theories of Gender Inequality as explained by Buber Agassi (1979). Kibbutz (cited in Agassi, 1979) enumerates four causes of gender inequality: production and property relations (economic), family structure and household (social), occupational roles (socio-economic), and sexuality (psychoanalytic). However, Agassi (1979) analyzed these assumptions and came up with his own proposal of enumerating access to resources, autonomy and power as determinants to gender equality. Hence, gender inequality theory developed by Kibbutz in Agassiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (1979) analysis, shows these prevalent concepts. Gender inequality is evident in the socio-cultural, economic and political aspects contrasting men and women. Firstly, socio-economic aspects can be translated into the population with at least Secondary Educational Attainment (SEA). Agassi

(1979) explained that access to resources is one of the determinants of the prevailing inequality. Women, who have to follow a pattern of occupational roles as mothers and wives, would not be motivated to further their educational attainment. Secondly, economic factors can be translated into the number of women in the labor force. Secondary education is the minimum requirement for women and other citizens alike to get jobs, thereby gaining economic independence. Agassi (1979) explained this factor as women autonomy. Thirdly is the political career to be pursued by women. Political seat means power (Agassi, 1979). III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The study used descriptive research design. Data were gathered online through data mining from (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization Institute for Statistics, 2012; and International Labour Organization, 2012). This data set was subjected to cluster analysis in order to group countries with similar characteristics. From the gathered data via online, the information on ASEAN countries were extracted and alphabetically arranged as an Excel File, ready for input in statistical software. First, the information was presented in a tabular form in order to get which country had the highest Gender Inequality Index (GII). Second, the data had been clustered using the software because the accuracy of grouping the countries manually might lead to erroneous results. Third, the dendrogram showed the number of observations belonging to a cluster. Fourth, the cluster revealed much of the similarities and differences among ASEAN countries; hence, the textual data from the literature review came in handy for interpreting the results. The significant if not the whole truth on gender inequality could be revealed. IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS This part of the study presents, analyzes and interprets data based on the method used. Demographics of the ASEAN countries Table 1 presents the demographic data of the ASEAN countries. The countries are enumerated

Dacanay L. R. on the first column and the variables on the next columns together with their corresponding values. These include the Gender Inequality Index (rank and value), seats in national parliament, population with at least secondary education (female and male), and labor force participation rate (female and male).

women population who finished high school, and the higher number of women their is in the labor force. These data presentations are quite raw. By using statistical software to standardize these values, one would put them on the same scale. Thereby, comparison can be made. Table 2 shows the standardized values of the variables.

with at least education (%

51.2 84.2

1 Cambodia

0.85337 0.79754 -0.03219

-1.16193

Lao People's Democratic Republic 100 0.483 25.0 22.9

36.8

76.5 79.5

2 Indonesia

1.17881 0.95858 -0.01694 -0.09538 0.10057 -0.90154 1.06153

Malaysia

0.256 13.2 66.0

72.8

43.8 76.9

Lao People's

Myanmar

0.437

17.6

75.0 82.1

4.6

18.0

Philippines

0.418 22.1 65.9

63.7

49.7 79.4

Singapore

0.101 23.5 71.3

78.9

56.5 76.6

Thailand

0.360 15.7 29.0

35.6

Viet Nam

0.299 24.4 24.7

28.0

3 Democratic

-1.06190

older)

older)M al e

46.8

Labor force participat i on rate (% ages 15 and

0.494 18.2 36.2

Female

106

Labor force participat i on rate (% ages 15 and

Populatio n with at least secondary education (% ages 25 and older) Female

Indonesia

ages 25 and older)Ma le

79.2 86.7

Population secondary

20.6

Inequality

0.473 18.1 11.6

Gender

COUNTRI ES

Inequality

Cambodia

COUNTRIES

Gender

Seats in national parliam ent

Index Value

Index Rank

Table 2 Standardized Values of the Variables Labor force participation rate (% ages 15 and older)Male

Labor force participation rate (% ages 15 and older) Female

Population with at least secondary education (% ages 25 and older)Male

Population with at least secondary education (% ages 25 and older) Female

Seats in national parliament

Gender Inequality Index Value

Gender Inequality Index Rank

Table 1

1.20011 1.82705

0.98355 0.87422 1.01991 -0.67201 -0.34312 0.99745 -0.37766

Republic 4 Malaysia

-0.90400

-0.86656

-0.77934

1.19662 1.25417 -1.45698

63.8 80.0

5 Myanmar

0.33267 0.52147

-2.09065

-0.88446

73.2 81.2

6 Philippines

0.23504 0.37576 0.57773

1.19228 0.85041 -1.01413

-0.40828

7 Singapore

-1.84777

-2.05519

0.79120

1.42640 1.52482 -0.50373

-1.26567

8 Thailand

-0.12294

-0.06902

-0.39814

-0.40754

-0.39637

0.04420 -0.22455

9 Vietnam

-0.70873

-0.53680

0.92843

-0.59397

-0.73357

0.74976 0.14290

Demographics of ASEAN countries As can be noticed in the table above, the three countries with the lowest gender inequality index are Singapore (V=0.101), Malaysia (V=0.256) and Vietnam (V=0.299). However, the three countries with the highest gender inequality index are Cambodia (V=0.473), Laos (V=0.483) and Indonesia (V=0.494). The other countries which lie between the low and high gender inequality indices are Thailand (V=0.360), the Philippines (V=0.418) and Myanmar (V=0.437). Interestingly, these values differentiate from one country to the other because of the observed tabular data on seats in national parliament, population with at least secondary education (female and male), and labor force participation rate (female and male). The lower the gender inequality index, the higher the number of seats represented by women in the national parliament, the higher

-1.19501

-1.17381

0.88486 0.41849

Cluster nalysis of Observatios The use of statistical software clusters the standardized values to compare countries. This is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 2. Standardized Values of the Variables

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Table 3 Final Partition of Observations Number of Observation s

Within Cluster sum of squares

Average distance from centroid

Maximum distance from centroid

Cluster 1

0.000

Cluster 2

15.556

1.705

2.205

Cluster 3

7.746

1.573

1.813

Nine (9) ASEAN countries are clustered into three. Table 3 shows that cluster 1 has been observed with one country to be relatively different from the others. In the dendogram, this country is (1) Cambodia. Cluster 2 has been observed with five countries which include (4) Malaysia, (6) Philippines, (7) Singapore, (2) Indonesia, and (5) Myanmar. Cluster 3 has been observed with three countries which are relatively similar. This includes (3) Lao People’s Democratic Republic, (8) Thailand, and (9) Vietnam. Table 4 presents the similarities and differences of the ASEAN countries among the standardized values of the variables. Table 4 Cluster Centroids Variable

Cluster1

Cluster2

Cluster3

Grand centroid

std GIIR

0.8534

0.3327

-0.8389

0.0000

std GIIV

0.7975

0.3497

-0.8487

0.0000

std SNP

-0.0322

-0.1115

0.1965

0.0000

std PSE (F)

-1.1619

-0.5307

1.2718

0.0000

std PSE (M)

-1.0619

-0.5135

1.2098

-0.0000

std LFP (F)

1.2001

0.3549

-0.9916

0.0000

std LFP (M)

1.8271

0.2041

-0.9493

0.0000

Comparison of the three clusters is clearly shown in the numeric data of Table 4. The bigger the value would mean a higher level of manifestations of the variables. Cambodia (cluster 1) has the highest gender inequality indices in rank and value; Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Myanmar (cluster 2) have relatively higher inequality indices compared to Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Thailand and Vietnam (cluster3).

Noticeably, clusters 1 and 2 which show positive loadings in gender inequality indices received negative values in seats in national parliament and population with secondary education for both men and women. Despite that, Clusters 1 and 2 also show positive loadings in labor force participation for both men and women. As mentioned in the presentations earlier, the following observations are made comparing men and women. In Cluster 1, men outnumber women in the national parliament, in the labor force and in receiving secondary education. In Cluster 2, women are underrepresented in the national parliament; but interestingly, there are a number of women who finish secondary education and participate in the labor force compared to their men counterpart Cluster 3, which has the lowest gender inequality index, has shown almost similar patterns in Cluster 2. More women are educated and career-oriented compared to men. However, the figure in the national parliament has not shown much greatness. Hence, women are still not well-represented in the national parliament. Primarily as presented, the country in Cluster 1 has high inequality index value compared to the other countries in Clusters 2 and 3. Looking at the values, one might overlook the fact that behind all these unequal practices are much larger societal routines. These include socio-religious practices that have stuck in the people’s systems. For instance, one might wonder why Cambodia has the highest inequality index which in fact can be solved by sending women to school, to get a career, and to be heard in the parliament. Perhaps this is where other factors come into the picture. For example, Buddhism as the country’s major religion may have contributed in holding women back from participating actively in politics. The codes have called for women to be graceful and silent in their actions. Thus, pursuing higher education might be offset because it conflicts with her main duty to take care of her siblings, get married and be a wife and mother (Kanbur, 2002 & OECD Council, 2011). At this point, it may also be interesting to note that countries in Cluster 2 have different religious practices, yet their gender inequality indices are almost of the same scale. Malaysia and Indonesia observe Islam; Philippines observes Roman

Dacanay L. R. Catholicism; Singapore is the home of quite a number of atheists; Myanmar observes Buddhism and Hinduism. It would be interesting for future studies to delve into the role of religion in gender inequality. More women are sent to school than men are; and more women have jobs than men do. Yet, women are still outnumbered in the national parliament than their men counterparts (Mikkola & Miles, 2007; LĂśfstrĂśm, 2008; Jacobsen, 2011 & Durand, 2010). Cluster 3 on the other hand, has countries with almost similar characteristics. Part of womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s psyche is their prime function in the house which includes home-making and child care; or any role associated in the house. Yet, there is no distinctive discrimination in terms of providing education between men and women (Wall, 2014; Ridgeway, 2011). Summarily, Cluster 1 has shown very wide disparity between men and women representation in the national parliament. This is because more men are sent to school; and more men get jobs (OECD Council, 2011). Hence, women having received little education would also not be able to get high-paying jobs. Being subordinates to men, their political will is only put to the minimum. Cluster 2 and 3 have so much in common. Women in these two clusters have been quite welleducated and have been adept at keeping jobs, thereby gaining more economic independence from men. However, the first implication one must take note of is that the seats in parliament do not accommodate more women for all clusters. The ratio of men and women in the parliament is almost always more than half in all countries. Perhaps laws favoring women are better drafted by women themselves. If these voices are just too little, chances are, they will never be heard. The second implication is that though more women in clusters 2 and 3 have received secondary education and kept careers, the disparity is not too wide to conclude that they are more economically stable. Women population is bigger than men population. It might be true that the ratio of men getting some education and career is more than that with women. Nonetheless, women are outnumbered politically. The disparity of ratio between men and women who go to secondary

schools is not large; however, the seats in the parliament represented by women are scant. Inequality is revealed by having received almost an equal degree of education, but the political freedom is stereotypically given in favor of men. The third implication, the patterns of gender inequality index is revealed in the economic aspects though. Women in Clusters 2 and 3 have had participated in the labor force. Contrary to having been secluded in the house, three quarters of women in most countries in these clusters have gotten jobs. It is fair enough even though their representation is outnumbered by men. Inequality resurfaces only because women are underrepresented in high-paying jobs, and in managerial positions in companies. This is one of the reasons for women resorting into staying in the house and getting married. The fourth and last implication is that Cluster 3 has the lowest inequality index because of its higher values in the seats in national parliament, population with at least secondary education and labor force participation. As these values between men and women become large, the inequality index also increases (OECD Council, 2011; Durand, 2010; Assman, 2014; Kanbur (2002); and Lofstrom, 2008). V. CONCLUSION Women in ASEAN countries experience inequalities due to a combination of various factors. Whenever they are outnumbered in gaining educational attainment, in representing the national parliament and in participating in the labor force, gender inequality index arises. However, countries have given women privilege in education and career, but not so much in political will. This paper only looks at demographic data of ASEAN countries; hence the raw data might not include more dimensions as to the real characteristics of the ASEAN countries. Series of studies related to the study might help expand the cluster interpretations. Originality Index:

92 %

Similarity Index:

Paper ID:

665874600

Grammarly:

Checked

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REFERENCES Agassi, J. B. (1989). Theories of gender equality: lessons from the Israeli Kibbutz. Gender & Society, 3(2), 160-186. Assman, A. (2014). Gender equality in Japan: The equal employment opportunity Law Revisited. The Asia-Pacific Journal, 12(45), 1-13. Durand, T. (2010). Gender equality and economic growth. University of Sussex. Brighton: Department of International Development Jacobsen, J.P. (2011). Gender inequality a key to global challenge. Wesleyan University. Middletown: Copenhagen Consensus on Human Challenges Kanbur, R. (2002). Education, empowerment and gender inequalities. Washington: Cornell University Löfström, Å. (2008). Gender equality, economic growth and employment. Umeå: Sentenza Media Mikkola, A., & Miles,C. (2007). Development and gender equality: Consequences, causes, challenges and cures. Finland: Oxford University Press. OECD Council. (2011). Report on gender initiatives. In OECD Council at Ministerial Level Paris (Ed.) Gender equality in education, employment and entrepreneurship (pp. 3538). Paris: OECD Ridgeway, C. (2011). How gender inequality persists in the modern world. Stanford: Oxford University Press. Wall, L. (2014). Gender equality and violence against women: What’s the connection? Retrieved December 17, 2014 from https://aifs.gov.au/ publications/gender-equality-and-violenceagainst-women

UV Journal of Research 2015

Modeling and forecasting of agricultural crop production and economic stability based on Gross Regional Domestic Product Neil L. Egloso Sherwin O. Seville College of Arts and Sciences Palompon Institute of Technology, Philippines nex_25@yahoo.com Date Submitted : September 29, 2015

Date Accepted : October 13, 2015

ABSTRACT The Philippine economy is largely dependent on agriculture with a total land area of 11.6 million hectares dedicated to crops. Rice and corn are the leading produce so far, occupying around 5.5 million of the total number of hectares. This figure is followed by 4.8 million hectares taken up by major crops consisting of fruits such as coconut, pineapple, banana, and mango, and other crops in demand like sugar and coffee. The other 1.3 million hectares are distributed to other minor crops. The Philippine economy is largely sustained by crop production because in spite of the occurrence of natural disasters and economic pitfalls (such as unemployment or displacement) that regularly hit the nation, people are able to continually feed themselves and support each other. In 2002, Eastern Visayas registered 330.8 thousand farms for agricultural use, covering 723 thousand hectares. Among the provinces in Eastern Visayas, Leyte shared the highest number of farms with 136.2 thousand, covering 258.6 thousand hectares of agricultural land. Samar ranked second with 57 thousand farms, covering 102 thousand hectares, while Northern Samar came in third with 49.9 thousand farms, covering 179.5 thousand hectares. Hence, the Philippinesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; quests for global competitiveness and food security requires an effective and efficient crop forecasting system that can be used for monitoring as well as strategic and tactical decision-making on crop production. This study aimed to forecast the agricultural crop production and economic stability based on GRDP in Eastern Visayas from 2nd quarter of 2015 to 4th quarter of 2017. The findings of the study give significant effects and impacts on Philippine economy which threatens our agricultural production in the country. The study also showed no significant relationship between the agricultural production like production volume, area harvested and yields per hectare of corn and palay and the economic stability in terms of GRDP per capita, imports and exports of agricultural products. We therefore established that the economic stability based on gross domestic product is not a predictive factor on the agricultural crop production in Region VIII. Keywords: agricultural crops, economic stability, forecasting, time series, GRDP

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I. INTRODUCTION The demand for cereal crops in Asia, especially rice, has resulted to higher commercialization and diversification in its agriculture. However, it has been an observed trend that in the process of a country’s development the role played by agriculture eventually plunges towards a decline. Data gathered on agricultural transformation plainly shows that the decline in the labor share of agriculture is much slower than that of the share of agriculture in national GDP. In the Philippine scenario, efforts to move towards more sustainable development on both regional and national levels have become focused towards the natural resources sector including agriculture and food security. There is some level of commitment from the Pacific regional governments and their international partners have committed to address which has impact on agriculture and crop production. It gives priorities in terms of resource allocation and development planning by regional countries in the past and supports the majority of the people’s livelihood (Ivanova, Aladjajiyan & Goushlekov, 2006). The agricultural sector has been a major play in the Philippine economy. With changing national and global trends, the sector has identified a number of strategies to be competitive, especially strategies that can help alleviate poverty and increase crop productivity. The passage by the Philippine Congress of the Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of 1997 is a giant leap towards reaping the previous efforts of both government and private sectors on crop production (Espino & Atienza 2008). The role of agriculture in the Philippine economy has undergone dramatic changes. Its contribution of agriculture to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and exports of the Philippines is declining, consistent with the country’s transition to middle income status. Structural change and population growth has caused a shift in its position from net food exporter to net food importer in the late 1980s. Eastern Visayas is primarily an agricultural region where its population of presently more than four million largely depends on rice as a staple food. It directly faces the Pacific Ocean

which relatively, has consequential effect to its unique climatic condition. It receives heavy rainfall throughout the year and is frequently visited by typhoons. It has no pronounced dry season which was found to have substantial bearing on rice production. The first half of the year (January to June) yields a reasonably higher rate of rice production within the region: around 54%, in contrast to the 46% yield produced within the next half of the year from July to December (Briones, 2013). Indeed, rice provides for sustenance and as a source of staple food; many families depend on rice cultivation for income. By means of applying proper rice production technologies, farmers can earn an average net income of as much as 21 to 41 thousand pesos. Raising rice productivity per unit area is one way of ensuring increase in farmers’ income. Rice also plays an important cultural role in the region. In many areas, the role of rice as a staple food has become so ingrained in the culture to the point that it has inspired various festivals in the region. Some of these festivals include the Pintados- Kasadyaan festival in Leyte, Sangyaw in Tacloban City, and Padul-ong in Borongan, Eastern Samar. Corn is second to rice as the most important crop in the country. In fact the Department of Agriculture through its corn program continues to intensify the promotion of white corn grits as a staplefood. Likewise, itaimstoincreaseproduction of quality of corn for human consumption, feeds and industrial uses, and to boost the income of corn farmers in the region. Hence, the Philippines’ quests for global competitiveness and food security requires an effective and efficient crop forecasting system that can be used for monitoring as well as strategic and tactical decision-making on crop production (Lansigan, Salvacion, Paningbatan, Solivas & Matienzo, 2007). Advances in systems research tools provide opportunities to predict or forecast crop production and the economic stability in the region to certain lead time with reasonable accuracy. Moreover, appropriate mathematical modeling should be used for this particular design for an effective way in predicting or

Egloso, N .L. and Seville, S. O.

forecasting data. This method allows for a clearer understanding and a deeper exploration of the connection shared by agricultural crop O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8 production and economic stability based on gross domestic product like the exports, imports and Legend: O1 O2 O3 O4 = observed data from the past O5 O6 O7 O8 = observed data as predicted GRDP per capita. It also bodes well as a method x = proposed mathemaĆ&#x;cal model of translating problems from real life systems to conformable and manageable mathematical Figure 2. Time Series Design The expressions (Hepelwa, 2010).

Figure 1. A schema depicting the relationships of agricultural crop production and economic stability based on Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP). II. OBJECTIVES The study aimed to forecast and develop a mathematical model in terms of agricultural crop production and economic stability based on Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP) in Eastern Visayas from 2nd quarter of 2015 to 4th quarter of 2017. Thus, specific requirements are considered to examine trends and cycles in historical data with the use of mathematical models to extrapolate to the future. These requirements include: the agricultural crop production i.e volume of crop products, area harvested, yields per hectare and economic stability based on gross regional domestic product (GRDP) i.e per capita, export and import. III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This study used the correlational-observation research design in which the variables are correlated and predicted to come up with a mathematical model. A time series design which used the data from the past to predict agricultural crop production and economic stability based on GRDP is illustrated in the figure below.

researchers made a letter of permission to the office of the Department of Agriculture to ask information about agricultural crop productions including exports and imports in Eastern Visayas region. Likewise, a letter of approval was also sent to the Philippine Statistics Authority Region VIII for additional data and information in terms of volume of productions, area harvested and yields per hectare in Region VIII. The online data banking was used from the office of the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics (Briones, 2013). After data gathering, the data were stored in a spreadsheet database file in the researcherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s personal computer and were utilized in the computations and statistical analysis. The data collected was consolidated and interpreted using SPSS V18 in terms of agricultural crops production and economic stability based on the gross regional domestic product (GRDP). The actual gathered data were from the 1st quarter of 2004 to the 2nd quarter of 2017. The relationship between the agricultural crops production profile and economic stability was used as the basis in the development of mathematical model. Finally, the researchers formulated conclusions and recommendations. The collected data from this study were presented in spreadsheet tables designed by the researcher using Microsoft Excel and SPSS V18. This database file storing the responses was exported to statistical software for query information. All data were treated statistically using the appropriate formulas approaches in forecasting. a. Graphical Method - Line Graph b. Time Series Analysis - Exponential Smoothing and ARIMA (Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average) c. Correlation Analysis - Pearson-r d. Predictive Modeling

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IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Figure 3 shows the observed and forecasted data in terms of production volume of palay in Volume of Production of Palay in Eastern Region VIII. Eastern Samar and Western Samar Visayas show the increased of trend and seasonality in Table 1 shows the ARIMA and simple seasonal production volume of palay. It implies potential mathematical models in time series analysis for improvement in production of palay in a particular production volume of palay in Eastern Visayas. area. Other provinces show the stationary trend and seasonality in production. It means that the production of palay in other provinces are stable. Table 1 Time series analysis model type in production volume of palay Mathematic al Model Volume of Production of Palay in Biliran

Model 1 Simple Seasonal

Volume of Production of Palay in Eastern Samar

Model 2 ARIMA(0.0.0)(0.1.0)

Volume of Production of Palay in Leyte

Model 3 ARIMA)1.0.0)(0.1.0)

Volume of Production of Palay in Northern Samar

Model 4 Simple Seasonal

Volume of Production of Palay in Southern Leyte

Model 5 ARIMA(0. 0. 1)(0. 1. 0)

Volume of Production of Palay in Western Samar

Model 6 ARIMA(0.0.0)(0.1.0)

Table 2 shows no significant difference across all models between the observed and forecasted data in production volume of palay in Eastern Visayas. It implies that all models fit to the observed data. Table 2 Significant difference between observed and forecasted data in production volume of palay. Ljung Box Q(18) Interpretation Model Statistics df p- value Not Significant Biliran- Model 1

15.645

16 .478

Not Significant

Eastern SamarModel 2

12.090

18 .843

Not Significant

Leyte- Model 3

16.399

17 .496

Not Significant

Northern SamarModel 4

17.734

16 .340

Not Significant

Southern LeyteModel 5

6.689

17 .987

Not Significant

Western SamarModel 6

12.049

18 .845

Not Significant

Figure 3. Graphical presentation of the observed and forecasted data in production volume of palay in Region 8. Volume of Production of Corn in Eastern Visayas Table 3 shows the simple seasonal, wintersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; additive/multiplicative and ARIMA mathematical models in time series analysis for production volume of corn in Eastern Visayas.

Egloso, N .L. and Seville, S. O. Table 3 Time Series analysis model type in production volume of palay Model Description

Mathematical Model

Volume of Production of Corn in Biliran

Model 1 Simple Seasonal

Volume of Production of Corn in Eastern Samar

Model 2 Wintersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Addictive

Volume of Production of Corn in Leyte

Model 3 Wintersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Multiplicative

Model ID Volume of Production of Corn in Northern Samar

Model 4 ARIMA(0,0,0) (0,1,0)

Volume of Production of Corn in Southern Leyte

Model 5 ARIMA(1,0,0) (0,1,0)

Volume of Production of Corn in Western Samar

Model 6 ARIMA(1,0,0) (0,1,0)

in production volume of corn. It implies a potential improvement in production volume of corn in a particular area. Other provinces show a stationary trend and seasonality in production. It means that the production volume of corn in other provinces are stable.

Table 4 shows no significant difference across all models between the observed and forecasted data in production volume of corn in Eastern Visayas. It implies that all models fit to the observed data. Table 4 Significant different between observed and forecasted data in production volume of corn. Ljung Box Q(18) Model

Statistics

p-value

Interpretation

Biliran- Model 1

24.537

.078

Not Significant

Eastern Samar- Model 2

13.184

.588

Not Significant

Leyte- Model 3

30.440

.050

Not Significant

Northern Samar- Model 4

6.699

.992

Not Significant

Southern Leyte- Model 5

17.077

.449

Not Significant

Western Samar- Model 6

17.553

.478

Not Significant

Figure 4. Graphical presentation of the observed and forecasted data in production volume of corn in Region 8.

Figure 4 shows the graph of the observed and Area harvested of Palay in Eastern Visayas forecasted data in terms of production volume of Table 5 shows the simple seasonal and ARIMA corn in Region VIII. Eastern Samar and Northern mathematical models in time series analysis for Samar show the increase of trend and seasonality area harvested palay in Eastern Visayas.

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Table 5 Time series analysis model type in area harvested of palay Model Description

Mathematic al Model

Area Harvested Model 1 ARIMA(0,0,0)(0,1,0) of Palay in Biliran

Model ID

Area Harvested of Palay in Eastern Samar

Model 2 ARIMA(0,0,0)(0,1,0)

Area Harvested of Palay in Leyte

Model 3 ARIMA(1,0,0)(0,1,0)

Area Harvested of Palay Northern Samar

Model 4 Simple Seasonal

Area Harvested of Palay in Southern Leyte

Model 5 ARIMA(0,0,1)(0,1,0)

Area Harvested of Palay in Western Samar

Model 6 ARIMA(0,0,0)(0,1,0)

Table 6 shows no significant difference across all models between the observed and forecasted data in area harvested palay in Eastern Visayas. It implies that all models fit to the observed data. Table 6

Significant difference between observed and forcasted data in area harvested palay.

Ljung-Box Q(18) Model

p-value Interpretation

Statistics

9.75

.940

Not Significant

Eastern Samar - Model 2

12.986

.792

Not Significant

Leyte - Model 3

11.928

.804

Not Significant

Northern Samar- Model 4

26.065

.053

Not Significant

Southern Leyte- Model 5

7.527

.976

Not Significant

Western Samar- Model 6

9.248

.954

Not Significant

Biliran- Model 1

Figure 5 shows the graph of the observed and forecasted data in terms of area harvested palay in Eastern Visayas. Eastern Samar and Western Samar show the increased of trend and seasonality in area harvested palay. It implies a vast harvest in production of palay in particular area. The remaining provinces show a stationary trend and seasonality except in Northern Samar, where there tends to be a decrease the conditions in harvested area in production of palay due to frequent typhoons and poor climatic conditions.

Figure 5. Graphical presentation of the observed and forecasted data in area harvested palay in Region 8. Area harvested of Corn in Eastern Visayas Table 7 shows the wintersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; additive/ multiplicative and ARIMA mathematical models in time series analysis for area harvested corn in Eastern Visayas.

Egloso, N .L. and Seville, S. O.

Table 7 Time series analysis model type in area harvested corn Model Description

Mathematical Model

Area Harvested of Corn in Biliran Model 1 ARIMA(0,0 ,0 )(0 ,1 ,0 ) Area Harvested of Corn in Eastern Samar

Model 2 Wintersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Addictive

Area Harvested of Corn in Leyte Model 3 Wintersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Multiplicative Model ID

Area Harvested of Corn in Northern Samar

Model 4 ARIMA(0 ,0 ,0 ) (0 ,1 ,0 )

Area Harvested of Corn in Southern Leyte

Model 5 ARIMA(0 ,0 ,0 ) (1 ,2 ,0 )

Area Harvested of Corn in Western Samar

Model 6 ARIMA(1 ,0 ,0 ) (0 ,1 ,0 )

Table 8 shows no significant difference across all models between the observed and forecasted data in area harvested corn in Eastern Visayas. It implies that all models fit to the observed data. Table 8 Significant difference between observed and forecas ted data in area harves ted corn. Ljung-Box Q(18) Model

Statistics

p-value

Interpretation

Biliran-Model 1

17.094

.517

Not Significant

Eastern Samar- Model 2

18.033

.261

Not Significant

Leyte-Model 3

10.151

.810

Not Significant

Northern Samar - Model 4

12.067

.844

Not Significant

Southern Leyte- Model 5

22.934

.151

Not Significant

Western Samar- Model 6

6.142

.992

Not Significant

Figure 6 shows the graph of the observed and forecasted data in terms of area harvested corn in Eastern Visayas. Eastern Samar and Northern Samar show the increased of trend and seasonality in area harvested corn. It implies a vast harvest in production of corn. The remaining provinces show the stationary trend and seasonality except in Southern Leyte tends to decline the conditions in area harvested in corn might due to past soil erosion occurrence in some particular area.

Figure 6. Graphical presentation of the observed and forecasted data in area harvested corn in Region 8. Yield of Palay in Eastern Visayas Table 9 shows the simple seasonal and ARIMA mathematical models in time series analysis in terms of palay yield per hectare in Eastern Visayas.

UV Journal of Research

Table 9 Time Series Analysis Model Type in terms of palay yield per hectare Model Description

show a stationary trend and seasonality, which means that they have static and stable conditions in terms of palay yield per hectare.

Mathematical Model

Yield of Palay in Model 1 ARIMA(0,1,0)(1,0,0) Biliran Yield of Palay in Model 2 ARIMA(0,0,0)(0,1,0) Eastern Samar Yield of Palay in Model 3 Leyte Model ID Yield of Palay in Northern Samar

Simple Seasonal

Model 4 ARIMA(0,0,1)(0,1,0)

Yield of Palay in Model 5 Southern Leyte

Simple Seasonal

Yield of Palay in Model 6 Western Samar

Simple Seasonal

Table 10 shows no significant difference across all models between the observed and forecasted data in terms of yield of palay harvested per hectare. It implies that all models fit to the observed data. Table 10 Significant difference between observed and forecasted data in terms of yield of palay harvested per hectare Model

Ljung-Box Q(18)

Interpretation

Statistics

p-value

Biliran-Model 1

12.794

.750

Not significant

Eastern Samar-Model 2

14.633

.687

Not significant

Leyte-Model 3

10.726

.826

Not significant

Northern Samar-Model 4

18.101

.383

Not significant

Southern Leyte-Model 5 Western Samar-Model 6

9.439 8.279

16 16

.894 .940

Not significant Not significant

Figure 7 shows the graph of the observed and forecasted data in terms of palay yield per hectare in Region VIII. Eastern Samar, Northern Samar and Western Samar show the increased of trend and seasonality in terms of palay yield per hectare. It implies a possible increased of palay yield in a particular area. The remaining provinces

Figure 7. Graphical presentation of the observed and forecasted data in terms of palay yield per hectare in Region 8. Yield of Corn in Eastern Visayas Table 11 shows the simple seasonal, ARIMA and wintersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; additive mathematical models in time series analysis for corn yield per hectare in Eastern Visayas.

Egloso, N .L. and Seville, S. O. Table 11 Time series analysis model type in terms of corn yield per hectare Model Description

Model ID

Mathematical Model

Yield of Corn in Biliran

Model 1 Simple Seasonal

Yield of Corn in Eastern Samar

Model 2 Simple Seasonal

Yield of Corn in Leyte

Model 3 Simple Seasonal

Yield of Corn in Northern Samar

Model 4 ARIMA(0,0,3)(0,1,0)

Yield of Corn in Southern Leyte

Model 5 Wintersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Additive

Yield of Corn in Western Samar

Model 6 Wintersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Additive

Figure 8 shows the graph of the observed and forecasted data in terms of corn yield per hectare in Region VIII. Eastern Samar, Leyte and Northern Samar show an increase of trend and seasonality in terms of corn yield per hectare. It implies a possible increased of corn yield per hectare in particular area. Other provinces show a stationary trend and seasonality in terms of corn yield per hectare except in Western Samar which has projected a very low corn yield, which might be due to poor climatic and soil conditions in a particular area.

Table 12 shows no significant difference across all models between the observed and forecasted data in terms of corn yield per hectare. It implies that all models fit to the observed data. Table 12 Significant difference between observed and forecasted data in terms of corn yield per hectare. Model

Ljung-Box Q(18)

Interpretation

Statistics

p-value

Yield of Corn in Biliran-Model 1

20.363

.204

Not significant

Yield of Corn in Eastern SamarModel 2

11.932

.794

Not significant

Yield of Corn in Leyte-Model 3

21.535

.159

Not significant

Yield of Corn in Northern SamarModel 4

13.748

.685

Not significant

Yield of Corn in Southern LeyteModel 5

25.030

.050

Not significant

Yield of Corn in Western SamarModel 6

8.671

.894

Not significant

Figure 8. Graphical presentation of the observed and forecasted data in terms of corn yield per hectare in Region 8.

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Economic Stability in Eastern Visayas Table 13 shows the simple seasonal mathematical models in time series analysis in terms of per capita, export and import in Eastern Visayas. Table 13. Time series analysis model type in terms of per capita, export and import of agricultural products. Mathematical Model

Model Description

Model ID

Figure 9 shows the graph of the observed and forecasted data in terms of per capita, export and import of agricultural products in Eastern Visayas. It shows a stationary trend across models in GRDP per capita and import but a seasonality trend occurs in export forecast. Hence, it has static and stable conditions in the region in terms of per capita, export and import of agricultural products.

Per Capita GRDP (in pesos at 2000 constant prices)

Model 1

Export in Eastern Visayas (FOB Value in Thousand US Dollars)

Model 2 Simple Seasonal

Import in Eastern Visayas (FOB Value in Thousand US Dollars)

Model 3

Simple

Table 14 shows no significant difference across all models between the observed and forecasted data in terms of per capita, export and import of agricultural products. It implies that all models fit to the observed data. Table 14 Significant difference between observed and forecasted data in terms for per capita, export and import of agricultural products. Ljung-BoxQ(1 8) MODE L Interpretation Statistics df p-value Per Capita GRDP (in pesos at 2000 1.306 17 1.000 Not significant constant prices)Model 1 Export in Eastern Visayas (FOB Value in Thousand US Dollars)-Model 2

15.602

Export in Eastern Visayas (FOB Value in Thousand US Dollars)-Model 3

24.507

.481

.106

Not significant

Figure 9. Graphical presentation of the observed and forecasted data in terms of per capita, export, and import of agricultural products in Region 8.

Egloso, N .L. and Seville, S. O. Relationship between Crop Production and Economic Stability in Eastern Visayas

production in Region VIII as forecasted from 2nd quarter of 2015 to 4th quarter of 2017.

Table 15 shows the relationships between V.CONCLUSIONS the agricultural crop production and economic The researchers made the following stability based on gross regional domestic product conclusions based on the findings of the study: 1. The agricultural crop production (GRDP) in terms of per capita, imports and exports particularly the palay and corn with the economic in Eastern Visayas. stability in terms of per capita, exports and imports based on GRDP in Eastern Visayas showed Table 15 no significant relationships. Correlations between the agricultural crop This is in contrast with the national scenario production and economic stability in terms of per capita, export and import of agricultural products where in the GRDP is dependent on agricultural in Eastern Visayas. crop production. In fact, our study focus the crop production in Region VIII which are limited only Per Capita Export in Import in to palay and corn in terms of production volume, GRDP Eastern Eastern (in pesos Visayas (FOB Visayas yields per hectare and area harvested. However, N=46 at Value in (FOB Value it has been observed that there are no records 2000 Thousand US in Thousand on exports and imports of palay and corn in the constant Dollars) US Dollars ) prices)

region except on abaca and other products from the metal industry. 2. The observed and forecasted data in terms of production volume, yield per hectare and area harvested for both corn and palay show no significant difference across all models, therefore all models fit to the observed data.

Volume of Production of Palay in Eastern Visayas

Pearson Correlation

.184

.084

.114

p-valu e

.222

.581

.450

Volume of Production of Corn in Eastern Visayas

Pearson Correlation

.159

.101

.011

p-valu e

.292

.506

.942

Area Harvested of Palay in Eastern Visayas

Pearson Correlation

.163

.007

.133

Originality Index:

91 %

p-valu e

.281

.965

.379

Similarity Index:

Area Harvested of Corn in Eastern Visayas

Pearson Correlation

.041

.046

-.017

Paper ID:

664813643

p-valu e

.788

.759

.912

Grammarly:

Checked

Pearson Correlation p-valu e

-.010

.200

-.069

.945

.182

.646

Pearson Correlation

.231

.229

.157

p-valu e

.124

.126

.298

Yield of Palay in Eastern Visayas Yield of Corn in Eastern Visayas

Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Asshownin Table15, thatthereisnosignificant relationship between the agricultural production like production volume, area harvested and yields per hectare of corn and palay and the economic stability in terms of GRDP per capita, imports and exports of agricultural products. It implies that economic stability based on gross domestic product has no influence on the agricultural crop

REFERENCES Briones, R. M. (2013). Philippine agriculture to 2020: Threats and opportunities from global trade. Philippine Institute for Development Studies. Makati, PH: Pidsdps Espino, R. R. C., & Atienza, C. S. (2001). Crop diversification in the Philippines. Crop diversification in the Asia-Pacific Region, 1(3), 95-111. Hepelwa, A. S. (2010). Environmental and socioeconomic factors influencing crop cultivation. An application of Multivariate Discriminant Analysis (MDA) model in Sigi catchment, Tanzania. Paper presented at the

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international conference of the Environment and Natural Resources Management in Developing and Transition Economies, Clermont Ferrand, France. Ivanova, D., Aladjajiyan, A., & Goushlekov, N. (2006). Study of the change of the climatic conditions in spring in the Plovdiv Region for the needs of agriculture. Journal of environmental protection and ecology, 7(3), 626-631. Lansigan, F. P., Salvacion, A. R., Paningbatan Jr, E. P., Solivas, E. S., & Matienzo, E. L. A. (2007). Developing a knowledge-based crop forecasting systems in the Philippines. 10 th National Convention on Statistics (NCS). Manila, Philippines

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Acceptability of condom use in the prevention of sexually transmitted infections Resty L. Picardo Salina A. Loquellano Mary Ann A. Aranas Emelita Las Marias College of Nursing University of the Visayas, Philippines restypicardo@hotmail.com Date Submitted : February 15, 2015

Date Accepted : March 25, 2015

ABSTRACT Sexually Transmitted Infection or STI is a crucial issue dealt by the society. It is crucial because its incidence has significantly increased and is alarming to the society. It is alarming for individuals who lack the knowledge and awareness on condom use. Appropriateness and consistent condom use may prevent and decrease the risk of STI. The acceptability of condom use from the respondents with agreement to the prevention of sexually transmitted infection is presently 83.95%. Further, there is no significant relationship between acceptability and the respondent`s profile. It is of utmost importance that individuals, especially students must have the knowledge and education of the importance of condom use in the prevention of STI. Since STI is easily transmitted through sexual intercourse, condom use still remains one of the best lines of defense against contracting the infection. Therefore, the use of condoms is acceptable. Keywords: acceptability, condom, prevention, senior nursing students, sexually transmitted infections I. INTRODUCTION Condom use was recognized as a significant factor in the strategy to prevent further transmission of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI). There is a consensus that the inappropriate and inconsistent use of condoms could have a major impact on acquiring the infection and further spread of the disease. The Executive Director of Philippine Legislators’ Committee on Population and Development Foundation (PLCPDF), Ramon San Pascual (2008) said that “These condom ads do not suggest that people engage in sex but merely inform people that condom use is one method to plan families, avoid teenage pregnancies and prevent the spread of sexually transmitted diseases such as AIDS”. Hence, workers in the entertainment business

engaging in multiple sexual partners have a higher risk of getting infected and spreading sexually transmitted infections like HIV. The use of condoms against the transmission of STIs is a global campaign that can reduce if not eliminate transmission. This campaign is helpful to those people operating entertainment businesses. On the contrary, the use of condoms among those individuals who are directly involved in entertainment may feel the pressure of having sex without the use of condom as demanded or desired by a customer especially so when such pressure means money or fear of losing customers (World Health Organization, 2002). HIV became widespread in the early 1980’s. Its huge impact sparked global concern that

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ignited various researches in the prevention of its transmissions. Tremendous efforts were made worldwide. Campaign like “ABCs” “Abstinence, Be faithful, or Use of condoms” of Uganda was an attempt in preventing the spread of the virus to neighbouring countries and beyond. The use of abstinence had some success among young, unmarried people, but the use of condoms also became appealing to many married men in their extra-marital affairs. The use of condoms is the only available option to women as a barrier method from getting HIV infection. Moreover, condom promotion remains to be an important protection between men and women engaging in casual sex (Carey, Senn, Vanable, Coury-Doniger & Urban, 2008) The key elements of successful prevention according to the United Nations Joint Programme on AIDS (UNAIDS) are communication, behaviour modification, the use of condom, early detection and counselling, and the management and treatment of sexually transmitted infections. UNAIDS asserts that all people must be provided with basic information and the means to protect themselves. A recent survey showed that an alarming 77% of all sexually active Filipino males had never used a condom before. According to the Young Fertility and Sexuality Study 3 (YAFS3), a national survey of individuals close to 20,000 between ages 15 and 24, about 90% of which were adolescents had experienced premarital sex without using condoms in their recent sexual encounter (Laguna, 2002). In 2003, new cases of sexually transmitted infections such as chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis were increasing in an alarming rate as reported by the Secretary of Health, Manuel Dayrit. In 2000, 18 out of every 100 pregnancies in the Philippines ended in abortion, compared to 24.5 of every 100 pregnancies in the United States. Furthermore, due to high population growth and increasing rate of unemployment (10.9% in 2004), this has prompted many Filipinos to work overseas. This in turn resulted to the Philippines becoming more vulnerable to STIs. From January 1984 to July 2006, the Department of Health of the Philippines documented 2,600 to be seropositive and 906 of which were Overseas Filipino

Workers (OFW) (Department of Health, National Epidemiology Center, 2011). The 2002 Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality Survey showed that the percentage of young people engaging in premarital sex has increased from 17.8 percent in 1994 to 23.1 in 2002. Among those sexually active young people, whose ages range between 15 to 27 and 34 percent of this age group, were reported to have multiple sexual partners. The percentage of young men and young women engaging in unsafe sex was 70% and 68%, respectively. Only 60% of young people believed that there is no chance for them to contact HIV and AIDS. The Philippines is predominantly a Catholic country. Its government is challenged by Philippine anti-abortion organizations by refusing to promote the use of condoms through social media. These organizations purported that frequent condom advertisements (ads) on radio and television commit an offense on society’s decorum, dignity, and morality. They have filed a complaint with the Broadcasters Association of the Philippines (KBP) and the Advertising Board (AdBoard) to ban radio and television ads “selling a condom lifestyle”. Mass media is a very powerful tool that can raise public awareness, instigate public discourse, shape public opinion, and move people to advocate for policies on populations and reproductive health. Public opinion, in turn, strongly influences policy-makers’ views and positions on these issues (Department of Health, National Epidemiology Center, 2011). However, all sectors must work together for the prevention and control of STIs. Community leaders, members of the academe and even nursing students play a particular role on this, considering their mandate to look after the welfare of their patients. An understanding among health workers is necessary to gain insight as to its appropriate health promotion activities especially in advocating the need to be aware of the current situation of the STIs epidemic. The study assessed the acceptability of condom use in the prevention of STI among senior nursing students as an effective strategy in hindering the spread of STIs. The result elucidated some issues as to the acceptability of the students, which may be influenced by many factors in the

Picardo, R. L., Loquellano, S. A., Aranas, M. A. A. and Marias, E. L.

society. Further, as future healthcare providers, they are encouraged to be non-judgmental in maintaining health teachings among the wider population.

As the individual grows older, the wider his or her experience is thus making it more easy for him or her to accept the promotion of condom use as prevention of STI (Haseen, 2006).

II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The Theoretical Framework of the study is illustrated in Figure 1. The Health Belief Model is the most widely applied theory to understand health seeking behavior (Becker & Rosenstock, 1974). It originated from the influence of Kurt Lewin’s theories which imply that one’s perception of reality more than the objective reality influences behavior. The theory aims to answer the changes and maintenance health behavior, thus results to a framework for health actions (Glanz, Rimer & Viswanath, 2008)

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1 shows the degree of acceptability of the respondents on condom use in the prevention of Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. Table 1 Degree of acceptability of Condom use in the Prevention of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI) Mean Interpretation VA

Figure 1 Schematic Diagram of Theoretical Framework

Modifying Factors Demographic (Age, Sex, Civil Status, Religion, etc.) Structural Variables (Knowledge about the disease, etc.)

Perceived suscept i b i l i ty to and severity of STI

Perceived threat of the disease for not using the condom

Cues to action

Perceived benefits of using condom

Likehood of taking recommended health action

As presented in the diagram, the acceptability of an individual, particularly the nursing students, on the promotion of condom use as a prevention of STI, can be influenced by modifying factors that interplay in the students’ daily lives. Age, gender, religion and civil status may be unconsciously or consciously affecting the attitude of the students to accept condoms as a strategy in the prevention of STI. Based on a study done in Bangladesh, more than 1/3 of the youth believed washing his or her genitals after sex could prevent STI transmission.

VA Legend:

VA - Very Acceptable LA - Less Acceptable NT - Not Table

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The table shows that the statements, “The use of condom is one of the “campaign ads” to be implemented about sexually transmitted infections (STI)”, has a Factor Mean (FM) of 3.62, which is very acceptable, and “Condoms are the single most effective technology to protect against sexual transmission of STIs”, has a FM of 3.14, are acceptable, respectfully, for the nursing students were educated on the various methods of contraception which are effective aside from condoms on the other hand, the statements, “As a health worker, education to our clients about the condom use is the most priority in the prevention of sexually transmitted infections (STI)”, has a FM of 3.31, which is very acceptable. Prior to accepting condom as effective method in prevention of STI, individuals should be properly educated on how it works and its effectivity. The next statement which is “100 percent condom use programme” should be implemented in the Philippines” has a FM of 3.33, are very acceptable for the student nurses were open to the idea of condoms as one of the effective measures to inhibit STI spread, which means they see the need of OFWs on prevention measures using condoms. All in all, the five statements in the questionnaire, have a total FM of 3.38, which is very acceptable. Majority of the respondents (68/81) agree that the use of condoms can help in the prevention of the transmission of STIs, hence, they agree that it is the single most effective technology. Table 2 Relationship of Degree of Acceptability and Age. Interpretation

degree of acceptability on condom use in the prevention of STI and the respondents’ age. It showed that the computed X2 was 6.08. It also showed that the table value was 12.59, with the df of 3 at 0.05 ⍺. This further shows that the computed X2 of 6.08, was substantially lesser than the table value of 12.59. This means that, there is no significant relationship between the degree of acceptability and the respondents’ age. This finding contradicts the findings of the study done in Bangladesh wherein more than 1/3 of the youth believed washing his/her genitals after sex could prevent STI transmission, thus making them more at risk of contracting sexually transmitted infection and Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (Haseen, 2006). Also, this contradicts the findings of the study done in Thailand in 2006 wherein they concluded that among their adolescent respondents who engaged in sex, only less than ¼ or 18.8 % had used condoms consistently (Tangmunkongvorakul, 2006). Table 3 Relationship of Degree of Acceptability and Gender Degree of Acceptability Male

Total X²:

6.08

Table 2 shows the relationship between the

X²

Table Value

Interpretation

Female

Very Acceptable

0.7

Acceptable

0.95

Less Acceptable

0.3

Not Acceptable

0.15

0.8 0.5

df = 3 @ 0.05 ∝

Gender

total X²:

7.82

Null Hypothesis is Accepted

2.15

Table 3 shows, the relationship between the degree of acceptability on condom use in the prevention of STIs and the respondents’ gender. It showed that the X2 was 2.15 while the table value was 7.82, with the df of 3 at 0.05 α. This further Sshows that the computed X2 of 2.15, was substantially lesser than the table value of 7.82. The result suggests that, there is no significant relationship between the degree of acceptability and the respondents’ gender. This

Picardo, R. L., Loquellano, S. A., Aranas, M. A. A. and Marias, E. L.

finding contradicts the study done in India in 2001 where they concluded that prevalence of STIs was reported to be 2% and 3% among adolescents. Thus, a clear-cut gender distinction in knowledge and attitudes about reproductive and sexual health issues was found (Sathyanarayan, 2001). This also contradicts the findings done in the Philippines in 2002 wherein it revealed that females are more confident in insisting on condom use and in discussing sex and reproductive health issues with service providers than their male counterparts (Laguna, 2002). Furthermore, condom use is abysmally low as most men do not consider themselves to be vulnerable based on the study done in Pakistan. In the study conducted by Mir, Reichenbach and Wahid (2009) and even other studies shows that women know how they should prevent STIs and AIDS with the use of condoms. The female genders sometimes feels incapable to decide since they feel that this depends on their partners wish. They acknowledged that they don’t have the real decision-making power and are afraid of sparking suspicion of infidelity, thereby causing the couple to separate (Hebling & Guimarães, 2004). Table 4 Relationship of Degree of Acceptability and Religion Degree of Acceptability

Religion

X²

Roman Catholic

NonCatholic

Fo Fe

Very Acceptable

0.22

Acceptable

0.34

Le ss Acceptable

0.2

3.7

Not Acceptable

0.9

0.1

0.11

df = 3 @ 0.05 ∝

Total X²:

Table Value

Interpretation

7.82

Null Hypothesis is Accepted

4.37

Table 4 shows the relationship between the degree of acceptability on condom use in the prevention of STIs and the respondents’ religion. It showed that the X2 was 4.37. It also showed that the table value was 7.82, with the df of 3 at 0.05 α. This further shows the X2 of 4.37, that was substantially lesser than the table value of 7.82.

The result suggests that there is no significant relationship between the degree of acceptability of condom use and the respondents’ religion. Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted. This is supported by a study done in Jakarta in 2001 which revealed that higher level of sexual experience emerged for those attending Christian high schools (Utomo & Mcdonald, 2009). Table 5 Relationship of Degree of Acceptability and Civil Status Degree of Acceptability

Civil Status Single Fo

Very Acceptable

X²

Interpretation

7.82

NullAccepted Hypothesis is

Married

32 30

0.22

17 18

0.34

Acceptable Less Acceptable

3.7

Not Acceptable

0.4

0.11

df = 3 @ 0.05 ∝

Table Value

Total X²:

2.89

Table 5 shows the relationship between the degree of acceptability on condom use in the prevention of STIs and the respondents’ civil status. It further showed that the computed X2 was 2.89. It also showed that the table value was 7.82, with the df of 3 at 0.05 α. This further shows that the computed Chi-square value of 2.89, was substantially lesser than the table value of 7.82. This means that, there is no significant relationship between the degree of acceptability and the respondents’ civil status, thus, accepting the null hypothesis. The study shows that women dislike using condoms less than their men with the reason of feeling awkward when using condom and mechanical nature setback such as slipping off and bursting (Aggleto, Davies & Hart, 1992). This is supported by the study done in Thailand in 2005 wherein more unmarried (74.5%) than married (49.6%) had knowledge about the modes of Human Immunodeficiency Virus transmissions (Arca, 2005). A study also revealed that husband-

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to-wife-transmission is the main Human Immunodeficiency Virus transmission route in Cambodia (Chaya, 1990).

Glanz, K., Rimer, B. K., & Viswanath, K. (2008). Health behavior and health education: theory, research, and practice (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & V. CONCLUSION Sons. In conclusion, the use of condoms is Haseen F. (2006). Sexual Practices, Knowledge, and considered as a health seeking behavior. It is STI disease Burden Among Youth clients in indeed a change and maintenance health behavior Bangladesh: 4 th Asia Pacific Conference on resulting to a framework on health actions. Reproductive and Sexual Health and Rights. New Delhi, India: Gyan Publishing House Originality Index: 92 % Hebling, E. M., & Guimarães, I. R. F. (2004). Women and AIDS: gender relations and condom use Similarity Index: 8% with steady partners. Cadernos de Saúde Paper ID: 654576787 Pública, 20(5), 1211-1218. Grammarly: Checked Laguna, E. (2002). Self-Efficacy and Sexual Practices of Filipino Youth of Social Sciences and REFERENCES Philosophy, 4 TH Asia Pacific Conference on Reproductive and Sexual Health and Rights. Aggleto, P., Davies, P., and Hart, G. (1992). AIDS: New Delhi, India: Gyan Publishing House Rights, risk and reason. London and New Mir A., Reichenbach, L, Wahid, A. (2009) Knowledge York: Falmer Press Vulnerability and Myths: Mens Perception Arca, R. (2005). Addressing STI and HIV disk of Regarding Sexually transmitted Infections married and unmarried youth. 4 th Asia in Pakistan: 4 TH Asia Pacific Conference on Pacific Conference on Reproductive and Reproductive and Sexual Health and Rights. Sexual Health and Rights. New Delhi, India New Delhi, India: Gyan Publishing House Becker, M. H., and Rosenstock, I. M. (1984). GMA NEWS Online (2008, January 31).PLCPD Compliance with medical advice. In: A. disputes groups seeking condom ad Steptoe & A. Matthews (Eds.). Health care ban. Message posted to http://www. and human behavior. London: Academic gmanetwork.com/news/story/78767/news/ Press. n at io n / p lcp d-d is put es-gro u ps-seekingCarey, M. P., Senn, T. E., Vanable, P. A., Courycondom-ad-ban Doniger, P., & Urban, M. A. (2008). Do STD Scott-Sheldon, L. A., Huedo-Medina, T. B., Warren, clinic patients who consent to sexual health M. R., Johnson, B. T., & Carey, M. P. research differ from those who decline? (2011). Efficacy of behavioral interventions Findings from a randomized controlled trial to increase condom use and reduce sexually with implications for the generalization transmitted infections: A meta-analysis, of research results. Sexually transmitted 1991 to 2010. JAIDS Journal of Acquired diseases, 35(1), 73-77. Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 58(5), 489Chaya, N. (1990). Addressing local needs: The case 498. of HIV/AIDS in Cambodia, 4 th Asia Pacific Tangmunkongvorakul, A. (2006). Adolescent Conference on Reproductive and Sexual lifestyle and sexual relationship in Health and Rights. New Delhi, India: contemporary Chiang Mai, Thailand: 4 TH Gyan Publishing House Asia Pacific Conference on Reproductive Department of Health, National Epidemiology and Sexual Health and Rights. New Delhi, Center (2011). Newly diagnosed HIV cases India: Gyan Publishing House in the Philippines. Manila: Philippine HIV Utomo, I. D., & McDonald, P. (2009). Adolescent and AIDS Registry. reproductive health in Indonesia: contested

Picardo, R. L., Loquellano, S. A., Aranas, M. A. A. and Marias, E. L.

values and policy inaction. Studies in family planning, 40(2), 133-146. World Health Organization. (2002). Training course for the 100% condom use programme. Manila, PH: WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific.

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Variation analysis of the top 100 high lead content lipstick brands Ma. Feibe M. Pastoril Victor Christopher A. Seno Kathyrine D. Gingoyon Gene Paul R. Cuevas University of the Visayas, Philippines mafie-pinkgirl@yahoo.com Date submitted: February 2, 2015

Date accepted: February 24, 2016

ABSTRACT The top 100 lead-filled lipsticks were analyzed using three variables of each lipstick: the lead content value (parts-per-million), type of lipstick and the reflective value of the lipstick’s color. Cluster analyses were used to group and find the pattern of the lipsticks’ lead content value (parts-per-million) to its type and reflective value. Results showed that matte-type of lipstick have higher lead content than the crème-type. The low reflective value (dark) of the color of the lipsticks also has higher lead content than high reflective value (light). Thus, consumers should purchase crème-type and light-colored lipsticks to limit exposure to lead. Keywords: lead content, lipstick, type of lipstick I. INTRODUCTION Women are generally beautiful inside and out. But most women feel more beautiful and confident when they put on their lipstick. It enhances their beauty so they say. However, would it also be possible that this small tube of color could somewhat be detrimental to women’s health? The Food and Drug Administration on 2012, conducted a study that tested 400 lipstick tubes for lead content. The twenty lead-iest lip colors were as listed, according to nifty graph Mother Jones put together. The lipstick with the most lead, Brand A “PP” had 7.19 parts per millions of lead. There is no safe threshold for lead exposure. Any detectible amount of lead is too much lead to be in a lipstick (Sauer, 2013). What is concerning aside from the fact that there is lead in lipsticks at all — is that the highest concentrations of lead appear in drugstore brands. This list is dominated by big name brands of the drugstore cosmetics aisle. Women’s risk from exposure to toxic chemicals shouldn’t rise as the cost of makeup falls — just

because you do not shop department-store brands shouldn’t mean you have to take your chances with lead and carcinogenic metals like cadmium. In a similar study, teenage girls were asked to give their lipsticks and lip glosses to be tested for toxic metal content including lead and cadmium. The researchers found out that a significant amount of metal content are ingested by women who apply lipstick twice a day or more. Although 20% of the daily amount is considered safe in drinking water – aluminum, cadmium, chromium and manganese. As for women who slathered lipsticks numerous times a day, they either meet or surpassed the daily recommended exposure to chromium, aluminum and manganese, depending on the lipstick they were using. Lead was detected in 75% of the samples in the study. It is a known fact that lead is one metal that human should entirely avoid (Serverns, 2013). Elevated levels of lead exposure can lead to serious and severe health repercussions such as miscarriages for pregnant women, or seizures in general. For

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children, the consequences are as equally fatal— high lead exposure may lead to permanent brain damage and in extreme cases, death (Drum & Jan, 2013). Two recent studies have shown that lead and other dangerous metals are present in cosmetics especially lip products. With these detrimental effects of lead in cosmetics, determining the safety level for lead content remains a stumbling block. In the most recent analysis of the FDA, they found out that the highest lead concentration—7.19 ppm—is in Brand A’s “PP” lipstick. But the average lead contamination in the 400 lipsticks tested last year was 1.11 ppm, very close to the average from the agency’s 2008 analysis. Since this is the recent case, the consumer should limit their exposure to lead by just avoiding or not buying the brands of lipsticks with the characteristic that influence high lead content. This study wants to analyze the characteristic of the lipsticks that influence high lead content value of the top 100 lead-filled lipstick brands through data mining using multivariate cluster analysis. These characteristics are the type of lipstick — Matte or Crème and the reflective value (lightness or darkness) of the lipstick color. II. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Everyday, women much like breathing apply lipstick without second thoughts. What is unknown to them is that these lipsticks may contain lead. This notorious metal is a neurotoxin that can cause learning, language and behavioral problems even at small doses. If it is indeed damaging to one’s health, what is lead doing in the lipstick industry? Although not all lipstick brands have lead content on their products, a number of recent studies have shown that the particular metal is more prevalent than previously thought. In a study by Campaign for Safe Cosmetics (2007), they detected lead in 61% of the 33 lipstick samples. Using parts per million (ppm) as measurement of lead in the environment, the study indicated the lead content levels range from 0.03 ppm to 0.65 ppm. The FDA does not consider the lead levels found in lipsticks to be a safety issue as opposed to the opinions of medical experts who articulates that there is no safe level of lead in the blood.

Although no lipstick company lists lead as part of its product ingredient, the recent studies cannot be totally ignored. No matter how minute the amount of lead in such raises concerns on the health of its users. Due to public demand as well as the cosmetic industry, the FDA conducted its own testing research on 2011. The findings were beyond belief. In all 400 lipsticks tested, the lead content range from 0.9 to 3.06 ppm. These results are four times higher than that observed in the study conducted by Campaign for Safe Cosmetics. Apparently, lead is not the only toxic metal that women might be exposed to. In a recent study conducted by the University of California, they detected nine toxic heavy metals, including Chromium (Cr), Cadmium (Ca), Manganese (Mn), Aluminium (Al) and Lead (Pb). The Food and Drug Administration said, “We have assessed the potential for harm to consumers from use of lipstick containing lead at the levels found in both rounds of testing. Lipstick, as a product intended for topical use with limited absorption, is ingested only in very small quantities. We do not consider the lead levels we found in the lipsticks to be a safety concern.” Concurred by the cosmetic industry, the revealed trace amount of heavy metals is not seen as harmful. Thus, lead content and other toxic metal content in cosmetic products are not an issue. However, the FDA noted, “Although we do not believe that the lead content found in our recent lipstick analyses poses a safety concern, we are evaluating whether there may be a need to recommend an upper limit for lead in lipstick in order to further protect the health and welfare of consumers.” The FDA and the cosmetics industry may have been ignoring cumulative exposure and potential long-term adverse effects. While it is true that a single application of lip products may not be harmful, it is undeniable that long time exposure to lead and other toxic metals have adverse effects. The good news is that not all lipsticks contain detectable levels of lead or other heavy metals. Moreover, cost does not seem to be a factor; a cheap or expensive lipstick is not the determinant of how much lead is present. According to a study of the University of

Pastoril, M. F., Seno, V. C., Gingoyon, K. and Cueva, G. P. California, it would only become a problem if women reapplied lipstick more than once throughout the day. Reapplication of lipstick implies that many women could be rubbing up to 87 milligrams of the product on their lips daily. Once is enough, twice is something to be worried about, and yet many women reapply as many as 14 times a dayâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;enough to warrant health concerns. Women do not just apply lipstick several hours per day but are continually doing this their entire lifetime, which means that exposure to lead and other heavy metals adds up and can potentially affect their health in the long run. One challenge for people who wants to avoid exposure is that none of the metals, with the exception of aluminum, are deliberately added to lipsticks and lip glosses. The metals are contaminants that are present in the pigments and base materials used to make the products. Since metals are not part of the ingredients, cosmetics companies are not required to list these metals on the productsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ingredient labels. The law regulating cosmetics was passed in Congress on 1938 but it has never been updated. The FDA neither possess legal authority to make sure products are safe before they are sold nor empowered to pull dangerous products from store shelves. It is the Wild West for cosmetics companies, which have very few rules restricting chemical ingredients used in everything from shampoos to lotions to lipsticks. As the contamination of lip products with heavy metals makes it clear, allowing the industry to police itself is not the best idea. We need the FDA to be empowered by Congress and to take action so women will not face any health risks when they put on makeup. Cosmetics companies should be required to adhere to a standard for best manufacturing processes to limit metal contamination (FDA, 2014). Consumers must do take precautionary measures to protect themselves from lip products containing heavy metals. First, be aware. Always read the ingredient list and health articles that would educate people on what are the safety products out in the market. Second, limit the usage and if possible remove it from your lifestyle. Third, do not expose your children to these products as they are the most vulnerable.

Of course, the safest course of action is to start using less lipstick. Women who reapply lipstick constantly throughout the day should start curbing the frequency with which they do it. More importantly, children must be kept away from these harmful chemicals at all costs, as they are particularly vulnerable to these substances. Thus, let us get to work to make sure that by the time they grow up, we have already solved the problem of toxic chemicals in cosmetics. The concentration of lead in the cosmetics under study was lower than that of FDA standards, and the cadmium content in the samples was relatively high. The continuous use of these cosmetics can increase the absorption of heavy metals especially Cd and Pb into the body when swallowing lipsticks or through dermal cosmetic absorption. The effects of heavy metals such as lead in cosmetics can be harmful. Therefore, effort must be made to inform the users and the general public especially pregnant women and children of the harmful consequences of cosmetics (Nourmoradi, Foroghi & Farhadkhhani, 2013). Researchers from UC Berkeley recently conducted an investigation on popular lip brands scattered across drugstores and department stores. Their findings reveals samples with highly toxic chemical content, something that considerably raised red flags for health concerns. The journal Environmental Health Perspectives also pointed out that in spite of the beauty products not exceeding the standards for public health exposure, the problem lies in women who constantly reapply the product many times a day. It was also mentioned that the presence of the chemical chromium in lip products can be linked to the occurrence of stomach tumors. Other chemicals found in lipsticks which pose health problems to women are aluminum, cadmium, and manganese. Worse is the fact that some children play with makeup, and their high sensitivity to lead makes it a very bad idea to expose children to lipstick (Rasanayagam, 2014). III. DESIGN AND METHODS The research design of this study uses comparative design utilizing data mining methods specifically two-way Analysis of Variance in treating data. The data is gathered through

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Top 100 lipsƟck brands

Lead (ppm) parts per million

ZĞŇĞĐƟǀĞ sĂůƵĞ

Color

RecommendaƟons Figure 1 Schematic Diagram of the Conceptual framework data mining from www.fda.gov/Cosmetics/ Table 1 Products Ingredients. This data set is subjected Between-Subjects to multivariate cluster analysis using hierarchical clustering algorithm. The data that was gathered online contain the following information: the lead content value (ppm), type of lipstick reflective Color value (pertaining if its crème or matte type); and color (either light or dark colored) of each lipstick brand. Reflective Value IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS This segment will discuss the results of the two-way ANOVA of the different lipstick brands which provide the lead content information and so with color of lipstick and its reflective value. Below is a table presenting the frequency count of the lipsticks in terms of their color and reflective value properties:

Factors Value Label

Dark

Medium

Light

Matte

Semi-Matte

2 Creme 32 As seen in the table, among the 100 lipsticks, most of them were either dark (f=42) or mediumcolored (f=49), and in terms of reflective value, majority of them were semi-matte (f=65). The table below shows the results for the twoway Analysis of Variance conducted.

Pastoril, M. F., Seno, V. C., Gingoyon, K. and Cueva, G. P. Table 2 Tests of Between-Subjects Effects Source

Type III SS df

p-value

6.707a

1.118

1.011

.423

182.980

165.50 9 .000

Color

.161

.080

.073

.930

RefValue Color *

.421

.210

.190

.827

3.614

1.807

1.634

.201

102.817

1.106

Total

677.107

100

Corrected Total

109.524

Corrected Model Intercept

RefValue Error

a. R Squared = .061 (Adjusted R Squared = .001) Legend: SS - Sum of Squares MS- Mean Squares

reflective values. In other words, as of this study we cannot make significant conclusions about whether a lipstick’s lead content can depend on its color and reflective value. V. CONCLUSION After data collection and analysis, the twoway ANOVA revealed that there was no significant difference in lead ppm (parts per million) between lipsticks of different colors and lipsticks of different reflective values. Perhaps considerations have to be taken into account about the chemical makeup of lipstick and how they are formulated. Future researchers may consider taking other factors into account when trying to determine how to identify the lead content in a lipstick based on its aesthetic aspects.

Originality Index: 92 % As seen in the table above, there is no 8% significant difference in the lead content of the Similarity Index: lipsticks based on their color (F=.073, p=.93), Paper ID: 665874600 reflective value (F=.19, p=.827), or an interaction Grammarly: Checked between both independent variables (F=1.634, p=.201). The graph on the next page also shows the REFERENCES estimated marginal means of the variables and Campaign for Sage Cosmetics (2007). Lead and their interaction. other heavy metals. Retrieved January 16, 2015 from http://www.safecosmetics.org/ get-the-facts/chemicals-of-concern/leadand-other-heavy-metals/ Drum, K., & Jan, T. (2013). America’s real criminal element: Lead. Mother Jones, 38(1), 28-62. FDA (2014). FDA Analyses of Lead in Lipsticks – Expanded Survey. Food and Drug. U.S. Food and Drug. Retrieved November 24, 2014 from http://www.fda.gov/Cosmetics/ ProductsIngredients/Products/ucm137224 Nourmoradi, H., Foroghi, M., Farhadkhani, M., & Vahid Dastjerdi, M. (2013). Assessment of lead and cadmium levels in frequently used cosmetic products in Iran. Journal of environmental and public health, 2013(1), The graph depicts that there is no significant 5-14. doi.10.1155/2013/962727 pattern in the lead content in terms of whether the Rasanayagan, S. (2014). Are lipstick dangerious? lipsticks were of dark, medium, or light color, and Retrieved December 5, 2014 from http:// whether they had matte, semi-matte, or crème edition.cnn.com/2014/04/04/opin ion/

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rasanayagam-lipstick-lead/ Sauers, J. (2013). The Lead in Your Favorite Lipstick Is Even Worse Than You Think. Beauty Industrial Complex. Retrieved November 24, 2014 from http://jezebel.com/the-leadin-your-favorite-lipstick-is-even-worsethan-y-493159725 Severns M. (2013). Which 20 lipsticks contain the most lead? Retrieved December 4, 2014 from http://www.motherjones.com/ environment/2013/05/study-lead-metalslipstick-top-20

UV Journal of Research 2015

Investigating the mediating effect of work motivation on work engagement Chin-Yi Shu Dony Halomoan Siregar Business Administration Department Ming Chuan University Date Submitted : May 5, 2015

Date Accepted : June 10, 2015

ABSTRACT This study examines the impact of differing social environments within a school setting on teachers’ work motivation and its impacts on work engagement. Selfdetermination theory (SDT) defines social environment as an important factor in an individual’s motivation and this along with a modified Job Demand-Resource (JD-R) model forms the basis of this investigation into the mediating effect of work motivation on work engagement. A paired questionnaire was distributed to 64 schools in Indonesia. Sixty-four headmasters and 294 teachers took part in the research. Results suggest that some aspects of the social environment within a school can affect teachers’ work motivation and their subsequent work engagement (paternalistic leadership and team relationships), whilst others (pupil related inputs) appear to have little impact on work motivation and engagement. Keywords: paternalistic leadership, self-determination theory, team memberexchange, work engagement

I. INTRODUCTION Education is a lifelong process of behavioral change and development in which teachers have a key role to play (Kocabas, 2009). Maslach and Leiter (1997) have suggested that for a teacher to be most effective in this role they should be fully engaged, involved and motivated. Schaufeli, Salanova, González-Romá, and Bakker (2002) found that the more involved and engaged teachers are in their work, the more they tend to feel strong and vigorous, enthusiastic and optimistic about the work they do and are very often immersed in that work. Kirkpatrick (2007) has demonstrated that the more people are engaged in their work, the better the outcomes are for both employees and organizations. This suggests that it is important to understand how to get the best out of teachers and what can affect their levels of work motivation

and work engagement. The Indonesian school system is one of the largest and most diverse in the world (La Rocque, 2015). Primary, junior, and senior education are managed by the districts, with the Ministry of Education and Culture (MOEC) responsible for the overall system, and the Islamic schools are managed by the Ministry of Religious Affairs (MORA). Since the early 1980s, the quality of education remains a significant problem as most Indonesian student’s performance are lower than most of the neighboring countries. One of the contributing factors to this is the shortage of experienced teachers (La Rocque, 2015). Thus, understanding the factors that would affect teachers’ motivation and engagement is important to help address this issue.

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Self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000) provides a theoretical basis for understanding the psychological mechanisms through which an individual’s work motivation and engagement may be affected. SDT suggests that there are several factors involved in determining an individual’s level of motivation, behavior and well-being. The impact of social environment is one factor among others such as personality development, self-regulation, and the role of universal psychological needs. Most studies have focused on the role played by personality, self-regulation etc. However, the key focus of this study will be the role played by social environment. It is known that people who are motivated in their tasks intrinsically find inherent rewards in what they are doing. They find the activity enjoyable, satisfying and interesting; therefore, they continue to engage in it simply for the sake of doing that particular activity. Extrinsic motivation on the other hand occurs when individuals carry out a task because they get an instrumental, external reward out of it (Gagné & Deci, 2005; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Regardless of the driving force behind motivation, Atkinson (2000) and Glynn, Aultman and Owens (2005), found out that where teachers have stated that they are satisfied with their contribution towards their students’ learning, it is motivation rather than overall professional ability that can play a significant role in student learning. Motivation acts as an important driver for teachers because it helps them to strive to achieve their targets (Inayatullah & Jehangir, 2012). Work motivation drives teachers to improve their skills and knowledge which in turn influences students’ levels of achievement (Mustafa & Othman, 2010). Gagné and Koestner (2002), found that individuals with high levels of intrinsic motivation display significantly higher levels of commitment to their organization and are not as likely to contribute to turnover rates (Richer, Blanchard & Vallerand, 2002) as well as display physical symptoms of stress (Otis & Pelletier, 2005). As work motivation and engagement appear to have a key role to play in teacher performance it is important to try to understand what may influence these drivers. Demerouti, Bakker,

Nachreiner, and Schaufeli (2001) have suggested that every occupation has its own specific risk factors associated with performance. These factors can be classified into two general categories: job demands and job resources. The Job DemandResource (JD-R) model was developed to assess the impact of these factors on burnout and work engagement. Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) adapted the JD-R model to accommodate school environmental factors, in which paternalistic leadership and team member relationships represent job resources and pupil related inputs represent job demands. Previous research by Hakanen, Bakker, and Schaufeli (2006) investigated the effect of the JD-R model on teachers’ work engagement, but did not consider the impact of work motivation on work engagement despite the fact that this is assumed to play an important role in the occupational environment. To address this, the current study investigates factors that influence teachers’ work motivation and impact on their work engagement. Whereas previous research has focused upon the impact of individuals’ perception of the work environment, thisstudyaimstofocusontheimpact of various multilevel factors such as students’ and their parents’ behavior; relationships with coworkers; the leadership and guidance provided by the principal of the school plus the impact of motivational factors (autonomous motivation), all in a school environment. Furthermore, building on self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), our study proposes and tests a motivational model of intra-individual changes in teacher’s work engagement. The model posits that changes in teachers’ perceptions of the school environment are likely to predict changes in work engagement through changes in motivational factors. II. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Self-Determination Theory Self-determination Theory (SDT) highlights theimportanceofhumans’ evolvedinnerresources for personality development and behavioral selfregulation (Ryan, Kuhl & Deci, 1997). SDT assumes that “human beings are active, growthoriented organisms who are naturally inclined

Shu, C. and Siregar, D. H. toward integration of their psychic elements into a unified sense of self and integration of themselves into larger social structures” (Deci & Ryan, 2000). SDT distinguishes intrinsic from extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation involves people doing activities for their own sake because they find that particular task to be inherently rewarding and satisfying. Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is when people are motivated to do tasks simply because they get an external reward for doing that task. The highest and most ideal form of motivation is intrinsic motivation, wherein a motivation lies at the other end of the spectrum, considered the lowest form of motivation as it occurs when people do not occur any form of motivation at all (Gagne & Deci, 2005). Teachers contribute to society and may often see teaching as a calling and therefore exhibit high levels of intrinsic motivation (Alexander, 2008; Richardson & Watt, 2006; Scott, Stone & Dinham, 2001). Research has suggested that the professional competence of educators does not play a huge role in students’ successful learning as motivational levels do (Atkinson, 2000; Glynn, Aultman & Owens, 2005). Motivation appears to regulate levels of energy; drive to learn; the ability to work effectively and ultimately, to fulfill or actualize a person’s potential. It has also proven instrumental in people’s interest and sense of enjoyment in their study (Martin, 2003). III. LITERATURE REVIEW Relationship between School Environmental Factors and Work Motivation Teaching, including background functions such as administration can be seen as a highly stressful profession (Shu, 2003). Teacher stress is a function of job demands, degree of social support, and job constraints in school (Payne, 1983). One major source of job dissatisfaction and demotivation in employees is job stress (Wani, 2013). Two central characteristics of any workplace environment are job demands and job resources as described in the Job DemandsResources (JD-R) model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Based on this model, one can define job demands as one’s tasks on the job that require the

employee to exert much physical or psychological effort, or tasks that demand much physical or psychological costs. On the other hand, job resources help reduce the stress produced by job demands by helping employees attain their work objectives, encourage personal development, and by alleviating negative effects of the physical or psychological costs incurred due to job demands (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Zooming into a school environment specifies examples of job demands and job resources. Examples of job demands include work overload, teachers’ problems with their roles, faulty equipment, problems with school policies, conflicts with other faculty members, and of course problems brought about by students’ undesirable behaviors (Byrne, 1999; Rudow, 1999). Examples of job resources on the other hand include clear delineations in job roles, positive interpersonal relationships with one’s colleagues, and supportive superiors (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Previous research has proven that employees suffering from job demands that are too heavy and inappropriate lead to decreased energy, eventually resulting in exhaustion and stress (Bakker, Demerouti, Taris, Schaufeli & Schreurs, 2003). Bakker and Demerouti (2007) have stated that job resources may contribute to employee motivation either as intrinsic or extrinsic sources of motivation. An absence or deficiency of job resources can therefore lead to employee demotivation and dissatisfaction, plus a reduced sense of accomplishment (Bakker, Demerouti, Taris, Schaufeli & Schreurs, 2003). Once in school, to achieve success, teachers must be able to interact with their headmaster, other teachers, students and their parents as well to produce satisfactory results. This process alone can place a great many demands on an individual. The study focuses on the role of interpersonal factors on work motivation and subsequent work engagement. Factors such as: the interaction between teacher and headmaster; students’ disrespectful behavior; problems posed by parental behavior; and the role played by colleagues’ support (or lack of it). For this research students’ disrespectful behaviorand problems posed by parental behavior

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were grouped together and described as ‘pupil related inputs’. These data were then combined with ‘paternalistic leadership’ and ‘relationships with colleagues’ into an overall grouping called ‘school environmental factors’. This grouping formed the basis of our first hypothesis: Ho1: ‘School environmental factors’ are related to work motivation. Relationship between Paternalistic Leadership and Work Motivation Farh and Cheng (2000) defined paternalistic leadership as ‘a style of leadership that combines strong discipline and authority with fatherly benevolence and moral integrity couched in a personality atmosphere’. Paternalistic leadership has three dimensions: benevolence, moral, and authoritarian leadership. Paternalistic leadership may lead to positive responses from employees as long as this leadership style is freely accepted by both employees and superiors. This may also be a contributing factor to employee motivation. An interaction of the three dimensions is also necessary for this leadership style to succeed in motivating employees (Farh & Cheng, 2000). To be more specific, the authoritarian aspect of the leader contributes to the employees’ sense of control and order, and prompts them to obey the leader unquestioningly (Cheng, Chou, Wu, Huang & Farh, 2004). This seemingly rigid approach is tempered by the benevolence dimension which induces feelings of gratitude and reciprocation in employees. Lastly, the leader’s sense of morality encourages respect from subordinates. According to the JD-R model, the relationship in school with the leader or headmaster should represent a job resource providing supporting aspects from leader to subordinates. The leadership model proposed by Cheng, Chou, Wu, Huang, and Farh (2004), describes the authoritarian dimension of paternalistic leadership as demanding and unquestioning response to the leader. This aspect of the model was not considered to be supportive and it was decided to remove any consideration of this aspect of paternalistic leadership from the study. With this exclusion in mind it was proposed that:

Ho1a: Paternalistic leadership is positively related to work motivation Relationship between Relationships with Colleagues and Work Motivation Team-Member Exchange (TMX) Theory provides a means of assessing the reciprocity between members of a team. TMX describes the quality of relationships among team members. Seers found that in terms of predicting employee outcomes at work, within-group relationshipsalso called lateral relationships-proved to be more significant and vital that relationships with superiors (aka vertical relationships). In the present study it was decided that ‘relationships with colleagues could be seen as equivalent to reciprocity between team members and can therefore be assessed using TMX theory (Seers, 1989). For this study it was decided that the variable relationships with colleagues could be considered, equivalent to social support from colleagues, as per the JD-R model and could therefore be seen as a job resource (Martinussen, Richardsen & Burke, 2007) wherein having access to good quality job resources can be intrinsically or extrinsically motivating whilst the lack of it could negatively impact one’s motivation (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). It is therefore proposed that: Ho1b: TMX is positively related to work motivation. Relationship between ‘Pupil Related Inputs’ and Work Motivation ‘Pupil related inputs’ are defined as problems caused by students’ disrespectful behavior and problems posed by parental behavior. Student behavior is one of the most critical concerns in schools today which consists of efforts to satisfy personal needs for: survival; belonging and love; power; freedom; and fun. Friedman (1994) states that it is how the student feels on the inside that produces disrespectful behavior. McFadden, March, Price and Hwang (1992) found that teachers reported encountering a variety of frequent challenging behaviors including multiple occurrences of disrespect, verbal abuse, truancy, tardiness, fighting, harassment and

Shu, C. and Siregar, D. H. general classroom disruption. Over time, repeated challenging behaviors can lead to reduced teacher job satisfaction (Borg & Riding, 1991). Friedman (1995) found that teachers reported disrespect towards them as producing the heaviest impact on levels of self-efficacy and their job satisfaction. Pastor and Erlandson (1982) also observed that there exists a positive relationship between job satisfaction and work motivation. In his study about teacher work motivation and job satisfaction, Thomas (2010) also cemented the idea that the more disrespectful students are towards their teachers, work motivation of the teachers significantly decreases. Problems posed by parental behavior represent issues that arise from students’ parents who either care too much or too little about their educational performance. Either extreme of behavior has been found to play a significant role in teacher stress (Shu, 2003). It has been found out in the previous research that higher levels of stress in the work place can lead to reduced motivation (Wani, 2013). In this study, it is assumed that stress caused by problems posed by parental behavior will affect teachers’ work motivation. Therefore it is proposed that:

than mere involvement, and is also a step higher than simple identification. Absorption, on the other hand, means being fully absorbed and concentrated in one’s work, perhaps even to the point that one does not notice the passage of time and finds it hard to detach oneself from work even after working hours (Schaufeli et al., 2002). Massie and Douglas (1973), define work motivation as “…that which moves you forward and moves you towards your goal”. Gagné and Forest (2008) suggest that the self-determination continuum is useful for predicting optimal functioning in organizations. In their definition the self-determination continuum “…includes employeeengagement, jobperformancesubjective well-being, and retention”. SDT research has constantly demonstrated that individuals who are engaged in what they are doing also experience greater physical and psychological well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In particular, when one is motivated in his or her job, he or she will be actively engaged with his or her tasks which they find interesting and that, in turn, promote growth (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Using this as a basis it is proposed that:

Ho2: Work motivation is positively related to Ho1c: Pupil related problems are negatively work engagement. related to work motivation. It is known that optimal functioning Mediating Effect of Work Motivation between in organizations is comprised of employee School Environmental Factors and Work engagement, job performance, subjective wellEngagement being, and retention (Gagné & Forest, 2008). SelfMaslach and Leiter (1997) describe Determination Theory describes the impact of engagement as characterized by energy, factors such as social environment, self-regulation involvement, and efficacy. Work engagement has and universal psychological needs on motivation, also been defined by Schaufeli and colleagues “as a behavior and well-being. This research focuses positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind”. The specifically on the impact of school environmental three major dimensions of work engagement are factors within the workplace; how this affects the following: vigor, dedication, and absorption. teacher motivation and consequently impacts Vigor is described as high energy levels and upon on levels of work engagement. Paternalistic mental resilience among employees working leadership, relationshipswithcolleaguesandpupil together, along with their readiness to continue related problems, represent school environmental exerting efforts in the job and persevere in spite of factorsandcanbecategorizedusingthe JD-Rmodel obstacles barring the way. Dedication, the second as either job resources (paternalistic leadership, facet, is represented by employees’ feelings that relationships with colleagues) or as job demands they matter, their sense of enthusiasm about (pupil related problems). Van den Broeck (2010) the job, pride, inspiration, and a healthy sense proposed, using the JD-R model, that an excess of challenge. This is placed on a higher level of job demands over job resources may diminish

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Figure 1 Research Framework

School Environmental Factors Paternalistic Leadership Pupil Related Problem z Relationship with Colleague z z

Team Level (2) Individual Level (1)

motivation and decreases one’s work engagement, whilst the presence of adequate job resources can lead to enhanced levels of work engagement. Particularly, when school environmental factors are considered as a job resource, this will likely increase one’s motivation which triggers an individual to be actively engaged in his/ her work task. In contrast, if school environmental factors are considered as job demands, this will diminish one’s motivation which affects an individual’s active engagement at work. It is therefore proposed that H3: Work motivation mediates the relationship between school environmental factors and work engagement . IV. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Measurement Tools The study identified five variables: paternalistic leadership, pupil related problems, relationship with colleagues, work motivation, and work engagement. Paternalistic Leadership The study used a scale developed by Farh, Cheng and Chou (2000), which contains 26 items and uses a six-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree) to record participants’ responses. The original measure developed by Cheng at al. (2004) included questions relating to issues of authoritarian leadership. These were deleted for the study because Cheng et al. (2004) stated that authoritarian leadership requires followers to provide unquestioning loyalty to a leader and it is a form of negative leadership (Cheng,

Work Motivation

Work Engage m ent

1995) which cannot be considered as a type of job resource. However, with these questions removed and used the Cronbach alpha (internal consistency measure) for Benevolent Leadership, Moral Leadership coefficients of 0.850 and 0.739 respectively were recorded. Pupil Related Problems The negative dimension, Disrespect, from Pupil Behavior Patterns (PBP) designed by Friedman (1994) was used to measure student disrespect in the study because disrespect is believed to have the greatest perceived impact on the self-efficacy and job satisfaction of teachers (Hastings & Bahm, 2003). This tool contains eleven statements, using six frequency options ranging from 1 (never) to 6 (always) to measure responses. Statements included: “Students in my class do not treat me with respect“; “Students in my class answer me back”, “I demand silence in class and students go on making noise”. In the study, the Cronbach alpha internal consistency measure for this tool was 0.872. Issues relating to problem parents were measured using the sub dimension, achievement press, of Organizational Climate Index (OCI) (Hoy, Smith & Sweetland, 2002). This dimension consisted of five statements that were assessed using four frequency response options ranging from 1 (rarely occurs) to 4 (very frequently occurs). Example statements included: “A few vocal parents can change school policy”; “Parents press for school improvement”. In the study the Cronbach alpha internal consistency measure for this tool was 0.700.

Shu, C. and Siregar, D. H. Relationships with Colleagues Seers (1989) developed a tool consisting of 13 statements to measure the TMX construct. Sample items in this tool include: “I frequently provide support and encouragement to other members”; “When other members are busy, I often volunteer to help them out”. The response scale for this uses a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). In this research, the Cronbach alpha for this tool was 0.895. Work Motivation The study used the Work Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Scale (WEIMS) (Tremblay, Blanchard, Taylor, Pelletier & Villeneuve, 2009). However, the Work Self-Determination Index (WSDI) proposed by Vallerand (1997) was used to report the results because the study was interested in individuals’ displayed motivation level. The WEIMS scale consists of 18 items. These correspond to the six types of motivation postulated by SDT (i.e., intrinsic motivation, integrated, identified, introjected and external regulations, and amotivation). Participants are asked to indicate their responses on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (does not correspond at all) to 7 (corresponds exactly). From respondents’ responses, WEIMS can be used to generate the W-SDI. The formula for determining the W-SDI is as follows: W-SDI = (+3 x intrinsic motivation) + (+2 x integrated regulation) + (+1 x identified regulation) + (-1 x introjected regulation) + (-2 x external regulation) + (-3 x amotivation) (Connell & Ryan, 1989). A positive score indicates a self-determined profile and a negative score indicates a non-self-determined profile. Previous research has shown that the self-determination index displays high level of reliability and validity (Pelletier, Dion, SlovinecD’Angelo & Reid, 2004). The Cronbach alpha for the W-SDI in this research was 0.84. Work Engagement This questionnaire was answered by the headmaster to understand how they perceive each teacher’s work attitude. The Utrecht Work Engagement Scale & Well-Being Survey developed by Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) was used in the

study to measure teachers’ work engagement. The original scale consists of 9 statements but one of them was removed because it was inappropriate for the study approach (“when I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work”). A sixpoint Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree) was used to record responses. Statements include: “He/she gets carried away when he/she is working”, “He/she feels happy when he/she is working intensely”. The Cronbach alpha for this scale in this research was 0.893. Method Cluster Sampling The study was conducted in Semarang, Central Java, Indonesia. Based on the ‘Education for All Global Monitoring Report’ by UNESCO in 2011, Indonesia comes 69th out of 127 countries on the Education Development Index (EDI) (UNESCO, 2011). There are 64 schools participated in the study consisting of 40 state schools, and 24 private schools. The headmaster of each school was contacted and an appointment was made to meet the headmaster in person. After this meeting, each participating headmaster was asked to complete the questionnaire for themselves. Each headmaster then identified five teachers in their school to also complete the questionnaire. Therefore, the sample from each of the 64 schools consisted of one headmaster and five teachers. Procedures To ensure that all questions used in the study were fully understandable, two-way translations were performed by bilingual assistants who were proficient in both English and Indonesian dialects. Separate questionnaires were then developed depending upon the type of participant. The headmasters received a questionnaire that included questions about the impact of parent related problems and each teacher’s work engagement. Teachers received a questionnaire that included questions about the headmaster’s leadership, colleague support and student disrespectful behavior, plus questions relating to their own levels of work motivation. When using paired questionnaires it is important to guard against bias. Each school has one headmaster that has to choose five teachers

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to be assessed because there is a danger that the teacher could tailor their responses in light of being specifically chosen. To avoid this, the teachers remained unaware that they had been specifically chosen by the headmaster and the questionnaires were delivered to them by an independent third party. Common Method Variance (CMV) suggests that there is a danger when using questionnaire studies that a false internal consistency may occur. Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Podsakoff and Lee (2003) explored four general sources of CMV: (a) the use of a common rater, (b) the manner in which items are presented to respondents, (c) the context in which items on a questionnaire are placed, (d) the contextual influences (time, location and media) used to measure the constructs. In an attempt to prevent CMV in the study, we asked headmasters to answer questions about pupil parent problems to provide an alternative perspective in this area. There were 64 questionnaires for headmasters and 320 questionnaires for teachers that were directly distributed to the schools by the researcher. Each participant was given three days tocompletethequestionnaire, andthesewerethen collected, in person, from the headmaster. 100% of questionnaires distributed were returned. All of the questionnaires from headmasters were completed correctly but these were not analyzed in detail. There were 294 analyzed questionnaires from teachers but 26 questionnaires were rejected because of missing data. Participants The study focused on headmasters and teachers in state and private schools in Semarang, Central Java, Indonesia. There were 64 headmasters who took part in the study, 51.6% were male and 49.4% were female. There were 46.9% of headmasters had a bachelor degree, 51.6% had a mastersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; degree, 1.6% of headmasters had alternative qualifications. The average age of the headmasters in the study was 50.58 (SD = 5.248). The youngest headmaster was 32 years old, and the oldest was 60 years old. The average tenure of headmasters was 85.47 months (SD=44.521). The minimum tenure was 6 months and the maximum tenure was 216 months. There were 294 teachers in the study, 61.2% of

the teachers were female and 39.8% were male. Seventy-eight point nine percent had a bachelor degree, 13.6% had a mastersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; degree, 0.3% had a Ph.D. 7.1% had alternative qualifications. The average of the teachers in the study was 42.94 years old (SD=8.375). The youngest teacher was 23 years old and the oldest was 60 years old. The average tenure of teacher was 216.191 months (SD=109.750), with the minimum tenure was nine months and the maximum tenure was 480 months. V. RESULTS AND FINDINGS Descriptive Statistical Analysis The mean, standard deviation, skewness, kurtosis, and Cronbachâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s alpha (Churchill, Ford & Walker, 1976; Nunnaly, 1978) were used for all the variables of the study shown in Table 1. As suggested by Kline (1998), a skewness above 3.0 and a kurtosis above 10 indicate serious departures from normality in a distribution. All data from variables of the study were as normally distributed in terms of skewness (range from -1.789 to .730) and kurtosis (range from -.644 to 5.906). The alpha coefficient for all variables ranged between 0.609 and .895. Nunnally (1978) suggests that a coefficient alpha greater than 0.7 is acceptable and the majority of variables in the study met this criterion. Table 1 also shows the range of factor loadings for each variable. The results revealed that the respondents discriminated between the constructs, suggesting convergent validity within the measures, which means that all items are validated to the respective variables. Discriminant validity concerns the degree to which measures of conceptually distinct constructs differ. In order to test for discriminant validity, a simple factor test was performed on the collected data in the study. A relatively clean solution resulted for the subjective variables, each variable subscale loaded on separate factors. These were used to look at the inter-correlation between items on one variable and questions were eliminated where the style factor absolute value was below 0.50, or between factors lower than 0.30. The rwg coefficients in Table 2 are averaged

Shu, C. and Siregar, D. H.

Table 1 Descriptive Analysis No.

Variable

Mean SD

Cronbach Alpha

Factor Loading

Skewness Kurtosis

.850

.543- .724

-.433

.471

.739

.722- .876 -1.789

5.906

.872

.513- .830

.487

-.313

.700

.567 - .753

.543

-.644

.340

-.108

.730

1.342

-.427

-.049

Paternalistic Leadership 1 Benevolenc e 4.521 .705 Moral 5.100 .815 .311**

2 Pupil Related Inputs 3

Student 2.259 .778 .097

-.025

Parent 1.783 .492 -.076 -.094 -.032

5 TMX

4.014 .448 .342** .193** -.094

.064

.895

.531 - .751

Work 6 Motivation

9.260 3.609 .280** .252** -.193**

.116* .423**

.609

.396 - .749

5.767 .663 .333** .386** -.146*

.013

.893

.800 - .888

Work 7 Engagement

.448** .461**

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailded) *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailded) across groups to evaluate within-group agreement Table 2 on benevolence leadership, moral leadership, r of the group level variables wgj student disrespectful behavior, problem parents, and TMX. The average rwg on these variables Variabl e Range are 0.91, 0.86, 0.90, 0.92, and 0.97 respectively, Paternalistic Leadership all of them are higher than .70 which means it is acceptable to aggregate the individual level result Benevolence 0.50 – 0.99 to group level. Multilevel Analysis Result Through Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM 7.0, Raudenbush, Bryk & Congdon, 2010), the following aspects of our multilevel mode were tested: (1) the existence of a multilevel structure; (2) the cross-level effect of leadership, pupil related inputs, and TMX on work motivation; (3) the cross-level effect of leadership, pupil related inputs, and TMX on work engagement; and (4) the mediating effects of work motivation on the

Average

0.91

M oral 0.54 – 1.00

0.86

Student 0.52 – 0.98

0.90

Parent 0.65 – 1.00

0.92

0.91 – 0.99

0.97

Pupil Related Inputs

TM X

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relationship between leadership, pupil related inputs, and TMX and work engagement. The data set contains of two of hierarchically nested levels: 294 teachers (level 1) nested within 64 headmasters (level 2). Work motivation and work engagement were measured at the individual level (level 1), whereas paternalistic leadership, pupil related inputs, and TMX were measured at team level (level 2). Following research conducted by Raudenbush and Bryk (2002) it was decided to test the existence of a multilevel structure in the model in a preliminary study. Paternalistic leadership, pupil related inputs, and the TMX scores were aggregated to the group mean to empirically justify data aggregation of the employee variables. To explore the degree to which paternalistic leadership, pupil related inputs, and TMX influenced work motivation and work engagement at the individual level, we determined the degree to which individuals’ perceptions of paternalistic leadership, pupil related inputs, and TMX were shared within each of the 64 schools (Chan, 1998). To justify the creation of aggregate scores of paternalistic leadership, pupil related inputs, and TMX at the team level, we calculated inter-rater agreement on this measure using the rwg (j) index (James, Demaree & Wolf, 1984). Generally, an rwg greater than 0.7 is desirable, but the higher the value of rwg, the stronger within-group agreement of the construct is reflected (James, Demaree & Wolf, 1984). Table 2 shows the results of the rwg test. Results revealed that all of the dimensions in paternalistic leadership have average rwg 0.91 and 0.86 respectively; Student disrespectful behavior 0.90; problem parents 0.92, and TMX 0.97. All of the rwg scores are greater than .70 suggesting that there is a strong agreement among subordinates within teams (James, 1982). In this study, the intra-class correlation values (ICC) was also examined to reflect the inter-rater reliability score (Bliese, 2000). The ICC score for work engagement was found to be 0.647. This is greater than the 0.20 as recommended by Bliese. This suggests that strong units in the same group resemble each other. From the score of rwg and ICC, it can be seen that all scores are greater than acceptable levels which suggests that the creation of an aggregation analysis for analyzing the cross-

level is justified. Hypothesis Testing In testing the hypotheses, we made a set of multilevel models was made based on the theoretical predictions using the incremental improvement procedure demonstrated by Hox (2010). All scores in the model are shown in the Table 3. These are estimations of fixed effects with robust standard errors. The first model for analysis was the intercept-only model with work engagement as the dependent variable (Model 1). To test the cross-level of paternalistic leadership, pupil related inputs, and TMX as independent variables to work motivation as mediator, we added paternalistic leadership, pupil related inputs, and TMX to model 2 (see table 3). Results revealed that paternalistic leadership has significant effect on work motivation (Model 2: x̄ 01 = 1.581, SE = .66, p< .05). However, pupil related inputs appear to have no significant effect on work motivation (Model 2: x̄ 02 = .033, SE = .40, p> .05). TMX appears to have a significant effect on work motivation (Model 2: x̄ 03 = 2.955, SE = 1.02, p< .01). Hypotheses 1a, 1c can therefore be accepted and hypotheses 1b can be rejected. The work motivation variable was added to Model 3 (see Table 3) to test the relationship between work motivation as mediator to work engagement as dependent variable. The coefficients of corresponding parameters estimated in the model was also examined. It would appear that work motivation has a significant effect on work engagement (Model 3: 3 10 = .023, SE = .01, p< .05). As a result of these findings it is possible to accept hypothesis 2. Entries corresponding to the predicting variables are estimations of the fixed effects. The variables paternalistic leadership, pupil related inputs, and TMX were added to model 4 (see Table 3). To test this hypothesis, the coefficients of corresponding parameters estimated in the model was examined to test the cross-level of paternalistic leadership, pupil related inputs, and TMX as independent variables with work engagement as dependent variable. Paternalistic leadership was found to have a significant effect on work motivation (Model 4: x-x01=.433, SE=.15,

Shu, C. and Siregar, D. H.

Table 3 Multilevel Analysis Result Model 1

Variable

Null Model

Model 2 X-Me

Model 3 Me-Y

Model 4 X-Y

Model 5 XMe-Y

5.030***

-12.826

5.030***

1.067

1.07

.433** -0.279 .538***

.462** -.315* .534***

Level 1 Intercept (³ 00 ) Level 2 Paternalistic Leadership (³ Pupil Related Inputs (³ 02 ) TMX (³ 03 )

01 )

1.581* .033 2.955**

Mediating Effect Work Motivation (³

10 )

Model Deviance

.023* 1439.738

366.332

.022* 354.859

343.761

Source: Present Study Note: * p<.05, ** p<.01, and *** p<.001 p< .01). However, Pupil related inputs appears to have no significant effect on work motivation (Model 4: x-x02 = -.279, SE = .14, p> .05). TMX appears to have a significant effect on work motivation (Model 4: x-x03 = .538, SE = .14, p< .001). Based on these finding scores, we accept hypotheses 3a, 3b and reject 3c. Work motivation as a mediator in the relationship between independent variables (paternalistic leadership, pupil related inputs, and TMX) and work engagement as a dependent variable was tested. From the results, it can be seen that the variables in level 2 change when work motivation is included as a mediator. Paternalistic leadership has increased, from Model 4: x-y 01 = .433 to Model 5: x̄ -y 01 = .462, as has the effect of pupil related inputs from Model 4: x̄ -y 02 = -.279 to Model 5: x̄ -y 02 = -.315. However, the value of TMX has decreased from Model 4: x̄ -y 03 = .538 to Model 5: x̄ -y 03 = .534. VI. CONCLUSION AND CONTRIBUTION In the research, it has been found that work motivation appears to partially mediate in the causal relationship between school environmental factors and work engagement except in the area of pupil related inputs. Within the framework of the JD-R model, paternalistic leadership and TMX are viewed as a job resource which provides

support and increases motivation. The study shows that even if the teachers have low quality support from supervisor and colleague, high levels of work motivation will pull the level of the work engagement higher as well. This finding is also supported by previous research conducted by Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) which found out that job resources foster work motivation and promote adaptive work behavior, such as work engagement. The results indicated that there is a significant relationship between paternalistic leadership, TMX and work engagement. There is no significant relationship between pupil related inputs and work engagement. Results further revealed that TMX has the highest degree in affecting teachers’ work engagement. As friends in school, other teachers are supporting each other no matter how difficult the condition of headmasters’ leadership style, students in the class, and pupils’ parents are. This finding is also supported by previous research conducted by Liao, Yang, Wang, Drown and Shi (2013) which also found there was positive relationship between TMX and work engagement. The findings showed that there is a significant relationship between paternalistic leadership, TMX, and work motivation. According to JD-R model, pupil related inputs is one of the examples of job demand, and it was found out that there

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was no significant relationship between pupil related inputs and work motivation. The study has the same research findings conducted by Farh and Cheng’s (2000) that benevolence and morality would contribute to work motivation. Furthermore, the study is also similar to the findings of Van Yperen and Hagedoorn (2003), which was found that there was no evidence of a relationship between job demands and intrinsic motivation. Moreover in the study, it was found out that TMX has the highest significant level compared to others. It shows that the relation between teachers has the most important role in affecting work motivation. Teacher can freely talk about their feelings to their colleagues which may decrease stress in work place, and also they can motivate each other because between teachers they have same feelings and experiences as a teacher. The study has proven that work motivation is significantly related to work engagement. It showed that if a teacher has high level of work motivation, he or she will also have high levels of work engagement. In doing something, someone must be motivated, and if the level of the motivation is high, work engagement is going to be high as well, which in this case is doing teachers’ duties. The study is different from other researches because other studies on this topic usually use one or two predictors for mediator or to dependent variable, but in the study there were more than one predictors used. Other researchers used all the dimensions of paternalistic leadership. Furthermore, the study analyzed two levels: team and individual level, which make this research different from previous research. Theoretical Contributions Theoretically, the study addressed a need for researchers to know what affects teachers’ work motivation and work engagement the most. In the study, paternalistic leadership, pupil related inputs, and relationship with colleagues were was adopted from JD-R model that can make Selfdetermination Theory for motivation become more complete and clear. Since findings revealed the role of work motivation as a mediator, it gave a contribution that work motivation can

provide additional support to the growing body of empirical literature on teaching. Practical Contribution The result of the study showed that high levels of work motivation will lead to high levels of work engagement. To achieve high levels of work motivation that may lead to high levels of work engagement, a teacher must have a good quality of relationship with other teachers, because other teachers face almost the same problem such as students and students’ parents or maybe with the headmaster, so there is an empowering interaction between teachers which may lead to stronger personality to cope with problems in the work place. Teachers also needs supports from their headmasters to be motivated and keep in track as a good teacher under the leadership of the headmaster, because though students in class change overtime as their parents do, but the teachers’ relationship with colleagues and support from headmaster will remain needed. As a headmaster, having a supportive leadership style such as paternalistic leadership is really important, because the headmaster can play the role of a father or mother that nurtures and cares for teachers, which can boost the latter’s motivation levels thereby increasing the level of work engagement. If the teachers have high level of motivation and engagement, automatically they can perform well in the class that may lead to good student’s achievement. Research Limitation and Further Suggestions In the study, the used questionnaires were paired to subordinates and supervisors. Though respondents did not remember the name of the questionnaire, the research topic however, involves many sensitive issues regarding their supervisor. In the study, when the respondent had questions, they can ask the researchers’ guidance and instructions because we attached the researchers’ phone number and email address so we can explain in detail the purpose of the study or any questions regarding the study. In collecting the data, the questionnaires were also contained in sealed bags in order to reduce problems. Due to the sensitivity of the study topic, respondents

Shu, C. and Siregar, D. H.

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Engaging Southeast Asia: The political economy of regional leadership competition between Japan and China Hung-Hwei Liu1 James W. Y. Wang2 Aletheia University, Taiwan 1 National Central University, Taiwan 2 964462@ma il.a u.e du.tw Date Submitted : June 30, 2015

Date Accepted : July 15, 2015

ABSTRACT Regionalization in East Asia has drastically arisen the past two decades. Other than economic coordination, competition of regional leadership has been steering the direction of regional integration. In terms of finance, East Asian states have also established the Chiang Mai Initiative for regional monetary cooperation. In the trade sphere, free trade agreements have mushroomed after the millennium. In particular, special emphasis is given to the competition between Japan and China as this is considered as one of the main forces to push the regionalization drive forward. By comparing Japan and China’s regional policy, this paper seeks to opens possibilities about the path, motivations and future opportunities for East Asian integration through a qualitative synthesis of opinion from experts, requirement from authorities and existing studies. Keywords: China, East Asia, Japan, regionalization I. INTRODUCTION East Asian regionalism has been one of the most significant cases of global economic integration in the past few years. The “East Asian Community” had been the regional consensus in 2007. The ASEAN Economic Community was expected to be established by 2015. The ChinaJapan-South Korea Free Trade Agreement is still undergoing negotiation, in spite of unsolved territorial disputes. Without reverse waves, there would be no doubt that East Asia will be the single biggest economic block in the world in the near future. Foreseeing this, some experts start to deliver warnings of East Asian regionalism. Functional integration in the regional level is still underdeveloped. Geographical diversity, state sizes, and political rivalry remain an obstacle for

robust institutional capacity (Ravenhill, 2009). The core functions of regionalism, trade and finance are not ready to compete with Europe and North America. Apparently, it is time to scrutinize the progress and development of East Asian regionalism. Since the Asian Financial Crisis, East Asian countries started to recognize the necessity for regional economic coordination. The next decade, East Asian countries reached diverse progress regarding financial coordination and free trade negotiations. On finance, the Chiang Mai Initiative (CMI) is considered as a milestone of regional monetary cooperation. In the trade sphere, free trade agreements (FTAs) also flourished after the millennium. FTAs and financial coordination

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are derivative phenomena of globalization. By May 2003, over 265 FTAs were reported to the World Trade Organization (WTO) wherein 138 FTAs were governed under WTO in January 1995. Over 190 are currently in force; another 60 are believed to be operational although not yet reported. However, in East Asia, diffusion of FTAs is relatively lagged. In November 2001, China and ASEAN leaders agreed to establish a China-ASEAN Free Trade Area (CAFTA). In 2005, Japan followed suit to reach similar agreements with ASEAN countries. The 1997 Financial Crisis has proven to be a turning point for regionalism in Asia. But there are limited explanations on why East Asian countries are late in the pursuit of regional integration, and on what motivations are necessary for East Asian countries to pursue cross-border financial coordination, and trade negotiations. Higgott (1998) astutely observed the Asian Financial Crisis and said “the political manifestations of these events (the financial crises) will linger long after the necessary reforms havebeenintroducedtoreturnatleastasemblance of economic normalcy to the region.” There might be two meaning of Higgott’s argument. Firstly, new regional institutional arrangements have to be established in wake of critical juncture. As the crisis has become the catalyst of financial and trade reform, exogenous impact may influence the logic of regional response. Secondly, as the Crisis is also political, regional countries will seek financial and trade policies based on different motivations and perceptions of existing situation. This perspective could be seen from sub-regional trade agreements being busily negotiated by Japan, South Korea, Singapore and other countries in East Asia. Alternatively, national responses could also be analyzed to discern the logic in disseminating financial and trade knowledge. This paper aims to discuss probable answers to the core questions of national response to regionalism, and how these factors may influence the path to East Asian integration, focusing on a comparison of Japan and China’s political economy as competition between these two countries is a probable catalyst for increased regionalization. We will see how cross-border financial coordination and FTA policies disseminate, how national

governments understand regionalization, and how idea and motivations contribute in adopting specific FTA policies. In Section II of the study, regionalization and FTA policy diffusion in East Asia are summarized. Two hypotheses of policy diffusion and a multidimensional definition of competition are presented. The Asian Financial Crisis will also be discussed as it served as the critical juncture for East Asian countries to recognize the importance of regional coordination in the financial sphere. Section III is dedicated to illustrating the way regional countries attempt to imitate the IMF arrangements and receive limited success in spite of their efforts. Section IV delves deeper and focuses on Japan and China by comparing their economic, political, and legal motivations in pursuit of FTAs. Section V concludes this article by consolidating information on how the diffusion and dissemination of financial and FTA policies possibly results in closer regionalization. It also reviews the competition for regional leadership between Japan and China, and the implications of this competition on further regionalization in East Asia. II. THE EAST ASIAN PATTERN OF REGIONAL LEADERSHIP AND FTA POLICY DIFFUSION Before the Asian Financial Crisis, the dissemination of FTA and financial collaboration in East Asia is lagged behind the progress of EU and NAFTA. Yet, the financial crisis provoked great sense of regional consciousness. As argued by Acharya, regional countries started to recognize the necessity to strengthen regional organization in the wake of the Crisis (Acharya, 2004). Simmons, Dobbin and Garrett (2007) argued that one reason that could explain the rise of regional sense is the economic imperative of regional powers to keep competition. In order to keep regional economy afloat, regional powers would shoulder the role of stabilizing order and cooperate with regional countries to reshuffle existing organizations. In the 1990s, East Asian regional countries engaged in collective pursuit of economic liberalization. Whether resisted or accepted, regional countries accelerated domestic economic reform and deregulated financial market. During this process, regional powers were considered referral to legitimize domestic reform (Dobbin, Simmons

Liu, H. and Wang, J. W. Y. & Garrett, 2007) . The emulation process triggered a series of policy diffusion. Hall (1993) indicated that the regional policy paradigms may incrementally forge and offer cognitive maps to influence policymakers by “a framework of ideas and standards that specifies not only the goals of policy and the kind of instruments, but also the very nature of the problems they are meant to be addressing.” Further, the universe of knowledge of regionalization would have significantly clout an idea. The process of greater regional integration on multilayer agendas, for instance, Acharya emphasized that the regionalist discourses would eventually develop and in turn reshape the process of region building (Acharya, 1997). Katzenstrein and Okawara (1993) have come to conclude similarly, pertaining to national security. Apparently, diffusion of policies takes place when regional powers’ actions generate externalities for others. Simmons, Dobbin and Garret further contended that, in trade and financial market, rival regional powers’ policies that attract international capital would compel others to follow suit as well. It follows that the international competition may make regional powers pursue regional policy in similar ways (Simmons, Dobbin & Garret, 2006). It is worthy to know the epidemic effects of regional powers’ policy. According to MacIntyre, Pempel and Ravenhill (2008), Southeast Asian countries emulated Japan after the Asian Financial Crisis, for policy innovation in adopting regional standards in order to effectively enhance the attractiveness of domestic markets. Generally, according to Dent (2008), regional powers competing for leadership come with certain behavior and benefits. Firstly, regional leadership has to provide public goods that include a stable and secured environment, sustainable development, andreductionoftheregion’spoverty levels. Secondly, regional leadership has to resolve collective action problems. When negotiating regional integration regulations, regional leadership has to communicate between groups of states and manage agenda in order to make all member states compromise on agreements. Beyond the two roles, regional leadership also has to lead the regional community-building process and champion the interests of the regional

community in the global level. Collective policy adoption in the regional level is based on the efforts of regional leadership. The most conspicuous sectors are financial coordination and FTA policies. When regional leaders start to initiate cross-national policy networks that are crucial to disseminate policy knowledge, governments are committed to engage in negotiating as many preferential financial and trade agreements as possible with little concern about sequencing. Governments also take a homogeneous position through recognizing international standard rules that closely mirror those of reference countries. Currently, students of East Asian study mostly agree that regional leadership primarily concentrates on the ‘national-level’ activities of China and Japan. Through constellation of governmental agencies of either Japan or China, researches indicate that domestic politics play a key part in determining the outlooks of what both Japan and China have on regional or international leadership issues. From a macro perspective, other than Japan and China, there are also relevant actors in different policy areas. Of course, the prospect for regional leadership in East Asia is more complex than what has been mentioned above. Extra-regional actors, including U.S., Australia, New Zealand, and India sometimes complicate analyses on specific issues. It is also possible that a regional leadership structure based on China and Japan may not be desirable for the regional collective as a whole, because regional states incrementally voice their demands in the global and extra-regional levels and have anticipated less on regional collectives. Concerning financial and trade integration, regional countries act differently as they take a realist perspective. Domestic politics is still the key of regional policy. Preferences of bureaucrats play an important role on regional policy. Business and economic bureaucrats are concerned with investment and trade diversion. Politicians and diplomats focus on the notions of international finance and trade policies. In order to maximize relative/competitive advantage in the financial and trade area, countries adopt financial and trade policies selectively with special attention to counterpart choices, market

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access commitments, and rule-making in FTAs which should be beneficial in creating national competitive advantage. Governments also take a â&#x20AC;&#x153;heterogeneous position to quest FTAs with a distinct package of investment and trade rules. In the initial stage of regional integration, countries may perceive lenient pressure of financial and trade competition and rarely rank regionalization on the top of policy making list. The main motivations for countries to adopt financial and trade policies with special orientation for greater regional participation are generally related to the appeals of business and economic bureaucrats. As the process of regionalization intensifies, a higher degree of rulemaking is realized, countries perceive competitive pressure and strategically position themselves in the regional finance and trade blocs. This article may not provide a clear picture for the development of East Asian regional leadership. A possible speculation, the development of financial and trade market, still has to be based on evidence in exercising regional leadership in East Asia. In a broad sense, Japan would continue to play an indirect role in cooperating with ASEAN countries based on its official development aids and economic power. China would cash on its rise of political and economic strengths and declare the leadership in a more assertive way. In addition, China should also prefer a regional framework that excludes the influence of extra-regional power, especially U.S. and India. The definition of regional membership would continuously be a central arena for Japan and China to struggle on. The different nature of Japan and Chinaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s regional approaches to lead may sometimes make it awkward to compare the two countries. Yet, it would make more sense to work on individual cases before jumping into a general theory or model. III. REGIONAL FINANCIAL INITIATIVES The East Asian financial crisis of 1997-1998 provides several valuable lessons for East Asian regional integration. Many economic, academic and government policy makers saw the Asian Financial Crisis as a wake-up call to libertarian market policy. Governments in this region were incapable to govern global capital flow and fend

off vicious attacks of speculators. The financial institutions had to reform. The capital market had to be supervised and regulated following the international standards (Wang, 2003). Except China and Japan, the Asian Financial Crisis demonstrated vulnerability of small and open emerging markets (Manupipatpong, 2002). Early in 1995, a number of economists began to warn Southeast Asian countries about the possibility of suffering a Latin American style of financial crisis. In 1996, IMF and World Bank also delivered alert to the governments of Thailand, Malaysia, and other countries about the risk of respective financial markets. However, these warnings were generally snubbed (Krugman, 1998). After export slowdown occurred in 1997, the real estate that bubbled in Thailand soon collapsed. On July 2, Thailand gave in to the pressures and floated the baht. Then, a series of currency speculation against other regional countries followed. Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines were all hit in the first wave (Krugman, 1998). Without precedent experience of international finance coordination, Southeast Asian countries had meager institutional support to act collectively. The slack institutional arrangements of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) were proven incapable to lead regional countries in fighting against financial catastrophe (Suh, 2002). Some regional organizations were introduced and established in the 1990, including the ASEAN Free Trade Agreement for trade liberalization, APEC, ASEM, and the Manila Framework Group. But none had ever reached high levels of institutionalization of the financial sector (Goto, 2002). The Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), established in 1989, was considered promising to reach sensible solution for Southeast Asian countries. Under the institutional design of multilateral framework and strong influence from the U.S., APEC did not deliver a solid package for financial rescue. Japanese Finance Minister Hirishi Mitsuzuka proposed to establish an Asian Monetary Fund (AMF) that would provide sufficient liquidity (emergency capital) which could quickly mobilize a country in urgent need of foreign currency to forestall speculative attacks on the regionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

Liu, H. and Wang, J. W. Y. currencies and to institutionalize financial cooperation in the region. The Japanese proposal was considered as an institutional innovation to imitate the IMF framework with the possibility of exchange rate coordination which is similar to European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) (Castellano, 2000; Chalongphob, 2000). Many Southeast Asian countries strongly supported this proposal. Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad tabled the AMF initiative again at the Asian Summit in the World Economic Forum (WEF) held in Singapore, with expectation that AMF was established as an East Asian monetary cooperation mechanism. The AMF received mixed reactions, however. While most countries in East Asia welcomed a regional finance cooperation mechanism, U.S., EU and IMF, on the other hand, seriously opposed on the grounds that it would threaten the stability of the global financial system, by weakening the IMF’s voice in promoting structural adjustments in recipient countries and by aggravating a serious moral hazard problem. Consequently, the AMF proposal was turned down at the Fifth Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Meeting (APEC) in Manila (Park & Wang, 2003). In 1998, the second ASEAN Plus Three (APT) Summit was held in Hanoi, Vietnam. China proposed establishing the APT Finance Ministers Deputies Meeting (FMDM), the first convention occurred in March 1999, and then the first Finance Ministers Meeting (FMM) in the following month held with the ADB Annual Meeting in Manila. The third APT Summit held in November 1999 at Manila marked a watershed in the development of financial regionalism in Asia. Besides the “Joint Statement on East Asia Cooperation,” China insisted on the significance of strengthening the APT financial process. The Chinese proposal was supported by other participants and was agreed to regularize the APT’s FMM arrangement (Hamanaka, 20085). Following the discussion among high rank financial officials of APT countries, the Chiang Mai Initiative (CMI) was agreed at the second APT FMM held in May 2000 in Chiang Main, Thailand. At the core of the CMI arrangement was a region-wide system of bilateral currency swap arrangements among APT countries. It comprised a series of new regional economic surveillance and policy

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dialoguemechanism. In October 1998 the Japanese government proposed a framework called “A New Initiative to Overcome the Asian Currency Crisis,” also known as the New Miyazawa Initiative (NMI), aimed at providing a package of financial support totaling US$30 billion. In fact, there was a demand for such funding from Asian countries in order to support corporate debt restructuring, strengthen social safety nets, stimulate the economy, and address the credit crunch. The United States and the IMF supported this initiative, owing to its bilateral nature, compared with the previous proposal that attempted to achieve cooperation on a multilateral basis. Under the NMI scheme, Japan signed bilateral CSAs with South Korea and Malaysia in January and July 1999. CSAs were integrated in CMI by expanding the existing ASEAN Swap Arrangement (ASA) to include all ASEAN countries and a network of bilateral swap and repurchase agreement facilities among ASEAN countries, China, Japan and South Korea as a “firewall” against future financial crises (Wang & Woo, 2002). CMI did not only promote the exchange of consistent and timely data and information on capital flows, it also established a system of pooled reserves that central banks could draw upon to buy time when their currencies come under speculative attack (Lin & Rajan, 2001). An early warning system was established to enhance the ability in providing sufficient and timely financial stability. Table 1 Bilateral swap arrangements under CMI (as of October 2002) Currencies

Maximum drawing

Japan & China

Yen-yuan reminbi

US$ 3.0 billion equivalent

Japan&S. Korea

US dollar-won

US$ 7.0 billion*

Japan & Singapore

US dollar-Singapor e dollar

Under negotiation

China & Malaysia

US dollar-ringgit

US$ 1.5 billion

China & S. Korea

Yuan renminbi-won

US$ 2.0 billion equialent

S. Korea & Philippines US dollar-peso

Under negotiation

S. Korea & Thailand

US$ 1.0 billion

US dollar-baht

Source: Ministry of Finance, Japan, 28 Mar 2002, and other countryspecific webpages. *Including a dollar-won swap arrangement of US$ 5 billion and a dollarringgit swap arrangement of US$ 2.5 billion from the New Miyazawa Initiative.

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Beyond CMI efforts, significant progress was proceeding as well. The ASEAN Task Force on “ASEAN currency and Exchange Rate Mechanism” was established in March 2001. Additional impetus to this work was supported by the Kobe Research Project, which was an initiative of consultation mechanism comprising of the AsiaEurope Finance Ministers group. Under the Kobe Research Project a large number of studies were contributed by institutions and individual experts in Asia and Europe to further enhance monetary and financial cooperation (Rana, 2002). By September 2005, the CMI system operated on a US$54.5 billion total, and by May 2007 this had risen to US$82.5 billion based on 16 bilateral agreements. Originally, as series of bilateral currency swap agreements among regional financial authorities, in broad terms, the CMI is a type of an expansion of ASA, aimed at providing countries facing the possibility of a liquidity shortage with additional short-term hard currencies. It encompasses all ASEAN countries, as well as China, Japan and Korea. This expansion of the ASA is the first step to put CMI effective. The CMI appeared to have been well received by IMF and U.S. At a press conference by Horst Kohler in Prague (September 20, 2000; Hamanaka, 2008), the new IMF Managing Director expressed support for AMF and other regional initiatives as long as they were complementary and not competitive with the IMF approach (Ross, 2001; Benassy-Quere, 1999). IV. A COMPARISON OF JAPAN AND CHINA’S TRADE POLICIES AND MOTIVATIONS IN PURSUIT OF FTAS East Asian countries were latecomers of free trade policies. When regionalism re-emerged as a preferred economic policy in the 1980s and 1990s, East Asian countries were relatively lagged behind in terms of formal political institutionalization of regional organizations. Political rivalry and security concerned between China and Japan are telling factors which delayed the progress in diffusing regional trade policies. After the Asian Financial Crisis, China moved actively to embrace regionalism and subsequently stimulated Japan to accelerate bilateral negotiations on economic partnership agreements. In the first decade

of the millennium, the FTA boom became the conspicuous phenomena in East Asia. Motivations behind the scene of China and Japan’s pursuit in FTA negotiations are more political and legal than economic. Therefore, the logic to adopt FTA policies closely follows the competition hypothesis. As for economic motivation, both China and Japan have different interests in pursuing FTAs. It is generally believed that China’s rapid growth of exports is based on their plenty and cheap labor resource. FTAs are most effective in lowering tariffs and substantially reducing the costs of both exports and imports. For China’s old-fashioned command enterprises, FTAs are considered to be a chance of enhancing the efficiency and productivity. China also attempted to use FTAs to make good use of ROOs. Even though WTO is not a shield for China to avoid impacts of ROOs on its vital exports, China can win better deals when negotiating ROOs based on its market power. Japan has a very different economic interest from China, however. Since the 1980s, Japanese business already extended their reach to Asian markets. Export was considered as the “life line” of Japanese economy. FTAs were deemed essential to maintain the competitive presence of Japanese multinationals in the region. The past decade, Japan diverted attention to bilateral FTAs with the largest ASEAN countries (Pekkanen, 2005). FTAs are important vehicles that facilitate Japan to build production networks and regional export platforms in ASEAN countries and to keep up with the competition from Chinese products. As China incrementally transforme itself from the “world factory” to the “world market,” the Japanese business community also began to demand preferential trade negotiations with its largest trading partners, say China, U.S., and EU. If we consider China as another candidate in competing for regional leadership, China’s political logic in seeking FTAs is no less important than the economic one. As a major power, China’s FTA strategy needs to serve the political goals in order to enhance its influence in the international political economy and expand its political and security space. Therefore, China makes FTAs an important tool for both economic as well as political diplomacy. For example, China signed

Liu, H. and Wang, J. W. Y. bilateral preferential agreements with Taiwan and Hong Kong based on the concept of Greater China Circle. China is also wary of Japan’s effort in negotiating FTAswithitsneighborsandimperative to reach key FTAs with ASEAN to break up the encirclement of Japan’s FTA strategy. Japan’s FTA policy is influenced by its diplomatic concern over the U.S. alliance, and security concern about China’s rise in this region. As the U.S. wielded two wars in the Middle East, U.S. put gravity of Asia policy away from Japan. Therefore, Japan argues that U.S. should negotiate bilateral FTAs as the most effective economic means to strengthen the US-Japan alliance. On the other hand, Japan is engaged in the race for regional leadership since the Asian Financial Crisis. Further, national leaders of both countries perceived great pressure on domestic nationalism. Japan gradually defines China as a potential threat. Therefore, the initiative of former Prime Minister Hatoyama to form the “East Asian Community” could be considered as a policy innovation in striking the right balance with China. Related to economic and political motivations, both China and Japan recognized the central importance of rule making in the multilateral framework. China has held a view that the existing international economic order is unfair and biased toward U.S. and EU. The concept of “harmonious world” also advocates a fair and rational international order. In G20 and WTO, China was always outspoken and opposed any linkage between trade and labor standards, and the use of environmental standards which limit China’s rights of economic growth. Japan, however, has abandoned its previous attachment on a consensual approach for regional trade agreements like APEC. Japan’s competitive legal strategy aimed to amend WTO provisions was deemed harmful to Japanese corporate interests. Both the Japanese government and business groups are also dissatisfied with multilateral antidumping code which is deemed by Japanese business as discriminatory treatment against Japanese business. Therefore, Japanese business interests identified FTAs as an opportunity to reform antidumping practices. Japan’s legal competitive strategy has created an FTA approach different from both NAFTA and the Chinese trade

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agreements. Japan’s FTAs are more comprehensive in terms of issue scope and legalistic than Chinese FTAs, which are considered as brief and vague without formal dispute settlement mechanism. In FTA negotiations with ASEAN, Japan was more skillful in luring East Asia by offering agricultural concessions through the Early Harvest Program when establishing its cross-border FTA networks. V. CONCLUSION The diffusion and dissemination of financial and FTA policies in East Asian countries resulted in closer integration in the regional level. Differences in the stages of FTA development and environment make governments adopt policies through strategic calculation. As to the financial coordination in East Asia, institutional slackness of ASEAN way and political rivalry of major powers hesitate East Asian countries to establish complicated and capable institutional arrangements for cross-border financial coordination and supervision. In the critical juncture of the Asian Financial Crisis, East Asian countries proposed to imitate institutional design of IMF for regional countries to cooperate on monetary sphere. The AMF proposal invited opposition from U.S., EU and IMF for fear of the threatening stability of the global financial system. Japan, China and ASEAN countries compromised to create CMI by expanding the existing ASEAN Swap Arrangement as a firewall against future financial crisis. Diffusion of FTAs is a different story which is different from cross-border financial coordination. Since the late 1980s, Japanese multinationals and economic bureaucrats were considered as a strong lobby in promoting trade policy. In the post-Cold War period, Japan and Australia cooperated in establishing a regional trade bloc emulating the EU counterpart. Confined by regional environment, multilateral framework of APEC fails to copy the EU model. Instead, as different motivations, strategic calculation, and political rivalry will make APEC like talking shop (Ashiawa, 2004). Eventually China and Japan decided to seek FTAs through bilateral negotiation. On the late stage of FTA adoption, competition is the main driving force. Economic, political, and legal motivations are diverse between China and Japan. By juxtaposing China and Japan together,

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FTA preference and pattern can be clearly discerned. For large countries, such as China and Japan, the motivation for FTA policies includes both economic and noneconomic goals. China’s choice of FTApartnersisbasedonthestrategiccalculation that China could extend its space in international market. Japan provides being another case where politics is clearly relevant but market access, particularly being shut out of existing markets for Japanese industries, is also an important concern. At the same time, the Japanese governments is preoccupied with the country’s uncompetitive domestic sectors, particularly agriculture, so that it cannot engage in FTAs with countries such as China and U.S. Pressures in political and legal competition are particularly central reasons for large states to engage in FTAs. China’s increasingly active pursuit of FTAs both in East Asia and in Latin America has pressured the U.S. The dissemination of their own models of economic integration is also important for the large countries. The rivalry between Japan and China has pushed these two countries into active FTA negotiations within the Asian region, since both want not only to demonstrate their trade leadership but also to establish their own model of FTA standards. China offers a non-legalistic FTA model that features selective liberalization without clauses on issues like environment and labor standards. Japanese FTAs, named as Economic Partnership Agreements or EPAs, contrarily promote WTOplus provisions including rules on investment and intellectual property. Other perspectives could be explored to see how Japan and China extend regional leadership competition. Both countries possess their own particular kind of soft power resources, saying public diplomacy, ideas and norms, or other means. Recent years, soft power analysis already offered a different perspective from traditional approaches in studying leadership (Cohen & Chiu, 2013). Japan’s limited success of translating its soft power into hard power and China’s failure in containing Vietnam implicate the conspicuous limit of soft power in real politics. From the ideological perspective, regional leadership may enjoy soft power advantage to influence regional states and shape the agenda. Yet, the limited

success of soft power in East Asia suggests both Japan and China have to be more serious about soft power. In the post-crisis period, there has been a significant change in the thinking of East Asian policymakers in developing a new regional financial and trade architecture by promoting self-help efforts. In this context the establishment of various regional organizations, the Chiang Mai Initiative and bilateral trade negotiations are efforts being made to expand regional integration. Yet, “political will” has to be developed for more concerted actions. Originality Index:

91 %

Similarity Index:

Paper ID:

685916128

Grammarly:

Checked

REFERENCES Acharya, A. (1997). Ideas, identity, and institutionbuilding: From the ‘ASEAN way’ to the ‘Asia-Pacific way’? The Pacific Review, 10(3), 319-346. Ashizawa, K. P. (2004). Japan, the United States, and Multilateral Institutional Institution-Building in the Asia-Pacific: APEC and the ARF. In. E. S. Krauss & T. J. Pempel (Eds.) Beyond Bilateralism: U.S.-Japan Relations in the New Asia-Pacific (248-271). Stanford, C.A.: Standord University Press Bénassy-Quéré, A. (1999). Optimal pegs for East Asian currencies. Journal of the Japanese and International Economies, 13(1), 44-60. Castellano, M. (2000). East Asian Monetary Union: More than Just Talk? JEI Report 12A, 9-12 Chalongphob, S. (2000). East Asian Monetary Cooperation 7 th Conference on AsiaPacific Cooperation in the Global Context : Regionalism and Globalism. Hak one, Japan: The Trilateral Commission Cohen, B. J., & Chiu, E. M. (2013). Power in a Changing World Economy: Lessons from East Asia. NY, USA: Routledge. Dent, C. M. (2008). What region to lead? Developments in East Asian regionalism

Liu, H. and Wang, J. W. Y.

and questions of regional leadership. In C. M. Dent (Ed.) China, Japan and Regional Leadership in East Asia (pp 3-33). MA, USA: Edward Elgar Publishing Goto, J. (2002). Economic preconditions for monetary integration in East Asia. Research Institute for Economics and Business Administration, 1-28 Hall, P. A. (1993). Policy paradigms, social learning, and the state: the case of economic policymaking in Britain. Comparative Politics, 25(3), 275-296. Hamanaka, S. (2008). Comparing summitry, financial and trade regionalism in East Asia: from the Japanese perspective. In C. M. Dent (Ed.) China, Japan and Regional Leadership in East Asia (pp. 67-83). MA, USA: Edward Elgar Publishing Higgott, R. (1998). The Asian economic crisis: a study in the politics of resentment. New Political Economy, 3(3), 333-356. Katzenstein, P. J., & Okawara, N. (1993). Japan’s national security: Structures, norms, and policies. International Security, 17(4), 84118. Krugman, P. (1998). Saving Asia: It’s time to get radical. Fortune-European Edition. 138(5), 74-80 Lin, C. L., & Rajan, R. S. (2001). The economics and politics of monetary regionalism in Asia. ASEAN Economic Bulletin, 18(1), 103-118. MacIntyre, A. J., Pempel, T. J., & Ravenhill, J. (2008). Crisis as catalyst: Asia’s dynamic political economy. NY: Cornell University Press. Manupipatpong, W. (2002). The ASEAN surveillance process and the East Asian monetary fund. ASEAN Economic Bulletin, 19(1), 111-122. Park, Y. C., & Wang, Y. J. (2002). Can East Asia Emulate European Economic Integration? Korea Institute for International Economic Policy, 2(9), 183-209 Pekkanen, S. M. (2005). Bilateralism, multilateralism, or regionalism? Japan’s trade forum choices. Journal of East Asian Studies, 5(1), 77-103. Qi, B. (2008). China Capital Markets Development

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Report: China Securities Regulation Commission. Rana, P. B. (2002). Monetary and financial cooperation in East Asia: the Chiang Mai Initiative and beyond. Manila, PH: Asian Development Bank Ravenhill, J. (2009). East Asian regionalism: much ado about nothing?. Review of International Studies, 35(S1), 215-235. Ross, B. (2001). An evaluation of the feasibility and desirability of the proposal for an Asian Monetary Fund. Melbourne, Australia: Australian APEC Study Centre. Simmons, B. A., Dobbin, F., and Garrett, G. (2006). Introduction: The international diffusion of liberalism. International Organization. 60(4), 781-810. Simmons, B. A., Dobbin, F., & Garrett, G. (2007). The global diffusion of public policies: Social construction, coercion, competition or learning? Annual Review of Sociology, 33(1), 449-472. Suh, D. C. (2002). Asia’s Monetary Regionalism in the Post Crisis. University of Illinois: Urbana-Champaign. Wang, Y., & Woo, W. T. (2002). A Study on information exchange, surveillance systems, and regional institutions in East Asia. Conference on East Asian Monetary and Financial Co-operation – Concepts, Policy Prospects and the Role of the Yen. Hamburg, Germany

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UV Journal of Research 2015

Policy enhancing delivery of public services Amelia Girly L. Aranas College of Arts and Sciences Cebu Technological University, Philippines dr.glaranas@yahoo.com Date Submitted : August 24, 2015

Date Accepted : September 7, 2015

ABSTRACT The study analyzes the implementation of the public services of the practitioners in the government office through the implementation of the Anti-Red Tape Act of 2007, otherwise known as “Act to Improve Efficiency in the Delivery of Government Service to the Public by reducing Bureaucratic Red Tape preventing Graft and Corruption, and Providing Penalties” in government offices and agencies including local government units and government-owned or controlled corporations among national and local agencies, towards efficient model. Furthermore, this utilizes the quantitative research method, specifically a descriptive-survey design on the efficiency of public service delivery model for government offices. The study finds out that the government agencies have been implementing the policies. Therefore, when government officials administer the mandate of law, the government attains the principle of good governance; thus, gaining public trust. Keywords: feedback mechanism, implementation of ARTA , public services,

I. INTRODUCTION Governments across the world have introduced reforms to social care services to diversify providers; authorities with responsibility for provision of social care towards services from independent for-profit and not for-profit firms (Barton & Chappel, 1985). Public services are defined as those provided by the government for theirconstituentsintwoways:(1) directly, through the public sector, and/or (2) by handing financial aid that can be used to attain these services. Bylaws that apply to various sectors assess public services to check that they are not provided or financed for social or political motives. Thus, the researcher claims that if government officials follow and implement the government policies, public trust to the government itself is regained. Trust is the subjective awareness that an individual, group, or organization is engaging in

positive action. Trust is able to shape behavior based on its subjective nature, specifically, because it is largely hinged upon the “eyes of the beholder”. As David (1965) posited, it can be safely said that when citizens trust their government, it means they are confident in the government’s ability to do what is perceived by the citizenry as right and just. Therefore, this kind of trust relies on whether there is an agreement between the people’s interpretations and beliefs of what is right and just, and their perceptions on whether the government is actually able to behave according to these values (Bouckaert & van de Walle, 2003). Public office is a public trust as embodied in the 1987 Philippine Constitution. Bouckaert (2012) said that policy effectiveness depends not solely on whether citizens or organizations trust

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the government—as a matter of fact, it goes both ways. The success of policy design is also hinged on whether the government trust its citizens and organizations, and there must be a high amount of shared trust within the members of government itself. Connected to the concept of trust is ethics and accountability, which are both responsibilities of people elected for office in the Philippine government. Ethics, which deals with moral concepts of right and wrong, is of course a heavy responsibility attached to public officials. In certain cases however, some actions considered insignificant when they are done by regular citizens. However this might not be judged as trivial when they are done by people in public service. Various factors affect people’s trust in their public officials. For a long time, the loss of political support was explained through a real decline of government performance. However, Dalton (2005) posits that the reason might be something else. For example, there has been an identified trend that the more educated a group of citizens are, the higher their expectations for their government. This becomes a problem when expectations rise faster than the government’s ability to meet these demands. As a result, there is a marked decrease in people’s trust and satisfaction in public officials. Another factor that possibly affects the trust of citizens in government is the nature of their experience in service delivery. Positive experiences raise trust in government of course, but the impact of negative experiences on public trust is much heavier and stronger. According to Kampen, DeWalle and Bouckaert (2006); this is the reason why programs designed to improve trust in government must be targeted towards citizens who are dissatisfied with public services. According to Putnam (2000), overall social trust can be determined by interpersonal trust among citizens and their civic engagement within their own communities. However, this relationship may also vary, depending upon the context of the situation. As stated by Aghion, Algan and Cahuc (2010), some countries possess low levels of social trust, leading them to rely on government institutions to represent their interest. Campbell (in Chapman, 2000) declares that government officials who are assigned to complex

departments have accountabilities to three things: (1) their immediate responsibilities; (2) political leaders; and (3) the citizenry in general. Therefore, the study describes the implementation of the RA 9485 which aims: (1) to promote efficiency and transparency in government with regard to the manner of transacting with the public by requiring each agency to simplify frontline service procedures; (2) to formulate service standards to observe in every transaction; and (3) to make these standards known to the clients/citizens. II. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK The focal point of the study is all about implementation of the public services of the practitioners in the government office in the implementation of the Anti-Red Tape Act of 2007 otherwise known as Act to Improve Efficiency in the Delivery of Government Service to the Public by reducing Bureaucratic Red Tape preventing Graft and Corruption, and Providing Penalties; in a government offices and agencies including local government units and government-owned and controlled corporations. It also seals this commitment between government and citizens by the Citizen’s Charter. Republic Act No. 9485 states in Article II, Section 27 of the 1987 Constitution, “The State shall maintain honesty and integrity in the public service and shall take positive and effective measures against graft and corruption.” The Act is a consolidation of Senate Bill No. 2589 and House Bill No. 3776. The bills were passed by the Senate and House of Representatives on February 8, 2007 and February 20, 2007 respectively. The Act was passed to answer the necessity of establishing a system that will eradicate bureaucratic red tape, prevent graft and corrupt practices and improve the delivery of government frontline service. ARTA 2007, rule IV. Citizen’s Charter Section 1. The Citizen’s Charter shall include the following information: (a) Vision and mission of the government office or agency; (b) Identification of the frontline services offered, and the clientele; (c) Step-by-step procedure to obtain a particular service; (d) Officer or employee responsible for each step; (e) Maximum time to conclude the process; (f) Document/s

Aranas A. G. L. to be presented by the client, with a clear indication of the relevancy of said document/s; (g) Amount of fees, if necessary; (h) Procedure for filing complaints in relation to requests and applications, including the names and contact details of the officials/channels to approach for redress; (i) Allowable period for extension due to unusual circumstances; i.e. unforeseen events beyondthecontrolofconcernedgovernmentoffice or agency; and (j) Feedback mechanisms, contact numbers to call and/or persons to approach for recommendations, inquiries, suggestions, as well as complaints. In Section 2, the Citizen’s Charter shall be in the form of information billboards which should be posted at the main entrance of offices or at the most conspicuous place, and in the form of published materials written either in English, Filipino, or in the local dialect. In Section 3, The head of office or agency shall constitute a task force to prepare a Citizen’s Charter pursuant to the provisions of the Act and these Rules, taking into consideration the stakeholders, users and beneficiaries of the frontline services, and shall conduct consultative formulation and refinement of the provisions of the Charter. In Section 1 of ARTA 2007, rule VI, titled Accessing Frontline Services states that all offices and agencies are enjoined to undertake on a continuing basis programs to promote customer satisfaction and improve service delivery, and other similar activities for officers and employees in frontline services. In Section 2, titled the Acceptance and Denial of the Applications and Requests asserts that: (1) all officers or employees shall accept written applications, requests, and/or documents being submitted by clients of the office or agency; (2) the responsible officer or employee shall acknowledge receipt of such application and/or request by writing or printing clearly there on his/her name, the unit where he/she is connected with, and the time and date of receipt; (3) the receiving officer or employee shall perform a preliminary assessment of the request so as to promote a more expeditious action on requests, and shall determine through a cursory evaluation the sufficiency, of submitted requirements for a request or application taking into consideration the determined response time for the transactions; (4) all applications and/

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or requests in frontline services shall be acted upon within the period prescribed under the Citizen’s Charter, which in no case shall be longer than five (5) working days in the case of simple transactions and ten (10) working days in the case of complex transactions from the time the request or application was received; and (5) depending on the nature of the frontline services requested or the mandate of the office or agency under unusual circumstances, the maximum time prescribed above may be extended. For the extension due to the nature of frontline services, the period for the delivery of frontline services shall be indicated in the Citizen’s Charter, which shall not be more than five (5) working days for simple transactions, and not more than ten (10) working days for complex transactions. The office or agency concerned shall notify the requesting party in writing of the reason for the extension and the final date of release of the frontline service/s required. In case the applicant disagrees, he/she may resort to the grievance or complaint mechanisms prescribed in the Citizen’s Charter. It is also noted that no application or request shall be returned to the client without appropriate action. In case an application or request is disapproved the officer or employee who rendered the decision shall send a formal notice to the client within five (5) working days from the receipt of the request and/or application, stating therein the reason for the disapproval including a list of specific requirement/s which the client failed to submit. Osbourne (2013) presents that for several years, modern public management has based most of its principles from concepts born out of the manufacturing industry. This has led to a huge flaw because essentially, public service management is “service-oriented” while the manufacturing sector is of course product-driven. There is a negative disparity when product-driven management approaches are applied to management of public services. Serco (2008) states that bringing the right services to people should consider how local authorities are re-designing services to meet their own outcomes, as well as the expectations of their citizens. In addition, his objective is to support local authorities in delivering the right services

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through the right channels to reach the people at the right time and at the right cost. If this will be attained, then the local authorities and citizens will be the beneficiaries of an improved quality cost and service. Furthermore, his approach shapes citizens regarding their attitudes, behaviors and preferences towards the government. On the other hand, the local government offices can work out the ideal service for the community through nay channels. A key requirement if such a channel shift is to be successful includes ensuring that there is consistency in all service delivery, regardless of the strategies which provide consistent service delivery, regardless of the used channel. For example, a process that starts face-to-face may progress through the internet and be completed by phone, all with a consistent high standard of service. The more progress is made in developing and delivering digital services and the associated platforms and technologies, the quicker and easier it will be to implement rounded channel strategies which provide consistent service delivery. There is no question that we are in an era of massive cultural shift with demographics, social expectations, economics and digital technologies continuing to evolve at astonishing speed. The challenge for local authorities is how to design and deliver services that can evolve at the same pace, meeting both their own outcomes as well as the expectations of their citizens. III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The study utilized the quantitative research method, specifically the descriptive-survey design on the efficiency of public service delivery model for government offices. It describes the public practitioners on the implementation of the AntiRed Tape Act of 2007. The study adopted a standardized instrument that was a designed checklist from the Civil Service Commission based on the program of â&#x20AC;&#x153;pasadaâ&#x20AC;? which means visit. The research instrument comprised structured questions that measure how well each institution complies with ARTA 2007, particularly in terms of the presence of a vision-mision, clarity of systems and process, a feedback mechanism, and a complaint desk among others. Ten respondents were randomly

sampled each day for 3 days in each government agency through convenience sampling. Table 1 Distribution of Respondents Number of Clients Sampled Population

Agency

Department of Health (DOH) Department of Tourism (DOT)

Day 1

D ay 2

Day 3

TOTAL

100

300

Commission on Higher Education National

(CHED) Land Transportation Office (LTO) Department of Social Works and Development (DSWD) Cebu City (CC) Danao City (DC)

Local

Lapu-lapu City (LC) Mandaue City(MC) Talisay City(TC)

TOTAL

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Mandate of the identified agencies A mission in any organization serves as a guiding star in decision-making. The recipients of this mission are the shareholders, leaders and employees. To attain the mission, all of them must work hand-in-hand especially in doing assigned tasks and decision-making. In the context of government policies, officials must begin their implementation with a clearly defined mission. With a clear and specific mission and objective, they will have a sense of direction.

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Table 2 Mandate of Identified Agencyz Agency LTO

Mission Rationalize the land transportation services and facilities and to effectively implement the various transportation laws, rules and regulations. It is the responsibility of those involved in the public service to be more vigilant in their part in the over-all development scheme of the national leadership. Hence, promotion of safety and comfort in land travel is a continuing commitment of the LTO.

Visions A frontline government agency showcasing fast and efficient public service for a progressive land transportation sector. http://www.lto.gov.ph/about-us/transparencyseal/99-about-us/vision-mission-mandate

http://www.lto.gov.ph/about-us/transparency-seal/99about-us/vision-mission-mandate CHED

Given the national government’s commitment to transformational leadership that puts education as the central strategy for investing in the Filipino people, reducing poverty, and building national competitiveness and pursuant to Republic Act 7722. http://www.ched.gov.ph/index.php/home/about-ched/ vision-mandate/

The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) is the key leader of the Philippine Higher Education System effectively working in partnership with other major higher education stakeholders in building the country’s human capital and innovation capacity towards the development of a Filipino Nation as a responsible member of the international community. http://www.ched.gov.ph/index.php/home/aboutched/vision-mandate/

DOH

To guarantee equitable, sustainable and quality health for all Filipinos, especially the poor, and to lead the quest for excellence in health.

A global leader for attaining better health outcomes, competitive and responsive health care system, and equitable health financing.

DOT

The Department of Tourism (DOT) shall be the primary government agency charged with the responsibility to encourage, promote, and develop tourism as a major socio-economic activity to generate foreign currencyand employment and to spread the benefits of tourism to both the private and public sector.

The Vision of the Department of Tourism is To become the “MUST EXPERIENCE” destination in Asia. http://asiapacific.unwto.org/sites/all/files/pdf/ philippines

http://asiapacific.unwto.org/sites/all/files/pdf/ philippines DSWD

To develop, implement and coordinate social protection and poverty reduction solutions for and with the poor, vulnerable and disadvantaged.

We envision a society where the poor, vulnerable and disadvantaged are empowered for an improved quality of life.

Danao City

DANAO CITY: Social Development Sector. To provide adequate health, education and employment, peace and order, housing and basic utilities, social welfare, disaster risk reduction and management activities and sports development services.

DANAO CITY shall be the center for economic growth and catalyst in the mid-northern part of the province. http://danaocity.gov.ph/index.hp?option=com_conten t&view=article&id=74:vision-mission

http://danaocity.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content& view=article&id=74:vision-mission

Mandaue City

Create an environment of sustainable economic growth and a liveable society trough responsive governance and multi-sectoral involvement. http://www.mandauecity.gov.ph/

LapulapuCity Talisay City

By 2020. Is a primary source of a high quality manufactured consumer products. http://www.mandauecity.gov.ph/

Develop highly competent, dedicated, disciplined and motivated workforce.

A progressive mid-north city through good and apt infrastructure facilities.

http://www.lapulapucity.gov.ph/

To promote and sustain environmental balance, economic stability and social equity for the welfare of its empowered citizenry.

An environmentally sustainable Aqua City with a happy empowered citizenry working towards a peaceful and progressive community in a diversified economy guided by dynamic and efficient local leadership.

www.talisaycitycebu.gov.ph/

www.talisaycitycebu.gov.ph/ Cebu City To carry on the essence of good governance through the enhanced culture of excellence and transparency. www.cebucity.gov.ph/

Firm, collaborative and supportive leadership. www.cebucity.gov.ph/

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Table 2 presents the respective vision and mission of respective agency. Vision is an imagined and anticipated depiction of the organization in the future, which serves as a guide on what the organization eventually wants to become. A mission, on the other hand, sets a directive on what must be accomplished (Abrahams, 1995). It is a specific statement that clearly identifies the organization’s purpose, or the reason why it exists in the first place. In other words, it is the main

objective upon which the organization’s programs and plans of action must be based on organizations accomplish their mission and pursue their vision. It implies a clear mandate that all government agencies including departments, bureaus, offices, instrumentalities, or government-owned and/or controlled corporations, or local government or district units, shall set up their respective service standards to be known as the Citizen’s Charter. Descriptive Response

Agency National

Local

Legend:

Department of Health

3.23

Department of Tourism

3.19

Department of Social Welfare and Development

3.09

Commission on Higher Education

3.68

Land Transportation Office

2.99

Cebu City

3.15

Danao City

2.88

Lapu-lapu City

2.98

Mandaue City

2.91

3.03

Talisay City Scale 4 3 2 1

Range 3.26-4.00 2.51-3.25 1.76-2.50 1.00-1.75

Table 3 shows the compliance as to the implementation of the Anti-Red Tape Act of 2007 into the national agencies, namely: Department of Health, Department of Tourism, Department of Social Welfare and Development, Department of Social Welfare and Development, Commission on Higher Education, and Land Transportation Office H. R. 3776 (2007). It means that compliance of Anti-Red Tape Act of 2007 was well-disseminated posted (i.e. materials of No Noon Break Policy for the frontline officers; wearing of identification card; Citizen’s Charter (containing service commitments on transaction steps, cost, and time) and Public Assistance / Complaints Desk). Likewise, local agencies namely: Cebu City, Danao City, Lapu-lapu City, Mandaue City and Talisay City gave positive responses with regard to implementation. All government departments

Descriptive Equivalent Well Implemented (WI) Implemented (I) Less Implemented (LI) Not Implemented (NI)

have to be efficient because they have to ensure valuefortaxpayers’money.Efficiencyencompasses the qualitative and value-laden expectations of the society. According to Hondeghem (1998), public accountability rests both on giving an account and on being held to account. The implication of determining the extent of compliance aims to promote transparency in government with regard to the manner of transacting with the public by requiring each agency to simplify frontline service procedures, formulate service standards to observe in every transaction and make known these standards to the client. V. CONCLUSION Public services of the practitioners in the government office, in the implementation of AntiRed Tape Act of 2007 among national and

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Routledge. local agencies of Metro Cebu for calendar year 2014 were implemented. Therefore, when the Putman, R. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community, New York: government officials administer the mandate of Simon and Schister regionalism. Regional law, the government has attained the principle of Development Studies, 7(1), 1-32. good governance; thus, good public service gains Serco. (2008). NAPSAC technical summary: Release the public trust. 9.6 (SA/ENV/CONNECTFLOW/12). Didcot, Oxfordshire: Author. Retrieved from Originality Index: 98 % https://www.stralsakerhetsmyndigheten. Similarity Index: 2% se/PageFiles/8776/SSM2011-2426-37%20 napsac_technical_9.6.pdf%20557669_1_1. Paper ID: 665485180 pdf Grammarly: Checked REFRENCES Algan, Y., Cahuc, P., & Shleifer, A. (2010). Regulation and distrust. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 125(3), 1015-1049 Barton, R., & Chappell, W. L. (1985). Public administration: the work of government. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman & Company. Bouckaert, G. (2012).Trust and PublicAdministration. Administration, 60(1), 91-115. Chapman, R. A. (2000). Ethics in public service for the new millennium. Vermont, USA: Ashgate Publishing Company Dalton, R. J. (2005). The social transformation of trust in government. International Review of Sociology, 15(1), 133-154. David, E. (1965). A systems analysis of political life. University of Chicago. New York: Wiley An Act to Improve Efficiency in the Delivery of Government Service to the Public by Reducing Bureaucratic Red Tape, Preventing Graft and Corruption, and Providing Penalties Therefor. HB No. 3776, 13th Cong. (2007) Kampen, J. K., De Walle, S. V., & Bouckaert, G. (2006). Assessing the relation between satisfaction with public service delivery and trust in government. The impact of the predisposition of citizenstoward government on evaluations of its performance. Public Performance & Management Review, 29(4), 387-404. Osborne, S. P. (2013). Voluntary organizations and innovation in public services. London: UK:

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The relationship between nursesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; emotional intelligence and their perceived work performance Ann Bernasyl E. Vestal College of Education University of the Visayas, Philippines abvestal@gmail.com Date submitted: September 8, 2015

Date of acceptance: September 21, 2015

ABSTRACT The study determined the relationship of emotional intelligence (EI) and work performance of nurses in a privately owned Level 2 General Hospital in Central Visayas. The study helped the administration in their organization to develop and explore the concept of EI to ensure high level of performance resulting in increased achievement of organizational and individual goals. The study utilized the descriptive-correlational survey method of research to determine EI and its effect on work performance. It revealed that the relationship between EI and work performance had a moderate positive correlation. Nurses exhibited a high degree of emotional intelligence on personal competencies and social competencies. They exhibited high performance on the four quadrants of EI namely: selfawareness, self-management, social awareness and relationship management. This concurred that EI and job performance had a significant positive relationship across the different measures. Keywords: Emotional Intelligence, Work Performance, Nurses I. INTRODUCTION In the healthcare organization, healthcare providers like health aides, midwives and nurses are the frontliners who deal with different types of people every day in the workplace. They could be their co-staff nurses, doctors and patients with different needs. On a day-to-day basis, a nurse may encounter different demands of emotional care, from simple health advice to the patients, then collaboration and communication with other nurses or doctors, to the demands of the supervisors and hospitalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vision, and up to the moment of comforting the dying patients and the significant others. Nurses should be resistant or put up a protective barrier to these demands for them to effectively and efficiently perform their job. The rate of young generations entering in the work force is increasing but the emotional

quotient is declining in all economic groups in various cultures. In the scenario of the privately owned Level 2 General Hospital in Central Visayas, there were common observations that 40 percent among the patients were dissatisfied with the care received from the nurses as stated in the study of Labe in 2011. In other case, it has been observed that the nurses are not utilizing the therapeutic communication towards clients and significant others as they are more focused on operating machines. Nursesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; bedside care is minimal as they are doing things unrelated to work or patient care during in between hours. This dilemma is supported by the survey of Al-Khouri (2010) which reveals that, 50% of the employees lack the motivation to keep learning and improving their job abilities or performances. Lastly, entry

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level applicants account for only 19% having selfdiscipline towards work habits. Duquette, Kerowe Sandhu and Beaudet (1994) have found out that nurses are most badly affected by stress, as their whole career revokes around caring and nurturing people. In the absence of such social support networks, personal qualities of nurses such as spiritual wellness and emotional intelligence are very important. Employers identified that entry level nurses are not yet ready to embrace the workplace because they process minimal social skills are inadequately prepared for their role, and they are ineffectually oriented to the work place (Bjerknes & Bjørk, 2012) it would be critical and would probably experience a transition shock (Taft, 2012). However, Joseph and Newman (2014) stated that if these people work with higher emotional intelligence, chances are they will have a better work performance. With todays’ modern organization, emotional intelligence’s popularity is increasing as it gives more weight or equivalent to Intellegence Quotient but Emotional Quotation is still neglected as one of the predictors in selecting or hiring personnel. Research on health care staff’s EI is rising but with limited number of local studies. With this, the researcher pursue the study to provide a wider view of people in the organization, specifically the staff nurses, perceptees or medical frontliners who are normally dealing with patience every day. Ultimately, the study aimed to determine the relationship of emotional intelligence and work performance of nurses who participated in the preceptorship program, which also dig in the following: (a) the level of emotional intelligence of the nurse preceptee; (b) the level of performance exhibited by the nurses; and (c) significant relationship between emotional intelligence and work performance.

(Goleman, 2002). Personal attribute is the person’s capability of managing or controlling one’s own emotions in whatever circumstances that may come. Selfawareness includes recognition of one’s own emotion and knowing the limitations and capabilities of the self. Emotional awareness, selfassessment and self-confidence comprise the selfawareness cluster. Emotional awareness is recognizing emotions and its effects. Nurses should recognize the scenario that may arouse own emotions, be aware of what they are feeling, realize the links between their feelings to their actions, and reflect on possible reasons for what the nurse is feeling (Serrat, 2009). Self-assessment is acknowledging the strong and weak points a nurse may have and accepting positive or negative feedback to avoid compromising their work. Self-confidence is one’s self-worth and capabilities. A nurse can stand up for what she or he thinks is right and can come up with a solution despite the pressures by believing in one’s capability. Self-management is the nurse’s ability to balance his or her own needs for the sake of other people like patients or other members of the health care team taking initiative, easily adapting to any situations and taking a new perspective. There are six competencies included in this cluster: self-control, transparency, adaptability, achievement, initiative and optimism. Self-control is the ability to cautiously manage distressing emotions, maintain composure or stay calm and remain focus even under pressure in a toxic workplace. A nurse with these skills must not show frustrations and does not impulsively act. Transparency competency on the other hand refers to maintaining veracity and integrity in which nurses will consistently or compatibly act with their values and ethical concerns. It also includes acknowledgment of mistakes as well as keeping the stated promises. In meeting people’s II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The study is anchored on Daniel Goleman’s needs in the hospital a nurse must be adaptable theory of Emotional Intelligence that has two on new ideas or flexible in applying standard categories, namely: (a) Personal; and (b) Social procedures, another competency a nurse must domains. These two domains are further clustered possess. It also means that the nurses should containing various competencies. Personal domain smoothly handle various unexpected demands include Self-awareness and Self-Management well from patients and other health team while Social Awareness belongs to Social domain member in every event. The nurse perceptee

Vestal, A. B. E. should make every effort and do their best to achieve the required standard in line with the hospital’s vision; that is why achievement is one of the competencies to be included to become emotionally intelligent. Nurses should set attainable goals with anticipation of some obstacles in achieving it; be result-oriented, take risks to reach goals and seek ways to improve their performance. Initiative competency refers to the readiness to act on opportunities, the nurse knows what to do and will not wait to be instructed by someone in case there is an emergency or sometimes seeks information in unnatural manner. It could also involve bending rules for the greater good. Optimism competency involves the hopefulness, cheerfulness and positivity despite setbacks, hindrances or obstacles. It allows learning from setbacks with the spirit of believing that the future will be better (Cherniss & Goleman, 2001). The first two clusters mentioned above are Personal attributes but the other remaining two belongs to Social competency. The latter is the ability of the nurse in handling relationships, using interpersonal skills to produce a positive outcome. Inclusions are Social Awareness and Relationship Management. Social awareness is knowing the feelings and needs of other people while Relationship management is the ability by the nurse to get the best out of others or simply

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inspiring or influencing them or by being a catalyst of change. The Social awareness cluster includes empathy, service orientation and organizational awareness. Empathy is the ability to listen attentively, show concern and is the core of social awareness by putting oneself in the shoes of others, which aids in gaining understanding of how others may feel. Nurses with service orientation competency are those who gladly offer appropriate service or assistance and can find ways on how to serve their patients better. Lastly, organizational awareness competency refers to one’s ability of reading or interpreting situations and understanding unspoken rules and historical reasons of various issues within the organization and; the ability to detect vital or crucial social network within the organization (Goleman, 2002). Relationship management is the last cluster that concerns the ability or skills to stimulate expected responses from the others. It includes six competencies: developing others, inspirational leadership, change catalyst, influence, conflict management, teamwork and collaboration. Developing Others refers to sensing other people needs and amplifying their abilities through giving of constructive criticism, appreciating the strengthsandprovidingguidancethroughcoaching or perceptor-perceptee relationship. Inspirational Leadership involves inspiring and leading other

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of the Theoretical Framework based from the Goleman’s Theory of Emotional Intelligence (2002). Goleman’s

Emotional (2002)

Precept ee

Self-Awareness

Social Awareness

Self-Mana geme nt

Relati onshi p Manage ment

Work

Perform ance

Propose d

Action

Plan

Social Competency

Personal Competency

Nurse

Intellige nce

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people by making their work exciting. It simply intelligence, the researcher used the means managing the emotions of other nurses to Emotional Competence Inventory 2.0 get the work done, not merely the position that will Scales based on the competencies point out the nurse as a leader (Goleman, 2002). enumerated by Goleman. This is a survey A Change Catalyst is an individual that initiates instrument based on the Self-Assessment and manages change within the organization. Questionnaire (SAQ) developed by Nurses should be advocates of change and have a Boyatzis, Goleman and Rhee (2000), forward thinking ability as a means of improving the emotional competencies identified oneself and the entire organization. Influence by Goleman (1998), as well as on the means applying or enforcing effective strategies competencies from Hay/McBer’s Generic for persuasion in a possible way that can develop Competency Dictionary (Boyatzis, other people rather than getting something out Goleman & Rhee, 2000); and from others. Handling difficult people and tense (c) level of performance in terms of Personal situations subtlety or resolving disagreements is and Social Competencies. The researcher a Conflict Management competency. A nurse acts utilized the questionnaire made by Yee as a rift healer between two opposing poles in the (2010). The collected data was analyzed workplace. Lastly, teamwork and collaboration using mean, Normality Test, Effect size involves sharing same goals and working together and Pearson Product Moment Coefficient with other nurses. A nurse with this skill should of Correlation. build team identity and promote a good climate of friendship by soliciting input and establishing a IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS close relationship (Goleman, 1998). This section presents the level of Emotional Intelligence and Competencies towards the level III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY of Nurses’ Work Performance. The study utilized the descriptivecorrelational method. This method is useful in Level of Emotional Intelligence gaining the prevailing status or condition of the Goleman’s emotional intelligence composes of emotional intelligence and job performance which fourclustersthatcontainthreeorsixcompetencies areessentialorvitaltotheexistingpracticeswithin that would sum up to 18 competencies all in all. the organization. Descriptive studies discuss in detail what is designed for the researcher to Table 1. gather information about the present condition of Nurses’ Level of Emotional Intelligence the nurses in the hospital. Correlational method Cluster DE determines how the variations of one variable 4.01 High which is emotional intelligence go with other Self-awareness variables which in this study refers to work Self-management 4.05 High performance. Social awareness 4.1 High The study was conducted at the privately High owned Level 2 Hospital in Central Visayas where Relationship management 3.85 the respondents were the 103 nurses enrolled in the perceptorship program who consented to join the study. The respondents were purposively chosen. The researcher used the validated questionnaire that consists three parts: (a) demographic profile of the nurses; (b) level of emotional intelligence in terms of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness and relationship management. For the level of emotional

As shown in this table, the level of emotional intelligence among nurses is high in the four clusters. Social awareness includes the nurses’ ability to respond to the need of others, rank first of the four clusters with a mean of 4.1 which is parallel to the essence of the nursing profession, caring. In emotional intelligence, the essential building block or what we call the foundation is SocialAwareness.Instudybyagroupofresearchers

Vestal, A. B. E. from University of Michigan as published in the Time Magazine in 2010, it claimed that college students have significantly less empathy compare to the past generations. But based on the result of their current study, it opposes the result in the western country which means that Filipino nurses still have a great empathy towards others, meaning social awareness is a natural response to nurses. Self-management comes in next as second in rank with a slight difference between selfawareness. This is because a nurse cannot manage their emotions if they are not aware of their own emotions. According to Covey, the person has the ability to choose responses in any given situation, and this applies to emotions. Next to Self-management is the keystone of emotional intelligence: Selfawareness (Goleman, 1998). When nurses know how to empathize it only means that they know their strengths and weaknesses and are able to control own emotions by not allowing anger and frustrations to affect their performance. Lastly, Relationship Management got the lowest rank among the four clusters with a weighted mean of 3.85.Inthiscluster,itisallabouttheabilityofgetting the best of others. The researcher understood that in the study it ranks fourth but still covers as the highest level in emotional intelligence, that is because most of the respondents were in the entry level in the workplace and on this stage they were the ones who needed to be inspired or motivated by someone rather than inspire others. Emotional Intelligence Competencies Nurses’ level of emotional intelligence was measured through the validated questionnaire created by the Power (2005) with the 72 item test. The said item test answered the 18 competencies under the four clusters of Goleman’s emotional intelligence which is shown in Table 2. As enumerated in Table 2, the 18 competencies are all in the highest level and each competency has a target level. Optimism ranked number one and got the mean of 4.39 as perceived by the nurses. It is claimed that Filipino nurses are optimistic amidst the misery in the various aspects of life. It is our known characteristic or trait whom foreigners admire much because Filipino nurses still share

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Table 2 Nurses’ 18 Emotional Intelligence Competencies

14.5 17

14.5 16

a positive spirit no matter how far they are from own families while caring for other people. This result agreed with the study of Schulman (1995) in which optimism is the main ingredient of achievement when individual obtains success despite setbacks, hindrances and hopes or looks of the brighter tomorrow. Schulman (1995) further claimed that this can significantly contribute to accomplishments as it agrees with Goleman’s statement that optimism requires hope and the motivating force in every goal or vision. Self-confidence, adaptability, initiativity, empathy, service orientation and conflict management have an optimal level of four while the remaining competencies have an optimal level of three. Even if all the competencies have a descriptive equivalent of high level, there are still three competencies that did not reach the required optimum level or target level. These three competencies are situated in the lowest rank. Change Catalyst earned the 16th rank with the mean of 3.64 but able to reach the required level. Initiative rank 17th with the mean of 3.82 and Conflict Management settled last with 3.5 which was supposed to reach the target level of 4.0. As the new nurses enter the workforce, they are overwhelmed by the stress as they will experience a transition shock (Duphily, 2014). This is factual since 91.26% of the respondents are new graduates who experienced reality shock

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that creates stress, lack of self-confidence, role conflict and lack of decisiveness resulting from a failure to make a choice. The remaining required competencies with an optimum level of four are the following: Service orientation which rank as second with the mean of 4.29, followed by Empathy in the 3rd rank with a mean of 4.22 and lastly the Adaptability on 5th place with the mean of 4.16. In India, 91% scored low in service orientation among health professionals based on the survey of Singh in 2012. This contradicts the result of the study, in which Filipino nurses are more oriented towards customer service as perceived by them and surpass the required target level. As mentioned by Ioannoke in 2008 in his study in Greece, Empathy is the bedside manner and should characterize health care professionals for them to achieve positive outcomes for patients. The famous Charles Darwin once said, “It is not the strongest of the species who survive, nor the most intelligent, but those who are most adaptive to change”. Nurses can make actions or decisions that are adaptive to their new workplace that will not only foster survival but also allow them to thrive. Nurses’ Level of Work Performance Table 3 Nurses’ Level of Work Performance on Personal Competencies Personal Compete nc ies

1. Present self positively to patients and to colleagues and have presence in mind in doing work.

4.58

Excellent

2. Conscious of own feelings towards others.

4.42

Excellent

3. Accept criticism graceful y and make necessary changes.

4.31

4. Can think clearly and stay focused under pressure.

Excellent Very 4.17 Sat isfactory

5. Do the task to the best of his or her ability.

4.77 Excellent

6. Take part in meeting hospital objectives, vision and mission.

4.32 Excellent

7. Can adapt hospital strategy to ϐit circumstances in the workplace. 8. Know how to improve my performance.

4.36 Excellent 4.4 Excellent

9. Act ively sought out opport unitiest o fu lϐ ilt hehospit alo bjectives, vision and mission.

4.17

10. Encourage others to participate in any creative activities.

Very Satisfact ory Very 4.06 Sat isfactory 4.35

Excellent

The level of work performance is discussed in terms of personal competencies and social competencies. Each competency is separately presented and discussed. Table 3 shows that the nurses obtained an average mean of 4.35 with the descriptive equivalent of excellent. Three out of 10 items presented in the table are very satisfactory and these are the following: item 4, thinking clearly and stay focused during under pressure has a mean of 4.17. In the study of Yee in 2010, the employed nurses got an mean of 4.13 of the same item which implies that whether a nurse is a perceptee or a regular employee it does not matter of the length of service, it matters on how a nurse manages himself or herself. Item 9, which relates to the previous item being discussed is about seeking out opportunities to fulfill the hospital objectives, vision and mission. Nurses rated it lesser compared to the other items since they are still in the training mode that focuses more on enhancing their own skills rather than thinking about the hospital’s vision and mission. Lastly, item 10, encouraging others to participate in any creative activities got an mean of 4.12. The result may not be in the highest level, but still the respondents have the desire to improve others job competency and securing professional advancement. Among the personal competencies on work performance the highest mean is item 5, (4.77) “doing the task to the best of the ability.” This aligns with the famous notion that says: “first impression’s last” because the greater weight of the population of the nurse perceptee belongs to the entry level in the workforce who want to present themselves impressively. The mean for the domain on performance is 4.35 which shows that the nurses are now ready and equipped with the needed competencies as they responded to different situations given because they now have apersonal healthycompetencies. and positive work performance on Level of Work Performance on Social Competencies Social competencies give details on how nurses deals with the other members of the team as well as the patients.

Vestal, A. B. E. Table 4. Nurses’ Level of Work Performance on Social Competencies Social Competencies

the nurses.

1. Help out in understandin g other people’s feelings and needs. 2. Appreciat e and recognize the health team emotions and concerns.

4.25 4.38

Excellent Excellent

3. Seek ways to increase patient’s satisfact ion and loyalty for health care providers. 4. In luence the health team members to do good job on achievin g organiz atio nal ϐ objectives.

4.4

Excellent

4.04

121

Very Satisfactory

5. Make sure the team develops clear objects.

3.96 Very Satisfacto ry

6. Appreciat e colleague’s accomplis hment s, strengths, and developments.

4.37

Excellent

7. Try to make health team members feel important and complim ent them.

4.33

Excellent

8. Build rapport and keep others in place. 9. Make and maintain personal friendships among work associat es.

4.5 4.49

Excellent Excellent

10. Promote a friendly and cooperative culture to the health team members and even to the patients.

4.51

Excellent

4.32 Always Done

Table 5. Emotional Intelligence and Work Performance Emotional Intelligence and Work Performance

Critical r value

Computed r value

Decision

Interpretation

0.426

0.46938

Reject Ho

Strong positive correlation; significant

As shown in the table, the computed r value is 0.46938 which means that the emotional intelligence has a moderate positive correlation to work performance that will reject the null hypotheses. This result corresponded with the study of Codier et al. who examined the 27 clinical staff nurses in the United States regarding the relationship between emotional intelligence and nursing performance with a significant correlation between the two variables. Same results are found in the correlation study of Van Rooy (2004) considered EI as predictor of job performance than general intelligence. This implies that Emotional Intelligence is a predictor of work performance. To best illustrate the relationship of the two variables it was presented through a scatter plot as shown in Figure 2.

Table 4 shows that the nurses obtained a mean of 4.32 with the descriptive equivalent of excellent. Two out of 10 items presented in the table are very satisfactory and these are the following: item 4, “influencing the health team members in doing a good job to achieve organizational objectives” has a mean of 4.04. It has the same result in the study of Yee in 2010, where the employed nurses got a mean of 4.06 of the same item. Item 5, “ensuring that the team develops clear objects”, has a mean of 3.96. In the study of Yee in 2010, the nurses got a mean of 3.75 of the same item which is also included under the category of “usually done” but with a lower mean compared with the present study. The Medical and Ancillay and the Administrative Department had greater mean of 4.17 and 4.0 respectively. This implies that nurses have involvement in developing the objectives of the hospital but are not perfectly done since most Figure 2 Scatter Plot of Emotional Intelligence and Work Performance of them are new to the organization. The result may not be in the highest level, but still the nurses Computingforthecoefficientofdetermination were exercising good social competencies. furthermore reveals that only 22.03% of work performance is accounted for by level of emotional Relationship between Emotional Intelligence intelligence, and vice versa. The coefficient of and Work Performance alienation on the other hand tells us that 77.97% Table 5 presentes the relationship between of work performance is best explained by other emotional intelligence and work performance of factors.

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V. CONCLUSION It can be concluded that the theory of EI is applicable here in the Philippines. As a result of this study it is confirmed that the nurses exhibited a high degree of emotional intelligence on personal competencies and social competencies. They exhibited high performance on the four quadrants of emotional intelligence namely: Selfawareness, self-management, social awareness and relationship management. Further, they manifested a very high performance on optimism, service orientation, empathy and achievement. The fact that EI has a significant relationship with the performance may be valuable or applicable for other staff in the institution such as the staff nurses, nurse supervisor or all the hospital employees. Originality Index:

91 %

Similarity Index:

Paper ID:

635683288

Grammarly:

Checked

REFERENCES TAl-Khouri, A. M. S. (2010). Improving organisational performance. The Association on Employment Practices and Principles (AEPP), 10(5), 384-394 Bjerknes, M. S., & Bjørk, I. T. (2012). Entry into nursing: an ethnographic study of newly qualified nurses taking on the nursing role in a hospital setting. Nursing Research and Practice, 2012(1), 1-7. doi: 10.1155/2012/690348 Boyatzis, R. E., Goleman, D., & Rhee, K. (2000). Clustering competence in emotional intelligence: Insights from the Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI). In R. Baron & J. D. A. Parker (Eds.), Handbook of emotional intelligence (pp 343-362). San Francisco, USA: Jossey-Bass Codier, E. (2012). Emotional intelligence: Why walking the talk transforms nursing care. American Nurse Today, 7(4), 3-7. Codier, E., & Odell, E. (2014). Measured emotional intelligence ability and grade point average

in nursing students. Nurse Education Today, 34(4), 608-612. Duphily, N. (2014). LPN/LVN to BSN. New York: Springer Publishing Company Duquette, A., Kérowc, S., Sandhu, B. K., & Beaudet, L. (1994). Factors related to nursing burnout a review of empirical knowledge. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 15(4), 337-358. Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam books Goleman, D., & Cherniss, C. (2001). The emotionally intelligent workplace: How to select for, measure, andimproveemotionalintelligence in individuals, groups, and organizations. San Francisco, USA: Jossey-Bass. Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., & McKee, A., (2002). Primal leadership: Learning to lead with emotional intelligence. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Ioannidou, F., & Konstantikaki, V. (2008). Empathy and emotional intelligence: What is it really about? International Journal of Caring Sciences, 1(3), 118. Joseph, D. L., & Newman, D. A. (2010). Emotional Intelligence: An Integrative Meta-Analysis and Cascading Model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(1), 54-78. Labe, C. (2011). The performance of perceptees and the level of satisfaction of patients at Vicente Gullas Memorial Hospital. (Unpublished master of arts in nursing thesis). University of the Visayas, Cebu City. O’Boyle, E. H., Humphrey, R. H., Pollack, J. M., Hawver, T. H., & Story, P. A. (2011). The relation between emotional intelligence and job performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32(5), 788-818. Power, P. (2005, May). Emotional Intelligence: Soft Skill with a Hard Edge. New Zealand Management, 52(4), 29. Seligman, M. E. P., & Shulman, P. (1986). Explanatory style as a predictor of productivity and quitting among life insurance sales agents. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50(4), 832–838. Serrat, O. (2009). Understanding and developing emotional intelligence. Singapore: Springer Singapore Singh, K. (2012). Enhancing service orientation

Vestal, A. B. E.

through emotional intelligence amongst health care professionals: A case study of government hospital in Delhi, India. Retrieved June 2, 2015 from https:// papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_ id=2140763 Stys, Y., & Brown, S. (2004, March). A Review of the Emotional Intelligence Literature and Implications for Corrections. Retrieved from http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/research/ r150-eng.shtml Taft, S. H. (2006). Emotionally intelligent leadership in nursing and health care organizations. In L. Roussel (Ed.). Management and Leadership for Nurse Administrators (pp. 28-44) Boston, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers Van Rooy, D. L., & Viswesvaran, C. (2004). Emotional intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation of predictive validity and nomological net. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65(1), 71-95. Yee, J. C. (2010). Emotional intelligence and job performance of hospital employees at Saint Anthony Mother and Child Hospital: Basis for upgrading. . (Unpublished master of arts in nursing thesis). University of the Visayas, Cebu City.

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Work motivation and organizational citizenship behavior of employees Eden Rose P. Malanao1 Edsel P. Inocian2 Geronima Emma A. Amores 3 Joan P. Bacarisas 3 Glan Community Medical Hospital, Philippines 1 Velez College, Inc., Philippines 2 Graduate School University of the Visayas, Philippines 3 gmch2009@yahoo.com Date submitted: February 10, 2015

Date of acceptance: March 3, 2015

ABSTRACT Over the past years, many hospitals in developing countries face intense demand for maintaining and improving work motivation and the organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) of their employees to become more productive and to develop increased job satisfaction. As such, the researchers assessed the relationship between the work motivation in terms of commitment, passion, involvement, contentment, goals, excellence and team work; and organizational citizenship behavior among hospital employees in a level I hospital in Region XII, Philippines. The study used a descriptive-correlation research design. It utilized the motivation checklist and the Organizational Citizenship Behavior Checklist (OCB-C). As revealed, the overall level of work motivation of the employees was very high. The employees had very high level of work passion, involvement, contentment, teamwork and goals, where as, excellence and commitment were high levels. The overall level of organizational citizenship behavior of the employees was very good. There was also a significant correlation between the variables. Therefore, work motivation and organizational citizenship behavior of hospital employees affect each other. Thus, the findings supported the SelfDetermination Theory (SDT) and the Social Exchange Theory. Keywords: behavioral, descriptivecorrelational design, organizational citizenship behavior, Philippines, Asia, work motivation I. INTRODUCTION Over the past years, many hospitals in developing countries face intense demand for maintaining and improving work motivation of their employees to become more productive and to develop increased job satisfaction. As motivated employees who are properly trained, they can significantly contribute to the realization of the

Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and the organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), which are deemed indispensable due to its importance in promoting positive relationships among employees themselves and involving employees in the organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s activities (Chu et al., 2005). The performance of the employees particularly

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are attributed to the high motivation and the organization citizen behavior must be greatly considered. Motivation plays an important role in enhancing the performance of the hospital employees; thereby, contributing to the overall productivity of the organization. Motivated employees can contribute to the realization of the MDG. Therefore, managers must describe the reasons to work and choose a proper motivational strategy. According to Willis-Shattuck, Bidwell, Thomas, Wyness, Blaauw and Ditlopo (2015), motivational factors are influenced by context such as the financial incentives, career development and management issues as the core factors. On the other hand, organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB) are important in promoting positive relationships among employees and involving employees in the organization’s activities. OCB is believed to facilitate attainment of a hospital’s goals and enhance a hospital’s performance (Chu, Lee, Hsu & Chan, 2005). Philippine hospitals likewise continue to face intense demand for maintaining and improving work motivation and confronted with intense pressure to control operating costs. Many have resorted to staff reductions and other redesign efforts. Consequently, the remaining employees are asked to do more with less salary and benefits which contribute to decreased motivation. In these uncertaintimes, it isimportantthatadministrators understand the concepts of work motivation and organizational citizenship behavior to improve; thus, attract and retain those employees capable of exhibiting such behaviors. The hospital has its share of disgruntled overworked employees especially for frontliners in the clinical and nursing services. The tolerance for stress in the course of their job performance can sometimes approach unhealthy limits. Amidst hectic work demands, employees tend to internally gravitate the threatening organizational cohesion at their own departments. The study examined the organizational citizenship behavior and work motivation of hospital employees in a level I health care facility in Region XII, Philippines. Furthermore, it hopes to create a better view of the employees’ display of organizational citizenship behaviors and their sources of motivation in

order to provide a better environment for the employees and to benefit from the advantages of work motives and organizational citizenship behaviors; thus, human resource management. II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The study is primarily anchored on the SelfDetermination Theory by Deci and Ryan (2000) and Social Exchange Theory by George Homans as cited in Baxter and Braithwaite (2008). The Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a theory of motivation concerned with supporting natural or intrinsic tendencies to behave in an effective and healthy way. SDT has been researched and practiced by a network of researchers around the world. It represents a broad framework for the study of human motivation and personality. It articulates a meta-theory for framing motivational studies—a formal theory that defines intrinsic and varied extrinsic sources of motivation, and a description of the respective roles of intrinsic and types of extrinsic motivation in cognitive and social development and in individual differences. Perhaps more importantly, SDT propositions also focus on how social and cultural factors facilitate or undermine people’s sense of volition and initiative, in addition to their well-being and the quality of their performance. Conditions that support the individual’s experiences of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, are argued to foster the most volitional and high quality forms of motivation and engagement for activities including enhanced performance, persistence, and creativity. In addition, SDT proposes that the degree to which any of these three psychological needs is unsupported or thwarted within a social context will have a robust detrimental impact on wellness in that setting (McCally, 2010). Social Exchange Theory by George Homans introduced in 1958 as cited in Baxter and Braithwaite (2008) addition views exchange as a social behavior that may result in both economic and social outcomes (Lambe et al., 2001). The model (Searle, 1990) that emerges to explain social exchange theory is comprised of five central elements: first, behavior is predicated upon the notion of rationality, that, the more a behavior results in a reward the more individuals will behave that way; second, the relationship is

Malanao, E. R. P., Inocian, E. P., Amores, G. E. A. and Bacarisas, J. P. based on reciprocation, that, each individual in the relationship will provide benefits to the other, so as long as the exchange is equitable and the units of exchange are important to the respective parties; third, social exchange is based on a justice principle, in each exchange, there should be a norm of fairness governing behavior that is, the exchange must be viewed as fair when compared in the context of a wider network or to third and fourth parties; fourth, individuals will seek to maximize their gains and minimize their costs in the exchange relation; and fifth, individuals participate in a relationship out of a sense of mutual benefit rather than coercion. Thus, coercion should be minimized. These theories of social determination and on social exchange are vital in the explanation of the possible results of the study. They also help us understand the behavior of the employees toward their co-workers and to the hospital organization itself. III. OBJECTIVES The study assessed the work motivation and organizational citizenship behavior of hospital employees in a level I health care facility, Region XII, Philippines. Specifically, it answered the following objectives: (1) determine the level of work motivation among hospital employees in terms of commitment, passion, involvement, contentment, goals, excellence and team work; (2) describe the level of organizational citizenship behavior among employees directed towards the organization and co-workers;and (3) to determine wether a significant relationship exists between the levels of work motivation and organizational citizenship behavior of the hospital employees. IV. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The study utilized a descriptive-correlation research design. It assessed the work motivation and organizational citizenship behavior among hospitalemployees. Itdeterminedthemotivational levelintermsofcommitment,passion,involvement, contentment, goals, excellence and team work. It also assessed the level of organizational citizenship behavior among hospital employees directed towards the organization and coworkers. Finally, it determined the significant relationship between the work motivation and

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the level of organizational citizenship behavior among hospital employees directed towards the organization and co-workers. Moreover, the study was conducted in a level I hospital in Region XII, Philippines. It is a 30-bed, Center of Safety level I Government hospital, a Basic Emergency Obstetric and Neonatal Care (BEMONC) Facility, an Animal Bite Center (ABC) as well as a Newborn Screening Facility (NSF). The respondents of the study included all the employees in the hospital. They were completely enumerated. There were a total of 64 hospital employees. Table 1 presents the background characteristics of the respondents in terms of age, gender, marital status, educational attainment, position, employment status, and length of experience. Table 1. Background characteristics of the respondents %

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Instruments The study used three instruments. The first instrument was a profile sheet developed by the researchers. It ascertained the background characteristic of the hospital employees in terms of age, gender, marital status, educational attainment, position and length of service. Table 2. Parameter for the motivational level

Parameter Limits Response Categories Interpretations 4.21-5.0 Strongly Agree Very High 3.41-4.20 Agree High 2.61-3.40 Neither Agree or Disagree Moderate 1.81-2.60 Disagree Low 1.00-1.80 Strongly Disagree Very Low The second instrument was a motivation checklist adapted from Whitaker (2011). It consisted of 28 items that determined the motivational level in terms of commitment, passion, involvement, contentment, goals, excellence and team work. The scoring is modified to fit in the context of the study as seen in the table above. Table 3. Parameters for the organizational citizenship behavior

Weights 5 4 3 2 1

Parameter Limits Response Categories Interpretations 4.21-5.0 Everyday Excellent 3.41-4.20 Once or twice per week VeryGood 2.61-3.40 Once or twice per month Good 1.81-2.60 Once or twice Fair 1.00-1.80 Never Poor

Finally, the third instrument assessed the level of organizational citizenship behavior among hospital employees directed towards the organization and co-workers. The Organizational Citizenship Behavior Checklist (OCB-C) is a 20item scale designed to assess the frequency of citizenship behaviors in the workplace (Spector & Fox, 2005). Items ask respondents to indicate how often each behavior is performed by themselves

or others (e.g., co-workers or subordinates). Fox et al. (In press) reported coefficient alphas for the 20-item version of the OCB-C as .89 and .94 for two self-report samples, and .94 for a co-worker sample (co-workers reporting on the target employee). The scoring is modified to fit in the context of the study as seen in Table 2. Ethical Considerations Ethical considerations related to recruitment, informed consent process, privacy and confidentiality and conflict of interest were given importance in the research undertaking. For recruitment, the hospital employees were invited to participate in the study by the researchers because they can provide valuable information of the current undertaking. For the informed consent process, consent was obtained by the researchers. The Participant Information Sheet/Consent Form explicitly discussed the research project. It explained the involved processes in the study. Knowing what is not involved would help the respondents decide if they wanted to take part in the research. The researchers ensured the protection of the privacy of the subjects/participants and maintained the confidentiality of data including data protection plans. The questionnaires were stored in a cabinet with a lock. The researchers did everything they could to protect the privacy. The questionnaires were coded which did not require the respondents to write their names or any information associated with their personal identification. Finally, the data were treated as an aggregate and analyzed as a unit of the hospital rather as a whole. The identity of the respondents were not revealed in any publication resulting from the study. Finally, the authors declared that there were no potential conflicts of interest arising from financial, or to proprietary considerations or to the study site. Data Gathering Procedure the Before the actual gathering of data took place, researchers sent letters of intent with the r esearch proposal for the conduct of the study to the Dean of the Graduate School. After, another letter was sent to the Provincial Health Officer, the technical supervisor of the hospital. It significantly asked the assistance and cooperation of the different personnel to derive a desirable outcome of the study. After the approval, researchers coordinated with the Administrative Officer of the

Malanao, E. R. P., Inocian, E. P., Amores, G. E. A. and Bacarisas, J. P. hospital for the schedule of administration of the research tools. The researchers administered the tool personally to all employees so that questions were entertained and items that were not clear with the respondents were explained to ensure cooperation throughout the study. The researchers provided general instructions to respondents in filling in the items in the questionnaire. The researchers assured that all gathered data were treated with confidentiality and the researcher expressed gratefulness to the respondent after data collection. Statistical Treatment of Data The gathered data were tabulated for the analysis using the following: (a) Simple Percentage was used to analyze the background characteristics of the hospital employees; (b) Mean was also used to determine scores on the work motivation and organizational citizenship Table 4. Level of work motivation among hospital employees

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behavior among hospital employees; and (3) Pearson product moment correlation was used to determine the relationship between work motivation and organizational citizenship behavior among hospital employees directed towards the organization and co-workers. V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Table 4 presents the level of work motivation among hospital employees. As seen in table 2, the level of work motivation of the employees was very high. The employees have high level of work passion, involvement, contentment, teamwork, and goals. In addition, the employees have high level of excellence and commitment. In terms of work commitment, the employees strongly agree that they are highly productive. They also agree that they worked more than most people do and that they put more time on their job than they had to. They also agree that they rarely missed a day of work.

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Thus, they have high work commitment. This result shows that the hospital employees have high level of effort on behalf of the organization. As cited by Northcraft and Neale (1996), personal factors such as age and tenureship in the organization contribute to the level of commitment of employees. This is supported by Stead (2009) who mentioned that older workers showed higher levels of motivation than their younger colleagues. In the study, a significant proportion belonged to 20 to 30 years old but many employees also belonged to the older age bracketâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;above 30 years old. Moreover, although majority had one (1) to five (5) years of experience, a significant number had more than five years of experience signifying their tenureship in their job. However, there is lack of sufficient data to support that age and tenureship have a significant relationship with work motivation. Previous literature even mentioned of the possible associations, which could possibly explain the high level of commitment of the employees. In addition, this high level of commitment may be attributed to the idea that the employees are attached and loyal to their organization. Hence, hospital employees who are committed and can identify the goals and values of the organization, will have the tendency for increase desire to belong to the organization. They are also willing to display effort on behalf of the organization. Thus, these can be seen by the feedback of the respondents when they put more time on their job, they rarely miss a day of work, and they work more than the other employees do. Moreover, in terms of passion, the respondents strongly agreed that they put a lot of effort into their work and that they felt enthusiastic about their work. They also strongly agreed that they tried their best to come up with the most productive way to do their job. Meanwhile, they agreed that they tried harder to do a good job than most people did. Thus, they have very high passion for their work. Passion can be adaptive or maladaptive as one loses his or her reason when one is passionate of something. However, this very high level of passion is an adaptive one and can be attributed to the fact that employees found their work important and meaningful, and investing their time and energy to their job gives them a sense of satisfaction. Hence, they strongly agreed that they put a lot of effort on their work, felt enthusiastic of their work, and were more

productive with their job. This implies that hospital employees were given the opportunity to do what they do best and use their unique strengths and talents more often and effectively. In terms of involvement, the employees strongly agreed that they are interested in their work, that they concentrated hard on their work and that they did not feel bored when working. In addition, the employees agreed that they lose track of time because they were so busy working. Thus, they had very high work involvement. This implies that employees directly participate to help the hospital meet its objectives and fulfill its mission by applying their own ideas, efforts and expertise on how work is done and making decisions for improvement. Similar to passion, the level of involvement of the employees was directly proportional to their passion and interest in their work. This very high work involvement can be attributed to this fact and as reiterated by Tasnim (2006), an organization as well as the satisfactory service could be the main explanation why people are interested in working. In terms of contentment, the employees strongly agreed that they viewed their work itself as a reward and that they enjoyed their work. They also strongly agreed that they were happy most of the time when they were at work and that they felt good about their work standards. Thus, they had very high work contentment. This implies that employees enjoyed doing their work and the satisfaction it gave them. Most likely related to their job involvement, the contentment of the employees to their work is due to the fact that they find interest and satisfaction in their job. When job contentment gets better, the productivity of the organization is always higher. As mentioned, job contentment is about a person loving his or her job and finding accomplishment and fulfilment in it. In terms of goals, the employees strongly agree that it was important for their career to succeed in their job and that their positions offered great opportunities in their company. Moreover, they agreed that they sought additional job responsibilities and that they talked about future opportunities in the company. Thus, they had very high goals. The attribution of commitment and loyalty to the company inclined them to align their goals with the company. Hence, they become goal directed and output oriented on the demands of their work and the companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s expectation. As a result, it is not surprising that they have

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very high goals. According to the Goal Contents hence, they effectively develop and function and Theory (GCT), goals are seen as differentially experience wellness. The sources of motivation affording basic need satisfactions. Thus, these are of the employees were intrinsic and that they differentially associated with well-being. performed based on the satisfactions of behaving Employees had high excellence in their work. for its own sake. Thus, the result of the study is This high level of excellence may stem from supported by the Self-determination theory. high standards set by the organization, thus, the Table 5 presents the level of organizational expectations on the team become high as well. In behavior of the hospital employees. As seen order to keep up with the expectations, employees in Table 3, the overall level of organizational are pressured to do their best in their job citizenship behavior of the employees is very performance. With teamwork, employees strongly good. Certain behaviors that are more frequently agreed that they volunteered to take care of things done for others contribute to a very good level of they needed to get done and put extra effort into organizational behavior of the employees. Actions, their work to ensure that the team succeeds. As that are done by the employees once or twice per one becomes more involved in the goals set in the week, includes taking time to advise, coaching organization, the more the employees work hard or mentoring their co-workers, helping their coas a team. workers learn new skills or share job knowledge, More importantly, this very high level of work help their new employees get oriented to their motivation of the employees may be explained job, lend a compassionate ear when someone had further by the Self-Determination Theory wherein a work problem, offer suggestions to improve in the employees may have natural or intrinsic how work is done, and help a co-workers who had tendencies to behave in effective and healthy ways. much to do. For the employees, their needs were satisfied, Table 5. Level of organizational citizenship behavior among hospital employees Statements How often have you done each of the following things on your present job? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Picked up meal for others at work Took time to advise, coach, or mentor a co-worker. Helped co-worker learn new skills or shared job knowledge. Helped new employees get oriented to the job. Lent a compassionate ear when someone had a work problem. Lent a compassionate ear when someone had a personal problem. Changed vacation schedule, work days, or shifts to accommodate co worker’s needs. Offered suggestions to improve how work is done. Offered suggestions for improving the work environment. Finished something for co-worker who had to leave early. Helped a less capable co-worker lift a heavy box or other object. Helped a co-worker who had too much to do. Volunteered for extra work assignments. Took phone messages absent or busy co-worker. Said good things aboutfor your employer in front of others.

16. Gave up meal and other breaks to complete work. 17. Volunteered to help a co-worker deal with a difϐ icu lt customer, vendor, or co-worker. 18. Went out of the way to give co-worker encouragement or express appreciation. 19. Decorated, straightened up, or otherwise beauti ied common work ϐ space. 20. Defended a co-worker who was being "put-down" or spoken ill of by other co-workers or supervisor.

Mean

Interpretation

2.66 3.41 3.73 3.56 3.61 3.39

1.21 1.05 1.12 1.25 1.19 1.12

3.28

0.93

Good Very good Very good Very good Very good Good Good

3.55 3.45 3.16 3.13 3.77 3.20 2.59 3.31

1.11 1.15 1.17 1.19 1.15 1.13 1.24 1.33

Very good Very good Good Good Very good Good Good Good

3.28 3.31

1.08 1.10

Good Good

3.23

1.00

3.30

1.08

2.92

1.03

3.29

.307

Good Good Good Very good

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Behaviorsdonebytheemployeesonceortwice a month include picking up a meal for others at work; lending a compassionate ear when someone had a personal problem; changing a vacation schedule, work days and shifts to accommodate co-workers needs; finishing something for coworkers who had to leave early; helping a less capable co-workers lift a heavy box or other object; volunteering for extra work assignments; taking a phone message for absent or busy co-worker, saying good things about their employer in front of others; giving up a meal and other breaks to complete work; volunteering to help co-workers deal with a difficult patient; going out of the way to give co-workers encouragement or expressing appreciation; decorating; straightening up; or beautified common work place; and defending coworkers who have been put down or spoken ill of by other co-workers or supervisor. The results of the study can be implicated in the social exchange theory wherein the individual behaves in a certain manner that the more a behavior are rewarded, the more individuals will behave that way. Similarly, among employees, actions are governed by the results of their behavior of caring for their co-workers such as coaching or mentoring their co-workers if they have personal problems. Because if this can impede the functionality of their co-workers and as a member of a team, the team will be disrupted. Moreover, accommodating the needs of their coworkers gives them a mutual benefit of being given with the same privilege should they request a vacation or a change in shift or duty . Likewise, helping their co-workers will allow that person to help him or her should he or she will need the same kind of help or even more. This is explained as reciprocity in the relationship. That is, each individual in the relationship will provide benefits to the other so long as the exchange is equitable and the units of exchange are important to the respective parties, provided that it is fair and just. Thus, the social exchange theory is significantly depicted in these scenarios. Comparing the frequencies of why some actions are done more frequently than others may be affected by several factors but still can be explained further by the social exchange theory. As mentioned, these actions are governed by the

principle of reciprocity. That is one good deed or exchange from one entity will be returned at some point by the receiver of the good deed or exchange. However, if that person did not get good feedback from the favor he or she has given, this may consequently lead to a change in the behavior that could either decrease or increase the likelihood of doing the same action again. This kind of relationship is very important in the workplace as mutually dependent or reciprocal interactions under the right circumstances are able to generate high quality relationships. More specifically, this means that within organizations, if employees are satisfied with the outcomes of their workplace exchanges and relationships are more inclined to respond with greater performance by fulfilling obligations given by their supervisor and/or employing organization. Table 6 presents the relationships between the levels of work motivation and organizational citizenship behavior among hospital employees. It is presented in terms of the Pearson r, p-value, decision and interpretation. As shown in the table, a Pearson product moment correlation was conducted to evaluate the relationship between work motivation and organizational citizenship behavior of the hospital employees. There was a significant correlation between the two variables (r= .559, n= 64, p= .000). Hence, the null hypothesis was rejected. This result shows that the level of work motivation of the employees in terms of commitment, involvement, passion, contentment, goals, excellence, and teamwork are significantly related to the very good organizational level of the employees. This can be partly explained by the fact that the employees have good commitment to their workplace; hence, they developed adaptive behavior to their co-workers orienting and lending a hand to a new worker. Similarly, their involvement and passion allows them to skip their meals just to volunteer and finish their work. Meanwhile, their contentment allows them to enjoy and work together happily. Moreover, their very high goal enables them to become flexible and create an environment of caring for the other co-workers so that the task can be accomplished on time. Finally, their sense of teamwork influenced their behavior

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Table 6 Significant relationship between the levels of work motivation and organizational citizenship behavior among hospital employees (n=64) Variables

Pearson correlation

Levels of work motivation and organizational citizenship behavior of .559** the hospital employees **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Decision over Ho

Interpretation

Reject Ho

Significant

towards helping, motivating and encouraging one Originality Index: 94 % another in order to fulfill what is required of them. 6% How the employees do this may stem from the Similarity Index: reciprocal relationship that gives them a positive Paper ID: 664812588 outcome and reward. This can also be attributed Grammarly: Checked to the source of the motivation of the employees because employees’ sources of motivation offer some explanation of their organizational REFERENCES citizenship behavior although it did not specify the behaviour (Barbuto & Story, 2011). Finally, Barbuto, J., & Story, J. S. (2011). Work motivation and organizational citizenship behaviors. as there had been very few literatures citing Journal of Leadership Studies, 5(1), 23-342 the relationship between work motivation and Baxter, L. A., & Braithwaite, D. O. (2008). Relationorganizational behavior of employees, the study al dialectics theory: Crafting meaning from is a significant basis that contributes to the little competing discourses. In L. A. Baxter & D. body of knowledge on this topic. O. Braithwaite (Eds.), Engaging theories in interpersonal communication: Multiple perVI. CONCLUSION spectives (pp. 341–369). Los Angeles, CA: It is concluded that work motivation and Sage. organizational citizenship behavior of the hospital Chu, C.-I., Lee, M.-S., Hsu, H.-M., & Chen, I.-C. employees affect each other. Moreover, the findings (2005). Clarification of the antecedents of support the theory of motivation particularly the hospital nurse rganizational citizenship beSelf-Determination Theory (SDT) concerned with havior - An example from a Taiwan Regionsupporting natural or intrinsic tendencies of the al Hospital. Journal of Nursing Research, individuals to behave in effective and healthy ways. 13(4), 313-24. Finally, the study also affirms the Social Exchange Deci, E. L. & Ryan R. M. (2000). The “what” and Theory whose central elements included that “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs behavior of the hospital employees predicated and the self-determination of behavior. upon the notion of rationality, relationship is Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268. based on reciprocation, which based on a justice Lambe, C. J., Wittman, C. M., & Spekman, R. E. principle, maximizes their gains and minimizes (2001). Social Exchange Theory and Retheir costs in the exchange relation and participate search on Business-to-Business Relational in a relationship out of a sense of mutual benefit Exchange. Journal of Business-to-Business Marketing , 8(3), 1-36. rather than coercion. McCally, K. (July 2010). Self-Determined. Rochester Review, 72(6). Retrieved from http://www. rochester.edu/pr/Review/V72N6/0401_feature1.html

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Northcraft, G. B., Neale, M. A., Tenbrunsel, A., & Thomas, M. (1996). Benefits and burdens: Does it really matterWhat we allocate? Social Justice Research, 9(1), 27-45. Searle, M. S. (1990, May). Social exchange theory as a framework for understanding ceasing participation in organized leisure activities. Paper presented at Sixth Canadian Congress on Leisure Research of the University of Waterloo, Canada. Spector, P. E., & Fox, S. (2005). The stressoremotion model of counterproductive work behavior (CWB). In S. Fox & P. E. Spector (Eds.), Counterproductive work behavior: Investigations of actors and targets (p. 46). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Tasnim, S. (2006). Job satisfaction among female teachers: A study on primary schools in Bangladesh. (Unpublished masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s thesis). University of Bergen, Norway. Retrieved from bora.uib.no/bitstream/handle/1956/1474/Masteroppgavetasnim.pdf Whitaker, M. K. (2011). About leaders: Motivation checklist. Retrieved from http://aboutleaders.com/wp-content/uploads/pdf/motivation_checklist.pdf Willis-Shattuck, M., Bidwell, P., Thomas, S., Wyness, L., Blaauw, D., & Ditlopo, P. (2008). Motivation and retention of health workers in developing countries: a systematic review. BMC Health Services Research, 8(247). doi: 10.1186/1472-6963-8-247

UV Journal of Research 2015

Readability of Grade 7 English learning module Jhon Kevin A. Mirafuentes College of Education University of the Visayas, Philippines aljhonnas_88@yahoo.com.ph Date Submitted: June 1, 2015

Date Accepted: June 16, 2015

ABSTRACT Readability of a text determines the appropriateness of text to the grade reading level. I examined the readability of Grade 7 English learning module to find out if the text suits to the reader. I utilized the Fry Readability to test the complexity of text and the grade reading level. Inclusions with these readability tests are the sentence and word lengths which are variables used to check the readability of the text. I found out that the learning module is slightly not appropriate to the Grade 7 reading level because the text has used longer words that consequently made sentences long. Thus, if text contains words that are too long for a particular grade level, there is a reading difficulty. Keywords: fractal distribution, fractal spectrum, fractal, multifractal, power law I. INTRODUCTION PropositionTheoryonreadingcomprehension involves the reader in constructing a main idea (Gunning, 2006). A Reader can process the skill to achieve the highest level of comprehension when he or she formulates the main idea of that text. According Dayagbil (2009), one facet of reading can be constructive in which a reader constructs meaning from the printed page. Yet, she mentioned a text factor in reading which refers to the difficulty level of the material read, content, text structure, and style of writing. Regardless of the content, organization of texts and reader’s purpose towards reading, I claim that the text contributes to his or her understanding. The Board of Directors of the International Reading Association or IRA (1985) as cited by Pikulski (2012), reported that there are factors in identifying the readability of read materials, including the syntactic intricacy of sentences. This means that if this reason can be avoided, consequently, the reading material should be a big help in the understanding of the readers. Moreover, Chall and Dale (1995) concluded that the purpose of readability assessment is to realize

a “best match” between intended readers and texts. Additionally, Harris and Hodges (1995) pointed out that text and reader variables interact in determining the readability of any piece of material for any individual reader. It is how information from the text and the knowledge possessed by the reader get together to produce meaning (Anderson, 1985). Therefore, readability is finding balance between the reader’s knowledge, which is comprehension, and the text itself. Thus, text facilitates the reader’s understanding. The Department of Education in the Philippines has recently implemented a new curriculum-the Enhanced Basic Education Curriculum otherwise known as K to 12 (from Kindergarten to Grade 12) to the educational system. Its aim is to develop each Filipino and the overall social and economic progress of the country, and enhance students’ abilities and skills that qualify for employability (Southeast Asian Ministry of Education Organization, 2012). Department of Education has designed a learning module that helps teachers and students put to life the learning outcomes. However, aside from

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testing the comprehensibility of the module, I was determined to assess its readability. Therefore, I examined the texts to see if they are readable for a particular grade reading level and to find out if the module suits the reader. I further understood that how well the authors of the learning module succeed depends on the readability of the text by using the Fry Readability Formula Test. II. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK William Gray identified four components of reading: (a) word perception; (b) comprehension; (c) reaction; and (d) integration. I considered word perception and reaction components to attach to the concept of readability. Word perception means that the reader perceives the word, once the reader reads, he or she must recognize the words, phrases and sentences, and reaction means that there is an interaction between the reader and the text (Simmons, 1965). The study is anchored on the Fry Readability Formula which determines and analyzes the readability of the text. In this view, word perception and reaction components supported the concept on the Fry Readability Test. Hence, reading readability comes in if the text is easy-toread and appropriate to the grade reader. A text is appropriate when the reading level is suited to the reader. Thus, the text must match that of what he or she reads. There are a lot of readability formulae, but I chose Fry Readability to manually check for its word and sentence structure provided with its formula and mechanics. Heydari (2012) investigated the validity of some betterknown readability formulae: the SMOG Index of Readability, Flesch Reading Ease Readability Formula, Gunning’s Fog-Index of Readability, and Flesch-Kincaid Formula. He correlated human evaluation versus readability formulae. Results suggested that there were no correlations between the two sets of evaluation. Thus, human judgments are needed to be considered as well. Moreover, to assess a particular reading material, Fry (1968) developed one of the more popular reading formulae, the Fry Graph Readability Formula. He developed readability tests based on graph A Readability Formula That Saves Time (Journal of Reading, 1968). This graph-

based test determines readability of the printed text. DuBay (2002) said that the documents’ content, design, style of writing, and text shall account for if a text is “easy-to-read”. So, he defined readability as how easy a reading text is to read or “reading ease”. In a nutshell, the formula determines the complexity of text and grade reading level. Text complexity is defined by the Common Core State Standards (2010) as three interrelated components: (a) Qualitative dimensions; (b) Quantitative dimensions; and (c) Reader and task considerations. I disregarded the qualitative dimensions because I did not delve on the reader’s schemata in reading or his or her interest towards reading. I preferred to focus on the quantitative dimensions of text complexity which refer to aspects such as word length or frequency, sentence length, and text cohesion that are difficult for a human reader to evaluate efficiently, especially in long texts. Moreover, the third dimension is related to the study because it examines the perfect match between the reader and the task purpose and the complexity of the task assigned and the posed questions, must also be considered in determining whether a text is appropriate for a given student. However, text cohesion is excluded on how sentences are connected with one another. Analysis of text involves the difficulty of the text, text structure, and author’s style of writing. I considered text structure vis-à-vis the complexity of text. Anderson and Armbruster (1984) as cited by the Common Core State Standards (2010), recognized two features of texts: (a) text structure and (b) audience appropriateness. They said that text structure is the arrangement of related words and connecting ideas. Hence, the arrangement of text may lead to readers’ comprehensibility from the printed text. Text structure facilitates reading comprehension. Thus, a well-structured text enables readers to understand main ideas and identify relevant information. So, readers will become proficient and aware of text structures, understand key points of ideas, and recollect the details of what was read, and the summary reflects on the text organization. Hess (2006, 2008) reported that text structure is the organizational structure within paragraphs

Mirafuentes, J. K. A. and longer texts, suited to genre (literary and informational texts) and purpose (appropriate audience and levels). However, in the report of CCSSO (2010), text complexity included both qualitative and quantitative measures since a text requires reader’s skills. Similarly, text depends on the readers. There is a difference between reading literary and informational texts. Reading the former for pleasure entails a different level of reading whereas, reading the latter necessitates informative level of reading. In other words, understanding depends on the purpose of reading. This is not surprising given the degree to which level of reading the readers get its meaning not only depends on context, but on the complexity of text. If it is easy to understand how the words of a sentence relate to each other, readers are often able to figure out the meaning of particular words that are unfamiliar. Masson and Waldron (1994) identified two aspects of text structure: complexity (including length) and organization (word order), though they are examined separately. I focused on complexity that includes sentence and word lengths. But these aspects are intertwined to determine its complexity. The more ideas a sentence contains (complexity), the greater the temptation to depart from the way sentences are normally organized in order to make it clear how the ideas relate to each other. Hess and Biggam (2004) said that a text that has short simple sentences may be challenging if they contain abstract or vague ideas. So, it also needs a reader’s skill to interpret. But in terms of readability, I argued with this idea because quantitatively, readability examines text complexity and level of readers regardless of what they understand. In the report of Hess (2011) about Tools for Examining Text Complexity, she mentioned that some text structures are more easily learned and understood before other more complex structures. This means that text should be written in short simple sentences. To support, in a readability test, I considered the writer or author’s diction in the text. Diction is the author’s word choice in his or her work. When a writer or author thinks about diction, he or she is considering the word choice. It must be suited to the purpose of writing. Moreover, in terms of readability of text, the number of syllables in a

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word is also relative to diction. Words can be monosyllabic or polysyllabic. Monosyllabic words can add emphasis to the point one is making, on the contrary, the more polysyllabic words, the more difficult the content. Also, be sure that the word a writer or author chooses has the correct connotation for what he or she is trying to say (Anson, Schwegler & Muth, 2010). CCSSO (2010) studied that average word length is measured as a factor in determining readability. Thus accordingly, if there are so many words in a sentence, chances are, the text may be difficult to read with comprehension. To encapsulate text complexity, it encompasses sentence and word lengths. Chall, Bissex, Conard, and Harris-Sharples (1996) as cited by Hess and Biggam (2004), suggested that vocabulary words and sentence structures may be considered in determining appropriateness of text for a given grade reading level. Moreover, length of text affects the ability of students to sustain engagement with the text. That is why Fry (1968) determined this complexity by measuring the numbers of sentences and syllables in the text. After these measurements, one is able to identify the grade reading level. I, through the sentence and word lengths, determined the grade reading levels in the Basic Education and College levels. These levels will identify to what level the text would be more appropriate. In the Philippines, the K to 12 Program covers Kindergarten and 12 years of basic education (six years of primary education, four years of Junior High School, and two years of Senior High School[SHS]) toprovidesufficienttime for mastery of concepts and skills, develop lifelong learners, and prepare graduates for tertiary education, middle-level skills development, employment, and entrepreneurship. So, I as well used the learning module of Grade 7 in English. This module is a supported curriculum which is used in the teaching-learning process. This serves as the guide for both teacher and students to realize learning outcomes. The use of Fry Graph Readability Formula determines the learning module’s readability. The National Partnership for Women & Families in 2009 reported that the Fry Readability Formula assigns an approximate grade reading level to a

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passage of text. Applying the formula will help one decide how to edit the document so that it is more readable. The formula depends on the vocabulary and sentence structure of the text, not the content and organization. Heydari (2012) said that the results from using readability formulae provide the writer of the text with much needed information to reach his target audience. On the good side of this, DuBay (2002) mentioned the remunerations in utilizing readability tests: (a) they are easy to use; (b) they encourage writers to use simple words and simple short sentences; (c) they serve as the starting point in crafting a text; and (d) they are used for editing when readability test is concern. Inversely, there are restrictions in administering readability tests: (a) they do not measure the coherence of the text; (b) they do not measure if the text is ethnically and culturally appropriate; (c) they do not compute the readerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s schemata; and (d) they do not measure the readerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s willingness to read and learn. Last of all, the Fry readability test has some special rules: sentences end with a period (.), an exclamation point (!), a semicolon (;), a question mark (?), a colon (:), or a comma (,); hyphenated words count as one word; count proper nouns; numbers are not counted; count abbreviations as their original whole word; and count lists as one sentence each if items are separated by commas (,) or semicolons (;). Lists with full sentences (like this one) count for as many sentences as are in the list. III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The study employed a Descriptive Method which is used as a way of presenting facts and other data concerning the nature and status of anything that may be included in the research investigation, and Minitab to statistically treat the data of the learning module in English for Grade 7 designed by the Learning Area Team Languages and Multiliteracies of the Department of Education in the Philippines. Particularly, the module is labeled into four quarter parts: 1st quarter, 2nd quarter, 3rd quarter and 4th quarter. The module has only 13 short stories from Philippine literature that can be read in the 1st and 2nd quarters. The 3rd and 4th quarters do not have short stories. Thus, I took

Fry Graph Readability Test Edward Fry (1963)

Complexity of Test (Text structu r e)

Senten ce Length

Word Leng th

Number of Sentences

Number of Sy llables

Grade Reading Level (Audien ce appro pr ia ten es s )

Basic Educatio n Grad es 1 to 12

Colleg e Level 1st Year to 4th Year

Grade 7 Learning Module in English

Figure 1: The Schematic Diagram of the Conceptua l Framework

all 13 short stories that would be used in the study. Therefore, Fry Graph Readability Formula is used to test the text if it is readable and appropriate to the reader and his or her grade reading level. In this phase, the gathered data are presented, analyzed, and interpreted using the Fry Graph Readability Formula. The following shows that steps in getting the average number of sentences and syllables for the 13 stories. I: Step 1: Selected three (3) samples of 100-word text of passages randomly (eliminate the numbers from word count); Step 2: Counted accurately the 100 words for each passage, beginning at the start of a sentence. If the final word does not fall at the end of a sentence, estimate the length of words counted with a fraction of the whole sentence (estimating the fraction of the last sentence to the nearest 1/10th); Step 3: Counted the syllable length in all three 100-word passages; Step 4: Found the mean of the sentence length from each passage; Step 5: Found the mean syllable length in each passage; and Step 6: Entered the graph with average sentence length and number of syllables. The Fry readability graph displays the average length of sentences and syllables. An area where a dot is situated signifies the approximate reading grade level of the content. The author or writer of the reading text will find the mean word length (number of syllables) on the horizontal axis and the mean sentence length (number of words) on the vertical axis. The crossing of the two points will fall in a section showing the grade reading level. The grade level of the text may be indicated through the numbers in between of the straight lines are where a dot is plotted. The curve represents a normal text. Points below the

Mirafuentes, J. K. A.

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curve imply longer than average sentence lengths. Likewise, points above the curve represent text with a more difficult vocabulary but shorter sentence lengths. IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The following data were tabulated and statistically treated for easier discussion of the results. The tables are presented to show the computations of the average number of sentences and syllables per text. The graph shows the results of the counted syllable and sentence lengths the Fry Readability Graph Formula from the 1st, 2nd and 3rd 100 words of the 13 short stories in the 1st and 2nd quarters. In addition, each short story must have two sets of discussions and interpretations: one for the table and one for the Fry graph. Table 1. Average Number of Sentences and Syllables Result (The Origin of This World-Maranao) Number of Dimensions

Number

First 100 words

of Syllables 163

Second 100 words

140

Third 100 words

130

406

8.67

144.33

Sentences

Table 1 shows the number of sentences and the number of syllables from the first to third 100 words. Based on the computed table, the graph displays that dot is located above the normal standard readability curve. This goes to show that the text has a high frequency of words. There are readability formulae that measure the word and sentence lengths because they are factors in determining studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; reading ability. CCSSO (2010) informed that if there are so many words in a sentence chances are, the text may be difficult to read with comprehension. If this happens, the learning module may not be read appropriately by Grade 7 that consequently leads to failure to reading proficiency.

Graph 1. The Readability Test Result Table 2. Average Number of Sentences and Syllables Result (How The World Was Created) Number Number of Dimensions of Sentences Syllables First 100 words

125

Second 100 words

150

Third 100 words

131

406

132.33

Graph 2. The Readability Test Result Table 2 shows the counted syllable and sentence lengths from the first to third 100 words. The graph displays that the dot is located slightly below the normal standard readability curve. This goes to show that the text has long sentences that

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lead to the complexity of text. It is almost situated on the Grade 8 reading level. In other words, the module can be intricately read by Grade 7 students. Hess (2011) mentioned that some text structures are more easily learned and understood before other more complex structures. This means that text should be written in short simple sentences.

richer one’s vocabulary, the greater his or her reading power becomes (Anderson & Freebody, 1981). However, CCSSO (2010) informed that if there are so many words in a sentence chances are, the text may be difficult to read with comprehension. The learning module should use simple basic words for Grade 7 reading level.

Table 3. Table 4. Average Number of Sentences and Syllables Result Average Number of Sentences and Syllables Result (Samal Genesis) (Why the Sky is High) Dimensions

Number of Sentences

Number of Syllables

Dimensions

Number of Sentence s

Number of Syllables

First 100 words

136

First 100 words

122

Second 100 words

136

Second 100 words

141

Third 100 words

145

Third 100 words

129

417

392

139

6.67

130.67

Graph 3. The Readability Test Result

Graph 4. The Readability Test Result

Table 3 shows the counted syllable and sentence lengths from the first to third 100 words. The graph displays that the average number of sentence lengths is 6 and the average number of syllable lengths is 139. The dot is located above the normal standard readability curve. The text falls on the complexity of text in terms of the word length of frequency. This means that the text has long and complex words that may not lead readers to reading proficiency. Words affect reading comprehension. A word is label for an internal reality which helps create a new perception. The

Table 4 shows the counted syllable and sentence lengths from the first to third 100 words. The graph displays that the dot is located above the normal standard readability curve. This means that the text is slightly not readable for the Grade 7. Interestingly, the red dot is located on the Grade 6 level of readability. This implies that there is a mismatched of the appropriate grade reading level and the text. Furthermore, Chall and Dale (1995) concluded that the purpose of readability assessment is to realize a “best match” between intended reader and text. Harris and

Mirafuentes, J. K. A. Hodges (1995) pointed out that text and reader variables interact in determining the readability of any material. The learning module can be read if it uses simple basic words, thus, readers can not only learn vocabulary but also comprehend the meaning of text it offers. Table 5. Average Number of Sentences and Syllables Result (Ibalon) Dimensions

Number of Sentences

Number of Syllables

First 100 words

140

Second 100 words

138

Third 100 words

136

414

138

141

in a sentence, chances are the text may be difficult to read with comprehension. The learning module should use simple basic words for Grade 7 reading level. Table 6. Average Number of Sentences and Syllables Result (Indarapatra and Sulayman) Dimensions

Number of Sentences

First 100 words

Number of Syllables 164

Second 100 words

134

Third 100 words

132

430

4.67

143.33

Graph 6. The Readability Test Result Graph 5. The Readability Test Result Table 5 shows the counted syllable and sentence lengths from the first to third 100 words. The graph displays that the dot is located in the suited grade reading level that is Grade 7. However, the red dot is above the normal standard readability curve which means the text is readable; however, it contains long words. CCSSO (2010), stated in the report that text complexity like word length or frequency, contributes to the difficulty of the text. Thus, the text may be difficult, if not impossible, for a human reader to evaluate efficiently, especially in long texts. Further, CCSSO (2010) informed that if there are so many words

Table 6 shows the counted syllable and sentence lengths from the first to third 100 words. Interestingly, the graph displays that the dot is located on the normal standard readability curve which means that the text is a normal text. This means that the text should be readable and supposedly suitable to its intended readers. However, the text is not suited to the Grade 7 reading level because the dot lies on the Grade 9 level. Harris and Hodges (1995) pointed out that text and reader variables interact in determining the readability of any piece of material for any individual reader. Readability is a match between the reader and the text. CCSSO (2010) reported that how the text acts upon the reader is as important as how the reader acts upon the text.

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Table 7. Average Number of Sentences and Syllables Result (The Story of Lam-ang [A Summary])

Table 8. Average Number of Sentences and Syllables Result (The Centipede)

Dimensions

Number of Sentences

Number of Syllables

Dimensions

Number of Sentences

Number of Syllables

First 100 words

137

First 100 words

164

Second 100 words

139

Second 100 words

130

Third 100 words

140

Third 100 words

140

416

385

7.33

138.67

8.33

128.33

Graph 7. The Readability Test Result

Graph 8. The Readability Test Result

Table 7 shows the counted syllable and sentence lengths from the first to third 100 words. The graph displays that the dot is located above the normal standard readability curve which means the text contains vocabulary words. CCSSO (2010) informed that if there are so many words in a sentence chances are, the text may be difficult to read with comprehension. In addition, Chall et al. (1996) suggested that vocabulary structure is needed as well in determining appropriateness of text for a given grade reading level. If this happens, the learning module may not be read appropriately by Grade 7 and thus consequently leads to failure to reading proficiency. Therefore, the learning module should use simple basic words for Grade 7 reading level.

Table 8 shows the counted syllable and sentence lengths from the first to third 100 words. The graph displays that the dot is located above the normal standard readability curve. It falls on the baseline between Grades 4 and 5. This means that the text can be read (readable) by Grade 7 readers but not suited to their reading level. Based on the result, the researcher concludes that the text is not suited to Grade 7. There is a mismatch of the text and the reader. Readability is a balance between the reader and the text. There is no balance because the learning module uses longer words. If this happens, the learning module may not be read appropriately by Grade 7 which consequently leads to a failure to reading proficiency. Therefore, the learning module should use simple basic words for Grade 7 reading level.

Mirafuentes, J. K. A.

Table 9. Average Number of Sentences and Syllables Result (The Mats) Dimensions

Number of Sentences

Number of Syllables

First 100 words

Second 100 words Third 100 words

143

Table 10. Average Number of Sentences and Syllables Result (How My Brother Leon Brought Home A Wife) Dimensions

Number of Sentences

Number of Syllables

153

First 100 words

132

163

Second 100 words

125

129

Third 100 words

125

445

382

7.67

148.33

9.67

127.33

Graph 9. The Readability Test Result

Graph 10. The Readability Test Result

Table 9 shows the counted syllable and sentence lengths from the first to third 100 words. The dot is situated very far from the normal standard readability curve. This means that the text may contain longer words. CCSSO (2010) informed that if there are so many words in a sentence chances are, the text may be difficult to read with comprehension. Furthermore, the dot is almost placed on the Grade 8 reading level. This means that the vocabulary words may be unfamiliar by the readers. Simple words to be used for an appropriate reading level are considerable in the complexity of text. Similarly Table 8, there is no balance because the learning module uses longer words. If this happens, the learning module may not be read appropriately by Grade 7 which consequently leads to decreased to reading proficiency. Therefore, the learning module should use simple basic words for Grade 7 reading level.

Table 10 shows the counted syllable and sentence lengths from the first to third 100 words. The graph displays that the dot is located above the normal standard readability curve. This means that the text is highly not in a normal text. The text is complex because it may have long or unfamiliar words. CCSSO (2010) informed that if there are so many words in a sentence chances are, the text may be difficult to read with comprehension. Surprisingly, the red dot is located within the Grade 4 reading level. In other words, the text is not suited to the reading level for Grade 7 but readable. This implies that there is a mismatch of between the appropriate grade reading level and the text. Furthermore, Chall and Dale (1995) concluded that the purpose of readability assessment is to realize a â&#x20AC;&#x153;best matchâ&#x20AC;? between intended readers and texts.

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Table 11. Average Number of Sentences and Syllables Result (Wedding Dance) Dimensions

Number of Sentences

Number of Syllables

First 100 words

Second 100 words Third 100 words

Table 12. Average Number of Sentences and Syllables Result (The Bread of Salt) Dimensions

Number of Sentences

Number of Syllables

130

First 100 words

132

127

Second 100 words

116

122

Third 100 words

130

379

378

126.33

126

Graph 11. The Readability Test Result

Graph 12. The Readability Test Result

Table 11 shows the counted syllable and sentence lengths from the first to third 100 words. The graph displays that the dot is slightly placed above the normal standard readability curve with the average number of sentence lengths based on the table. This means that the text is readable for the Grade 7 but not suited to the grade reading level. This implies that there is a mismatched of the level and the text. There is no balance because the learning module uses longer words. If this happens, the learning module may not be read appropriately by Grade 7 which consequently leads to decreased failure to reading proficiency. Therefore, the learning module should use simple basic words for Grade 7 reading level.

Table 12 shows the counted syllable and sentence lengths from the first to third 100 words. The graph displays that the dot is situated below the normal standard readability curve. This means that the text may contain longer sentences. There should be a balance of the complexity of text structure. Hess (2010, 2011) mentioned that some text structures are more easily learned and understood before other more complex structures. This means that text should be written in short simple sentences.

Mirafuentes, J. K. A. Table 13. Average Number of Sentences and Syllables Result (The Baby in the Bottle) Number of Sentences

Number of Syllables

First 100 words

123

Second 100 words

132

Third 100 words

Dimensions

145

Table 14. The Summary on the Average Number of Sentences and Syllables Result of the 13 Short Story in the Learning Module

8.67

Number of Syllables 144.33

135.33

128

139*

383

6.67*

130.67*

4.33

127.67

138*

4.67

143.33

7.33*

138.67*

8.33

128.33

7.67

148.33

9.67

127.33

126.33

126

4.33

127.67

87.34

1753.32

Short Story

Number of Sentences

Graph 13. The Readability Test Result

6.718

134.87

Lower Limit

5.800

130.61

Table 13 shows the counted syllable and sentence lengths from the first to third 100 words. The graph displays that the dot is situated below the normal standard readability curve. This means that the text is readable but has longer sentences. The IRA Board of Directors reported that many factors enter into determining the readability of materials, including the syntactic complexity of sentences. Hess (2010, 2011) mentioned that some text structures are more easily learned and understood before other more complex structures. This means that text should be written in short simple sentences. Lastly, if these reasons can be avoided, consequently, the reading material should be a big help in readersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; understanding.

Upper Limit SE (Mean)

7.636 0.459

139.13 2.13

Graph 14. The Readability Test Result

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The table displays the average syllable and sentence lengths of the 13 short stories in the Grade 7 Learning Module in English from quarters 1 and 2. I computed its mean to get the large sample size. Through this, the lower and upper limits were computed to determine the parameters of graph whether the text is a normal text. Lastly, the Standard Error Mean quantified how precise the parameters of limits is to tell if the text is readable or not. For the average number of sentence length, the lower and upper limits articulate that the text is readable when the dot is situated between 5.800 and 7.636. While for the average number of word length, the parameters indicate that the text is readable when the dot is placed between 130. 61 and 139.13 in the Fry Readability Graph. Among the 13 short stories, there are only four (4) texts that the results of the number of sentences and syllables are in between the parameters of a readable text. These stories are with asterisks: three (3), four (4), five (5) and seven (7). However, only story four (4) is not suited to the Grade 7 reading level. This goes to show that these asterisked number stories are readable to the Grade 7 students, thus, understanding of the text may be evident because the texts are readable. However, the fourth story is not suited to the reading level of the Grade 7 students. In other words, the text should be reviewed to make it readable and appropriate to the level of the readers. If this happens, aside from the text being readable, it is then easy for the readers specifically to the Grade 7 students to read the stories with comprehension. Thus, accordingly, if the texts are not catered to the intended audience, the reading texts also fail to let the readers understand its message. There should be a best match between the text and the readers. Based on the graph, the red dot is situated on the baseline between Grade 6 and 7 reading levels. This means that the text can be read and understood by both levels. V. CONCLUSION The findings suggest that longer words make the text difficult. If longer words are found in a text and are read by Grade 7, then there is a reading difficulty and an inappropriateness of the target grade reading level. Therefore, the English learning

module is readable but not appropriate to the grade 7 reading level. Thus, using Fry Readability formula validates the assumption on the difficulty of the Grade 7 English learning module. Ultimately, authors and writers must consider their reading audience. I further understand that on how well the authors of the learning module succeed depends on the readability of the text by using the Fry Graph Readability Formula. Originality Index:

92 %

Similarity Index:

Paper ID:

664813027

Grammarly:

Checked

REFERENCES

Anderson, R. C. (1985). Becoming a nation of readers: The report of the commission on reading. Washington, USA: Routiedge Anderson, T. & Armbruster, B. (1984). Content area textbooks. In R. C. Anderson, J. Osborn, & R. J. Tierney (Eds.) Learning to read in American schools: Basal readers and content texts (pp. 193â&#x20AC;&#x201C;226). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Anderson, R. C., & Freebody, P. (1981). Vocabulary knowledge. In J. Guthrie (Ed.) Comprehension and teaching: research reviews (pp. 77-117). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Anson, C. M. & Schwegler, R. A. (2000). Choosing appropriate words. The Longman Handbook for writers and readers (2nd ed.).MA, USA: Addison Wesley Longman Inc. Chall, J. S., & Dale, E. (1995). Readability revisited: The new Dale-Chall readability fomula. Cambridge, MA: Bookline Books. Chall, J. S., & New York. City College. (1967). Learning to read: The great debate; An inquiry into the science, art, and ideology of old and new methods of teaching. New York, USA: McGraw-Hill. Common Core State Standards Initiative (2010). Common core state standards for English Language Arts and Literacy in History/

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Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Dayagbil, F., Abao, E. & Lozarita, M. (2009). Developmental reading 1 A worktext for prospective teachers. Malabon City, PH: Mutya Publishing House, Inc. DuBay, W. H. (2002). Using readability tools. Fourth biennial conference of the PLAIN Language Association International. Toronto, Canada: Plain Language Association International Fry, E. (1968). A readability formula that saves time. Journal of Reading, 11(7), 513-578. Gunning, T. G. (1996). Creating reading instruction for all children. IA, USA: ERIC Harris, T. L., & Hodges, R. E. (1995). The literacy dictionary: The vocabulary of reading and writing. Newark, DE: International Reading Association Hess, K. (2008). Teaching and assessing understanding of text structures across grades. Retrieved April 20, 2014 from http://www. nciea. org/publications/ TcxtStructurcs_KH08. pdf. Hess, K., & Biggam, S. (2004). A discussion of â&#x20AC;&#x153;increasing text complexity. New Hampshire, USA: New England Common Assessment Program (NECAP). Hess, K., & Hervey, S. (2011). Tools for examining text complexity. Retrieved March, 5, 2014 from http://www.nciea.org/publications/ Updated%20toolkit-text%20complexity_ KH12.pdf Heydari, P. (2012). The validity of some popular readability formulas. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 3(2), 423-435. Masson, M. E., & Waldron, M. A. (1994). Comprehension of legal contracts by nonexperts: Effectiveness of plain language redrafting. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 8(1), 67-85. Pikulski, J. (2002). Readability. Boston, USA: Houghton Mifflin Company Simmons, J. S. (1965). Reasoning through reading. Journal of Reading, 8(5), 311-314.

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Reading comprehension skills using SQ3R method Jhon Kevin A. Mirafuentes Nerissa S. Lopez Felix Diano, Jr. College of Education University of the Visayas, Philippines aljhonnas_88@yahoo.com.ph Date Submitted: May 5, 2015

Date Accepted: June 1, 2015

ABSTRACT The research assessed the four (4) reading comprehension levels among the third year Bachelor of Elementary Education students in terms of the literal, inferential, critical and evaluative skills using SQ3R method. The study utilized the pre-testpost-test design under pre-experimental research design to determine the levels of reading comprehension skills of BEEd students before and after using SQ3R method. In additional, T-test was used to assess the significant difference of students’ reading performance of the two assessments. Furthermore, the simple percentage was used to get the reading comprehension skill levels of the students and the K to 12 standard academic performance to interpret the results. Findings revealed that in the first assessment, the level of reading comprehension of the students was under the beginner level. After they were exposed to SQ3R method in the second assessment, their level move to Approaching Proficiency. The study concluded that using the SQ3R method in teaching reading results to honing reading comprehension skills and may lead readers to proficiency. Keywords: Comprehension Skills, Critical, Evaluative, Literal, Inferential, SQ3R Method I. INTRODUCTION It is said that there is a need to strive in mastering reading among students. Reading helps for survival and progress which indeed serves as a potent tool of humanity. Furthermore, it can be a tool for people to learn, it is also needed to acquire knowledge; therefore, it is not only a school subject but also a tool for learning. Reading is a child’s great means to diverse the wonder of knowledge and enjoyment through the years of life. Thus, reading is a vital phase in the child’s personal and educational development. Strang as cited by Villamin et al. (2001) once said that if reading contributes to personality, life changes. The study claims that students, regardless of teachers’ competence, primarily excel when

reading materials meet their needs in the real-life situation. In the study of Carlston (2012) on the Benefits of Student-Generated Note Packets: A Preliminary Investigation of SQ3R Implementation, minimal research to date has evaluated the impact of Survey-Question-Read-Recite-Review (SQ3R) implementation on content retention and student performance. Results from the current study indicate that when students use SQ3R strategies, they retain more information, as demonstrated by higher achievement on course exams. Donald (1967) as cited by Garty (1975) compared are two groups equated on the basis of M.A.I.Q., reading, geography, andhistoryscores. Themeandifference

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results were found to be insignificant. During the year, SQ3R was taught to the experimental group; the controlled group received the traditional treatment including visual aids. At the end of the semester, the May testing showed differences of 6.69 in geography and 7.08 in history, a significant difference at the 0.01 level of confidence in favor of the treatment group. In the Philippines, the result of the administered National Achievement Test by the Department of Education to public schools only showed 11.67 percent Mean Percentage Score (MPS) improvement in all subject areas from 2006 to 2009. This percentage reached only in the “near mastery level”. In an interview, Dr. Yolanda Quijano, head of the DepEd’s Bureau of Elementary Education, attributed “reading problems as the main culprit for the poor performance of some students in the NAT.” Researchers believed that their is a need for teachers who can teach reading to increase the performance of the learners in terms of reading and to shy away from illiteracy (Ortlieb, 2013). Knowing the poor reading performance in that achievement test, the researchers attempted to find out the levels of reading comprehension of the Bachelor of Elementary Education students using the SQ3R method and its effectiveness in teaching-learning process to the teachers’ part, and especially in honing reading comprehension skills that may lead readers to reading proficiency. II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Proposition Theory involves the reader constructing a main idea or macrostructure as they process the text. These main ideas are organized in a hierarchical fashion with the most important things given the highest priority to be memorized. The reader can process the skills to achieve the highest level of comprehension where readers can formulate the main idea of the text. Gunning (1996) also introduces and describes Organizational Strategy as the process of selecting important details and building relationships from them. This strategy includes: identifying the main idea and topic sentences, classifying information, decidingwhichinformationisrelevant, sequencing and summarizing. Each of these is complex and a method for improving them needs to be taught

starting from the basic ideas and gradually, to the more difficult ones. Furthermore, this strategy helps readers to formulate the main idea from the detailed information based on reading. Thus, Proposition Theory and Organization Strategy are intertwined and interrelated to improve comprehension. SQ3R method as introduced by Robinson in 1946 in his book Effective Study, helps in improving the reading comprehension skills through surveying, questioning, reading, reciting and reviewing. Before reading, the teacher should survey first the material. In this study, students utilized the steps of this method to test learners’ reading comprehension skills. The steps of SQ3R Method are: survey, question, read, recite and review. First stage is the Survey Stage otherwise known as the preparation and the elicitation stage. Students must be motivated first before reading. This is also the stage where an initial or preliminary activity will help teacher and students organize the material as they read (Garty, 1975). Then follows the Question stage where the teacher can use an activity of asking questions. It focuses on the concentration on what students need to learn or get out of their reading. The teacher will post a question which is based on the text or selection, wherein students otherwise will answer it. Divergent answers are expected in this phase based on students’ prior knowledge and experience (Pasa, 2011). Third is the Read stage, otherwise known as the “during reading” stage. At this stage, students will actively search for the answers to the posted question. If ever students cannot find the answer in a portion of paragraph, they may proceed reading the second or the third or the fourth paragraph until they catch the answer (Scott, 2009). Fourth is the Recite stage where students recite the answer to the question using their own words and examples. Thus, students have the understanding of the printed text and used material. Lastly is the Review step where students review the selection by summarizing the entire story, finding the theme or valuing, or relating or tapping the story based on their personal experience (Baier, 2011). One cannot reach the comprehension level unless the nature and facets of reading are determined. All of these facets of reading are the

Mirafuentes, J. K. A., Lopez, N. S., and Diano, Jr., F. line of attack for a reader to possess the skills on reading comprehension: (a) Literal Level (reading the lines); (b) Inferential/Interpretive Level (reading between the lines); (c) Critical Level (reading beyond the lines; and (d) Creative/ Evaluative Level. Therefore, the interaction between the reader and the reading text/material may occur at these levels. If one has mastered all these levels, he is said to possess reading comprehension skills (Santos, 2002). Inapplyingcomprehensionatthe Literal Level, reading involves comprehension of ideas that is simply, directly and explicitly stated in the text (Villamin, 2001). Some specific skills at this level are following accurately specific written or printed instructions; following sequence and relationship of ideas; and understanding vocabulary. In school, the ability to follow accurately written or printed instructions is needed in completing written assignments, in taking written tests, in conducting science experiments, in solving mathematical problems, in completing an art project, etc. This illustrates the need to read carefully and closely following written instructions. Moreover, the sequence of ideas and understanding sequence is a prerequisite to making inferences, summarizing and outlining (Villanueva & delos Santos, 2008). Thus, comprehension skill requires not just for reading procedural steps, stages and development, or listing of chronological dates and events. Vocabulary is vitally imperative to reading comprehension. A word is a label for an internal reality which helps create a new perception. The richer oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vocabulary is the greater his or her reading power becomes (Freebody & Klausmier, 1981 as cited by Villamin, 2001). So if a learner knows the meaning of a word, then he easily reads a passage or paragraph without any intrusion by unfamiliar word(s). For Inferential Level, the specific skills developed are finding meaning in context, interpreting figurative language, predicting outcomes and making inferences. Finding meaning in context can be both literal and inferential: literal in the sense that, when a reader reads, he may come upon words that he has seen, but not necessarily understand. In this study, the learner can figure out the meaning of a new or unknown word by looking for context clues in the words and

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phrases that surround the word; and inferential because the reader tries to presume the meaning through how the word is used in the phrase or sentence. Interpreting figurative language has meaning beyond the actual meaning of the words. This creates images, or pictures, in the readerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mind. These are groups of words, phrases, or clauses that may differ in meaning from their literal interpretation; thus, the reader may also infer its meaning on how it is used in the sentence or context. Predicting outcomes and making inferences are the skills where readers can predict or infer the next events in a story for example. Additionally, Romero (1985) posited that a reader makes an intelligent guess of what he thinks may happen as a result of series of observations. Critical level includes these specific skills; the ability to recognize facts and distinguish them from opinions. Facts are statements which can be or have been proven to be true, they are verifiable statements. On the other hand, opinions are statements which express a personal point of view, hence, can be biased and are not objectively verifiable (Krantz & Kimmelman, 1981 as cited by Villamin, 2001); the ability to compare and contrast, the ability to recognize the cause and effect. The ability to recognize facts is the first stage for a reader to distinguish if the statement is fact or opinion; thus, in this study, the learner compares and contrasts if the reading material is valid or not. This ability develops the readerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s comprehension to judge and critique. Causeandeffectaswellasdrawingconclusions are sub-skills where a reader forms judgments that this effect happens due to its reason and gives his or her judgment based on the given facts, respectively. Finally, the Evaluative Level. If there is a given selection or paragraph, and he or she can summarize it through his own words, then he is a critical and creative reader (Marquez, Casela & Sadorra, 2009). He or she is able to relay the message of the text in his or her own idea. So, it is beyond the literal level. Ultimately, the skill to be gained is the ability to find the main idea. This sub-skill enables the reader to express his idea in his own words which he or she gives the focal point or the central thought of the context. Creative reading not only requires an inquisitive and imaginative mind, but also needs analysis,

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synthesis and evaluation (Alcantara, Cabanilla, Espina & Villamin, 2003). This is the reader’s ability to achieve a unique view of a situation, or event, and to integrate his own experiences with what the writer is saying and/or even drawing conclusions (Tejero & Catchillar, 2004). III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The study utilized the pre-test-post-test design under pre-experimental research design to determine the levels of reading comprehension skills of BEEd students before and after using SQ3R method. In addition, a t-test was used to assess the significant difference of students’ reading performance of the two assessments. Table 1 The different class schedules and the number of respondents in each class. ClassSchedules

Number of respondents

Time

Days

No. of studentsenrolled

No. of students participated

3:30-5:00 P.M. 2:00-3:30 P.M.

Monday/Wednesday

Tuesday/Thursday

Table 1 shows that the class in the 3:305:00 P.M. had the higher number of participants than the class in 2:00-3:30 P. M. and they all had participated in answering the tests. The main instruments used are standardized questionnaires based on Strategies to Achieve Reading Success (STARS) developed and written by Deborah Adcock and Joan Krensky in 2006. The first portion focused on the first level of comprehension skills, specially skills which is reading lines. The second portion was an inferential skills which means reading between the lines, and the third portion focused on critical skills which is reading beyond the lines, and the last portion focused on evaluative and creative skills, this is the application of what the reader understands. The researchers conducted the research by testing the students’ levels of comprehension skills through series of tests catering the four levels: (a) Literal; (b) Inferential;

(c) Critical; and (d) Evaluative/Creative. On the first assessment results, intervention was administered. The researcher discussed the story employing SQ3R method after which, distributed the questionnaires based on the story. After the examination, the researchers tallied, tabulated and interpreted the data. To better interpret the data gathered, the researchers used the standard academic performance of K to 12 designed and imposed by the Department of Education (Philippines) in the Enhanced Basic Education Curriculum (levels of performan.ce) through the Curriculum Guide in English. The Department of Education identified seven to eight (7-8) Domains of Literacy (Listening Comprehension, Oral Language and Fluency, Vocabulary Development, Reading Comprehension, Writing Composition, Grammar Awareness and Structure; Attitude and Study Strategies); one of which is Reading Comprehension for both elementary and secondary level. Thus, each of the content standards is assessed according to the DepEd Order No. 31, s. 2012: A (Advanced) 90 % and above P (Proficient) 85 % - 89 % AP (Approaching Proficiency) 80% - 84 % D (Developing) 75 % - 79 % B (Beginning) 74 % and below Beginning (B) Level represents students’ demoted by a grade of 74% below whose reading skills are struggling or have not been acquired. Developing (D) Level (75% to 79%) represents students’ with minimum reading skills, thus, they need help and assistance. Approaching Proficiency (AP) (80% to 84%) represents students whose reading skills stills required same guidance from the teacher or some assistance from peers. IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The data obtained from the administered pretest and the post-test show the results before and after the implementation of SQ3R Method. Presents here is the performance of the respondents in the four comprehension levels: the literal level (reading the lines), the inferential level (reading between the lines), the critical level

Mirafuentes, J. K. A., Lopez, N. S., and Diano, Jr., F. (reading beyond the lines) and the evaluative or creative level (application). This presents the total items of each test, the raw scores of each student with the corresponding percentages. In the First Assessment, respondents are assessed according to Literal, Inferential, Critical and Evaluative levels of reading comprehension. Each level had eight (8) items to be answer. Table 2 Literal Level Pretest Results Level

Literal (Items) 8 5 1 2 3

36 35 33 33 32

92 90 85 85

4 7 6

28 26 15

72 67 38 76

Level of Academic Performance Advanced Advanced Proϐicient Proϐicient Approaching Proϐiciency Beginning Beginning Beginning Developing

Item number 8 gained the highest number of students who got the correct answer which is 92 % (Advanced). This means that majority of the BEEd students found this item very easy. Item number 5 gained the second highest which is 90 % (Advanced). This means that majority of the BEEd students found this item easy. For items number 1 and 2 each gained an average of 85% (Proficient). This simply means that these items were quite easy, since 33 students got the correct answer. Item number 3 gained an average of 82% (Approaching Proficiency) which means that 32 of the BEEd students found this item quite easy. Item number 4 gained an average of 72% of the 39 respondents (Beginning) which means that the item was quite difficult. Item number 7 scored a mean of 67% among the 39 respondents (Beginning). This means the item was also difficult. Lastly, item number 6 gained an average of 38% (Beginning) which means that this item was very difficult for the respondents. This implies that majority of the respondents have acquired the literal level in reading comprehension skill since they passed five out of eight items; consequently, the skill on literal level in general signifies that majority of the respondents were able to reach the

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required mean average percentage, 76% which indicates a reading level which is still developing. Thus, the literal level should be given emphasis in teaching reading. Guzman et al. (1976) mentioned a reader fails to understand a passage because he or she allows what he or she thinks or knows about the subject to interfere with what the writer is actually saying. Villamin (2001) said that most readers tend to gloss over details which, to them, may not seem important. It is when there is a need to recall specific information about the passage that the reader realizes due attention was not given to seemingly small but significant details. Medes (SEAMEO, 2012), the assistant chief of staff development division of Bureau of Elementary Education, added that the majority of the students at this level possess the minimum knowledge and skills and core understanding. Thus, they still need help throughout the performance of authentic tasks. Table 3 Inferential Level Pretest Results Level

Inferential (Items) 3 2 6

36 32 30

92 82 77

1 4 5 7

26 26 26 24

67 67 67 62 49 70

Level of Academic Performance Advanced Approaching Proϐiciency Developing Beginning Beginning Beginning Beginning Beginning Beginning

For the inferential level, only items 2 and 3 were correctly answered 82% and 92% of the respondent respectively. The item with the third highest average was only 77% of the respondents, which levels it as quite difficult. Moreover, this level only reached 70% in the mean percentage, with students failure five out of eight items. It implies that the majority of the respondents are weak at the inferential comprehension level and their level in general is the beginning. The respondents’ inferential skills in reading comprehension should therefore be given focus in teaching reading especially on predicting

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outcomes, making inferences, finding the meaning of the words in context and figures of speech. May (1986) as cited by Villamin (2001), mentioned that without appropriate and adequate experience and knowledge, the reader cannot make the necessary inferences, and without inferences there is no real reading. The Inferential level involves the readerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to determine facts and relationships, the depth and breadth of his prior knowledge and experience, and his ability to understand the language signals of the writer. Villamin (2001) added that any inadequacy in these factors may lead the reader to make incorrect and illogical inferences. Medes (SEAMEO, 2012), assistant chief of staff development division of Bureau of Elementary Education, said that the student at this level struggles with his/her understanding; prerequisite and fundamental knowledge and/ or skills have not been acquired or developed adequately to aid understanding. Table 4 Critical Level Pretest Results Level Critical (Items)

Level of Academic Performan ce

6 2 3 5 8 7 1 4

28 26 26 26 26 23 22 22

7 2% 6 7% 6 7% 6 7% 6 7% 59% 5 6% 5 6%

Beginning Beginning Beginning Beginning Beginning Beginning Beginning Beginning

Beginning

For item number 6, 72% (Beginning) of the 39 respondents scored under the Beginning level of Academic Performance which means that this item is quite difficult. For items number 2, 3, 5 and 8 majority of the 39 respondents gained 67 % (Beginning) who got the correct answer. This means that the items are difficult. For item number 7, 59 % (Beginning) of the 39 respondents gained about this item which is very difficult for them. Items number 1 and 4 gained the same percentage (56%) of the 39 respondents who got the correct answer, (Beginning). This means that these items are very difficult. All items in this level were not correctly answered by the respondents. In this

level, respondents need improvement. No one passed in this level because only 64% attained this level. Therefore, respondents found this level difficult since the level of performance displace is Beginning. In consequence, they need to master the ability to compare and contrast, ability to recognize fact from opinion, and the ability to recognize cause and effect. Medes (SEAMEO, 2012) said that the student at this level struggles with his or her understanding; prerequisite and fundamental knowledge and/or skills have not been acquired or developed adequately to aid understanding.

Table 5 Evaluative Level Pretest Results Level

Evaluative (Items) 3 1 8 4 2 7 5 6

30 29 24 22 13 3 1 1

77% 74% 62% 56% 33% 8% 3% 3% 39.5

Level of Academic Performance Developing Beginning Beginning Beginning Beginning Beginning Beginning Beginning Beginning

Item number 3 gained the highest percentage (77%, Developing) of the 39 respondents who got the correct answer in this item. Hence, the item is quite easy. Item number 1 which asked the main idea of the first paragraph gained 74% of the 39 respondents who got the correct answer. This means that these respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; level of academic performance is Beginning. Further more, this item is quite difficult to answer. The rest of the item where answered by two few of the students are displayed in the table above. This means that the items were very difficult to answer. Nevertheless, for items 5, 6 and 7 in the evaluative level, 3 of the 39 respondents and only 1 of the 39 respondents respectively got the correct answers. The same with, items 5, 6 and 7 talk about getting the main idea and summarizing. This implies that majority of the respondents need to master the skills in getting the main idea and summarizing of the texts. As a result, respondents found at this level to be difficult and the level of performance

Mirafuentes, J. K. A., Lopez, N. S., and Diano, Jr., F. is Beginning in general because 39.5% of the 39 respondents got the correct answers in the 1 to 8 item Evaluative Skill test. The data implied that as students are exposed to the highest level of comprehension, a deeper of understanding is really needed. Samples (1976) as cited by Villamin (2001), stated that metaphorical mind is required in creative reading, the highest level of reading, but the most neglected reading ability. Thus, the reader must go beyond facts and literal details. To summarize the four tables, the literal level (Table 2), the inferential level (Table 3), the critical level (Table 4) and evaluative level (Table 5), only the literal level was successfully achieved by the respondents. This is the level where readers understand only the surface level or what is in the printed text or reading material. The rest of the levels need to be mastered and enhanced. The succeeding discussion revolved around the students result in the posttest after the SQ3R interventions was administered. Table 6 Literal Level Posttest Result

Level

Literal (Items) 3 5 1

Level of Academic Performance

39 34 30

100 87 77 88

Advanced Proϐ icient Developing Proϐicient

For item number 3 respondents gained a perfect score of 100%. This means that the item was very easy for them to answer. Item number 5 gained 87% (Proficient). This means that the item was also easy. Lastly, for item number 1 gained 77% (Developing) of the 39 respondents. This means that the item is quite easy to answer. This shows that there was indeed a development in the academic performance of the respondents’ reading comprehension skills, meaning that majority of the respondents showed Proficiency in the Literal Level. Thus, Medes (SEAMEO, 2012) reported that the student at this level has developed the fundamental knowledge and skills

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and core understandings and can transfer them independently through authentic performance tasks. Villamin (2011) added that reading in the literal level requires the reader to hold in his mind or remember significant details which contribute to an eventual understanding of what is read. Table 7 Inferential Level Posttest Results

Level

Inferential (Items) 6 7 9

38 33 21

97% 85% 5 4% 79

Level of Academic Performance Advanced Proϐicient Beginning Developing

For item number 6 gained 97% (Advanced). This means that the item is very easy. This proves that answering a figure of speech is an inferential skill of reading comprehension. For item number 7 gained 85% (Proficient) of the 39 respondents who were able to answer it correctly. This means that the item was easy. Lastly, Item number 9 gained 54% (Beginning). This implies that majority of the respondents are only able to develop their inferential skill when they are exposed to SQ3R method. Medes (2012), said that the student at this level possesses the minimum knowledge and skills and core understandings, but needs help throughout the performance of authentic tasks. Yen-Chi Fan (2010), Center for General Education, I-Shou University in Taiwan, discussed the effect of comprehension strategy instruction on EFL Learner’s Reading Comprehension. From Palincsar and Brown’s (1984) point of view, predicting is also a comprehension monitoring activity which facilitates making and testing inferences. Pressley (2006) additionally contends that “prior knowledge plays an important role, permitting the generation of inferences required to understand the text”. Similarly, Nuttall (1996) stressed that implicit inferential comprehension can be enhanced by the activation of prior knowledge.

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Table 8. Critical Level Posttest Results LEVELS

Critical (Items) 8 10 4

Level of Academic Performance

36 33 32

92% 85% 82%

Advanced Proϐicient Approaching Proϐiciency Pr‘ ϔicient

difficult to answer. It implies that the teacher must religiously utilize the method and likewise the students must read the selection comprehensively. Lastly, item number 12 which asked for the lesson taught by the myth was correctly answered by 51% (Beginning) respondents. This means that the item is very difficult to answer. Out of three items, only one item (item number 11) was answered correctly, the respondents’ evaluative skill needs to be honed and mastered, especially in ability in getting the main idea, summarizing and evaluating the text to get the conclusion of the text read. Medes (SEAMEO, 2012) reported that the student at this level struggles with his or her understanding; prerequisite and fundamental knowledge and/or skills have not been acquired or developed adequately to aid understanding. Therefore, the reader needs to extend his thinking beyond what is implied or expected, and allow his imagination to soar (Villamin, 2001).

This table shows that item number 8 gained an average of 92% (Advanced). This means that the item was a very easy to answer. Item number 10 also gained 85% (Proficient), Which means that the item was also easy to answer. Lastly, item number 4 gained 82 % (Approaching Proficiency). This means that the item was easy as well. The items in the Critical level were answered correctly by majority of the respondents; thus, their skill in the critical level is Proficient which garnered Table 10 86% on average who got the correct answer. Significant Difference Between Pretest and Posttest Medes (SEAMEO, 2012) reported that the student Levels First Level of Second Level of at this level has developed the fundamental Assessme nt Performance Assessment Performance knowledge and skills and core understandings Literal 76% Developing 88% Proϐicient and can transfer them independently through Inferential 70% Beginnin g 79% authentic performance tasks. This level requires Critical 64% Beginning 86% Developin Proϐ ntg concentration and practice, but its rewards are Evaluative/C r eative 39.5 % icieg Beginnin g 70% Beginnin eminently worthwhile (Guzman et al., 1976).

Table 9 Evaluative Level Posttest Results LEVELS Evaluative (Items) 11 2 12

Level of Academic Performance

35 27 20

9 0% 6 9% 5 1%

Advanced Beginning Beginning

Beginning

This shows that item number 11 gained the 90 % respondents (Advanced) who got the correct answer. This item is very easy to answer. Item number 2 gained an average of 69% (Beginning). This means that the item is very difficult to answer. In the evaluative level pretest results, it shows that majority of the respondents found items very

Evaluative/C r eative 39.5 % 63%

Beginnin g Beginning

70% 81%

Beginnin g Approaching Proϐiciency Table 10 confirms, in the Pretest, the

respondents scored 70% in the Literal level; thus, the level of performance is Beginning; whereas, the level of reading comprehension skill of the respondents exposed to SQ3R method in the posttest of the same level is Proficient since they scored 88%. Precisely, there was an increase of 12% difference. In the Pretest, respondents scored 70% in the Inferential level which means the level of performance is Beginning. However, as the respondents were exposed to SQ3R method, is 79% respondents reached the Developing level of performance. Amazingly, there was an increase of 9% difference. In the Pretest, respondents scored 64% in the Critical level which means their skills are at beginners level. On the other hand, 86% of the respondents exposed to SQ3R method in the

Mirafuentes, J. K. A., Lopez, N. S., and Diano, Jr., F. Posttest, rose to a Proficient level. Surprisingly, there was a noticeable increase of 22%. Lastly, in the Pretest only 39.5% of the respondents were able to score in the Evaluative level which means the level of performance is still at the beginners level. Likewise, in the post test administered after, they were exposed to SQ3R method, respondents still scored within the beginners level. In other words, these respondents need to give focus on the mastery of the Evaluative/Creative level. However, there was an increase in this level by 30.5% difference. In a nutshell, the mean gain between the Pretest and Posttest is 18%, thus, escalating from 63% for those not exposed to SQ3R method and is Beginning level (see table 9) to 81% for those exposed to SQ3R method and is Approaching Proficiency level (see table 10).

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V. CONCLUSION Based on the findings, the respondents reading comprehension skills increased when they were exposed to the method. The study concluded that using the SQ3R method in teaching reading improves the level of reading comprehension skills. Thus, there will be more effective reading instruction on the part of the teacher, and using the SQ3R method may lead reading to better proficiency. Originality Index:

92 %

Similarity Index:

Paper ID:

658702123

Grammarly:

Checked

REFERENCES

Table 11 Difference between the Pretest and Posttest

Equal variances Assumed

-5.634*

Equal variances not assumed

-5.634*

75.844

ȗ‫ן‬αͲǤͲͷ Using a T-test to determine the difference between the first and second assessments, the data revealed a significant difference of the First and Second Assessments with 39 respondents. Table 11 shows the difference between the performance in first and second assessment. It is seen that there is significant difference between the pretest and posttest. It implies that the performance of the student respondents really improved after the implementation of the SQ3R method in the teaching-learning process. As observed in the assessments, students performed better in the posttest than in the pretest. The researchers come to a conclusion that the SQ3R method is effective in reading instruction. Thus, if teachers use SQ3R method thoroughly in the teaching-learning process, there is a greater increase of the reading comprehension skills of the students based on the performances of BEEd students.

Adcock, D., & Krensky, J. (2000). Strategies to Achieve Reading Success (STARS). MA, USA: Curriculum Associates. Alcantara, R., Cabanilla, J., Espina, F., & Villamin, A. (2003). Teaching strategies I (3rd ed.). Makati City, PH: Katha Publishing Co., Inc. Baier, K. (2011). The effects of SQ3R on fifth grade students’ comprehension levels (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Bowling Green State University, Ohio United States. Brown, A. L., Palincsar, A. S., & Armbruster, B. B. (1984). Instructing comprehension-fostering activities in interactive learning situations. In H. Mandl, N. L. Stein, & T. Trabasso (Eds.) Learning and comprehension of text (pp 255-286). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Carlston, D. L. (2011). Benefits of Student-Generated Note Packets A Preliminary Investigation of SQ3R Implementation. Teaching of Psychology, 38(3), 142-146. Fan, Y. C. (2010). The effect of comprehension strategy instruction on efl learners’ reading comprehension. Asian Social Science, 6(8), 19. Garty, R. H. (1975). The Effect of DRA and SQ3R on the Immediate and Delayed Recall of Seventh-Grade Social Studies Material.

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Reading Horizon, 23(1), 246 Gunning, T. (1996). Creating Reading Instruction for All Children. In T. Gunning (Ed.) Creating reading instruction for all childre (pp.192236). Des Moines, IA: Allyn and Bacon. Guzman, M., Calaguian, C., Flores, C., Parayno, S., & Peñaflorida, A. (1976). Developing Reading and Language Skills for College. Manila, PH: Publishers Association of the Philippines, Inc. Marquez, S., Casela, N., & Sadorra, B. (2009). Developmental Reading 2. Quezon City, PH: Lorimar Publishing. Nuttall, C. (1996). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Ortlieb, E. (2013). Using Anticipatory Reading Guides to Improve Elementary Students’ Comprehension. Online Submission, 6(2), 145-162. Pasa, R.A. (2014). The effect of teachingreadingusing SQ3R Method on the eighth grade students’ reading comprehension achievement at SMPN 2 Panti Jember. English Education Program, Jember University. Department of Education, Jember University, East Java, Indonesia Pressley, M. (2006). Reading instruction that works: The case for balanced teaching. New York, USA: Guilford. Romero, A., & Romero, R. C. (1985). Developmental Reading. Manila, Philippines: Rex Book Store Santos, N. A. (2002). Teaching Reading. Quezon City, PH: JMC Press. Scott, S. E. (2009). Knowledge for teaching reading comprehension: Mapping the terrain. ProQuest. Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization. (2012). K to 12 Toolkit. Quezon City, PH. Tejero, E., & Catchillar, G. (2004). Teaching Reading in the Elementary Grades. Mandaluyong City, PH: National Book Store. Villamin, A. M., Diaz, L. S., Talens, B. A., & Santos, N. S. (2001). Gateways and skyways to developmental reading. Quezon City, PH: Katha Publishing Co., Inc. Villanueva, A. S., & Santos, R. L. (2008). Developental Reading 1. Quezon City, Philippines: Lorimar Printing Co., Inc.

UV Journal of Research 2015

Dickinson’s poetic themes and figurative language Nathaniel G. Gido1 Emardy T. Barbecho2 Don Roel G. Arias 3 Lorlaine R. Dacanay 1 Sarah M. Nemenzo1 College of Arts and Sciences 1, 2, 3 University of the Visayas, Philippines 1 Cebu Technological University-Carmen Campus, Philippines 2 Cebu Academy-Carmen, Philippines3 sarahnemenzo@yahoo.com Date Submitted : March 12, 2015

Date Accepted : April 6, 2015

ABSTRACT The language of poetry is a symbolic imitation that expresses life and describes the world. Studying Emily Dickinson’s representative poems is the benchmark of understanding one’s self and the world in general. The study analyzes poetic themes and figurative language. It undertakes on the pervading themes and/or visions in the representative poems in their intellectual and emotive dimension; and (2) figurative language in terms of figures of sense and sounds. The study uses the textual analysis of Dickinson’s five representative poems as the basis of the thematic content as suggested by Knickerbockers (2005). These poems: (a) I’ve Ceded - I’ve Stopped being Theirs; (b) Apparently with No Surprise; (c) Soul Selects Her Own Society; (d) I Know that He Exists; and (e) I Cannot Live Without You are analyzed using intellectual and emotive dimensions. These poetic themes are reinforced by alliteration, personification, rhyme, apostrophe and symbolism, metaphor, simile, assonance and consonance as the figures of speech used. These are then categorized into figurative language as to sense and sound. Keywords: figurative language, intellectual and emotive dimensions, model lesson, poetic themes I. INTRODUCTION This study analyzes the poetic themes and figurative language in the representative poems of Emily Dickinson using the literary theories such as theories of mimesis, expressivism, textuality, and literary historicism. It seeks to understand and interpret the pervading themes or visions in the poems in their intellectual and emotive dimensions, the transaction of meaning, as well as the figurative language as to sense and sound. Poetry is one of the genres of literature which makes the readers feel, see, take delight in the music and meaning, and hence, become part of

the emotion. However, the study of poetry is one of the most difficult and neglected literary genres in the secondary school instruction because of its complicated nature as a literary type that most Language teachers tend to exclude in their instructional content as manifested in the study of Fontanoza (1997) as cited in Knickerbocker (2005). This difficulty is due to a lack of understanding of the integral unity of structure and meaning in poetic form using figurative or symbolic language that a good number of language teachers refuse to explore because of its complexity. With this convention, learners have

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learned to distrust the study of poetry because of the blundering source of selections given to them. Because of the complicated nature of understanding poetry in spite of its beauty, as claimed by studies in the past, it further reveals that the study of poetry is significant to man’s life for it uplifts the emotions and the mind as well. However, analyzing poems as a work of art necessitates a thorough understanding of the themes, and the figurative language that helps to crop the meaning or sense and sound of the literary genre. Each reader has the freedom to assess the coherence of the writer’s works and interpret it in the light of his or her own experience and attitudes to the world. In the study, representative poems of Emily Dickinson are selected in order to (1) analyze the pervading poetic themes or visions in terms of: intellectual dimension and emotive dimension; and (2) analyze the figurative language in the poems in terms of sense and sounds. II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK This literary research assumes that Emily Dickinson’s representative poems are multidimensional in their poetic themes or visions through the intellectual and emotive dimensions in the transaction of meaning and in their images as to sense and sound. This research assumption is supported by the critical theories of mimesis, expressivism, textuality and historicism. Theory of Mimesis. The idea of this theory assumes that a literary work is an imitation, a representation, or a copy of whatever it copies, imitates, represents, or signifies: the relation between text and its concealed antecedents. As Aristotle once said, this theory is the most primitive aesthetic theory (Arias, 2012). In this regard, he embraces the concept of the theory of mimesis suggesting that art is an imitation of the exterior world and the actions of people. Thus, mimetic criticism emphasizes the correspondence of the work to external reality, and the context in which the work is studied. Apparently, mimetic criticism is committed to truth, reality, and the idea that literature, in some ways imitates life. It is this idea that leads the mimetic critic to review the work as a true imitation, reflection, or representation of the

world and human life (Binongo as cited in Arias, 2012). Theory of Expressivism. The idea of expressivism locates the literary work in the author: what the writer expressed, emphasizing the presence of the artist in the literary work. The literary text is directly considered as an expression of the author’s inner being. Biographical analysis is anchored on the theory of expressivism with the psychology of the author emerging as the subject for investigation. Inquiry into the nature of the poem merges with the inquiry into the nature of the poet. Hence, this theory sees a literary work as a reflection of the author’s life and times on the life and times of the characters or personae in the literary work. Also known as subjective theory, its literary critical perspective holds that certain literary works are better understood by readers if they know something about the author’s race, moment and milieu. This theory, moreover, seeks to explain a work by relating to the author’s religion, education, political leanings, even his or her sickness. This literary investigation reflects society’s treatment to its people as depicted in the situations of the studied poems. Consequently, it gives a total picture on how the persona works for himself or herself to generate the pervading theme found in every poem (Dreier, 1999). Theory of Textuality. The idea of textuality holds that a literary text in itself is made up of formalistic elements that determine, in a unified fashion, the meaning or content of the text and that literature follows varied genres including drama for its own specific purpose in conveying meaning (Patterson, 2014). Specifically, the theory of textuality can either be actualized through: “the work as an entity in itself”; or “the work as a unity of formalistic elements that determine its meaning” (Abrams as cited in Arias, 2012). Theory of Literary Historicism. Literary Historicism is a theory applied to literature that suggests literature must be studied and interpreted within the context of both the history of the author and the history of the critic. The theory used to examine the text’s historical origins, such as: the time, the place in which the text was

Gido, N. G., Barbecho, E. T., Arias, D. R. G., Dacanay, L. R. and Nemenzo, S. M. written, its sources, the events, dates, persons, places, things, and customs that are mentioned or implied in the text. The theory evaluates how the work is influenced by the time in which it was produced. It examines the social sphere in which the author moved the psychological background of the author, the books and theories, that may have influenced the author, and any other factors which influenced the work of literature (Williams, 2003). The five selected poems of Emily Dickinson are analyzed using the four theories. The theory of Mimesis is used in the study because the pieces of Dickinson poems are imitation of life. The theory of Expressivism is utilized because the understanding of these poems is attributed to the author’s race, religion, education, political learnings and her sickness. The theory of Textuality is emphasized to determine the formalistic elements and its meaning. Lastly, the theory of Historicism is applied to examine the text’s historical origins, thus, when the poems were written. III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The study, concerned with the making of textual interpretation of the poetic themes and figure of speech in the representative poems of Dickinson, uses the textual analysis method of research based on the literary content of the poems or the so called “fact-finding with adequate interpretation” which are done in terms of an appraisal of “available data in printed form” (Pilapil, 1998 as cited in Arias, 2008). The researchers chose five poems out of two thousand poems of Emily Dickinson as the basis of the thematic content as suggested by Knickerbocker (Evans, 1975) of: (a) selfknowledge and identity; (b) society and self; (c) religious and meta-physical values; (d) love and (e) hate. These five poems written by Emily Dickinson were therefore chosen for analysis: (a) I’ve Ceded - I’ve Stopped Being Theirs; (b) Apparently With no Surprise; (c) The Soul Selects Her Own Society; (d) I Know That He Exist; and (e) I Cannot Live With You. This qualitative type of research requires the researcher to correctly interpret the available printed form of literature. Since the study is mainly to identify the poetic

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themes and the figures of speech of the poems, statistical treatment and instruments are neither needed nor used in the course of study and in the gathering of data. In solving the sub-problems that comprised the groundwork for the conduct of the study, a multi-dimensional analysis on the use of poetic language and themes was undertaken in order to exhibit a clear-cut comprehensive data interpretation. Likewise, the rudiments of discourse analysis are reviewed and studied. Analysis of Data. In the study, the dominant themes of the representative poems are analyzed and used. Hence, triangulation method was conducted by the researchers to arrive towards the validity of the study. There were two experts who analyzed and interpreted the five representative poems of Emily Dickinson. The researchers also analyzed the poems using the thematic content. After the three consolidated interpretations, the researchers gathered and compared the results. Whichever interpretation had the most dominant instances of agreement from the experts was considered to be the authentic interpretation of the data. The textual analysis involved the reading through of the poem once to see how much of the author’s meaning can be immediately grasped. Then the poem is read the second time, line by line, and the unfamiliar works, concepts, ideas and references are defined. Sometimes, it is helpful to “translate” each line into prose, or simply to substitute simpler words for the more difficult ones. Upon understanding all the basic words and ideas, the poem has to be reread a few more times to pull it all back together, establishing the manner on how themes or poetic visions of the five representative poems under study. Verbal - Data Generating Procedure The procedure used in the study is deductive approach which starts with the textuality of poetic themes in terms of intellectual and emotive dimensions, followed by the textuality of figurative language as to sense and sound. The poetic themes revealed in Dickinson’s representative poems are analyzed using the approaches of mimesis, expressivism, historicism and textuality. In so doing, we focus on the analysis of the general thought that embodies truth developed in the representative poem.

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IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Table 1 Figure of Speech of the Poem “I’ve Ceded – I’ve Stopped Being Theirs” FIGURES OF SPEECH Rhyme

TYPE

SAMPLE POETIC LINES

Sound

I’ve Ceded – I’ve Stopped Being Theirs – The name they dropped upon my face And They can put it with my Dolls My childhood, and the strings of spools; My second rank – too small at firstCrowned crowning – on my Father’s breast But this time – adequate – Erect – With will to choose, or to reject The name They dropped upon my face Called to the Full – The – Crescent dropped. Crowned – crowning – on my Father’s breast

Alliteration

Sound

Assonance

Sound

The name They dropped upon my face

Metaphor

Sense

Existence’s whole are filled up with one small diadem.

Peotic Theme in I’m Ceded - I’ve Stopped Being Theirs The poetic theme of the poem reveals a transition of self-awareness and identity as its intellectual dimension and a transfiguring experience triggered by dismay towards authority as its emotive dimension. Intellectual Dimension. The religious climate of her time greatly has influenced Emily Dickinson’s life. Her works grapple continuously with concerns of spirituality. One of the aspects of spiritual representation in the poet’s works is the use of sacramental imagery. Mimesis reveals that this poem is an observation of the phenomena of human identity. It is an explication of how humans could think of achieving self - knowledge. It describes the persona’s psychological metamorphosis in terms of two baptisms which conferred name and identity: the first, the sacramental baptism in the patriarchal Church, when she was an unknowing and helpless baby; the second a selfbaptism, an act of choice and will be undertaken in full consciousness. The speaker disavows her

infant baptism and the identity conferred with it and asserts another baptism enacted by and for herself as revealed in lines 2-4: The name they dropped upon my face With water, in the country church Is finished, using now… The speaker makes it clear that she is done with the water “in the country church” and with other tokens of childhood. Baptized before without a choice, she undergoes a figurative baptism this time “consciousness of grace”, in the transformation of identity that appears to have cosmic significance as expressed in the second stanza (lines 8 - 11): Baptized before, without choice, But this time consciously, of Grace Unto supremest name Called to the Full - The Crescent dropped The first stanza concludes a powerful visual comment on the unravelling of logic that is extended through the second and countered in the third. The speaker’s rejection of the religious rite and its power to name is juxtaposed in this stanza with her rejection of the female socialization process as indicated by the dolls of childhood and the women’s work of threading spools. Throughout the second and third stanzas, the issue of choice becomes central to the poem. Denied choice in the original baptism, she is now asserting her own power and right to choose. This is a poem of great pride—not pridefulness, but self-confirmation. It is a poem of movement from childhood to womanhood, of transcending the patriarchal condition of bearing her father’s name and crowning—“on my Father’s breast “(line 15). The speaker is now a conscious Queen (from being a half unconscious Queen) “Adequate-Erect “(lines 16 - 17) and “with will to choose, or to reject” (line 18). Historicism reveals that Emily’s father, one of the wealthiest and most respected citizens of the town, was a leader of the church and a zealous defender of its orthodoxy against the current “New thought” emanating from Concord or where

Gido, N. G., Barbecho, E. T., Arias, D. R. G., Dacanay, L. R. and Nemenzo, S. M. Emerson was formulating his Transcendentalism doctrines—a belief in the superiority of the intuitive to sensory knowledge. “Squire Dickinson, as he was often called, saw to it that his family attended Sunday meetings, but he was unable to protect Emily form the latest infidelity, “ transcendentalism “ for Ben Newton, a law student in his office gave Emerson’s poems to her for Christmas. Thereafter, she had two “fathers”: Edward Dickinson, to whom she was tied by the strongest bonds of love and gratitude, and Ralph Waldo Emerson, her intellectual validator, who assured her that her religious doubts were not unreasonable and who inspired her to pursue religious intuitions that could not be fitted into Amherst orthodoxy. Emotive Dimension. The poem describes a transfiguring experience. The speaker tells of her dismay at having been named and baptized without knowledge that she was subscribing to an external authority when a child and now as an adult, in underscoring a simplistic belief that she can correct the error of her earlier state of “unconsciousness”. Engaging the reader’s desire to agreeably act and leading the reader to consent to the speaker’s “insistence” is a new baptism, this time “consciously, of Grace “(line 9). Clearly here the reader sees what the poet wishes him or her to see with a new closeness and clarity. Because the readers hear the speaker retroactively recall an authority she surrendered unknowingly, they can hear the voice of that earlier authority in her present determination. Readers take note of the role that “They” play in this poem. It becomes clear that “They” are her own family members. “They” are the ones who named her and had control over things of her childhood. Even if readers can deduce that “They” represent the people who would have the most immediate control over her life, the ambiguity of the pronoun serves a further purpose. “They” is often used to represent the power structures of society itself. “They” arethelegislatorsoflife, theunseenyetfully felt powers that institute an oppressive ideology. The readers can see more than the speaker. They see the three systems of social control mutually supportive and interactive—the power of naming, the dogma of traditional Christianity, and the social construction of “femininity”.

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Dickinson was a great prolific letter writer her letters reveal a slow transformation of style during her early 20’s from conventionally phrased, well wrought sentences to spare, gnomic highly charged and often difficult phrasings punctuated by dashes and with capitalizations for emphasis. This style is also in her short poems, often obscure, deceptively simple. The poems through this style of writing using dashes and sporadic capitalizations of nouns have a way of focusing the reader’s attention to where one proceeds word by word, savouring the audacity and rightness of each choice of word. This poem partakes of the sense of being “twice born” or in Christian liturgy, confirmed. Baptism in New England Puritan churches and their successors served as a child’s introduction to the community and seal of God’s covenant. It indicated the community’s expectation that God intended the child’s salvation. The baptized child and the young adult could then pursue salvation. The speaker in this poem effectively projects her experience of a narrow “crescent” or empty “Arc” rather than a complete circle of faith. Now as an adult, she rejects the identity imposed on her by other people choices; the dolls she mentioned that were given to her, or the fancy needlework (strings of spools) (lines 5 - 6). The speaker makes it clear that she has not matured into a stereotyped woman she assumes her family and society had anticipated and rejects her baptismal identity as a sign of those false expectations. Emily Dickinson’s biography tells that when she was fifteen, she shocked her pious classmate at Mount Holy Yoke Female Seminary by refusing to confess her belief in God during an evangelical prayer meeting. Such a refusal required an astonishing degree of courage. Her poems and letters indicated that throughout her life she felt she had a direct route to the Infinite especially through the world of the mind and the Churches, sermons, preachers, revival meetings and theological vocabulary did express her sense of eternity. This exemplifies what Croghan (2007) posits “In explaining and/or questioning human experiences, writers are never alone.” The word table below illustrates the figures of speech of the sample poetic lines.

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Table 2 Figure of Speech of the Poem “Apparently With No Surprise” FIGURES OF TYPE

SAMPLE POETIC LINES

Symbolism

Sense

To any happy flower The frost beheads it at its play The sun proceeds unmoved To measure off another day For an approving God

Assonance

Sound

Augmentation

Sound

The blond assassin passes on, The sun proceeds unmoved

Rhyme

Sound

To any happy flower The frost beheads it at its play In accidental power

SPEECH

The frost beheads it at its play. In accidental power.

persona sounds like she too is unduly disturbed over the death of that flower. That she even made reference to an approving God is relenting to God’s will that death comes to people without prior or due notice and that the “assassin” is another of God’s handiworks, is innocent for it gets its accidental power as fate. This, the persona in effect, persuades the listener to accept. The poem concludes with a motion that what is true for the flower is true throughout nature. Death, even early or accidental—in terrible juxtaposition with beauty—is its (nature’s) constant condition: the fate that befalls the flower within us. Death is the end of the process. Emotive Dimension. Intoned with a grim,

almost savage timbre, the winter successfully creates a horrific picture of death being a constant Poetic Theme in Apparently With No Surprise condition of nature. What makes the killing (the “Apparently With No Surprise” has for its frost beheads the flower…) horrible is that nothing poetic theme a contrast between joyful innocence else in nature is disturbed by it or seems even to and fearful destruction as it intellectual dimension notice it, as seen in lines 6-7: and grim, savage timbre created by the horrific The sun proceeds unmoved picture of death as the emotive dimension. To measure off another day Intellectual Dimension. The poem makes a contrast between joyful innocence (happy Nothing in nature stops and pauses. The flower... at its play) (lines 2 - 3) and fearful destruction (frost….beheads it) (line 3). And the flower itself is not surprised. And even God—the cause of destruction - “the blond assassin “(line one who we have been told is benevolent and 5) is specially identified. The assassin (whose concerned over the least sparrow’s fall—seems to connotation is terror and violence) is described approve of what has happened. For He shows no as not dark but “blond” or white, connoting displeasure and He supposedly created the frost as innocence and beauty. This destructive agent in well as the flower. The compact two—stanza poem other words is among the most exquisite creation expresses a feeling that persuades the reader of of God’s handiworks. The poet is then shocked the persona’s cold and matter-of-fact assent of the by what has happened which seems inconsistent flower’s beheading which unusually corresponds with the role of benevolence in the universe. In an to the flower’s response to its beheading and God’s ironic reference to an approving God (line 8), the ready acceptance of it. The impact of this emotion poet raises a query on whether or not the forces persuades the reader to consider and ponder over that created and govern the universe actually are the fate that befell the flower. The words “any” benevolent, making the reader think that the poet (line 2) and “play” (line 3) in the first three lines of is unduly disturbed over the death of the flower. the poem imply a comparison between the flower The intellectual sense in the first stanza of “happy and humans, thus, engaging the reader to raise a flower”, “at its play” and the “frost…beheading it” dreadful question—if the destructive agent of this creates a situation where the reader is made to world is among the most exquisite creations of see someone killing another while the latter is God, isn’t death inconsistent with the benevolence “at play”. The second stanza recalls how nothing of the universe? In answer to this raised question, in nature or no one around that someone who we see an implied criticism of human thinking was killed seemed to care. Although the picture in the poem. This exemplifies Spender’s (2007) that is painted by these images is horrifying, the “awareness of the unfamiliar”—the smallest of

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man in relation to the vastness of the universe, the providing the reader with a “reflection of one’s unknown. The word table below illustrates the inner self” as Rozakis (2010) aptly puts it. For figures of speech of the sample poetic lines. women of Dickinson’s class, the appropriate social institutions were the family and the church: with Table 3 these came many societal obligations. Women Figure of Speech of the Poem “The Soul Selects Her of her day were not expected to be intellectuals, Own Society” leaders, thinkers. Emily Dickinson was a woman who created FIGURES OF TYPE SAMPLE POETIC LINES her own avenue of thought, refusing those offered SPEECH by church and society. The poem describes Alliteration Sound The Soul Selects Her Own Society the persona’s choice of isolating herself from a The Soul Selects Her Own Society social group. The imagery of the house the use The shuts the Door On Rhyme Sound Her Divine majority of the domestic vocabulary door, low gate and Obtrude no more mat asserts the persona’s indifference to the Metaphor

Sound

Simile

Sense

… Then shuts the Door At her low gate Then close the valves of her attention Like stone

Poetic Theme in The Soul Selects Her Own Society This poem has a poetic theme of a tribute to the power and sanctity of the private self as intellectual dimension and a feeling of solitude evoked by the choice of isolation as emotive dimension. Intellectual Dimension. The poet here pays tribute to the power and sanctity of the private self. The poet declares that the persona is not at home to all others. The individual self (the soul) selects the people he or she allows intimacy with and then “shuts the door” (lines 1-2), keeping all out but her selected ones, “divine majority” (line 3) no matter how few. The soul is shown living within a space defined by a door, gate, and mat. The external world, with its nations and their rulers, is kept outside. The poet further reveals that the persona would not even respond to an emperor begging for her company though chariots may bring them as lines 9 - 2 intones: I’ve known her from an ample nation Choose one Then close the valves of her attention Like stone. The poet suggests that the persona is “longing for one” with whom to share the privacy,

outside world. The enclosed space of the soul’s (the persona’s) house, established not as a grand palace but rather a simple house, is more than adequate for a queenly life and ambassadors or emperors (kneeling down upon her mat…) of the external world’s glories can easily be scorned. This intellectual house imagery is reinforced by the valves seen as doors permitting entry from outside or separating soul from world. A look into the life of the poet under study, Emily Dickinson reveals that in the remaining years of her life, there marked a gradual retreat from society. Though she reflected her community’s Protestants and Calvinistic frame of reference, religious terminology in her poetry does not indicate the she held orthodox religious belief. She is by turn satirical, sceptical, awed, reverent, speculative, ironic or god-like herself. Emotive Dimension. The poem effectively invokes the feeling of solitude. The persona has explicitly expressed her desire not to avail herself of a social life, concealing her mind, like her person, from all but a very few chosen friends (divine majority) (line 3). The poem also implies how isolation is confinement. When the soul turns in upon her own concerns, she closes “the valves of her attention-/like stone”. Valves permit the flow of whatever they regulate in one direction only: here, from outside to inside, while their association with the stone makes the walls separating soul from the world solid. The persona in the poem is strongly declaring her instinctive preferences and choices without regard to rank or personal advantages. She is someone defiantly non-rational making allegiances only to the self

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and a few others—persuading the addressee of the persona’s private and guarded revelation of committing herself only to a few, leading the reader to react agreeably to it, engaging the listener’s desires of understanding the persona’s emotional state of life. This “sharpens”, as Knickerbocker (2005) stresses, the “emotional impact on the reader”. The word table below illustrates the figures of speech of the sample poetic lines.

the reader can neither see nor hear God (line 2). He is both hidden “in silence” and “away” from our gross eyes (line 4). Emily Dickinson’s poetry is her response to her experience. To understand her, it is necessary to be familiar with her spiritual belief. The Dickinsons were considered “a representative family of Puritanism”. Aware of the disparity between her own conviction and beliefs and those of her father’s, Emily Dickinson refused to accept her father’s views. The second Table 4 stanza begins by declaring that life is an instant Figure of Speech of the Poem “I know That He play. The word “play” here tells that life is a game Exists” that which last only an instant. The idea of our FIGURES OF God as a “fond ambush” (line 6), in which He will TYPE SAMPLE POETIC LINES SPEECH jump out in playful “surprise” after this life is over. Alliteration Sound Somewhere in silence At this time, the speaker is happily confident that In death’s stiff stare “Bliss”, the presence of heaven, will be set before He has hid rare life him or her. The surprise will be the excitement of Should the glee glaze finally coming face-to-face with Him. The change He has hid his rare life from the tone of confident faith in the first two Rhyme Sound stanza is marked by the single, doubt-filled word In death’s stiff stare “but” (line 9). In the face of the reality of death, Would not the jest Personification Sound all the speaker’s doubts begin to come to the fore. Have crawled too far! The last two lines of the third stanza condenses Should the glee glaze Apostrophe Sense the speaker’s mounting the fear of death. This fear In death’s stiff stare, leads to the desperate declarations of the final Should the glee glaze stanza: In death’s stiff stare, Symbolism

Sense

Poetic Theme in I Know That He Exists “I Know That He Exists” reveals for its poetic theme an expression of confident faith—an analysis of the mystery of God as the intellectual dimension and a sense of disturbance or panic as the emotive dimension. Intellectual Dimension. The poem begins with a simple declarative statement, “I know that He exists,” an expression of confident faith that appears to be gradually and thoroughly undermined by the rest of the poem. Immediately after that initial straightforward statement, the speaker’s lack of concrete knowledge seems to come into view. Doubt may have crept into the speaker’s voice, but this is faith in spite of … as the title suggests. The readers come to see the speaker’s view that man is denied final knowledge of the Godhead. As the second statement states,

Should the glee glaze In death’s stiff stare, The speaker fears that Death may not be so benevolent after all. The word “jest” (line 15) makes it clear that with or without faith there is a perpetrator behind this life. Someone is responsible for this ambiguous ambush, whether it is He or death. The fear that fills this final stanza is based on that uncertainty. The notion that death may not be quite what it seems to the person who holds a firm faith in the unverifiable begins to surface as the speaker shows a great sense of fear, that all this “play” (life) may be nothing less than tragic and “piercing earnest”. Emotive Dimension. The words of the final stanza are structured as though they should be expressed as questions, yet the reader should feel a sense of disturbance when finding exclamation points in the place of question marks:

Gido, N. G., Barbecho, E. T., Arias, D. R. G., Dacanay, L. R. and Nemenzo, S. M.

Would not the fun Look too expensive! Would not the jest Have crawled too far! The persona struggled with these questions and concluded that human beings could never achieve a full understanding of God, that behind the covenant and behind the Scriptures there looms an inconceivable being about whom no man could confidently predict anything. The speaker is not asking the reader’s opinion on this subject—the speaker is conveying an awful sense of the idea that we are not immortal. The poem ends with an admission that man’s ascertainment of God’s purpose is clearly limited, giving the reader a sense of fear that this playful fun that we have here on earth would not be worthwhile if we have to confront a merciless glare from death. The earlier sense of life as a game full of fun with a guaranteed happy ending is abandoned. Life now appears frightening. The play has turned mean; the surprise is now meant to scare. In the presence of death, the whole idea of faith has come to seem to be nothing more than a cruel hoax. The feeling is that death is the punch line to a bad joke that has gone “too far”. By taking the role of a confused child, the poet adds an extra touch of terror to an old theological question about the mystery of God. The impact of this confusion is the transfer of this apparent fear of death that the persona is sensing to the reader leading into that heightened desperate declaration of the final stanza what the reader should feel a sense of disturbance revealing what Dacillo (1996) considers “as authentic to life and life’s realities.” Unable to accept the teachings of the Unitarian Church of her family, Emily Dickinson remained agnostic throughout her life—believing that the existence of God is unknown or unknowable despite her desire to experience a religious awakening. This is what Croghan (2007) meant by “an intense realization of a human experience where one may recognize, explain and/or question one’s own experiences.” This is exemplified in the following word table.

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Table 5 Figure of Speech of the Poem “I Cannot Live With You” FIGURES OF SPEECH

TYPE

SAMPLE POETIC LINES

Rhyme

Sound

On my homesick eye, -Except that you, than He Shine closer by Though my name Rang loudest On the Heavenly fame

Consonance

Sound

Glow plain – and foreign

Assonance

Sound

Simile

Sense

Would put out Jesus Our life his porcelain

Paradox

Sense

I cannot live with you It would be life

Personification

Sense

Our life his porcelain Like a cup

Like a cup

Poetic Theme in I Cannot Live With You The poem has for its poetic themes a negation of the possibility of a union between a loved one (its intellectual dimension) and a feeling of hopelessness, desperation and discouragement (its emotive dimension). Intellectual Dimension. The poem holds a three part argument against a union (I Cannot live with you, die with you or share the Resurrection with you, as either one of the damned or the saved). The poem begins with the persona saying that she cannot live with her loved one because their life together is an object that can only be opened with a key. The sexton, or church officer in charge of the maintenance of the church property, keeps the key. The poem probably refers to Rev. Charles Wadsworth, a Philadelphia clergyman whom the poet in study, Emily Dickinson, met on her way home from a visit to her father in Washington. A look further in the biography of the poet, reveals that Rev. Wadsworth was leaving Amherst for a new post. He accepted a call to move to a church in San Francisco.The Reverend’s involvement with God (“you serve heaven …”) (line 30) and with a woman at the same time, the poet is trying to say, is like a porcelain cup that is easily broken. Life is personified as this old cup which is valuable until

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a new, better one is available. By using sensory images, the poet develops an interest for the reader and a way of showing what the persona feels. The sense of touch is used when the poet says that one who is dead is frozen. It tells the readers that the persona knows that death isn’t a pleasant experience, as expressed in line 17-20: And I, could I stand by And see you freeze, Without my right of frost? Death’s privilege? The persona exclaims that she cannot die with her loved one, for there must always be someone to shut the other’s eye or see the loved one die without dying also, as shown in stanza 4 (lines 13 - 16): I could not die with you For one must wait To shut the other’s gaze down You could not The persona could not rise with her loved one if he will be punished by Jesus for his action, as the persona exclaims that she believes in the promise of salvation. Stanza 6 (lines 21 - 24) expressed: Nor could I rise with you, Because your face Would put out Jesus That new grace The poet also mentions that the loved one (this man) is now her paradise and what she saw previously only sordid excellence. Indeed there is something blasphemous about a love so total it outshines divinity. The persona fears that because he deserves heaven, she might be condemned and he saved. She could be saved but he condemned. Either way it would be hell to her if they were apart; lines 4144 of the 11th stanza expressed: And were you - saved And I - Condemned to be Where you were not That self - were Hell to me -

At the outset, the persona compares their separation to a door that is slightly open so that there is a possibility they can overcome their differences. The two are such opposites that they “meet apart” with just the “door ajar” (lines 4547). Then she says that they are separated by oceans. Again, there is the possibility that they can be together if they cross the water barrier. That there’s only hope through prayer that they will someday meet again in heaven. The final statement suggests that bleak sustenance is all that supports life. The long checklist of possibilities finally narrows to a harrowing death-in-life. The speaker here doesn’t take the conventional path of renouncing earthly love in favour or a more compelling divine love. She refuses it because it is the more powerful of the two. Emotive Dimension. The mood of the poem is one of hopelessness, desperation and discouragement. In the first stanza of the poem, the readers see the persona denying her inner self. She is saying that she cannot allow herself to have a normal relationship with another individual. She cannot pretend that her life is normal because her life is “behind the shelf” (lines 1-4): I cannot live with you It would be life, And life is over there Behind the shelf Arguing with herself, the persona advances a catalogue of reasons for her covenant with despair, convinced that her union with the loved one is impossible. She repeats the phrase or idea of “I cannot … with you and I could not … with you”. Each time she uses the statement, the reader creates an emotion about the beginning of a major resolution. The poem registers the desire for fulfilment each time asserts the inevitability of disappoint. Each stanza contains four lines except for the last line which has six. This is because it is the conclusion of her thought where she states that she will live in despair and depress. The word table on the next page illustrates the figures of speech of the sample poetic lines. Figurative language, in the general sense, is usually like a picture. Poems depend mainly upon the creation of pictures in the minds, helping the

Gido, N. G., Barbecho, E. T., Arias, D. R. G., Dacanay, L. R. and Nemenzo, S. M.

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readers to see things fresh and new. Poets are skillful in their written works to emphasize vivid impressions and to express their imaginative minds. The table below reveals the varied figures of sense and sounds used in the representative poems of Emily Dickinson. Poets are in love with words. The gift of language makes people human, and poets make the fullest use of it. Poetry mobilizes the image—making capacity of language, which delights the ear and stirs the emotions. Emily Dickinson makes a word play of this figurative language in the representative poems under study. Among others, the figures of sense and sounds that are reflected in the poems are as follow: “I’ve Ceded—I’ve Stopped Being Theirs” contains rhyme, alliteration, assonance and metaphor. The poem “Apparently With No Surprise” is played up by the use of symbolism, assonance, augmentation and rhyme. Alliteration, rhyme, metaphor and simile are the figures of speech found in the poem, “The Soul Selects Her Own Society”. “I Know That He Exists” has alliteration, rhyme, personification, apostrophe and symbolism. The figures of speech found in the poem, “I Cannot Live With You” includes rhyme, consonance, assonance, simile, paradox and personification.

emotive dimension; (d) Religious and Metaphysical Values - the poem with this thematic content, “I Know That He Exists”, shows an expression of confident faith— an analysis of the mystery of God as intellectual dimension and a sense of bewilderment caused by uncertainty as emotive content; (e) Loveand Hate- thepoemwiththisthematic content, “I Cannot Live With You”, show an ardent desire to be with a loved one and a negation of a possible union as intellectual dimension and hopelessness, desperation, and discouragement as emotive dimension. The figurative language of the five representative poems reflect the following figurative language used by Emily Dickinson. In her poems, Dickinson uses the figures of sense such as metaphor, symbolism, augmentation, simile, personification, apostrophe and paradox. On the other hand, the figures of sound that can be gleaned from the representative poems are rhyme, alliteration, assonance and consonance. Metaphor surfaces as the most dominant figure of sense and rhyme as the most dominant figure of sound in the poems studied. V. CONCLUSION Based on the analysis and findings of the study, the following conclusion arrived at: V. SUMMARY These poetic themes are revealed through the The findings are presented according to the theories of textuality, expressivism, mimesis and sequence of the sub-problems. historicism. The poetry of Emily Dickinson reveals The poetic themes are as follows: very personal images and symbols; hence, there is (a) Self Knowledge and Identity - The a need to be familiar with her life for it has some poem under this thematic category, “I’ve Ceded bearing on her poems. I’ve Stopped Being Theirs” shows a struggle to maintain personal identity as intellectual Originality Index: 92 % dimensions and resistance against authority as Similarity Index: 8% emotive dimension; (b) Nature and Self - the poem under this Paper ID: 665484702 thematic category, “Apparently With No Surprise” Grammarly: Checked shows death being a constant condition of nature as intellectual content and the experience of REFERENCES a profound affliction over death as emotive dimension; Arias, D. R. G. (2012). Multi-dimensional satires (c) Society and Self - the poem with this in W. M. Guerrero’s dark comedies. thematic content, “The Soul Selects Her Own (Unpublished doctoral dissertation) Cebu Society” reveals a deliberate choice to remain Normal University, Cebu City private as intellectual dimension and a feeling Crogan, R. V. (1975). The development of Philippine of solitude evoked by the choice of isolation as

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literature in English (Since 1900). Manila, PH: Alemar-Phoenix Publishing House Dacillo, M. (2009). The socio-linguistic contents of the authentic text in the English IV SEDP Textbook: A national functional syllabus. (Unpublished master’s thesis) University of San Jose-Recoletos Dreier, J. (1999). Transforming expressivism. Noûs, 33(4), 558-572. Evans, J. E. (1975). The English Lineage of Diedrich Knickerbocker. Early American Literature, 10(1), 3-13. Fontanoza, R. (1997). Themes and Discourse in Representative Contemporary Filipino Poetry in English: Bases for College Composition Enrichment. (Unpublished master’s thesis) Cebu State College, Cebu City Knickerbocker, E. V. B. (2005). Notable short stories of today. New York, USA: Harper and Brothers Publishers. Patterson, D. (2014). A Theory of Textuality: The logic and epistemology by Jorge J. E. Gracia. The Review of Metaphysics, 50(4), 894-896 Spender, J. C. (2007). Data, meaning and practice: how the knowledge-based view can clarify technology’s relationship with organizations. International Journal of Technology Management, 38(1), 178. Williams, J. J. (2003). Critics at work: Interviews, 1993-2003. NY, USA: NYU Press

UV Journal of Research 2015

Human ethos of Paulo Coelho’s selected novels: A Critico-Thematic analysis Jhon Kevin A. Mirafuentes 1 Ma. Armelyn A. Alegria2 Liza L. Chua2 Nilda L. Arcipe2 College of Teacher Education 1, 2 University of the Visayas, Philippines 1 University of Cebu, Philippines 2 aljhonnas_88@yahoo.com.ph Date Submitted : September 1, 2015

Date Accepted: September 29, 2015

ABSTRACT The study analyzes the patterns or themes of the five (5) novels of Paulo Coelho, namely: The Alchemist, Brida, By the River Piedra I Sat Down and Wept, Eleven Minutes, and The Zahir. The study is primarily anchored on the 20th century Literary Humanism and supported by Expressivism. By these, the researchers utilize the critico-thematic analysis to determine the themes of the selected novels. The study also seeks the themes of human life as depicted in the selected novels and how these themes are enhanced by the use of Coelho’s personal writing techniques. The study finds out that these novels portray not only the literal journey of the characters but also reflects the journey towards self-actualization through spiritual enlightenment and dream-realization. Thus, the study concludes that a man can fulfill his or her destiny when he or she has contributed something to the world that can affect change. Keywords: critico-thematic analysis, expressivism, human ethos, Paulo Coelho’s representative novels, literary humanism I. INTRODUCTION Art is a conscious use of skill and creative imagination especially in the production of aesthetic objects or works. According to literary critic Shöyö (2013), it is something that gives man pleasure and improves his disposition. Literature, on the other hand, is a written art which expresses the significant human experience in well-chosen and arranged words. Therefore, when art and text blend, literature is born and from that literary acumen man’s philosophical, moral, and spiritual qualities are developed. Fenollosa (1908) as cited by Shöyö (1981) believed that art ultimately enhances life by the pleasure it produces. Thus,

as a consequence, it construes delight and instruction that ultimately creates the experience of literature-and from that experience transpires the virtue of learning leading to a discerning reader’s multi-dimensional development. A novel, as a literary form of art, is a fictional piece of prose that is typically written in a narrative style and presented in a book form. With its voluminous form, it attempts to accurately imitate human nature as well as social conditions by realistically representing the mysteries embedded in man’s life in the society and the milieu that he lives. Its fundamental importance,

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as far as its contribution to the philosophical, moral, aesthetic, and spiritual development of an individual, is by means of the experience that it offers. A novel provides a visceral experience in the sense that it facilitates development or enhancement of an individual’s creative power in order to shape his or her own reality through the pleasure that he or she experiences when he or she imagines future events. This personal experience would spark the reader’s interest, if not, conversely, a particular personal encounter that the reader would seek in the novel in order to augment his or her present situation through the characters’ depiction of their roles. Furthermore, a novel offers an emotional experience that extends the reader’s emotional repertoire and self-understanding, for a novel conveys an idea and enfolds such in a comprehensible perspective that a perceptive individual can visualize how that idea or situation may unfold in the real world. By focusing one’s reading on a particular theme, the reader gathers a collection of reference experiences that are connected to a particular subject that would be relevant to his or her present or future circumstances (Bollenbach, 2008). The current reception of man towards reading a novel has greatly transformed. A study conducted by the Social Weather Stations (SWS) as commissioned by the National Book Development Board in 2012 reveals, in particular, the attitude of the Filipinos towards reading. Sadly, it shows that people primarily read in order to impetuously gain knowledge and information, thereby reclosing the notion of reading to delight in order to learn, which is one of the basic tenets of literature and apparently, one of the bare essentials of human life, as every human being is from time to time subjected to the dilemma of searching for truth while at the same time is trapped between what he is and what he ought to be. Thus, the study also links with the necessity to promote the love for reading to Filipinos not only to address their desire for information, but also to cultivate the more profound side of pleasure by introducing the value of arts and literature into their very lives. After all, it can be inferred from the survey that it is not only religious satisfaction per se that man seeks while reading especially the

Bible as he or she is in constant quest for his or her self and for his or her utmost purpose. It is with this quest of man that arts and literature can equip him or her with knowledge, since literary texts, especially the novel, teaches lessons by tapping the emotion, senses, and imagination of the reader. In this respect, it serves as a guide book to life in passing on much needed information to one’s self. Thus accordingly, the study aspires to ultimately analyze the patterns and themes, and delve into developing the reader’s attitude specifically that of the students, toward learning through pleasure using a novel as a vessel of instruction, particularly that of the selected works of the international best-selling writer, Paulo Coelho. In addition, it also looks into educating them to the deeper gamut of the significance of the novel in elucidating life and the myriads of ways in which individuals can learn in a delightful manner by means of stirring up their curiosity and igniting their thirst for adventure, fun, and creativity while simultaneously injecting moral lessons through the themes presented in novels to strengthen their learning aptitude. II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The study is primarily anchored on the 20th century Literary Humanism which centers almost exclusively on literary culture. Petrarch (1374), Father of Literary Humanism, believed that it is the accumulated wisdom from literature and letters that fosters the individual in alleviating his life. In his 1362 letter to his friend Boccaccio, Petrarch, as cited by Sadlon (2007), intensely emphasized his belief on the positive role of literature to the individual, in that for a good mind, literature stimulates the love of virtue and it weakens the trepidation of death. Moreover, he also regarded that literature does not hinder one’s development, but rather it helps the properly constituted mind. Thus, it facilitates a person’s life (Petrarca, Robinson & Rolfe, 1898). To exclusively define the scope of Literary Humanism, the 20th century Literary Humanists confined the discipline’s tenets specifically within the range of literary culture that primarily accentuates the idea that literature can help an individual to achieve personal understanding and development

Mirafuentes, J. K. A., Alegria Ma. A, Chua L. L. & Arcipe, V. N. L. through introspection and retrospection. For these scholars, literature can lead the readers to postulate a unique individual experience by providing the reader with an opportunity to examine his own conscious thoughts and feelings. On the other hand, literary text also bestows the reader the opportunity to look back and examine the past events that may assist him in understanding his present situation. Apart from the 20th century Literary Humanism, this study is also supported by Expressivism which deems that a literary work has the capacity to elicit feelings from its readers. It focuses on the study of the author’s feelings, thus believing that the author of a literary piece does not mimic the outside world, but conveys his internal world. Because of this, it rests on the notion that by reading how another individual feels, one’s own sensibilities are also awakened, thereby developing one’s personality. In the study, Literary Humanism theory insisted that the best, and indeed the only way to study literature was to study the text itself in close detail, and to disregard anything outside the text itself, including the author’s biography, the historical context in which the work appeared, how it related to other works both before, during, and after its appearance, and how critics and readers responded to the text. In short, this branch of criticism theorized the literary text as an isolated object, something to be studied in and of itself alone. This is the theory that says what literature students ought to do is read the words on the page, and nothing else. Conversely, Expressivism is used to determine the writer’s inner psychology. Whatever the writer writes expresses the subconscious or unconscious workings of his minds which are products of his or her own personal experiences in life. More so, the patterns and/or themes found in the selected novels of Paulo Coelho determine the author’s personal experiences in life. Hence, in the present epoch that man is living in, he is continually subdued not only with questions pertaining to himself, but also with limitations placed upon by society, laws, mores, customs, traditions, family, and even selfperception that make him surrender to the great possibilities ahead of him or her. Paulo Coelho, an author of the international best-selling novels,

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believes that one can be a master of the things that try to enslave him by taking responsibility. Thus, it is deemed that the only crime against life is to believe in the word “impossible”. The moment an individual succumbs to repose on that word, he has already failed. Furthermore, he also believes that each individual has a unique role to play, whether he is a writer or a reader. For Paulo Coelho, it is not the book by itself that changes a person’s life; nevertheless, change on the person can occur through the sensations purported by the writer that may have an effect on the reader. When the writer writes about a topic, a philosophy, or an idea at the right moment when the reader is desperately struggling to find answers to his questions or simply to emancipate him from his present dilemma, he creates a bridge. It makes the reader feel that he is not alone. But someone also feels the same way that he does. With that, a connection between the writer and the reader is developed. The reader feels that the author is writing about him, so then he is persuaded to do what the characters in the novel have done or to follow what the author has written in the book. By doing so, a reader is then transformed to a level where he is inspired to take a risk towards the fulfillment of his destiny. As the novel encourages one to escape from the humdrum of daily life and allows one to submerge himself in the pages of the book, so does it also help one to remember to be hopeful, to take practical support, and to grasp a few life lessons from it (Roberts & Crawford, 2008). Paulo Coelho, an author of international bestselling novels, is known not only for the multidimensional scope of his works, encompassing the disciplines of History, Geography, Mythology, Philosophy, Theology, and Psychology, but also on his themes addressing the issues that man collectively want to address but is afraid to verbalize, such as man’s individual power, the view of sex and marriage, and love in its multifaceted form, which are further enhanced by his skillful application of moral parables expressing a conception of right conduct, of the established ceremony surrounding any form of ritual, of simple narration of useful truth in fables, of extraordinary event or religious miracles, of

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awkward questions which are normally regarded by the social norms and mores as taboo, and of time frame that is regarded as a period of time when certain things are expected to happen. With his atypical and unconventional philosophy, Coelho took the courage to play on with his contradictory nature and learned to turn them around to his advantage, resulting to a gross of 145 million books sold and translated into 74 languages in total, to date. Calio (1970) made an analytical study on the pessimistic themes of Thomas Hardy’s selected Victorian novels to bring to the attention of the readers the significance of pessimism as portrayed by the author in the major characters and events using analytical and descriptive methods. The themes he found from the novels include the themes of love and marriage, hopes and intentions, sex and marriage, but with the characters showing increasing gravity of pessimism. Narca (1997) additionally studied on the themes of love, beauty, death, and life in the selected short stories and poems of Edgar Allan Poe enhanced by the techniques of imagery and symbolism employing critico-analysis method. Cobita (2003) undertook an analysis of the themes and literary techniques in the selected works of Robert Penn Warren, utilizing the criticanalytical method of research. As such, she was able to draw out the themes of good versus evil, Machiavellian expediency, spiritual odyssey, tragic flow, and the search for a father enhanced with Warren’s techniques of flashback, point of view, symbolism, andanalogy. Moreover, Muraleedharan (2013), in his Multi-Disciplinary Dimensions in Paulo Coelho’s Novel The Alchemist, analyzed how Coelho portrayed the self-realization theme of the alchemist using the different disciplines of History, Geography, Philosophy, Theology, Psychology, and Mythology, as contained in the novel. Dash (2013) in his Alchemy of the Soul: A Comparative Study of Hermann Hesse’s Siddharta and Paulo Coelho’s The Alchemist investigated not only the differences and similarities of the two modern classic novels, but also how each can be interpreted using Jung’s psychoanalytic process of Individuation or Self-realization. III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The study utilized the critico-thematic

analysis approach. This method emphasizes identifying, examining, and recording patterns or themes within the data. A theme represents a level of patterned meaning from the data that is connected to the research questions at hand. In choosing the data, a purposive technique of data selection was used. Out of 30 books, to date, written by Paulo Coelho, the researchers opted to focus on five of his works, namely: The Alchemist (1988), Brida (1990), By the River Piedra I Sat Down and Wept (1994), Eleven Minutes (2003), and The Zahir (2005), first and foremost on the basis of their intimate connection to the aspects where man is constantly subjected to, such as selfrealization, in subjects concerning love, sex, and marriage, fate and will, concept about life, and religion and spirituality. The above novels were also selected by virtue of their connection to the human life, depicting common issues faced by man, for instance self-realization, love, vision of life, religion and spirituality, fate and will, sex, and marriage. In order to accomplish the desired result, the researchers utilized the critico-thematic analysis approach. Thus, in order to acquire accurate findings on her study, the following steps were undertaken: Phase 1: Reading and re-reading of the data, that is, of the novels for the researchers to become familiar with the themes and techniques used in writing them; Phase 2: Creation of the initial codes by documenting where and how patterns occur, that is, if there is any in the course of reading. For the purpose of the study, a code refers to the label that is given to particular pieces of the data that contribute to a theme; Phase 3: Combination of codes to form clustered themes in order to accurately depict the data; Phase 4: Inspection of the researchers at how the themes support the data; Phase 5: Synthesis of same themes to produce a comprehensive analysis; and Phase 6: Composition of the analysis report. Following this, examination of each datum is to be undertaken by reading each novel and taking down the relevant information needed in the study, such as the illustrated themes in the novels. Finally, with the collected variables, the researchers would then synthesize and analyze how these different themes of human life are enhanced by moral parables, fable, ritual, religious

Mirafuentes, J. K. A., Alegria Ma. A, Chua L. L. & Arcipe, V. N. L. miracles, awkward questions, and time frame in the selected novels. IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Paulo Coelho’s novels are known for compelling the fundamental themes that speak of the basic human nature, as well as the basic communal questions that humans are often asking: about self, dreams, love, religion and spirituality, self-realization, and the vision of life. Even though the themes of his novels differ from one story to another, definite patterns can be found throughout his works (Coelho, 2009). The theme is the central or dominating idea of a story; in that, it is the total meaning in the work after having wholly taken into account the entire literary piece’s aspect, and accordingly may be demonstrated by the characters’ actions, utterances, or thoughts. Consequently, this part undertakes the critico-analysis of the common themes in the novels of Paulo Coelho, namely: The Alchemist; Brida; By the River Piedra I Sat Down and Wept; Eleven Minutes; and The Zahir. Journey. There are two types of journey themes identified in the representative novels of Paulo Coelho: The first is the transformational journey towards self-realization. Narca (1997) maintained that this type of journey signifies the change of emotions, intellect undergoing a travel to other situations of one’s life, behavior, and personality; that every step along the way has significance relative to the culmination of the individual’s reason for self-actualization. For a person to be a fully functioning individual, Rogers (1961) deemed the actuality of the congruence between self—that is the sense of who the person is, and the ideal self—who that person feels he should be. Other than that, Abrams & Harpham (2012) recognized peak experiences. This means that the moments in one’s life that take one beyond his ordinary perceptions, thoughts, and feelings, causing the individual to feel energized, or more alive, thus transforming his understanding of his self and the world. Jung (1933) described it as the “alchemy of the soul”, which is more commonly known as Individuation or Self-Realization. He dedicated approximately twenty years to the analysis of alchemy, leading him to the discovery that the

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alchemical testing of transmuting base metal or lead into gold reflected an internal developmental process of wholeness and health in the human psyche (Dash, 2013). In order to attain self-realization, a person has to manifest the contents of his unconscious state into the conscious state, for the unconscious and the conscious are opposites; however, they are at the same time complementary. The unconscious is divided into two: the personal and the collective unconscious. The collective unconscious is composed of archetypes, autonomous instincts, patterns, or behaviors which encompass time, places, and people. Since the unconscious state exercises great power, and by gaining the upper hand, collective unconscious can perform miracles-one of which is self-realization. The transformational journey is illustrated in the characters of Santiago and the Englishman in The Alchemist, Brida and the Magus in Brida, Pilar and her boyfriend in By the River Piedra I Sat Down and Wept, Maria and Ralf Hart in Eleven Minutes, and the narrator and Esther in The Zahir. In The Alchemist, Santiago started his journey in order to find out the truth of his recurrent dream of buried treasure in the Pyramids of Egypt, which is called by the old wise king named Melchizedek as his Personal Legend. It is what one has always wanted to accomplish of which he ultimately realized. However, on the course of his journey towards the Pyramids, his being has been transformed as well: he started to believe in personal omens or signs, learned the universal language of the world sometimes known as “intuition” or “hunch” and applied it in his day to day life; decided to trust himself as well as the others, understood his heart including its fear and desires; recognized that everything is interconnected and is part of him, and he needed both the animate and inanimate if he is to understand his self and the world; and most importantly he learned that he is the replica of God, that is, God’s spirit dwells in him that allows him to perform miracles. Thus, the acme of his spiritual journey of self-actualization is finding his mission on earth that of being able to perform miracles because of the realization that God’s Spirit dwells in him. The Englishman, on the other hand, dreams of

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ultimately becoming an alchemist. He started his journey by studying for ten years in the university in order to learn about Esperanto, an artificial language invented as a means of international communication; the world’s religion, and all other subjects that would help him find the one true language of the universe; and went on to a caravan bound for Al-Fayoum oasis where the real alchemist lives to seek for his help. In realizing his dream, he came to realize that he must not fear failure for this apprehension was the very reason of his previous setback in achieving the Master Work, that is, the Philosopher’s Stone. As a result, he continues on doing and trying to do what the alchemist has instructed him. In the novel Brida, the protagonist named Brida desires to become a witch, so she sought the aid of the Magus who taught her the teachings of the Tradition of the Sun and of the wisdom about things, and Wicca who educated her of the Tradition of the Moon, that includes, to perform the different rituals corresponding to the different cycles of the moon; to dance in tune to the Sound of the World, to identify the different cures of herbs, and to feel the energy or vibes of the clothes she owns. Her journey is more of a spiritual transformation. Through the rituals and exercises that Wicca assigned her to do, she was able to awaken the dormant voice of her soul that signified her readiness to be initiated as a full-pledged witch. However, her journey did not stop there. The ultimate condition for her selfactualization is her aptitude to transform all the knowledge she has learned into wisdom through the use of the force of sex as it opens the portal to both real and magical worlds. With the help of her soul mates, she was able to attain the pinnacle of her journey in both the spiritual and material planes. The Magus, conversely, is a man who isolated himself from the world, an act he dutifully performs as a recompense for his prior violation on the law of love. He was in love and got hurt, but the worst part of it was that he violated the fundamental law of love: interfering in one’s free will. His only redemption is to wait for his soul mate to arrive and set him free from his bondage without his interference or manipulation of any kind to encourage the growth of love. His journey

started in his detachment from the world as his penalty and spent most of his life in the forest learning from it. However, the forest presented him another lesson that would define his existence in the form of Brida—his soul mate. His journey with Brida taught him patience, and most importantly, to love freely without expecting anything in return. To be a fully actualized person, the Magus had eventually learned that love is liberty, and because of that discernment, he is again free to return to the world and has continued on being a Teacher of the Tradition of the Sun. Pilar of the novel By the River Piedra I Sat Down and Wept began her journey of transformation the moment when she heard her seminarian friend’s message on his conference in Madrid about taking risks and identifying magic moments. From an individual who was always defined by plans for everyday survival, her journey from Madrid to Saint-Savin in France where the grotto of Lourdes is situated, she was transformed into a person who learns to follow her heart instead. Because of that, she was able to re-discover her being and discerned her mission of spreading the Great Mothers’ love side by side with her boyfriend. On the other hand, it is also an odyssey of love that commenced during childhood, of love that was lost, and was recovered in her adult life despite of the vehement tests of prejudices, distinctive views and religious orientations, and altered dreams. With her re-discovered faith, she was able to recover her lost love in the form of her seminarian friend, and together, they eventually set to trudge their selected path. Her boyfriend, on the other hand, underwent spiritual pilgrimage by heeding the spiritual call of religious order in order to meet God and ultimately discerned his gift-his would-be way of serving the world. From a teenager who was merely interested to gain knowledge outside his small town of Soria, he reached the monastery in France to seek God and to renounce his budding love for Pilar. His insatiable search for spiritual satisfaction brought him to India; however, it was in his stay in the monastery in Pyrenees that he met with God and developed his gift of performing miracles. Nevertheless, he still had to resolve his inner turmoil in order to realize his true being: to leave the seminary and be with Pilar, or to

Mirafuentes, J. K. A., Alegria Ma. A, Chua L. L. & Arcipe, V. N. L. renounce his love for Pilar and continue with his mission of healing. To settle this dilemma, he spent some time with Pilar and realized that he still loved her, prompting him to surrender his mission. But this decision saddened Pilar. With her help and forgiveness, he was able to start dreaming again and moved forward to the attainment of his dream. In Eleven Minutes, Maria dreamed of true love. In her teenage years, she learned about love and heartaches, and discovered the other not-so-good side of sex, which actually was the commencement of her journey to finding true love. After high school she worked as a sales girl in a fabric shop in her small town, and with enough savings, she went to Rio de Janeiro for a week-long vacation. As chance presented itself, she grabbed the opportunity of going to Geneva to work as a cabaret dancer; however, this did not last long. She resigned and applied for a modeling job which led to an encounter with an Arab gentleman who paid her one thousand francs in exchange of the sexual pleasure she could give. Because of despair, and the desire not to go home empty-handed, she succumbed to prostitution. From her profession, she learned a myriad of things like playing the role of different persona in different occasions such as, being a courtesan, a mother, a listener, and a friend to satisfy her customers’ needs. When the time was right, fate had presented her true love in the form of Ralf Hart, with whom she re-discovered her lost self that was long-buried in heaps of pains, failures, and activities she had engaged with. Conversely, Ralf Hart was divorced twice, and although he possessed good looks, success, and wealth, he still has problem with sex and love. He went to the Copacabana Bar in order to seek solace to his problem, but usually got despaired. Then one day, when his soul was ready, he met Maria, whom he referred to as having a special light. Intrigued, he made an appointment with her in the bar as her customer. During their sessions, she taught him about gift-giving, to acknowledge the other person’s existence; of radiating desire without having to give the object of desire; and about exploring of each other’s body without sexual contact. In their respective separate ways, they were molded to the maximum in order to prepare each of them to the realization of their

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individual dreams and in realizing their true selves in return. The narrator of The Zahir embarked more on a spiritual journey in order to recover his wife; thus, in turn resulted to his personal transformation. He was a successful writer, a celebrity in fact, and possessed the same weakness of a typical married man: forgetful to demonstrate his love to his wife assuming that she had already known about it. His pilgrimage has subtlety dawned on the day when Esther, his wife had disappeared. However, anger, pain, pride, and the need to move on clouded his desire to find her. Then one day, in the book signing event, he met for the first time Mikhail, the person he suspected as his wife’s lover. Mikhail unconsciously rekindled in him the desire to find his wife; and eventually, the realization of his shortcomings; the acceptance of his own imperfections; and the resolve to be a better person in order to be deserving of Esther’s love again. From Paris, his journey to find Esther, continued to Vitoria in Spain where he wrote his best-selling book about his love for his wife; to the Armenian restaurant where Mikhail performed every Thursday night, where he learned about the instances displaying the lack of love; to the subsequent meetings with Mikhail who introduced him to the streets of Paris where he met the beggars who became part of Esther’s life and to the group whose motto is to live today as if it is the last, and as if it is the first; to Croatia, where he made a pact with God that if he could perform a particular act, he would take it as a sign to go to Central Asia to find his wife; and to the Kazakhstan steppes where he was blessed and was taught the tradition of the steppes. His spiritual journey was best reflected in his conversation with Mikhail: …but that didn’t just make me travel across the Kazakhstan steppes: it made me travel through the whole of my past life. I saw where I went wrong, I saw where I stopped, I saw the moment where I lost Esther, the moment of the giving-up point. I experienced things I never imagined I would experience at my age…

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On the other hand, Esther’s despondency on love-primarily on the reason that she could no longer generate love for the lack of reciprocal love from her husband, and the desire to live life to the fullest, had ventured into the warring zones of Africa, then to Central Asia to find meaning in her life. In one of her visits to Central Asia, she met Mikhail who became her friend, and who helped her generate love. She also learned about Tangri, the tradition of the steppes, which speaks of opening the channel of her soul in order to replenish and renew the imprisoned energy of love, which is the basic reason for one’s unhappiness. Apart from that, she also came in contact with the beggars and with various people in order to put into practice the teachings of the tradition. Finally, she stayed in a Kazakh village to fully understand life and waited for her husband to come to her at the right time. Nevertheless, the novels speak of the literal journey, as an the act of travelling from one place to another. In The Alchemist, Santiago traversed many lands and two continents in quest of his treasure. From his native Andalusia, he crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and reached the African continent through the Port of Tangier. From there, he crossed the vast desert and reached AlFayoum oasis, and finally arrived in Egypt where his supposed-treasures are buried, only to learn later that he has to return to his native Andalusia particularly in the old abandoned church where he usually sleeps with his flock. Pilar, on one hand, lived in a small Spanish town named Soria. She moved to a bigger city named Zaragoza to continue with her higher education. After so many years, she embarked on her journey to the capital Madrid to see her childhood friend. With changed perception and attitude towards life, she went with him to Bilbao, then to Navarra, afterwards to San Martin de Unx, where they both crossed the Pyrenees mountain chain bordering Spain and France to reach SaintSavin in order to attend the feast of the Immaculate Conception in Lourdes. After the Feast, they had a return trip to Saint-Savin, then to San Martin de Unx, before they reached Piedra, a town in Spain where they visited when they were still young. Maria’s journey, on the other hand, is composed of her small and remote village in Brazil

as the starting point. When she was then nineteen years old, she travelled, for the first time, outside her hometown to the Brazilian financial capital Rio de Janeiro. With much luck, she met a Swiss man who brought her to Geneva, Switzerland, where she stayed for more than a year. Her journey stopped in Paris. Finally, the narrator of The Zahir has been to many places, starting from his own country. He went to Spain to undertake a pilgrimage to the road of Santiago de Compostela. After that pilgrimage, he decided to settle for a while in Madrid then went back to his own country again. However, because of his writing career, he opted to live in Paris. Due to the nature of his work, he would go to other parts of Spain, like Madrid, Vitoria, and Bayonne. He would also go to the United States of America, Geneva in Switzerland, Amsterdam, Zagreb in Croatia, and Milan in Italy to visit his new girlfriend. Nonetheless, since he was still obsessed with his wife, he reached Central Asia, particularly in Kazakhstan to find her. Love. The theme of love in its varied facets is portrayed in the selected novels of Paulo Coelho. The theme of unconditional love is tackled in The Alchemist. It can be summarized in the utterance of the alchemist to Santiago one night when the latter was skeptical to continue in pursuing his journey towards the Pyramids and to leave Fatima behind in the oasis: “You must understand that love never keeps a man from pursuing his Personal Legend. If he abandons that pursuit, it’s because it wasn’t true love… the love that speaks the Language of the World.” Relatively, Brida also undertakes the theme of unconditional love, which can be reflected in the statement of the Magus concerning her love for Brida after the latter’s initiation rites: “When we first met-although it seems to me that I’ve always known you, because I can’t remember the world before that… I knew you were my Soul Mate, and that you would teach me everything I needed to learn… Then you came and I understood all of this. You came to free me from the slavery I myself had created, to tell me that I was free to return to the world and to

Mirafuentes, J. K. A., Alegria Ma. A, Chua L. L. & Arcipe, V. N. L. the things of the world… I will always remember now that love is liberty….” On the other hand, it is also reflected in Pilar’s silent prayer to the Great Mother in By the River Piedra I Sat Down and Wept: “…Give me the opportunity to learn through my love, because love has never kept anyone away from their dreams…”; as well as Eleven Minutes as contained in Maria’s diary page where she admitted her love for Ralf Hart: “… I allowed myself to fall in love for one simple reason: I’m not expecting anything to come of it…”; and The Zahir, specifically on Esther’s love for her husband, as reflected on by him while writing his first book: “… the woman who made me say yes when I wanted to say no, who forced me to fight for what she, quite rightly, believed was my reason for living, who let me set off alone because her love for me was greater even than her love for herself, who made me go in search of my dream.” Philistia or self-love is illustrated in the novel The Zahir. As elucidated by Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), in order to love others one has to learn to love one’s self first. Esther loved her husband, but had eventually became worn-out of that love, so instead of being helpless to see the death of her love, she went into places where people were living on the edge every day, such as in the warring zones. She also applied to her life the Tangri tradition of forgetting one’s personal history to keep the energy of love in constant movement; and ultimately went into Kazakhstan steppes in order to re-learn to love herself and God so that she can continue manifesting that love again. Self-love is also illustrated in the narrator’s condition, and can be specifically cited in one of his conversations

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with Marie, wherein he was trying to explain to her his desire of finding Esther: “If I was to see her again, my face needed to be as clean as hers. Before I could find her, I must first find myself.” Redeeming love is also prevalent in the novels Brida, By the River Piedra I Sat Down and Wept, Eleven Minutes, and The Zahir. With the arrival of Brida in the Magus’ life, his love for her emancipated him from his exile from the world and the things of the world. With Pilar’s love for her boyfriend, he was able to rediscover his dream and mission. That love also saved him from possible life-long emotional catastrophe of broken dreams. With their love for each other, Maria was saved from the addiction of giving carnal pleasure, and Ralf came to know the real meaning of total love and the real purpose of sex. With Esther’s love for her husband, he made a long pilgrimage to find and realize his dream, and with the same love, he started out on spiritual journey in order to rediscover himself that was lost along the way. The love of God is depicted in By the River Piedra I Sat Down and Wept, where second chances are given to those who ask for things from their hearts. Obsessive love is one of the themes of The Zahir. The narrator’s obsession to his wife started when she had disappeared for no apparent reason that she filled his thoughts, became the content of his every conversation, and continued to grow in his soul, until he started looking for her in every woman he would meet. Though he had continued to move on with his life, having a new girlfriend at that, he still was mystified and ever more absorbed by his wife’s absence. The turbulence she had caused him was as strong as the attraction she had effected upon him. This inner turmoil drove him to search for her, and unintentionally for himself and for real love. Fate and Will. The Oxford English Dictionary defines fate as-”the development of events outside a person’s control regarded as decided in advance by a supernatural power”; whereas will is outlined as-“a person’s power to decide on something and take action, or a person’s ability to control his actions or thoughts”. One of the key themes in the

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selected novels of Paulo Coelho is the interlinked pair of fate and will theme, specifically how life is handled by destiny, and how it is controlled by willpower. Also, it portrays how one acts or responds to the situations presented by fate. In Santiago’s earlier conversation with Melchizedek, the old king told him that the world’s greatest lie is that “at certain point in our lives we lose control of what’s happening to us, and our lives become controlled by fate.” He adhered to what fate has laid on before him before setting off his journey. On the other hand, when he lost his money to a swindler at the Port of Tangier, instead of letting fate decide for him, which obviously was to return to Andalusia, he instead opted to think of himself as an “adventurer in quest of his treasure”. From then on, he always makes it a point that whatever fate throws in his way, he would make his own decisions with the help of the omens that guide his way. Brida expounds the theme of fate and will by underlying the notion that one can be a master of his destiny, despite of the fact that one can easily commit mistakes, or flee from everything that he desires though that desire is quite near for him to realize. In addition, being a master of one’s destiny also means to possess the capability of surrendering himself to Divine Providence or fate, and let God lead him to fight for his dreams, with the belief that these dreams are always realized at the perfectly right moment. To illustrate, Brida could have let go of her dream of becoming a witch after the Magus had left her alone to spend the night in the forest as her first lesson. However, she bounced back. She tried learning on her own through reading books, and with the help of the bookshop owner, she came to meet Wicca, who then became her teacher. She again attempted to quit the path to sorcery when she could not perform the very first assignment her teacher had asked her to do. With Wicca’s help, she became a full-fledged witch though she kept on committing mistakes, and even complaining along the way. One poignant and hard-learned lesson that Maria had

acquired was that sometimes life offers no second chances. Because of that, when fate presented her an opportunity to work in a foreign country, she grabbed it. When she found out that the dancing job was partly a ruse, instead of feeling sorry for herself, she chose to be an adventurer in search of treasure. From that moment on, she acted on whatever fate has presented her way. Fate and will are portrayed in By the River of Piedra I Sat Down and Wept through taking risks in everyday occurrence. After so many years of not seeing Pilar’s childhood friend, an opportunity to meet him has finally arrived through a conference in Madrid where he was the speaker. Despite her initial reservations, she gradually developed the attitude of taking risks and recognized the magic moment of each day. In The Zahir, with Esther’s disappearance, the narrator lived his life as normal as he could. However, because of his love for his wife, no matter how much he denied the truth from himself, he still wanted to find where she was. He responded to the guidance of fate in finding her with Mikhail being an instrument, and followed the signs along the way to know if he was trudging on the right path, and has performing the necessary things at the right time. Vision of Life. Existentialism expresses that the human existence is an investigation of the meaning of being. This notion is further elaborated by Dreyfus who says that “The existence is inclusive of diverse possibilities from which man must make a selection, wherein he should remain committed to that selection, and each individual is adept in developing the very meaning of his own life based on what he personally regard as meaningful instead of what is rational (Muraleedharan, 2013).” The Alchemist puts forth that whenever a person desires something with all his heart, all the Universe conspires to help him realize his dream. Therefore, it is important to know what one wants, and to follow this dream no matter what happens to the end because it is only by realizing one’s self that one can justify his existence, and in turn, by that act, one can commune with the world; thus, affects change to the world, which is stated by Melchizedek; “To realize one’s destiny is the person’s only real obligation. All things are one.”

Mirafuentes, J. K. A., Alegria Ma. A, Chua L. L. & Arcipe, V. N. L. Brida suggests that the ultimate mission of each individual is to find his or her soul mate. Apart from that, it also indicates that life is always a path of mystery, wherein to learn is to accept life’s complexities, to make mistakes, to take risks and yet to believe that each moment is an act of faith. Thus, it suggests that the only way one could truly participate is by following his own desires, his own dreams, because that is how one becomes an instrument of God. By the River Piedra I Sat Down and Wept, on the other hand, illustrates the unique attribute of each day. To live life to the fullest, it is essential that one “lives in the present...day and learns to distinguish the magic moment-a moment in which we have the ability to change everything that makes us unhappy because sometimes one small decision may have a huge role in changing the course of one’s life.” Furthermore, Eleven Minutes elucidates the significance of taking risks, for sometimes life does not offer second chances

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Religion and Spirituality. Religion and spirituality both refer to man’s desire to find God or inner peace. While religion operates in literature and rituals for its worship, spirituality on the other hand, uses personalized prayer and meditation. The Alchemist illustrates esotericism, a belief intended for or understood by only a small number of people with a specialized knowledge. Antoine Faivre identifies four essential characteristics of esotericism that includes: (a) connection between the invisible and visible parts of the universe; (b) the belief that nature is a living entity owing to a divine presence or life-force; (c) the need for mediating elements like symbols, rituals, angels, and visions to connect with spiritual knowledge; and (d) an experience of personal and spiritual transformation when arriving at this knowledge (Faivre, 2013). Apart from that, it also exemplifies a secret transference of spiritual teachings through initiation from master to disciple. Santiago became the alchemist’s disciple inadvertently when the caravan joined by him reached the oasis, where “...that what is lost once may be gone the alchemist learned from the wind that someone forever. In addition, it is also of great in that caravan would be in need of his help. consequence to say yes to life by Conversely, Santiago prior to his meeting with living it as if today were the first (or the alchemist learned on his own about the world through reading the omens along the way, and by last) day of one’s life.” understanding the desert. So when the alchemist Finally, The Zahir describes life’s took in Santiago as his student, he enhanced his contradictions, yet to joyfully live life with ability not only understand omens, but also listen whatever blessing one is given, despite its irony. to his heart, and most importantly in applying this As the narrator describes it, spiritual knowledge to manifest in the physical plane by turning himself into the wind. In the act “God knows that we are all artists of of doing so, Santiago discovered that God dwells life. One day, he gives us a hammer in him; therefore he can accomplish great things. On the other hand, Brida conveys a mixture with which to make sculptures, of Wicca and Christian mysticism focusing on another day he gives us brushes and the Catholic tradition. Wicca is a combination paints with which to make a picture, of modern pagan and witchcraft religions. As an or a paper and a pencil to write with. But you cannot make a painting aspiring witch, Brida learned not only of the rituals with a hammer, or a sculpture with and practices performed by the witches, but also a paintbrush. Therefore, however of the existence, importance, and connection difficult it may be, I must accept of the spirit world to the physical realm. On the today’s small blessings, even if they other hand, Christian mysticism is practiced seem like curses…” through ecstatic vision of the soul’s mystical union with God and prayerful contemplation of “This is the only way I will manage to the Holy Scripture. The novel reflects the fusion leave my pain behind and rebuild my of the Wiccan mysticism and that of Christian life.”

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religion through the kingdom of the Moon’s commemorative ritual to pray and pay homage to their forebears to be performed by Wicca and her students. They acknowledged not only the spirits of the ancients present in the ritual they had performed, but also of the protection of the Virgin Mary and Jesus Christ. Other than that, passages in the Bible became the point of reference in interpreting and explaining certain teachings, for example, Wicca referred to the Bible as containing all the true occult wisdom; thus, in order for Brida to find her gift, she must contemplate on the First Epistle of Saint Paul to the Corinthians which outlined the nine spiritual gifts. Consequently, the Magus expressed that the teaching of the Tradition of the Sun, a way of teaching witchcraft, was described by Saint Paul in one of his epistles, “And I was with you in weakness and in much fear and trembling; and my speech and my message were not in plausible words of wisdom, but in demonstration of the Spirit and of power, that your faith might not rest in the wisdom of men but in the power of God.” Apart from Bible references, mention of the teachings of the saints were also utilized, particularly the teachings of the Spanish mystic St. John of the Cross about faith in the form of the Dark of Night, and the martyrdom of St. Joan of Arc who was accused of witchcraft; thus, she was burned in fire as a sanction. Similarly, By the River of Piedra I Sat Down and Wept denotes Christian Mysticism in the context of Catholic tradition, however, in its more profound side. In addition to the earlier description of Christian mysticism, the scholar McGinn (2005) described it as that part or element of Christian belief and practice that concerns the preparation for, the consciousness of, and the effect of a direct and transformative presence of God. One of its characteristics involves a community consisted of the Church and the believers. Therefore, involvement in a joint worship, such as the celebration of the Eucharist is indispensable in Christian mysticism. The practice of it involves

among others, visions or the sensory experiences; ecstasies; physical transformations, such as the development of stigmata or odor of sanctity; and the performance of miracles. The novel displays a person’s search for God, particularly Pilar’s friend. Hetravelledacrossmanycountries, including India and Egypt in order to find God, and it was only in the monastery in the Pyrenees that he finally met God and came to understand that every religion is right in its claim that God is the same even though He has a thousand names. He developed the ability of speaking and understanding in different tongues and performed the miracle of healing the sick through the help of the Virgin Mary. Relatively, it also speaks about the feminine face of God-the Virgin Mary as having her own divinity. Pilar’s friend explained it as: ?The Bible tells that Jesus had two brothers. Virginity as it relates to Jesus, is based on a different thing: Mary initiated a new generation of grace. She is the cosmic bride, Earth, which opens to the heavens and allows itself to be fertilized. Because of the courage she showed in accepting her destiny, She allowed God to come down on earth-and she was transformed into the Great Mother “…But you should know that this woman-the Goddess, the Virgin Mary, the Shechinah, the Great Mother, Isis, Sofia-is present in every religion on the faceofthe earth… In every religion and in every tradition, She manifests Herself in one form or another-She always manifests Herself. Since I am a Catholic, I perceive Her as the Virgin Mary.” The feminine face of God is also illustrated in The Zahir, where Mikhail was constantly guided by the apparition of the Virgin Mary. Sex. It is one of the main themes of the novel Eleven Minutes. Nevertheless, the novel suggests two types of sex: (a) the profane and (b) the sacred. Sex is considered to be a sacrilege when sexual pleasure is performed for its own sake, and in that performance it is incorporated with pain and humiliation, like that of masochism, and sadism; and also, if it involves money in exchange of the pleasure it gives. Conversely, it is sacred if

Mirafuentes, J. K. A., Alegria Ma. A, Chua L. L. & Arcipe, V. N. L. the act of sex is performed in the context of love. Prostitution. Apart from sex, Eleven Minutes also embraces the predominant theme of prostitution-the reasons for committing prostitution; how this undesirable profession can become an ally to those who seek for help—not only for those with sensual problems, but also for those who seek to unburden themselves with their day to day concerns; and the role despair plays in choosing the path of prostitution to change one’s life. Marriage. The Zahir displays apparently the theme of marriage. It expounds on the typical experience married couples undergo, how each manages his or her individual expectations, growth, and how to keep love alive and make the marriage last. Narrative Techniques. Paulo Coelho uses his personal narrative techniques in the enhancement of the themes of his selected works, such as moral parable, ritual, religious miracle, fable, awkward question, and time frame. Moral Parable. A moral parable is a story that is meant to illustrate, teach, and communicate important moral lesson in order to simplify complicated life situations; and thus, it conveys wisdom, beliefs, and lessons. Together with the fable of the modified version of the story of Narcissus in the prologue, the moral parable concerning dreams, particularly that of the Roman centurion’s most-quoted utterance in the Bible: “My Lord, I am not worthy that you should come under my roof, but only speak a word and my servant will be healed.” Evidently, this adage strengthens the selfrealizationjourneyaswellasthevisionoflifetheme of The Alchemist. It symbolizes the significance of the conclusion of Santiago’s journey: his real obligation lies in his self-realization, and whether he succeeds or fails, the world would be affected somehow, because all things are interconnected. In addition to that, it also foretells the contribution of the unfortunate episode that Santiago will be encountering in the Pyramids at the hands of the thieves in the ultimate search of his treasure at the

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end of the novel. The parable concerning the secret to happiness, where one ought not to forget to take pleasure in everyday life while performing his duties to realize his mission, as narrated by Melchizedek to Santiago not only serves as a guideline for him to follow, but foreshadows Santiago’s journey, as well. On the other, the parable about the builder and the planter found in the Prologue of the novel Brida suggests tacitly about the path of witchcraft, the direction in which Brida will be trudging on. The story of the Other’ introduces to the reader the subsequent total behavior change of Pilar in By the River Piedra I Sat Down and Wept. Accompanied with the recognition and seizure of magic moments and the notion of taking risks, the exercise of the Other’ helped in Pilar’s spiritual transformation journey towards self-realization. Apart from that, the story of the Other’ also supplements and strengthens the themes Vision of Life, and Fate and Will, since together with Pilar’s realization of the unique attributes of every moment, she decided then to concede to her true desires, thus, modifying her attitude towards every chance presented by fate, which eventually paved way to her completing the transformational journey. The story in Eleven Minutes about the ripple in the lake as an aftermath of the tossing of a pebble where the duck nearby continued to swim provides the prelude to Maria’s real journey towards the admittance of love in her life, thus, foreshadowing the bigger picture of Maria and Ralf’s love story. The Zahir utilizes quite many moral parables compared to the other selected novels. For one, the story about Hans’ Question in a bar in Tokyo many centuries after Hitler succeeded in wiping out the “inferior race” in Asia in which he asked Fritz if the world is always what they knew it to be presented the nucleus of Esther’s eventual disappearance in search for love and happiness. Like Hans, she also felt the same dissatisfaction, and she believed that the world is not at all the same regardless of what she knew about it; thus, unhappiness started to creep in. Meanwhile, the parable concerning the Cathedral, where the narrator considered it to be a reflection of his self,

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emphasizes Esther’s significance to his life. On the other hand, the story about the Master and the Buffalo signified dream-realization albeit the pain the dreamer experiences. It serves as a backdrop of the narrator’s journey towards self-realization. In that, it compels the narrator to follow what his heart is telling him even though it might cost him pain. Alternatively, the parable about the circle of love talks about a protagonist, a monk whose name is Brother Porter who one day received a bunch of grapes from the farmer he had helped. Thinking of the Abbot who inspired him with the former’s wisdom, he gave the grapes to the Abbot, and the Abbot passed it to the ailing monk, the monk gave it to the Cook, the Cook handed it to the Sacristan, and the Sacristan gave it to Brother Porter; thus, consequently completing the chain of love. The parable; thus, tells also of the constant movement of love, and how it could be obstructed by one selfish act. This parable foreshadows the reason of Esther’s dwelling in the Kazakhstan steppes and Mikhail’s narration of Esther’s story in front of the beggars and the narrator in order to continue the flow of the energy of love. Then, the parable about the two firemen who extinguished forest fire, serves as the backstory that adds meaning to the theme of self-love, where Esther has to learn to love herself again so that she can continue loving her husband, likewise, the narrator has to find himself first so that he can find Esther. Ultimately, the parable of the railway tracks whose neverchanging distance of 143.5 centimeters apart is akin to the defamiliarization device that construes the theme of marriage. The narrator’s realization of the permanent distance of the railway tracks imposed by the Romans a long time ago is similar to the laws and customs followed by many married couples. Even if both have outgrown the other, for one party wants to find himself or herself in order to serve their family well, the restrictions put forth by society and some other marital considerations such as the plight of the children hold both parties together but they remain stagnant and unable to grow. Nevertheless, this is not applied to the narrator’s marriage with Esther for she left him in pursuit of her happiness. Ritual. It is defined as a type of routine behavior that symbolizes or expresses something.

As a symbolic activity, it is no longer confined to religion, but is distinguished from technical action (Talal, 1993). Furthermore, rituals are to be performed in a disciplined manner whose appropriate performance is contained not only within the interpretation of the symbols, but extends to the acquisition of the abilities consistent with the rules allowed by those in authority (Talal, 1993). The ritual of the payment of ten percent of Santiago’s flock as tithe required by Melchizedek suggests the other profound theme of the novel, which is, religion and spirituality. Apart from that, it also foretells that Santiago’s journey is a solemn one. In addition, the prayer ritual prescribed by the leader of the caravan before starting on their desert sojourn portends the gravity of the decision Santiago made pertaining to his search for his dreams, including the tests and the challenges he would be facing. The hospitality showed by the oasis tribal chiefs to the newly-arrived caravan group serves as the background to the forthcoming turning point in Santiago’s life: the intensification of his ability to understand the language of the world through reading the flights of hawks. As a consequence, he has been offered the job of oasis counselor, the finding of the love of his life, the meeting of the alchemist, and the crucial decision to leave every beautiful thing behind and press on with his search. Finally, the ritual of waiting by Fatima after Santiago left the oasis through sending of kisses to the desert wind confirms to the reader of the positive outcome of Santiago’s journey; and thus, it also insinuates that somewhere in the future they will be together again. Correspondingly, the use of the rite of passage, a kind of ritual, is also applied in The Alchemist signposting the journey of Santiago to self-realization. It is manifested largely on the episodes where the alchemist emerged in the life of Santiago. The rite of passage is a ritual that symbolizes a person’s conversion from one status to another; consequently, involves three phases, namely: separation, transition, and incorporation (Bell, 2013). In the separation stage, the initiates are detached from their previous identities through physical and symbolic measures. Conversely, the transition period depicts ritual

Mirafuentes, J. K. A., Alegria Ma. A, Chua L. L. & Arcipe, V. N. L. ordeals or ritual training where the initiates are in ambiguous position as their old identities were removed without yet acquiring a new one. Finally, the incorporation characteristically confirms the new identities and community of the initiates (Turner, 1969). Santiago’s old self-that of being a simple shepherd was initially removed from him when he said yes to Melchizedek. From that point, he started understanding his path through reading the omens. He embarked on a journey in quest of his personal legend crossing the Strait of Gibraltar and reached the Port of Tangier where he lost all his money to a swindler, and he chose to continue his sojourn with the spirit of an adventurer. As he embraced that attitude, he further harnessed the skill of understanding omens, ventured into learning to understand the language of the world, and recognized the life-changing moments like the notion of the beginner’s luck and the principle of favorability. His transformation still continues with the alchemist taking him as his student after the former tested not only his courage but also the accuracy of his vision, as well as his ability to find the characteristics necessary for self-realization. Apart from these tests, the alchemist taught him about learning through action, that is, the manifestation of the spiritual world to the physical realm; of listening to one’s heart; of being aware of the interconnection of both the animate and inanimate things, and understanding the constant transformation of every matter, so that each could serve his/her own designated purpose that would eventually result to the individual’s communion with God and with the world. By employing all the necessary lessons Santiago learned along the way, and through the act of turning himself into the wind, he was finally incorporated as a selfrealized individual. Conversely, in Brida, the title character has to go through the sequences of the rite of passage’ in order to become a witch. With her latent abilities, Wicca instructed her to perform on a daily basis the ritual of spreading and understanding the tarot at the same hour for two weeks. This stage encouraged Brida to separate from her normal persona and slowly wake her mystic side. Once Wicca had successfully determined Brida’s gift through the performance of the gift awakening

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ritual, Brida was then placed in rigorous training involving the different mysteries of witchcraft. It woke up the dormant voice of her soul that signified her readiness for the Initiation so that she could be accepted to the community of the witches. However, before she could be initiated, she needed to transform all her knowledge by crossing the invisible bridge of magic through the force of sex. After passing the requirements, she was finally incorporated as a full-fledged witch through the witches’ Initiation. Apart from the rite of passage’, as a student of witchcraft, she has learned to use the ritual of words, where she should be careful in the words she speaks for apart from everything, God manifests His will through words. Therefore, it prescribes to the reader that Wicca religion is not only characterized with reverence for all things, but also is highly particular in spirituality, and is even superstitious. In By the River Piedra I Sat Down and Wept, Pilar and her boyfriend were engaged in church visitation whenever they would reach a particular town or village. The ritual of a church visit reinforces the context of spirituality of the novel, as well as the feminine face of God. It suggests to the readers that the notion of the Great Mother is long-time inculcated in the Catholic tradition, and it reintroduces Catholicism in another approach. Furthermore, it also serves as a catalyst in Pilar’s spiritual transformational journey. In each church that she visits, she grasps not only of an understanding of her own self, but also the rediscovery of her faith, and her reconnection with one of the fundamental beliefs of her childhood religion: the divinity of the Great Mother: the Virgin Mary. Apart from that, it also serves as a device where the feminine face of God is explained. Additionally, it provides a backdrop for the formation of the central event in the novel, which introduces the feast of the Immaculate Conception as the core of the religion and spirituality theme. Finally, the church visit ritual also symbolizes the development of Pilar and her friend’s love story. It was in the monastery of Piedra that they realized that they loved each other, that they rekindled their lost love, straightened up their past issues, and realized the veracity of their feelings. In conclusion, it is in the monastery of Piedra that

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they re-claimed their victory of love. Contrariwise, Pilar silently urged her boyfriend to break the glasses as “a rite of passage”, which signifies that they had to liberate themselves from whatever that traps them emotionally and spiritually, before they can partake in the mystery of love. Lastly, the ritual of writing her love story and tossing it into the riverbed of the River Piedra connotes the end of Pilar and her boyfriend’s suffering, and foretells of a new life together, of living out their mission. In Eleven Minutes, the rituals that include gift-giving, invoking of desire, and exploring each other’s body through physical touch enacted by Maria and Ralf in order to re-acquaint each other to their respective self, enhances the meaning of their journey towards love, and ultimately, in finding their individual selves again. Maria’s ritual of diary writing gives a glimpse to her soul, her feelings, her mind, and her point of view. It aids the readers in the profound understanding of what is happening as the story progresses. Furthermore, it also facilitates in exposing the connection of obscure links of the narration. As a final point, the diary writing also serves as the indicator of Maria’s progress in her search for love, in living and understanding her life. In The Zahir, one of the rituals featured is the dance ritual performed in the Armenian restaurant in order to evoke the energy of love in homage to the Virgin Mary. The dance ritual reflects the actual spiritual and love journey that Esther is embarking. It also foreshadows the narrator’s own spiritual journey. The ritual of giving blood-stained cloth in commemoration of the soldier who died in the battlefield, but whose death was a significant one, symbolizes of the prize the narrator would get upon completion of his self-realization journey. Ultimately, the ritual performed by Dos in the Kazakh steppes in accordance to the Tengri tradition serves as the culminating point of the narrator’s self-realization journey, where he was able to learn what he needs to learn about love, about his self, and about the true meaning of life. Also, the ritual connotes that the narrator deserves to reclaim his wife and to be given the bloodstained cloth-the sign of having known the

true meaning of love and life. Religious Miracle. Baker’s Dictionary of the Bible defines a religious miracle as “an event in the external world brought about by the immediate agency or the simple volition of God.” It occurs to show that the power behind it is not limited to the laws of matter or mind as it interrupts fixed natural laws. Santiago’s capacity to turn himself into the wind signifies the interconnection of all the elements-that every act an individual performs does not only require collective assistance from others and help from the hand that wrote all, but also of the faith of the performer. With these, Santiago was able to perform a miracle. The celebration of the feast of the Immaculate Conception is the setting where By the River Piedra I Sat Down and Wept religious miracle happened. With the aid of the rituals performed including prayer, chanting, and invocation of the Holy Spirit and of the Virgin Mary, Pilar was able to receive the gifts of tongue and of discernment from the Holy Spirit. The miracle in the celebration per se further introduced the capacity of the Great Mother to love, and through Pilar’s understanding of love, the theme of love in the novel becomes well-defined. The Zahir makes use of the apparition of the Virgin Mary to Mikhail. With such vision, She guides him towards the fulfillment of his missionthat is, to spread love with Esther’s help. The role of the Virgin Mary in the novel strengthens the theme of recognition of the feminine face of God, the Virgin Mary being the primary deity in the novel. Fable. A fable is usually a short narrative making an edifying or cautionary point and often employing as characters, the animals that speak and act like humans. It is also a story about mythical or supernatural beings or events. The modified version of the story about Narcissus found in the prologue of The Alchemist serves as the backdrop of one of the central themes of the novel: vision of life and the interconnection of all the things. It manifests that by realizing one’s purpose in life, one also contributes value to the world. In Eleven Minutes, Paulo Coelho incorporated Plato’s story of man and woman’s separation from

Mirafuentes, J. K. A., Alegria Ma. A, Chua L. L. & Arcipe, V. N. L. one body. According to the story, a long time ago, a man and a woman were joined together in a single body, with one head but two faces, two sets of arms and of legs, and two sets of sex organs. Because of the creature’s potential power, the Greek gods became jealous that Zeus separated them with his lightning bolt. Because of this division, man and woman have to find their other halves. The story presented is an added substance to the other facet of sex: its spiritual side. Aside from that, it sets the milieu of Maria’s confusion about her current profession; thus, she continued her journey to find love despite her distasteful occupation. Awkward Question. An awkward question is a question marked by or causing embarrassment or discomfort. The Magus asked Brida if she would give up everything she had learned and would learn about magic and mysteries if she found the love of her life. This question brought discomfort to Brida since for her, love is important, but judging on the Magus’ way of life, there is a possibility that he could not understand romantic love. However, the awkward question serves as “a rite of passage” for the Magus to accept her as his student. Apart from that, it also serves as a backdrop of one of the themes of the novel, which is the vision of life, wherein the ultimate destiny of man on earth is to find his soul mate. In Eleven Minutes, the awkward reality of the actual amount of time spent on the act of sex, which is eleven minutes, forms the basis of the title of the novel. It also signifies the fact discovered by Maria upon carrying out her job as a commercial sex worker. Love and Marriage are some of the themes presented in The Zahir. Awkward questions pertaining to male erection, inter-office affair, and a man’s wife being the object of desire of another man are some of the questions which society represses to ask due to the discomfort they cause. However, in the novel, these questions elucidate some of the marital concerns, which married couples pretend not wanting to know about and pretend not to ask. On the other hand, these questions form part of the so-called instances of the “lack of love”, where in its disguise, love is killed. As a result, these awkward questions shape the narrator’s journey in finding his wife again for

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he must know the instances where love is killed without one’s intention of doing it. Time Frame. Collins English Dictionary defines time frame as “the period of time within which certain events are scheduled to occur.” The Alchemist employs the time frame of today or the present in order to emphasize that it is in the present that one should focus on and take advantage of, and by doing what is required on that day. Conversely, a period of three days was given to Santiago to turn himself into the wind, indicating the resurrection of Jesus, which figuratively denotes the spiritual rebirth of Santiago through the realization that God’s spirit dwells in him, thus, he can perform miracles. Similarly, Brida emphasizes the time frame of today, adding a more mystical touch to the spirituality of the novel. The emphasis of today in By the River Piedra I Sat Down and Wept fortifies the principle of seizing the magic moment adopted by Pilar on herself towards self-realization as each day is different from every other day. In addition to that, the novel’s plot makes use of the seven-day time frame, describing the love story of Pilar and her boyfriend. With the integration of the present in the seven-day time frame, the reader is insinuated of the importance of time in the development of an event. V. CONCLUSION Paulo Coelho’s selected novels illustrate the common themes in man’s life, such as his or her quest for self-realization, as well as his or her search for happiness in the form of love. The study finds out that these novels portray not only the literal journey of characters but also reflect the journey towards self-actualization through spiritual enlightenment and dream-realization. Thus, the study concludes that a man can fulfill his or her destiny when he or she has contributed something to the world that can affect change. Originality Index:

93 %

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Paper ID:

658705749

Grammarly:

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REFERENCES

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