UV Journal of Research Vol. 8 Oct. 2014 by University of the Visayas Center for Research and Development

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The UVJOR Editors Volume 8 (2014) Editor-in-Chief

Brian A. Vasquez, PhD University of the Visayas, Philippines

Managing Editors

Zosima A. Pañares, PhD University of the Visayas, Philippines Joel B. Serad, DM University of the Visayas, Philippines

Associate Editor :

Maria Victoria U. Sy, DM University of San Jose-Recoletos, Philippines Technology, Leadership and Management Joseph D. Tariman, PhD De Paul University, USA Health and Nursing Shu-Chin Su 蘇淑卿, PhD Aletheia University, Taiwan ROC Language Learning, Literature and Education Hung-Hwei Liu 劉鴻暉, PhD Aletheia University, Taiwan ROC Politics, International Studies and Public Administration Gary Yeong-Yuh Yeh, MD, PhD Aletheia University, Taiwan ROC Health and Business Filipina B. Sotto, PhD University of San Carlos, Philippines Natural Sciences Editorial Support Staff

Journal Officer Content Editor Line Editor Copy Editor Finance Manager Circulation Manager Journal Assistant

: : : : : : :

Ms. Michelle B. Yu Mr. Wilzen D. Bermoy Mr. Jhon Kevin A. Mirafuentes Dr. Aljoriz M. Dublin Ms. Rosemarie C. Español Ms. Aileen B. Catacutan Mr. Arnel M. Dayame

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UV Journal of Research

FOREWORD Greetings and welcome to the 8th edition of UV-JOR for 2014. The goalmouths of cultivating research skills and competency, along with, evolving the research culture in the University of the Visayas, continuously move the Center for Research and Development of the university to support elucidate the faculty researchersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; aspiration of having each research articles put into publication. This volume is the outcome of several research competency trainings. As an exhibition of the centerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s promise, this publication serves as an evidence of dynamism and an action of seriousness in safeguarding the hegemony of research in trailing academic responsibilities en route to excellence. We are also publishing contributions from other universities. Let us continuously appreciate learning thru research and theory development. Enjoy reading.

Brian A. Vasquez Editor-in-Chief

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POLICY AND GUIDELINES Contributors to the University of the Visayas Journal of Research must prepare the publishable article in accordance with these parameters. These are designed to standardize the process of preparing the journal for publication. Failure to keep on with this reference may culminate in the rejection of the article for publication. SUBMISSION OF MANUSCRIPTS All manuscripts shall be sent electronically to journal@uv.edu.ph . UVJOR considers all publishable articles on the condition that they:      

are original are the property of the researcher have not been submitted for publication elsewhere have not been published already unless permission to republish was sought are not under consideration for publication elsewhere use respectful language

UVJOR may require the author/s to submit additional documents when necessary for authentication purposes. The UVJOR is a multidisciplinary research journal that accommodates:        

Natural Sciences Engineering and Technology Medical Sciences Social Sciences Humanities Education Criminal Justice and Law Maritime This multidisciplinary research journal caters:      

Empirical articles Theoretical articles Review articles Methodologic articles Philosophical articles Creative work

       

Arts & Culture Computer Technology Communication Health & Allied Sciences Business & Economics Management Psychology Mathematics

The Publication Process Researchers

Editorial Board

Journal Officer, Consultant Reviewers

SUBMISSION

Author uploads/

submit: 1 manuscript and 2 IRB clearance to journal@uv.edu.ph in xx.docx with appropriate formatting

SUBMISSION QUEUE Prepare for the 1st Editorial Board Evaluation when minimum numbers of articles arrived

RETURN TO RESEARCHER

REJECTED

JOURNAL MANAGEMENT Set-up and configure journal for initial lay-out

PLAGIARISM TEST CONTENT EDITING

ACCEPTED WITH MINIMAL REVISION

1st EB EVALUATION Reach the boardâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s decision, and select/ assign peer reviewer and crafting of invitation

COPY EDITING LINE EDITING

REVISED SUBMISSION ACCEPTED

REVISION

2ND EB MEETING Prepare the papers for copyright transfer and letter for revision

PEER VIEW Invitation to and confirmation from reviewers. Reviewer submits review and recommendation

REVISED SUBMISSION PLAGIARISM TEST

PUBLICATION AND DISSEMINATION Offering bind and electronic copy for easy access subject for subscription

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FINAL BLUEPRINT

COPY EDITING LINE EDITING

3RD EB EVALUATION Selection of the final content for the current issue. Declare for publication

LAY-OUTING

SUBMISSION ARCHIVE Complete records of submission process for published and rejected papers

PEER REVIEw SYSTEM UVJOR subjects the author’s scholarly work to the scrutiny of scholars with appropriate expertise. They are chosen from the pool of experts in a given field who are qualified and able to perform impartial review. They will perform content and methodologic screening and recommend acceptance or rejection for publication. The process encourages authors to meet the standards and prevents the dissemination of unwarranted claims, unacceptable interpretations and personal reviews. Initial Screening. The board will initially choose articles for refereeing using the following criteria:   

Quality and significance of contribution to knowledge and/or practice Technical appropriateness Ethical consideration

Quality and Significance of Contribution. The research article must obtain at least the passing rate of twenty five points (25/40) from the content quality evaluation to qualify for publication. There are eight (8) areas: Validity (quantitative)

Measures what it intends to measure

Credibility (qualitative)

Confidence in the truth of data and interpretation

Reliability (quantitative)

Consistent and dependable results

Dependability (qualitative)

Stability over time and conditions

Generalizability (quantitative)

Inference are true to the broader populace

Transferability (qualitative)

Findings can be transferred to other group/ setting

Theoretical Support and Analysis

Clearly focal theories and background knowledge • (quantitative) reflected in introduction and strong discussion in results • (qualitative) frameworks may be absent but resilient integration in the results in both descriptive and interpretative segments

Novelty

Quality of being new, original, innovative or unusual

Replicability

Research process is replicable by other researchers

Clarity of Analysis

Simplicity and lucidity of reasons

Impact/Utility

Contribution to the stock of knowledge and/or practice

vi Ethical Consideration. The research article must obtain at least the passing rate of six points (5/9) to qualify for publication. The editorial board will rate the manuscripts according to: Beneficence

Do not harm any of the subjects

Justice

Substantial integrity of the research paper and equal treatment of the subjects Informed consent, used its truest sentence, and insures privacy of the subjects

Respect

In addition, the board may ask for IRB clearance and other pertinent records. Technical Appropriateness. The research article must obtain at least forty points (40/60) to qualify for publication. The editorial board will rate the manuscripts according to: □ □ □ □ □ □ □

□ □ □ □ □

Title – The paper must state its title without any abbreviations Author/s’ Demographics – The paper must write the complete list of authors all in GMIS form, individual name of institution and country Abstract – The paper must no more than 250 words contains introduction, method, and result and discussion (IMRAD) Introduction – The introduction is engaging, states the main topic and previews the structure of the paper Research Objectives – The paper must clearly and concisely states the paper’s purpose which is engaging, and thought provoking Body - Each paragraph must have a thoughtful supporting detail sentences that develop the main idea Organization and Structural Development of the Idea – The writer demonstrates logical and subtle sequencing of ideas through well-developed paragraphs and transitions are used appropriately Conclusion - The conclusion is engaging and restates the thesis Mechanics – The paper must have no errors in punctuation, capitalization and spelling Usage – The paper must have no errors in sentence structure and in word usage In-Text Citation - All cited works, both text and visual are done carefully Reference List – The paper must include more than ten (10) major references all in APA Format

The author/s will be notified once the paper submitted for publication is rejected for the initial screening. External Review. Manuscripts accepted from the initial screening will proceed to the next step. The board will identify two independent (external) content experts who will appraise the manuscripts according to: □ □ □

Significance of contribution to knowledge and/or practice Substance of the content Clarity of exposition

vii Reviewers will enumerate explicit suggestions. The suggestions will be consolidated by the publication officer. When comments are contradictory, the editor-in-chief may intervene. A third referee may be invited if the editor-in-chief cannot arrive in a decision. The consolidated report will be communicated to the authors. Double-Blind Process. UV Journal of Research operates a strictly double blinded peer review process in which author/s and reviewersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; names are withheld to each other. Referee Recruitment. The peer reviewers will be chosen according to their subject and major concentration. Qualification of Reviewer. Reviewers must have at least 5 researches for the last consecutive 5 years published in refereed journals. Each of them will be invited according to their subject and major concentration. All reviewers are external. Selection of reviewers is the responsibility of the editorial board. UVJOR have a pool of invited reviewers. If there are no identified/qualified experts from the pool to review the submitted paper, the editorial board, with the assistance of the publication officer, will facilitate identification and invitation. If the board cannot identify one, especially when academic topics are highly-specialized, authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s inputs may be solicited in enumerating a list of experts in the specific specialized field. Scoring System. The research manuscripts will be rated according to the evaluation criteria of UVJOR. Score 5

1) 2)

3) 4)

Description

Accept without revision Accept with minor revision

Accept with major revision

Reject with option to resubmit

Reject without option to resubmit

The mean will be determined by summating all scores and dividing it by the number of referees. If one referee rejects the paper without the option to resubmit, automatically, the article is rejected. A notification will be sent to the author/s for their information. If the article obtained an average score of 2.00, automatically, the article is rejected. A notification will be sent to the author/s for their information. If the article obtained an average score of 2.01 and above, the Editorial Board will send a letter to the author/s concerning on either: - for minor revision; - for major revision; or - advise the author for resubmission. Even if the article obtained an average score of 5.00, the author/s still needs to integrate all suggestions.

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Rejected articles are advised to submit their manuscripts to another journal publication.

Transmittal of Comments. After careful scrutiny, the editorial board will notify the author/s whether their manuscripts are accepted or rejected. The summary of consolidated comments will be attached to the letter together with the plagiarism check results. Author/s are usually given fifteen (15) days to comply with the suggestions. The editorial board may also communicate their own comments. Finalization of the Journal Entries by the Board. The Board decides for the final entries for publication.

Figure 1. Acceptance/Rejection Process

ix Figure 2. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Guide for rejected manuscript

x GRAMMAR CHECK UVJOR utilize Grammarly to aid in guarding the quality of sentence structure of accepted manuscripts for publication. It is a comprehensive grammar editing tool that checks the text for the proper use of more than 250 common and advanced grammar rules. Grammatical errors are categorized, clearly displayed, and organized for review and revision. PLAGIARISM CHECK The UVJOR will utilize the turnitin originality checker to determine the Similarity Index. It generates originality report by providing a summary of similar text form its data base. Direct Quotation and Reference Lists are excluded in the report. Only the content of the manuscript are considered for text matching. Similarity Check. Turnitin recommends that the final arbiter in excluding materials should be based from human judgment. The editor-in-chief determines which materials are not contextually related to the submitted manuscript and manually excludes them in the report. Matches less than 6 words are also excluded. Originality Scoring. Manuscript with an originality rating of 90% and above will be published without revision. A rating of 51% to 89% will be returned to the authors for revision. Ratings below 51 will be rejected for publication. Transmittal of Similarity Index Result. The report will be printed and transmitted to the author/s for manuscript revision. COPYRIGHT POLICY Manuscript submitted to UVJOR is made possible by limited license grant from the author(s). The authors shall retain all copyrights of their contribution. All other elements of the journal including its name, structure and organization are also protected by copyright and are the property of the Center for Research and Development, University of the Visayas. Declaration of Previous Publication. The author/s must declare any form of print and online publication before the actual release of the journal. Consideration for full or partial reprint, including abstracts, of the article needs approval from the UVJOR. This includes publication of conference proceedings. If UVJOR allows the reprint, Permission letter to reprint from the editor-in-chief of the previous prints must be sought. Policy for Handling Complaints. If UVJOR receives a complaint that any contribution to the Journal infringes copyright or other intellectual property rights or contains material inaccuracies, libelous materials or otherwise unlawful materials, UVJOR will investigate the complaint. Investigation may include a request that the parties involved substantiate their claims. The Journal will make a good faith determination whether to remove the allegedly erroneous material. A decision not to remove material should represent the Journalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s belief that the complaint is without sufficient foundation, or if well-founded, that a legal defense or exemption may apply, such as fair use in the case of copyright infringement or truthfulness of a statement in the case of libel. UVJOR should document its investigation and decision.

xi POLICY ON CONFLICTS OF INTEREST UVJOR will only publish articles after the author/s have confirmed that they have disclosed all potential conflicts of interest. Disclosure of the Conflict of Interest. All sponsors supporting the work including all the institutions involved must be acknowledged in text. All sponsors and institution involved must be notified for the submission of the article for publication. This includes declaration of no commercial association that may pose conflict of interest. It is the researcherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sole responsibility to any issues pertaining to this matter. AUTHORSHIP Authors Undertaking. Authorship undertaking does not only involve the very people who actually formulate and introduce the idea or perform the experiments or field works necessary for the paper but also includes those who make the undertaking possible, such as providing logistical, technical, or financial support and the likes. 1) The author must first acquire an application form for authorship, declaration of authorship and copyright form, and the IRB clearance that comes with the paper or manuscript. Forms are available in the office of the UV Center for Research and Development (UV-CRD). You may also correspond to journal@uv.edu.ph 2) After filling up the forms, the author may either submit them personally, together with the IRB clearance and a soft copy of the paper or manuscript, to the Editorial Board, or by electronic mail. There must be one set of forms or requirements for every paper. Originality Undertaking. An undertaking of originality in publication is an undertaking not only of honesty and integrity but of the pursuit of new ideas, the very rationale of publication itself. 1)

Authors must first choose a topic or subject for their paper and search out for existing works of similar idea with that of their own and determine whether the similarity between them is not close enough for either of them to be identical with the other, unless if the paper is comparative by nature. Authors must not overly rely upon or absorb the entire substance of other published works and should try toinnovate and create new ideas. Authors may use the postulations of other works to either refute them or make a new approach off of them. Authors must and always make a citation of their references.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Policy on Use of Human Subjects in Research. UVJOR will only publish research articles involving human subjects after the author/s have verified that they have followed all laws and regulations concerning the protections afforded human subjects in research studies within the jurisdiction in which a research study they describe was conducted. For research conducted outside the University of the Visayas, the research protocol must have been approved by the appropriate institutional review board (IRB). In the case of exempt research, the IRB must have deemed the research protocol exempt.

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Ethics Undertaking. Ethics undertaking is that which maintains the balance of the effects between the naturally aggressive character of the pursuit of knowledge and the establishment of some restrictions on said pursuit for it to abide with the existing societal norms which all members of the society, authors included, must observe. STEPS: 1) Authors must procure an acknowledgment form prior to the start of making their paper. The acknowledgment form enumerates the general ethical guidelines that authors must adhere to during the formative course of their paper or manuscript, or in the coauthorship thereof. They are to affix their signatures on the form to acknowledge full understanding and comprehension and compliance with the guidelines. 2) Authors must submit to the editorial board, together with the finished paper or manuscript and the required forms of authorship, the IRB clearance that certifies compliance with the ethical guidelines set forth by their research institution, either personally or by electronic mail. IRB Exemption. Some may need not undergo IRB process. However, UVJOR requires the researcher/s to submit IRB Exempt clearance. These include: 1) 2)

Research conducted in established or commonly accepted educational settings, involving normal educational practices. Research involving the use of educational tests (cognitive, diagnostic, aptitude, achievement) survey procedures, interview procedures or observation of public behavior. Research involving the collection or study of exixting data, documents, records, pathological specimens, or diagnostic specimens, if these sources are publicly available or if the information is recorded by the investigator in such a manner that subjects cannot be identified, directly or through identifiers linked to the subjects. Research and demonstration projects which are conducted by or subject to the approval of department or agency heads, and which are designed to study, evaluate, or otherwise examine procedures or programs. Taste and food quality evaluation and consumer acceptance studies.

IRB Approval Certification. Researcher/sâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; who are unable to present IRB Exempt Clearance must obtain a certification indicating that the/ir research obtained IRB approval prior to the conduct of the study. SCHEDULE OF PUBLICATION AND CIRCULATION Schedule. The University of the Visayas Journal of Research is published in print annually. Circulation. UVJOR is available in printed copy. The dissemination of the journal will be in the form of subscription for public and private institutions and agencies. A complimentary copy will be given for the authors.

Table of Contents 1

Editorial

Philosophical bases of research methods: An integrated narrative review Brian A. Vasquez

Herbal Medications

Inhibitory activity of Plumeria rubra (Kalachuchi), Ipomea quatica (Kangkong), Mimosa pudica (Makahiya), Euphorbia hirta (Gatas-Gatas) and Coleus aromaticus (Oregano) plant extracts against Staphylococcus aureus coagulase production Maria Feibe M. Pastoril

Inhibitory activity of Sandoricum koetjape Merr. (santol) leaf extract to Blood Type O fibrin formation Sergio Jabel II Maria Feibe M. Pastoril Josephine Fe Sheryll Sacramento

Theory Development 47

Development of choice preference theory in research Brian A. Vasquez

Intelligence and video games: Attention theory Aljoriz M. Dublin

Antipsychotic polypharmacy in selected Asian countries Emma A. Yaun Sheryll B. Sacramento

Psychosocial determinants of corruption Jonalyn G. Nalzaro Donald B. Narra Maguindah L. Nemenzo

103

Fractal Statistics

Vulnerability of Asian countries to climate variability hazards: A fractal analysis Ryan O. Tayco Rosemarie Cruz-EspaĂąol Fractal analysis of AIDS prevalence across economic demographics Joel B. Serad Charlo Iradel Tourist arrivals and climate risk indices: Impact of the ruggedness of climate risk conditions on tourism industry across the globe Ryan O. Tayco Rosemarie Cruz-EspaĂąol Grissil P. Babon

115

Evidence-Based Practice

Extent of knowledge on falls by staff nurses in Baguio-Benguet healthcare settings Jose Reinhard C. Laoingco Cay Darhyl R. Tabugader

147

The academe as the source of research and the knowledge utilization uptake in the health care system Edsel P. Inocian

155

Confirming a strong disconnection between academe and the health care institutions in terms of quantity and content of research Edsel P. Inocian

163

Disconnection confounded at various stages of knowledge transfer from the academe to the hospital Edsel P. Inocian

175

Working Capital Management of small and medium enterprises in Cebu Dutchque Van E. Dato-on Ruby P. Monto Neresita M. Calaylay Genard B. Villanueva Jam Kathleen F. Velez Earl Nathaniel O. Temanel

193

Evaluation on compensation packages of employees in the tourism sector Mary Ann G. Landero Perla A. Villarmente Mary Grace O. Gulle Janally L. Tangar

205

Quality of service and its effect on stakeholderâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s relationships in the Office of the Security and Safety Group of X University Queen Heneylour S. Relatorres Donald B. Narra Leah Villalon

221

Analysis of non-detectable cases of Cyber Crime Law Jonalyn G. Nalzaro Joan Marie Oville

Culture, Society and Tradition 231

The death of gold in early Visayan societies: Ethnohistoric accounts and archaeological evidences Victor P. Estrella

251

Development of the third gender linguistic variation Lorlaine R. Dacanay

259

Cebuano folklore and the embedded Filipino values Regina Plaza-Galigao

271

Traditional games in Leyte and the values learned by the players Joel A. Alfarero Crescencio L. Mejarito

E D I T ORIAL

UV Journal of Research 2014

Philosophical bases of research methods: An integrated narrative review Brian A. Vasquez Center for Research and Development University of the Visayas brianquez@gmail.com

Date Submitted: April 26, 2014

Date Accepted: June 6, 2014

Republished from: Recoletos Multidisciplinary Research Journal Part 1 in Volume 1 Issue 2 (2013) and Part 2 in Volume 2 Issue 1 (2014)

ABSTRACT This narrative narrativereview reviewexamines examined thethe philosophical philosophical bases bases of research of research methods methods in terms in terms of: (1) ontology; (2) epistemology; (3) and axiology; and (3) methodology. It of: (1) ontology; (2) epistemology; (3) axiology; (4) methodology. It explores the explored the diversities and similarities between paradigms. Three search diversities and similarities between paradigms. Three search strategies werestrategies observed were observed including: (1)published data search for published research; (2)manual public engine including: (1) data search for research; (2) public engine and search; and (3) manual search; and (3) stakeholders input. Subthemes under ontological stakeholders input. Subthemes under ontological assumptions include: (1) assumptions singular vs. plural are: reality; (1) singular (2) empirical vs. plural vs.reality; subjective (2) reality; empirical (3)vs. scientific subjective vs. sensuous reality; (3) scientific vs. sensuous reality;and (4)plurality when the and plurality of reality reality; (4) when the singularity ofsingularity reality converge; (5) definitive vs. converge; (5) subjective truth; definitive (6) continuum vs. subjective versus truth; polarity; (6) continuum (7) whatversus really polarity; is real; (8) (7) truth, what really real; (8) truth,and reality and knowledge; andreality (9) seeing the truth and reality realityisand knowledge; (9) seeing the truth and of an object/subject from a of an objective/subjective from aunder different perspective. Subthemes under different perspective. Subthemes axiological assumptions include: (1)axiological fact-value assumptions are: (1) divide/dichotomy; and methodological (2) ethics. Subthemes under divide/dichotomy; andfact-value (2) ethics. Subthemes under assumptions methodological are: (1) hard scientific versus naturalism: versus soft are: (1) scientificassumptions versus naturalistic: versus soft science; (2) hard convergence and science; (2) convergence and divergence; (3) linearity is only in the books and not divergence; (3) linearity is only in the books and not in practice; (4) hard or easy; in practice; hard or easy; theory, frameworks literature review; (6) non(5) theory, (4) frameworks and(5) literature review; (6) and non-statistical approaches in statistical approaches positivistic approaches; inand positivistic (7) complementarity. approaches; and The (7)focus complementarity. of the lens is The guided focus by of the lens is guided philosophical stances. byEach philosophical paradigmstances. seeks Each truth,paradigm reality and seeks knowledge. truth, reality Though and knowledge. Though quantitative inquiry claimed objectivity and qualitative inquiry quantitative inquiry claimed objectivity and qualitative inquiry claim subjectivity, both claim subjectivity, boththe unconsciously observe the same The division isits a inadvertently observe same processes. The division is aprocesses. continuum that delights continuum that deficiencies. It isdelights when divergence its deficiencies. converges. It is when divergence converges. Keywords: quantitative-qualitative divide, philosophical stances, ontology, epistemology, axiology, methodologic

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Mathematical research does not use statistics, but the proofs involved could by no means be described as subjective and less firm for that; even research into mathematical statistics and probability does not make use of statistics to prove and produce useable results.â&#x20AC;? Nimal Ratnesar, 2005 Nimal Ratnesar, 2005

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UV Journal of Research

I. CONTEXTUAL GROUNDING AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE Those who perpetuate the quantitativequalitative divide fails to appreciate that distinctions for both are necessary. It is desolate to note that some individuals who flop to understand the nature of the other paradigm as well as those those who are totally confused in the application of both paradigms disappoint by not giving time to probe enough literature. Although there have been numerous publications on the differences between quantitative and qualitative approaches available, only few authors attempt to amalgamate them in one literature. This undertaking is not an attempt to produce a cookbook, but to yield a narrative integration of the available information that helps avoid the confusion and divide. Particularly, this review targets to integrate existing literature narratively to delineate quantitative and qualitative approaches. It helps: (1) novice researchers differentiate both research traditions; and (2) advance beginners to experts from a specific orientation of research paradigm to understand the nature of the other approach. II. REVIEW FOCUS The aim of this review is to examine the philosophical bases of research methods. Specifically, it answers the following: 1. What are the differences between quantitative and qualitative research methods in terms of: 1.1. Ontology; 1.2. Epistemology; 1.3. Axiology; and 1.4. Methodology? 2. What are the similarities between quantitative and qualitative research methods? III. LITERATURE SEARCH This review of the literature used three search methods: Database Search of Published Research. Electronic academic databases were scanned using Ebscohost research database

service. The databases include: (1) Academic Search Premier; (2) ERIC; (3) Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts; (4) Military and Government Collections; and (5) Primary Search; (b) Public Engine and Manual Search. Google scholar search was also done to circumvent publication bias. I utilized books about research design and methodologies; and (c) Stakeholder Input. Academics, stakeholders, and researchers were corresponded via electronic mail and mobile phone calls. They identified some supplementary details appropriate to the research questions. Search Procedure and Criteria. Manual search was done for books. Systematic electronic search was done for databases and public search engines. I exploited search engine stratagem by the use of boolean operators, phrase search, nesting, mathematical operators and truncation (wildcards). Terms searched were: (1) quantitative; (2) qualitative; (3) quantitativequalitative debate; (4) quantitative-qualitative divide; (5) ontology; (6) epistemology; (7) axiology; (8) methodology; (9) rhetoric; and (10) philosophy of research. Publications covered the period 1980 to present. Cited sources with date of publication earlier than 1980 were the sources recommended by the experts. I included only those publications in the English language. The publications that were searched underwent screening to check: (a) relevance to the research questions; and (b) appropriateness of empirical, methodological and philosophical discussions or reviews. IV. DATA EVALUATION AND SAMPLING Although they engaged selected features of the systematic review, not all publications culled have extensive high quality evidence. I did not exclude publications on the basis of quality criteria. The selection of samples was based on logical exposition and relevance to the domain of inquiry. Intensive narrative approach was suitable in order to examine the gamut of research queries. There are 68 articles and 78 books cited in this review.

Vasquez, B. A.

V. DATA ANALYSIS I began the synthesis by keeping the following things in mind (Mertens, 2010): Organization. I developed a flexible framework for the organization as I search for data. The framework made it easier for me to approach the synthesis stage. It is flexible because the formulation of my conceptualization added, deleted, and redefined categories as I moved along with the review process. I exploited a more thematic organizational approach. Narrative Synthesis. The narrative approach to literature synthesis is trailed in this review. I organized the studies in a conceptually logical sequence and afforded adequate element about the literature to support germane critical analysis. The amount of details culled from literature was influenced by the nature of the domain of inquiry: 1. It includes a number of journal article and textbooks selected on the basis of relevance, presented in a composed representation, that inaugurated the rationale; and 2. The actual review was extensive and organized into meaningful categories. This provided a gestalt of the topic and described the methods used to search the literature. I provided an organization of the subtopics and cited literature that showed agreement or disagreement. VI. MAJOR CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH METHODS: QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE The major classifications of research method are quantitative and qualitative research. This segment dissects the distinction of both methods w h i l e aiming to delineate the differences in process, utility and philosophy. This paper does not aim to promote the quantitativequalitative divide but to foster understanding that each method views reality differently and proceeds to finding truth distinctively â&#x20AC;&#x201C; not to promote fraction, but to describe reality in dissimilar but equally logical ways. Berg (2007) claimed that qualitative

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research denotes to the what, how, when and where of the piece of inquiry: its essence, character and environment expressed in meanings, phenomenon, metaphors, symbols and description. Tewksbury (2009) defined quantitative research as more scientific approach focusing on specific definitions via operationalization of terms, concepts and variables â&#x20AC;&#x201C; expressed in numeric calculations. AccordingtoMertens(2005),lifeisconvoluted, and the world is not impeccable. Research tries to unfold these by deriving knowledge from scholarly literature, experimentation or community interaction. It is to understand, describe, predict and control. However, a specific form of research paradigm or tradition can never capture the fullness of the phenomenon. Each has its own convolutions and imperfections. Two genres crisscross but take very distinct trails. This article summarized the commonalities and distinctions of both major research traditions. I grounded my discussions with the philosophical assumptions. Schwandt (2002) claimed that this is necessary and no investigator escapes in this course. Creswell (2007) believed the same thing especially when using qualitative research. However, Patton (2002) thought otherwise. He argued that philosophical viewpoints are problematic since it hinders scholarship. Personally, I subscribe in the former claim. The theoretical concern (referred as philosophical underpinning by Schwandts) is focused on the ontology and epistemology of knowledge and reality. I however argue that this is not similar to the theoretical framework as understood by many (as expended in quantitative research). It is quite clear in qualitative research wherein the specific research tradition has its own inherent theoretical (philosophical in nature of viewing reality) bases. This framework is not consumed to interpret data based on predetermined concepts, as trailed in quantitative research, but rather on how I viewed knowledge and reality. Readers should not view it as the same. Otherwise, the researcher gets confused.

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UV Journal of Research

Quantitative researchers philosophically trailed in either or a combination of but not limited to positivism and empiricism. In most cases, quantitative researchers are unaware that they are following specific philosophical assumptions. If we follow Pattonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s claim, it derails the researcherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s frame of mind and end up lost in the journey. Since decisions are not grounded to any philosophical stance, it becomes scrawny and unscholarly. VII. ONTOLOGICAL ASSUMPTION Ontology is the study of being (Crotty, 1998). It is concerned with what institutes reality. It

answers the question, what is (Crossan, 2011; Polit & Beck, 2008). Investigators are required to take a locus vis-Ă -vis their acuities in what way objects (Scotland, 2012): (1) certainly are; and (2) categorically work. This philosophical stance is required in conducting research to provide grounding on the perceptual perspective of the researcher. It guides the investigator on what to look for and in how to methodologically capture the phenomenon. The matrix below digests the difference between quantitative or qualitative research designs in terms of the nature of realities being scrutinized.

Matrix1. TheNature Nature Reality Table 1. The of of Reality Quantitative

Qualitative

Reality exist and it can be determined

Reality is multiple and relative

Singular reality

Multiplicity of reality

Scientific and explanatory of reality

Sensuous reality

Realistic ontology (objective reality) Talks about the properties of and relations of things Quantified quality and descriptions (reduced into numbers/numerical assignment) Determines definitive truth and denounces subjective truth by measuring it objectively via numerical translation.

Relativistic ontology (subjective reality) Talks about the multiple experiential realities and its diversity Narrative account of multiple properties

Recognizes that there is no definitive truth only subjective truth.

Provides a sedimented and limited view of concerns but highly measurable and computable.

Provides an in-depth understanding of concerns that is not conceivable by means of statisticallybased examinations.

Provides reduced, decidedly controlled but predictive understanding of concerns.

Centralizes and places primary value on comprehensive and holistic understandings, and in what way actors comprehend, experience and maneuver within environments that are dynamic and collective in their groundwork and construction.

Seeks to determine and explain reality Continuum of determining the different aspects of reality (quantitative in one side and qualitative in another) Alternatively, seen as a divide. The polarity between causes the quantitative and qualitative debate.

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Singular versus Plural Reality. Pure research, yield better interpretation of Seeks to determine and explain reality positivist, as classical quantitative researchers meaning (Clegg & Slife, 2009). The concept of posit, believed that therethe is different only one reality is inthen replaced with confirmability Continuum of determining aspects of realityobjectivity (quantitative one side and qualitative in another) that exist (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). This existent (Guba & Lincoln, 1981; LeCompte & Goertz, seen as a Polit divide.and TheBeck polarity between1982). causes the and qualitative debate. data realityAlternatively, can be determined. (2008) It quantitative can be derived via multiple claimed that the phenomenon is not haphazard, sources: triangulation technique (Campbell, random or erratic occurrences but have 1956; Campbell & Fiske, 1959; Denzin, 1989; antecedent origins (causality, but sometimes Polit & Hungler, 1999) or verifiability with considered association instead of causality). participants (Burnard, 2008). Appreciating the Commencing from an axiom (assumption), latter argument, contemporary quantitative the basic principle that is believed to be true researchers recognized that a priori of the without proof or verification, it trailed a investigator could influence what is observed deterministic nature (Rubin & Babbie, 1993). (Reichardt & Rallis, 1994). It means that It is not the same with naturalism (Bird, 2004; investigators can never be totally objective Norton, 2007; Steel, 2005), the paradigm used in (Paley, 1997). However, guidedwiththeprinciple qualitative research. Naturalists acknowledged that one should remain neutral (Mertens, 2010), the multiplicity of reality (Creswell, 2007) with it can be controlled (Beck, 1994). In addition, existing core pattern or theme. It is naturally the participants in qualitative research are also constructed (Mertens, 2010). All constructions called co-researchers (Burnard, 2008). They observe the philosophy of interpretivism have an important role in sharing the data, and (Altheide & Johnson, 1994; Kuzel & Like, in analyzing and interpreting them (Mertens, 1991). In fact, all meanings are interpretative 2010). in nature (Heidegger, 1971, 1962). It tells us Empirical versus Subjective Reality. that investigators must attempt to understand Quantitative researchers are highly realistic, from the viewpoint of those who lived the demonstrated as empirical or positivistic phenomenon. Acknowledging the strength of (Leach, 1990; Duffy, 1985; Schlick, 1959; the latter, postpositivist (contemporary form Friedman, 1991; Werkmeiser, 1937a,b) of quantitative research) acknowledged that while qualitative researchers are relativistic, things cannot be known perfectly (Maxwell, capturing subjective reality (Swandt, 2000). 2004) and thus recognized alternative forms of When quantitative researchers view an object, explanation (Borman et al., 2007). It is believed they need to observe it by the senses (Polanyi, that objective reality is nonexistent since there 1962). Then one claims that it occurred, or it are manifold social constructions of meaning is positive â&#x20AC;&#x201C; referring to an observation by the and knowledge. Schwandt (2000) believed senses. Qualitative researcher looks at objects that the mind is operating in the production of differently. When phenomenon is experienced, knowledge, and no thinker thinks totally the the perceptual interpretation of that certain same although at times similar. involvement is highly relative contingent to Obtaining multiple perspectives (from how and in what perspective the individual is different informants amalgamated with the gazing. researchers own perspective), in qualitative

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Scientific versus Sensuous Reality. Quantitative research captures scientific reality while qualitative research captures sensuous reality (Borgdorff, 2009). Both paradigms capture reality. However, it must be understood that they are looking at reality differently (Rubin & Babbie, 2001). Quantitative researchers view qualitative research as nonscientific because it: (1) is insider knowledge (Howe, 1988; Howe & Eisenhart, 1990); and (2) do not engage in the etymology of frequentist or classical statistics (Small, 2008). Howe & Eisenhart (1990) however argued that quantitative research must not use its positivistic framework in evaluating qualitative researches. Gerring and Thomas (2011) contended that quantifiable observations deduce the population that is enthusiastically measured, counted, and hence compared (monothetic). In contrast, naturalistic observations posit an empirical field where substantiation are not numerically measured thus cannot be directly compared with one another (idiographic). It is explained more in the methodological assumption. when the When the Singularity and Plurality of Reality Converge. Going back to the discussion of singularity and plurality of reality, reality,ititis isfacetious facetious to note that if you dissect the core of both, they are Quantitative research research claims singularity similar. Quantitative of reality but at the same time recognizes the differences in terms of demographics. In qualitative research, it recognizes the plurality of reality but at the same time acknowledges a principal pattern, in most cases singular in nature. Both are talking different things, but they are in actuality doing the same things. The initiators of the divide failed to acknowledge of both. both. The The distinction distinction relies the convergence convergence of on the differences of of perspective. perspective. Each focused or origin with their lenses lensesfrom fromdifferent differentlocation locations or origins different concentration of which of the object with different concentrations ofside which side of. Both attempt to capture what is real and truthful. the object. Both attempt to capture what is real However, we However, must alsowe put in mind thatinwemind are and truthful. must also put looking same at thing. superficially that we at arethe looking the Though same thing. Though divergent, it actually converges in a converges metacognitive superficially divergent, it actually in a level. metacognitive level.

Definitive versus Subjective Truth. Both methods capture truth. However, they interpret and see the truth differently. The quantitative researcher claims definitive truth (Mertens, 2010). It is highly concomitant with the previous empirical, scientific and positivistic claim. However, qualitative researchers say it does not exist (Koch & Harrington, 1998; Payne, Seymour & Ingleton, 2003; Racher & Robinson, 2002). There is truth but not definitive, only subjective (Berger & Luckmann, 1966; Smith, 1983). “… the scientific method … : everything is open to question. That means in our quest to understand things, we should strive to keep an open mind about everything we think we know or that we want to believe. In other words, we should consider the things we call ‘knowledge’ to be provisional and subject to refutation. This feature has no exemption…” Allen Rubin & Earl Babbie, 2001 Continuum versus Polarity. Quantitative and qualitative researchers seek to determine and explain reality (Kuhn, 1962, 1970a,b,c; Polit & Beck, 2008; Creswell, 2007). The polarity between both approaches causes the quantitative and qualitative debate (Fritzgerald & Howcroft, 1998). While others view it as a divide, alternatively, it can be observed as a continuum of determining the different aspects of reality (Holden & Lynch, 2004; Morgan & Smircich, 1980): quantitative in one side of the gamut and qualitative in the other. The polarity can be traced from the Khunian framework (1962). However, one can view a specific research practice as a research tradition rather than a specific paradigm (Clark, 1998). The Laudanian framework (1977) believed that all paradigms could co-exist. There are multiple origins with multiple trails to track (Cook, 1985). Therefore, the Laudanian framework views it as a continuum rather than mere bipolarity. what Really is Real? Rubin What Rubin and Babbie (2001) dissected reality. Firstly, (2001) dissect reality. Firstly,

Vasquez, B. A.

they differentiated agreement reality from experiential reality. Agreement reality is when it is believed to be real because everybody thinks it is real while experiential reality is the actual direct experience itself. They further categorize reality as premodern, modern and postmodern. The premodern view of reality assumed that things are seen as they were though they are. It is collectively uninominal (beliefs of our ancestors). It was believed because it was culturally agreed. Recognition of diversity came after interracial connectedness; the modern view thinks reality as binomially relative and more binomially opinionated (I think it is or not; I think it exists or not). It means that each respects each other’s view of reality. However, postmodern view of reality offers different multiple ways of viewing things. A little bit similar to the former, it emphasized the different manifold perspectives. The modern view accentuates the unavoidability of subjectivity while the postmodern view insinuates the absence of definitive objectivity, only relativity. What is real need not be all the time: (1) empirical and positive – observed by the senses; (2) instrumental – measurable and operational; (3) reductionist – reducible to numeric form; (4) material – always have matter. Sometimes what is truthful and real are experienced naturally, perceived relatively by each other, and conceived constructively by our mind and emotion. These things can never be objective, empirical, positive, instrumental, reducible and material. We can forcefully measure them in these ways, but it can never capture the fullness of truth. It is best explained by the coherence theory of truth wherein to understand it there must be consistencies, conceivability or systematic coherence (Joachim, 1906; Young, 2013) regardless of empirical and material evidence. The significant whole constitutes the elements of the ideas constructed and intuited by the mind (Joachim, 1906; Bradley, 1914). This idealistic philosophy has a metaphysical position that the aggregate of beliefs is reality. This belief is truthful to the degree that it coheres with other

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beliefs (Bradley, 1914; Walker, 1989; Young, 2013). The positivist portion of of the the Khunian Khunian framework (1962; a, b, c)has hasits its roots roots based (1962, 1970 1970a,b,c) from the positive philosophy of August Comte in 1848. Comte categorized three fundamental laws of development, which explains truth and reality. The theological/fictitious state is the intellectual reasoning of reality. It deals with absolute knowledge, which is considered to be the reasoning of the first and final cause. It is the explanation of the inner nature of being (spiritual/ supernatural). The metaphysical/abstract state is the reasoning based on abstraction. It is a transitional state towards positive philosophy. Reasoning is based on non-tangible abstraction that is linked to conceivable real or personified entities. The last state is the scientific/positive state. This fixed and definitive form of reasoning is based from empirical observation. Comte believed that the human mind can never obtain absolute truth (omnipotent truth: usually referred to as the Supreme Being) thus gives up the search of the origin of the universe and final cause of all phenomena. With this stance, phenomenon is reduced to any empirically conceivable form because this is the only measurable form of reality. VIII. TRUTH ,REALITY REALITYAND ANDKNOwLEDGE KNOWLEDGE VIII. TRUTH, Bird (2004) recognized recognized that that there there is a relationship between truth, reality and knowledge. He further claimed that truth depends on the the way waythe theworld worldis:is: a matter it it is is a matter of of structural correspondence between that structural correspondence between that world world and the propositions. 1970 and the propositions. Kuhn Kuhn (1962,(1962; 1970a,b,c), a, the proponent of theresearch research paradigm theb, c), proponent of the differentiating quantitative and qualitative, believed that the truth could not be recognized. Khun realized that apart from objectivity and empiricism, science could be naturalistic and relativistic. It only suggests that the knowledge derived from research is only a certain kind of recognition of the claimed well-established truth. The weakness of this claim is the strength of the naturalist. The naturalistic paradigm recognized

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that the only perceptible truth is is the the truth truth relative relative to the theobserver’s observer’slens lens which is distinct which is distinct from from each other,other, each id est id aestmultiple a multiple perspectives. perspective.In In some respect, some positivists are naturalist (Prestone, 2004) and this is also true otherwise. theTruth Truth Reality of an Seeing the and and Reality of an Object/ Object/Subject from Different Perspectives. Subject from Different Perspectives. I am I am presenting different parables,allegories allegories or presenting different parables, confirm the multiple schools of thought thought that thathelps help confirm of seeing seeing truth truth and reality. These help ways of us understand that each each perspective perspective is a valid valid representation: The Parable of the Table. When one is asked to describe the reality of the table, the description of the table is referent to the location of the person describing it. In essence, people viewing However,, the table have similar descriptions. However specific variations are noticed depending upon: (1) which side of the table the describer is looking at; and (2) what metaphysical “eyewear” the describer is wearing. All descriptions are equally acceptable. The diversity of the description is based on the describer’s: (1) position against the table (relative to which side of the object is being viewed at); and (2) the type of lens the describer is using (philosophical worldviews, paradigms, sets of beliefs, assumptions and frameworks). The Id, Ego and Superego. The topography of our personality talks about the psychoanalytic 1923/1961). provinces of of the themind mind(Freud (Freud, 1961). TheThe id id functions theprimary primaryprocess processwhere where drives functions in in the are satisfied by forming mental images. It is the intellectual part of the self. The ego functions in the secondary process via reality testing. The secondary process locates the mental image formed by the primary process into the empirical reality. The superego functions as the social part of the self and sees things as a normative reality. In relation to research, the id and the superego are the province of the mind among qualitative researchers that capture emotions, behavior, perceptions, artistry and morality. The ego is the province of the mind among quantitative researchers, which captures the measurable empirical objects.

Gestalt Psychology. The human mind tends to (Wagemans, (Wagemans Elder, et al., Kubory, 2012): Palmer, (1) group visual Peterson objects the (1) principle proximity, similarity, & Singh,using 2012): groupofvisual objects using common fate,of proximity, good continuation, closure, the principle similarity, common symmetry, common fate, good parallelism, continuation, synchrony, closure, symmetry, region, element and uniform connectedness; (2) parallelism, synchrony, common region, element integrate and connectedness; complete contours; (3) organize and uniform (2) integrate and figure-ground; and (4) border ownership. complete contours; (3)assign organize figure-ground; The neural mechanism the visualThe fieldneural is so and (4) assign border of ownership. dynamic and complex that neurophysiological mechanism of the visual field is so dynamic evidence converges on the idea that the response and complex that neurophysiological evidence of cortical neurons on the the properties converges on the depends idea that response of the overall configuration and the cortical neurons depends of onthe thesenses properties of parameters of the stimulus. Illusory processes the overall configuration of the senses and the may happen of even highly empirical parameters thein stimulus. Illusoryobservation processes or experience. Interpretation is not atomistic but may happen even in highly empirical observation holistic. Thus, the whole is notisequal to the sumbut of or experience. Interpretation not atomistic its parts. Context-sensitivity is emphasized here. holistic. Thus, the whole is not equal to the sum of In parts. the application to research, it demonstrates its Context-sensitivity is emphasized here. thethe supremacy empirical In applicationoftosubjectivity research, it over demonstrates procedures. The ofreductionist, and the supremacy subjectivitymaterialistic over empirical atomistic principle in quantitative or positivist procedures. The reductionist, materialistic and research isprinciple conquered the context-laden nature atomistic inby quantitative or positivist of the mind. It interprets in acontext-laden holistic manner and research is conquered by the nature less atomistic. It is the strength of themanner naturalistic of the mind. It interprets in a holistic and paradigm. less atomistic. It is the strength of the naturalistic The Müller-Lyer lllussions (Franz Müllerparadigm. Lyer, 1889). Observe the figure below: The Müller-Lyer lllussions (Franz MüllerLyer, 1889). Observe the figure below:

Figure 16. The Müller-Lyer lllussions

The lines in the figure have equal lengths. However, our mind processes things differently. In relation to research, our description of reality is dependent on how our brain process the information as perceived by the senses. The Allegory of the Cave (Plato, 360 BCE/1941). It is the Platonic representation of an

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Table 2.2.Relationship Matrix RelationshipofofInquirer Inquirerand andObject/Subject Object/SubjectofofInquiry:Epistemological Inquiry:EpistemologicalAssumption Assumption Quantitative

Qualitative

Dualistic epistemology

Monistic epistemology

Inquirer is independent from the object of inquiry

Inquirer and the one being inquired is dependent to each other

Requires an inquirer and object of inquiry

extended metaphor that is to juxtapose the system in which we perceive and believe the reality. The thesis and basic tenet is that we imperfectly perceive the ultimate forms: the representation of truth and reality. The allegory talks about a prisoner in the cave who has not seen the outside world and perceives that the reality is portrayed by the shadow. When the prisoner was released to the real world, he cannot identify what is real and was confused. This allegory is similar to the story of a young blind man who never had a chance to see the real world since young. After a successful operation, this blind man cannot differentiate real apples from pictures. In relation to research, our perception of reality is dependent on how we interpret our experience relative to our previous conception or exposure. There is no blueprint interpretation. Each interpretation of reality is unique. Ix. EPISTEMOLOGICAL ASSUMPTION IX. Epistemology is the theory of of awareness awareness that outlines the form of knowledge that is probable matrix below and reasonable reasonable (Crotty, (Crotty, 1998). 1998).The Matrix 2 digests digestsdifference the difference between quantitative the between quantitative or or qualitative researchdesigns designsininterms terms of of the qualitative research relationship of the inquirer to the object/subject of inquiry, id est the application of epistemological assumption.

Independent versus Dependent. If we try to dissect its similarity, both have an inquirer and object/subject of inquiry. However, the difference lies between the relationshipsof both. Quantitative researchers, especially pure positivist, are dualistic in terms of inquirer-object relationship in research. This individualistic philosophy is needed to maintain objectivity. It means that both do not influence each other (Lincoln & Guba, 2000) thus independent. Qualitative researchers believed the contrary (Lincoln & Guba, 1994). It is grounded on the assumption that the inquirer and object are interlocked in an interactive process (Tewksbury, 2009; Mertens, 2010), dependent on each other (Baruch, 1981; Woodhoude & Livingood, 1991; Polit & Beck, 2008). They are constantly influencing respectively in the exploration of data. Lincoln and Guba (2000) believed that research could only be conducted in an interactive process â&#x20AC;&#x201C; hermeneutic, dialectical or any interpretative process. X. AXIOLOGICASSUMPTION ASSUMPTION x. AxIOLOGIC Oduor (2010) defined axiology as the theory matrix belowdigests digeststhe the difference difference of values. values. The Matrix 3 below between quantitative or qualitative research designs in terms on how values are utilized or study. ItIt is subdivided into into controlled in the study. two categories: (1) fact-value divide/fact-value dichotomy; and (2) ethics.

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Table 3.3.Fact-Value Divide / Fact-Value Dichotomy Matrix Fact-Value Divide / Fact-Value Dichotomy Quantitative Values are held on check (theory-laden nature) Objectivity is sought Control is imposed to eliminate extraneous variables Empirical facts Do not believe in moral truth No means to defend values Truth is instrumentally determined and operationalized Instrumental reasons Empirical fact-discourse

Qualitative Values are inevitable and desirable (value-laden nature) Relativity provides thick and relevant description Control is unnecessary, variation of the phenomenon provides a more meaningful data Moral and aesthetic judgment as facts No means to separate facts from subjective truth or fiction Values are necessary Truth has subjective provenance and is determined non-instrumentally Non-operational reasons Value-discourse

Respect privacy, informed consent, minimize harm, etc. (Imposed procedures to observe beneficence, respect and justice)

Balanced exemplification of interpretations, foster partakers’ awareness and community camaraderie

Fact-Value Divide / Fact-Value Dichotomy. Quantitative research believed in objective scientific knowledge, and it is viewed as valid, certain and accurate (Crotty, 1998). Campbell together with Stanley (1963/1966) revised this claim. They argue that it is probability and not certainty. Crotty’s claim is totally impossible since nothing is certain in research (Cook & Campbell, 1979; Shadish, Cook & Campbell, 2002). Qualitative research thinks otherwise. Facts and values are interlocked. In determining the facts, values are inevitable and desirable (Polit & Beck, 2008), necessary for thick description (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Sandelowski, 2004; Warren & Karner, 2005). The fact-value divide or fact-value dichotomy is further dissected in the concepts of: (1) empirical versus value discourse; (2) control; and (3) instrumentation: Empirical versus Value Discourse. Quantitative research determines empirical fact while qualitative research establishes moral and aesthetic judgement as fact (Callicott, 2002; Sagoff, 2004).

Control. Polit Beck(2008) (2008)stated stated that that in Polit and & Beck quantitative studies values are held in check and objectivity is sought. The practical application application of this is the concept concept of of control. control. Quantitative Quantitative researchers implement regulating measures to attain impartiality (Cormack, (Cormack, 1991). 1991). Contrarily, Contrarily, qualitative researchers avoid avoid restraining the phenomenon since gear shifting the incident contaminates natural occurrence (Creswell, 2007). Controlling the event leads to induced effects, and this is not the concern of a naturalist. “Einstein never controlled a variable in his life.” Jerry Wellington, 2000 It is waggish waggish toto note note that thateven evengreat great It is mathematician do experiments without mathematician do experiments without controlling controlling the the variables. variables. Evenhandedly, Evenhandedly, they they are never labeled labeled as assubjective. subjective.ItItprojects projectsthat that are never a naturalistsare arenever neverwrong wrong after The concept naturalist after all.all. The concept of of naturalism of high utility theworld real naturalism is ofishigh utility sincesince in thein real world things are not controlled. The more things are not controlled. The more uncontrolled

Vasquez, B. A.

uncontrolled the is, phenomenon thicker is the phenomenon the thicker isis,itsthe description â&#x20AC;&#x201C; plurality of reality is revealed andisnot forcedand to its descriptionâ&#x20AC;&#x201C; plurality of reality revealed singularity. not forced to singularity. Instrumentation. Quantitative research believed in empirical-fact discourse (Norton, 2007) and not value discourse (Williams, 1985). It has practical application in instrumentation. Empirical truth is measured using operationalized instruments. It controls the influence of values in capturing what is real and truthful. It is never the case in qualitative inquiry. The recognition of subjective truth directs divergence of instrumental strategies (Callicott, 2002; Sagoff, 2004). Instrumentation in qualitative research becomes relative to how data come in; thus, making the researcher the best instrument (Britten, 1995; Tollefson, Usher, Francis & Owens, 2001). Subjective provenance of truth can never be determined using operationalized measurement (Callicott, 2002). It does not imply that the researcher as the main instrument is subjective. Converging the Divide: Objectivity in Qualitative and Subjectivity in Quantitative Inquiry (Paradox). Though qualitative researchers collect subjective data, it does not necessarily follow that data collection is automatically subjective. Objectivity in qualitative research is observed when personal biases are bracketed out from consciousness during data collection (Ray, 1985). It is when the researcherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s personal values are compartmentalized so as not to influence the data collection. It is when both quantitative and qualitative converge. However, seeing it superficially, divergence occurs in the data analysis portion. Quantitative research analysis uses predetermined framework (Duffy, 1985). Qualitative inquiry considers the interpretation of the actors (Kleinman, 2004; Annels, 1999; Koch, 1995; Munhall & Oiler, 1986); making it objective. Interpretations are based from the data and how the participants interpret them (Wall, Glenn, Mitchenson & Poole, 2004; Walters, 1995; Paley, 1997). At times, it recognizes that the personal interpretation of

the researcher is equally important and must be reported (Moules, 2002; Allen & Jensen, 1990; Wilson & Hutchinson, 1991; Sandelowski, 2000; Koch, 1995; Heidegger, 1962). The aim is to provide a balance of what is from the participants and what is from the researcher (Lopez & Willis, 2006). However, one must also realize that this is not totally exclusive in qualitative research (Phillips, 1987/ 1987, 2000). 2000). In the drafting of the operational framework in quantitative research, there is personal bias or interpretation in choosing the theory and conceptualization of the theoretical framework, variables, method and measures. In providing a narrative explanation of the numerical analysis, quantitative researchers qualify using their own personal interpretation (thus subjective) in conjunction with the predetermined operationalization (which was previously constructed subjectively). Ethics. In quantitative research, ethics is intermarried with the methodology (Mertens, 2010). It emphasized intellectual honesty (Jennings & Callahan, 1983). It is translated by observing the ethical principles announced in the Belmont Report (National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 1978), which highlighted dogmatic methodologies inobserving beneficence, respect and justice. Though these three are important in conducting qualitative research, Denzin and Lincoln (2008) argued that the ethical procedures designed for quantitative research must not be forced in qualitative research since it followed a different panache panache. It still observes the three basic principles but is carried differently. It had been dissected using the concept of fairness and authenticity (ontologic, educative, catalytic and tactical), and further presented explicitly via reflexivity, rapport and reciprocity. XI.METHODOLOGIC ASSUMPTION xI.METHODOLOGIC ASSUMPTION section isis subdivided subdividedinto intofour 4 subThis section categories: (1) process; (2) data collection and analysis; (3) measurement and discovery; and (4) sampling and generalizability.

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Table 4.4.Process Matrix Process Quantitative A priori Determinism (causal and associative): Product only Hypothesis-testing (hypothetico-deductive) Numerical and predictive nature Predetermined protocols (prescriptive) Fixed methods and design Reductionist (sedimented view) Deductive â&#x20AC;&#x201C; concept or theory to testing Scientific It tests existing or newly created conceptualizations. Knowledge translated to numeric values. Valuable for evaluating and testing theory.

Reductionist in nature. Answers specific questions by controlling the characteristics of sample, setting and activities. Answers only what and not why.

Test hypothesis statistically

Qualitative Posteriori Relativistic: Product and process oriented Phenomenological in nature Narration of multiple of realities Methods are emergent Flexible methodology Provides thick description of interpretative realities Inductive (can also be abductive or retroductive) â&#x20AC;&#x201C; grounded data to theory or concept: bottoms-up Naturalistic It crafts the concepts and proposes the theories or conceptualizations that are exploited to takeoff quantitative tests and predictive models. Knowledge expressed narratively. Provide academics awareness to abstract issues differently, thus establishing grounds for theoretical development, refinement and expansion. Seeks to provide exhaustive and comprehensive information, reconnoiters concerns and its context, and elucidates the what, how, when, where and by and among whom performances and processes maneuver while recounting unequivocal detail of the outlines and subtleties of actors, setting, activities and interactions. Pursues to categorize and explicate patterns and themes in proceedings and actors.

It is believed that before reality was controlled and converted into numerical assignments, quality was involved by understanding and interpreting the phenomenon. This provides meaning to the numbers. Additionally, the interpretations and discussions of any statistical results are of no doubt qualitative. Can be seen as a continuum (quantitative-qualitative continuum): Thus, the mixed method design and other integrative approaches were born. Can also be seen as a cycle. Conceptualizations formulated in qualitative approach are used as a framework for quantitative testing or confirmation. Falsified frameworks as a result of quantitative research are explored qualitatively and alternative or competing conceptualizations are molded. Alternatively, seen as a divide. The divergence between both causes the quantitative and qualitative argument. Integration may obscure the data and is a misuse of both paradigms.

This portion talks about the methodological assumptions. Positivists utilize concepts from the natural science experimentation (Mertens, 2010).

However, postpositivist recognize rigorous application of scientific inquiry, noting that it is difficult if not impossible (Campbell &

Vasquez, B. A.

Stanley, 1963/1966; 1979; 1963/1966; Cook Cook && Campbell, Campbell, 1979; Shadish, Cook & Campbell, 2002). Borman and colleagues (2007) also acknowledged this limitation. Scientific versus Naturalistic: Naturalism: Hard versus Soft Science. I claim that both are empirical. The only difference is that the quantitative inquiry upholds hard science while qualitative fosters soft science. Narrations, by logic, are empirical because it can only be perceived passing via the senses. The person undergoing the phenomenon has the empirical experience. The interpretation of the experience makes it relative. relative. The only difference is that: (1) (a) in quantitative research, it is the researcher who empirically experiences the phenomenon; while (b) (2) in qualitative research, it is the participant who empirically experiences the phenomenon. Picking up the highly empirical claim of of the the quantitative quantitativeresearcher, researcher, thethe useuse of thethe senses forforobservation of senses observationisisreadily readily available. available. However, we we must must not not forget forget that the cognitive interpretation of what had been sensed does not readily follow the blueprint of the a priori (theoretical framework). It has to pass via the interpretative process of thinking which is highly relative. Metacognitively, Metacognitively, both trailed similar processes packaged in different forms. Researchers must not confuse this. It takes a welldefined philosophical background to understand the convergence convergence of of both both discipline and thus must not be seen as a divide. I further argue that qualitative inquiry is scientific as long as it follows a systematic process. Devetak, GlaĹžar & Vogrinc (2009) claimed that both, quantitative and qualitative, are scientific. Multiple triangulation technique (data, time, space, person, investigator, method, analysis and theory), an alternative to validation in qualitative research, is one of its scientific approaches (Polit & Beck, 2008). Other forms include: (1) (a) prolonged engagement with persistent observation; (b) (2) audit trail; (3) (c) member check; (4) (d) bracketing; (5) (e) reflexivity; (6) (f) negative negative case case analysis; (7) (g) peer debriefing; and (h) (8) thick description. Convergence and Divergence. It is believed

that before reality was controlled and converted into numerical assignments, understanding and interpreting the phenomenon involved quality. It provides meaning to the numbers. Additionally, the interpretations and discussions of any statistical results are of no doubt qualitative. Furthermore, this can be seen as: Quantitative-Qualitative Continuum. It can be seen as a continuum. It gave birth to the mix method and design (Pearce, 2002), and other integrative approaches. Quantitative-Qualitative Quantitative-Qualitative Cycle. Conceptualizations Cycle. Conceptualizations formulated in the formulated qualitativein approach the qualitative are approach used as a are framework used as a framework for quantitative for quantitative testing or testing or confirmation. confirmation. As a result, falsified As a result, frameworks falsified of frameworks of quantitative research quantitative are explored research qualitatively are explored qualitatively and alternativeand or competing alternative conceptualizations or competing conceptualizations are molded. are molded. Quantitative-Qualitative Divide. The divergence between both causes the quantitative and qualitative argument. Integration may obscure the data and isa misuse of both paradigms. According to Leininger and McFarland (2005), both paradigms have different philosophies, purposes, goals, methods, and desired outcomes. They must not be observed as identical and expended in a similar manner. Mixing both infringes the philosophy, purposes, and integrity of each paradigm. Misusing mix methodology may spearhead dubious results since it may obscure the data collected (unparalleled results). Linearity is Only in Books and Not in Practice. In quantitative inquiry, books suggest linear process but in actuality it is done in a nonlinear fashion (Mertens, 2010). It is similar to that in qualitative research. The only difference is that in qualitative research, this is recognized as a methodological assumption. Data Collection and Analysis. The matrix below digests the difference between quantitative or qualitative research designs in terms of data collection and analysis. It is not discussed comprehensively since some of the entries are already explained previously. Quantitative and qualitative inquiry both seek

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to identify, explain and discuss patterns within and across data. Quantitative is prescriptive, fixed, nonflexible and rigid (Cook, 1991). You just need to follow the protocol and nothing goes wrong (Tewksbury, 2009). Data collection and analysis followed a prespecified operation (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2000). Reality is converted to numerical form and manipulated statistically to be meaningful (Gorard, Prandy & Roberts, 2002). Considering all enumerations, quantitative researches are easily verified and highly replicable (Gigerenzer, 1993). It is not the case in qualitative research. Its design and methods are Table Analysis Matrix5. 5. Data Data Collection Collection and and Analysis Quantitative

both flexible and emergent (Reichardt & Cook, 1979). Considering this, it is difficult to replicate existing methodology in an attempt to arrive in similar results (Ayer, 1946). The uniqueness of results and methods makes it hard to replicate in toto (Ayer, 1936; Schlick, 1959). The ontological idea of multiplicity of reality contravenes the methodological point of replication. We must remember that the philosophy talks about relativeness of interpretation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; between: (1) participants; (2) researchers; (3) readers; and (4) participants, researchers and readers.

Qualitative

Seek to identify, explain and discuss patterns within and across data. Non-flexible and rigid. Easy and nothing goes wrong when protocols are followed deliberately Downloading a data set without significant interpersonal and creative skills. Fixed and prespecified Analysis is based from prespecified operations.

It is often viewed as easy, but is in fact more time consuming; require greater emphasis on clarifying and defining meanings. Require cerebral, interpersonal and creative abilities to organize, manage, analyze and interpret data. Flexible and emergent The actual task and actions involve certain amount of ingenuity and innovation.

Independent from the one being studied

Interaction required and separatedness must be explicit

Independent from the one being studied

Positioning

It tests the concepts and analyzes data based from prespecified operationalization.

It crafts the concepts and proposes conceptualizations or theories that are exploited to takeoff quantitative tests and predictive models.

Requires counting of the object of investigation or the numeric labels to be created for meaningful variables

As much as possible does not count but describes quantity narratively

Without numbers it cannot be manipulated and patterns cannot be identified

Does not manipulate. Preserves the natural occurrence of the phenomenon being observed

Results can be verified by replicating its procedures

Results and methods are unique to each investigators and readers â&#x20AC;&#x201C; thus hard to replicate in toto

Vasquez, B. A.

xII. wHICH IS HARD OR EASY? “… quantitative methods are the line dancing approach to science. Everyone and anyone can do it, and all that seems to matter is that you get the steps right… in the right order, you will get the product … so as long as the steps are done mechanically correct[ly], it is presumed to be well executed. Qualitative research on the other hand is the ballet-like, interpretative dance approach to science. While there are steps to be done, it is more important to produce a smooth, well-connected, emotionally infused product… does not rely on the mechanical precision… but instead focuses on how the overall product communicates a message and moves people both emotionally and intellectually.” Richard Tewksbury, 2009 In qualitative research, though often viewed by nonqualitative as easy, it is, in fact, cerebrally and emotionally challenging (Tewksbury, 2009; Ramos, 1989). It is time consuming from data collection, management and analysis. It is highly flexible and emergent (Burnard, 2008). The design and methodology, and even the domain of inquiry may change as data comes in (Ratnesar, 2005). It calls for ingenuity from conceptualization to reporting (Creswell, 2007). Theory, Framework Framework and and Literature Theory, Literature Quantitative research research verifies a Review. Quantitative theoretical framework: a priori (Polit & Beck, 2008; Bird, 2004). Qualitative Qualitative research creates a theory: a posteriori (Bird, 2004). It means that the is required in quantitative theoretical framework framework is research. It is not needed in a qualitative research. The theory is a product of research in qualitative whether it is a(n) a(n) (Suter, (Suter, 2012): (1) (a) adaptation of existing theory; (b) (2) modification of existing theory; or (3) (c) creation of new theory. Since theoretical framework framework isis required required in in

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quantitative research, comprehensive literature literature must be done (Glaser, 1978; Polit & Beck, 2008; Creswell, 2007). However, in qualitative research it is different. As much as possible, possible, literature literature reviews are suspended (Glaser, (Glaser, 1978; Polit & Beck, 2008) until data comes. It is is to to avoid avoid data contamination brought about by by the the influence in both data collection and analysis (Glaser & Cutcliffe, 2000; Straus, 1967; Cutcliffe, 2000; McGhee, Marland & Atkinson, 2007; 2007; Glaser, Glaser, 1998). 1998). When When one knows something ahead, it might influence how one ask the question during the interview and what to look for (Charmaz, 2006; Holton, 2007; Nathaniel; Nathaniel, 2006; Heath, 2006). One might also utilize what was previously read in the analysis of Dey, 2007/ 2007, 1999; data (Stern, 2007; Dey, 1999; Glaser, Glaser, 1992; McCallin, 2003). Though no one commence with a tabula rasa in research (Glaser & Straus, 1967; 2007, 1999) it is possible to bracket it out Dey, 2007, from consciousness (Creswell, 2007; Mertens, Creswell (2007) suggested that 2010). However, Creswell literature review review prior to data collection might literature be necessary for: (1) (a) grounding the philosophical (2) drafting the methodology; and stance; (b) (3) entertaining a superficial idea on what to (c) scrutinize. He further recommended that it must not be done extensively. “So, not only is the tree more important than the seed from which it grows, but so too should the seed be blamed when the tree fails to thrive and provide fruit, shade and other benefits.” Richard Tewksbury, 2009 Quantitative researchers blame qualitative researchers on poor theory produced in qualitative research after it is refuted in a quantitative research. One must realize that the objective of doing quantitative research is to prove that the theory is wrong: the existence of zero relationship. We must not blame the method in qualitative research because of poorly produced theory. That is the essence of what has been quoted above. It is a poor theory that is

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problematic and not qualitative methodology. Measurement or Discovery. The matrix below digests the difference between quantitative or qualitative research designs in terms how data

are measured or discovered. Entries in this matrix are not explained since it is already discussed previously.

Table 6. Measurement or Discovery Matrix Quantitative Measurement is operationalized Measure specific

Qualitative Discovers without operationalization Open discovery with multiple descriptions Relative discovery but confirmable (confirmability with participant or thru triangulation)

Objective measurement Statistical

Narrative

Application is wide but limited by the measured variables. Products are exact measurements and values indicating descriptions, causalities or strengths of relationships. Can prove existence of description, causality and associations.

Application is contextual but is deep and comprehensive. Products are presentation of taxonomies, metaphors, creativity, explanations and development of theoretical constructs and arguments. Cannot prove existence but proposes or argues in support of particulate manners of description and relations.

Testing descriptions, strength and persistence of associations between narrowly distinct and controlled measures based from existing parameters.

Relies on analytic descriptions thru documentation of redundant or saturated patterns and endeavoring to build an interconnected depiction of the data while emphasizing the suspension or isolation of preconceived parameters.

Works on the assumption that the investigator knows best what a concept means and can pinpoint ways to measure such concepts.

Works on the assumption that concepts are contextually dependent and interpretation is the product of the interaction between the actors, investigator and data.

Both compliments and benefits the production of knowledge.

There are concerns under measurement and discovery, which were not discussed previously. These are: Non-Statistical Approaches in Positivistic Approach. According to Ratnesar (2005), Einstein did not use statistics to develop his theories. He further added that mathematical investigation, statistics, and probability do not perform statistics to provide proof. Complementarity. Though both have different presentations in terms of measurement, quantitative and qualitative studies can be seen as complementary and not divide. I will be

presenting a story to confirm the claim: The Four-Apple Story. When a quantitative researcher is asked to describe four apples, the investigator says: â&#x20AC;&#x153;There are four apples.â&#x20AC;? The numeric description of the apple is dependent on certain operationalized measure. It did not describe the entirety of the objects. To comprehensively describe the apple, the researcher needs to predetermine and operationalize certain measures like color, taste, texture, crunch and smell as part of the a priori (theoretical or conceptual framework). It can be comprehensive but can never be complete.

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Table 7.7.Sampling Matrix Samplingand andGeneralizability Generalizability Quantitative Sampling is based on representativeness Sampling is computable Tight sampling procedure Results must be externally valid Documenting the single reality that is generalizable to the entire population.

A more holistic description can be given among qualitative researchers: “There are red and green aromatic apples; some are smooth in texture and when eaten tastes good and crunchy.” What is lacking in the description are the frequency counts. It is still incomplete. Numeric descriptions also give meaning to the phenomenon. When both methods are used, a more comprehensive description is obtained: “There are four apples. Two are green, and the rest are red. The red ones are aromatic and smooth in texture, taste good and crunchy. The green ones are not.” However, combining the strength of both methods can counteract its weaknesses. Description of a certain phenomenon can never be complete, and the ultimate truth can never be determined. Matrix 7 digests difference between The matrix belowthe digests the difference quantitative or qualitative research designs in between quantitative or qualitative research designsofin selection terms terms of selection of data of todata be to analyzed be analyzed and and applicability applicability of results of results to other to other population population and and setting. setting. Marshall (1996) claimed that picking a sample is imperative in any investigation. Quantitative researchers take a representative sample to derive a generalizable result that can be claimed by the entire population. The sample size is resolute to the optimal count essential to permit valid deductions. Larger size has a minor risk of sampling error. It is being determined using tight sampling computation. In qualitative research, values, beliefs and attitudes that constitute the staple of qualitative research are essentially

Qualitative Sampling is based on context Redundancy is enough No agreed rule Results are transferable and not necessarily valid externally It is about attainment of understandings on the shared feature, with multiple variations, of a phenomenon and how the actors, structures and processes function in a culturally-grounded milieu.

not normative in distribution. It marks normal distribution approach in qualitative inquiry inappropriate. It is significant to appreciate that the quintessence of qualitative research is its naturalistic nature. By scrutinizing tangible people in natural settings, we do not want to utilize highly controlled approaches to arrive in synthetic sequestration. Therefore, sampling must be based on context. Good sampling in qualitative research requires purposeful culling of good informants (Morse, 1991; Coyne, 1997). There is no hard and agreed rule on the number of culled sample in qualitative research (Tuckett, 2004; Rubinstein, 1994; Baum, 2000; Patton, 1990). It is usually in small counts (Miles & Huberman, Huberman 1994; Patton, Patton 1990). It is because the prime concern is to arrive in data saturation (Patton, 2002; Ezzy, 2002; Morse, 1995) to claim transferability and not generalizability (Morse, 1999). It is also troublesome to get a big sample since it consumes more time in data analysis. Big sample leads to exhaustion and confusion. The general rule is to gather saturated data until no new redundant information can be taken (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). xIII. CONCLUSION Both paradigms seek to define truth, reality and knowledge. In its quest for discovery, quantitative and qualitative inquiries are both objective and subjective – unintentionally intertwined in the process. Each way is inherently

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subjective and both attempts to be idyllically objective. What knowledge is and how it is discovered, are highly relative. It is founded from the researcherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s personal philosophical stances. Both paradigms have its identifiable modes of accomplishing its objectives. By grounding oneself in philosophical stances, the researcher is guided on how reality, truth, and knowledge are seen. No single choice is perfect. It is only an attempt to capture its partiality. The divide is a continuum that treats its imperfection-not as an attempt to arrive in its ultimate form, but at least, to articulate as much coverage. The divergence as claimed by some may converge as viewed by others. The distinction between claims is equivalently logical.

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methods are superior for criminology and criminal justice. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Criminology, 1(1), 38-58. Tollefson, J., Usher, K., Francis, D., & Owens, J. (2001). What you ask is what you get: Learning from interviewing in qualitative research. Contemporary Nurse: 10(3-4), 258-264. doi:10.5172/conu.10.3-4.258 Tuckett, A. (2004). Qualitative research sampling: The very real complexities. Nurse Researcher, 12, 47-61. Wagemans, J., Eleder, J. H., Kubovy, M., Palmer, S. E., Peterson, M. A. Singh, M. & von der Heydt, R. (2012). A. Century of gestalt psychology in visual percention: I. perceptual grouping and figure-ground organization. Psychological Bulletin, 138(6), 1172-1217. doi:10.1037/ a0029333. Walker, R. C. S. (1989). The coherence theory of truth: Realism, anti-realism, idealism. London and New York: Routledge. Wall, C., Glenn, S., Mitchinson, S., & Poole, H. (2004). Using a reflective diary to develop bracketing skills during a phenomenological investigation. Nurse Researcher, 11(4), 20-29. Walters, A. J. (1995). The Phenomenological Movement: Implications for nursing research. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 21, 791-799. Warren, C. A. B., & Karner, T. X. (2005). Discovering qualitative methods: Field research, interviews and analysis. Los Angeles: Roxbury. Wellington, J. (2000). Eduactional research: Contemporary issues and practical approaches. London: Continuum. Werkmeister, W. H. (1937a). Seven theses of logical positivism critically examined I. The Philosophical Review, 46, 276-297. Werkmeister, W. H. (1937b). Seven theses of logical positivism critically examined II. The Philosophical Review, 46, 357-376. Williams, B. A. O. (1985). Ethics and the limits of philosophy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard university Press. Wilson, H., & Hutchinson, S. (1991). Triangulation of qualitative methods: Heideggerian hermeneutics and grounded theory. Qualitative Health Research, 1, 263-276. Woodhouse, L. D., & Livingood, W. C. (1991). Exploring the versatility of qualitative design. Qualitative Research, 1(4), 434-445. Young, J. O. (2013). The coherence theory of truth. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved May 6, 2013 from http://plato.standford.edu/ entries/truth=coherence/#Ver

UV Journal of Research 2014

Antimicrobial effect of chinese creeper (Mikania Micrantia) leaf extract to E. Coli (Escherichia Coli) causing diarrhea Anna Lou C. Cabuenas Celeste L. Maghuyop Joseph Matthew Louise S. Ambait Jane Marie P. Zapanta College of Arts and Sciences University of the Visayas dr. jorel@yahoo.com Date submitted: April 15, 2014

Date of acceptance: October 10, 2014

ABSTRACT The study study utilizes utilizesan anexperimental experimentalquantitative quantitativemethod. method.ItItwas wasconducted conductedinin the the 5th floor Administration of the Visayas. Visayas. science laboratory 5thfloor AdministrationBuilding Buildingof ofthe theUniversity Universityof the leaf leaf extract extract of of Chinese Chinese creeper creeper (Mikania (Mikaniamicrantha) micantha) Antimicrobial activity of the used in traditional folk medicines were screened against E. E. coli coli (Escherichia (Escherichia coli) compared to Tetracycline, pharmaceutical drug. The The highest highest antimicrobial antimicrobial potentially was exhibited by the Tetracyclic drug, followed followed by by the the different different concentrations (100%, (100 %,75%, 75 %, 50 %, 25 %). extract M. micantha 50%, andand 25%). TheThe leaf leaf extract of M.ofmicantha can can be considered toequally be equally potent as the most common effect antibiotic, such be considered to be potent as the most common effect antibiotic, such as as Tetracycline. A sensitivity testperformed performedwith withcommonly commonlyused usedsensitivity sensitivity test test Tetracycline. A sensitivity test resulted resultedininthe theappearance appearanceofofdrug drugand andplant plant resistance resistance of of the the bacteria bacteria tested. tested. AA comparison of data in the inhibition inhibition zones zones of of E. E. coli coli (Escherichia (Escherichiacoli) coli)showed showedthat that M. micantha leaf leaf extract extractand and Tetracycline Tetracyclinewere wereeffective effectiveagainst against bacteria bacteria strain strain tested. traditional folk folkmedicine medicinecould couldbebe tested.Furthermore, Furthermore,the theresults results suggest suggest that traditional used as a guide on the continuing continuing search search for for new newnatural naturalproducts productswith withpotential potential medicinal properties. Keywords: statistics, global climate risk index, international Keywords:fractal antimicrobial, diarrhea, Escherichia, Mikania Micranthatourist arrival I. INTRODUCTION In the the advancement advancement ofof modern modernmedicine, medicine, many people people do do not not give give importance on plants tototheir theirhealth. health. Many of us use plants merely merely and also for decorations. for for food, food, flavouring, flavoring, and Before, people used herbs as medicine to cure Presently, different illnesses. At present,many many of of us depend on synthetic medicines that are manufactured by man using chemicals which may cause side effects in the body. Some plants plants have have medicinal medicinal effects effects on our health from curing common colds to lowering

the blood pressure. One of the most common common plants that have have aa medicinal medicinal value valueisisthe theChinese Chinese creeper (Mikania micrantha) micrantha) which which the the earlier earlier people used to heal their wounds wounds (Facey, (Facey,Mulder Mulder & Porter, Porter, 2004; 2004; Li, Li, Li, Li,Wang Wang&&Cao, Cao,2013). 2013).Thus, Thus, the this study studyaims aimsto totest testthe theantimicrobial antimicrobialeffect effectofof the Chinese Chinesecreeper creeper(Mikania (Mikaniamicrantha) micrantha) E. in in E. coli coli which causes diarrhea. which causes diarrhea. Mikania micrantha, commonly known as Chinese creeper or mile-a-minute weed, is an extremely fast-growing, perennial creeping weed

UV Journal of Research

(Ayensu, 1981). According to Facey and Hassan (2004), M. micrantha is the most popularly used for wound dressings and promote the healing of sores. In addition, it has been attracted the attention of natural product chemists because of its antibacterial, antitumor, cytotoxic, analgesic, inflammatory, antiproliferative, and phytotoxic activities. Stem and leaf of the plant sample is used to treat malaria and eczema. Leaf in liquid mixture is used for washing rashes, skin eruptions and smallpox, chicken pox or for measles, by Juice from macerated leaves is applied to persistent sores. Macerated leaves are vigorously rubbed on skin as a treatment for rashes (DeFilipps, Maina, & Crepin, 2004). Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria normally live in the intestines of people and animals. Most E. coli are harmless and actually are an important part of a healthy human intestinal tract. However, some E. coli are pathogenic, which means they can cause illness especially diarrhea. The types of E. coli that can cause diarrhea can be transmitted through contaminated water or food, or through contact with animals or persons. E. coli consists of a diverse group of bacteria. The antimicrobial activity of M. micrantha extracts was evaluated against Escherichia coli. However, the antimicrobial constituents were ambiguous though mikanolide and dihydromikanolide as antimicrobial ingredient of M. micrantha were reported. There has been no reports which shows that effectiveness of M. micrantha as antimicrobial agents agains E. coli. which causes diarrhea (Patamona, 2004). This study provides description about the antimicrobial constituent and antimicrobial activities in an attempt to improve the understanding of the practicality of M. micrantha. This will further identify the different phychemical constituents of M. micrantha as an antimicrobial agent against the E.coli bacteria that causes diarrheal diseases. II. OBJECTIVES Thisstudy The studyaims aimstoto testtest thethe anti-anti-microbial microbial effect of Chinese Creeper (Mikania micrantha) micrantha)

leaf extract on E.coli bacteria causing diarrhea. Furthermore, it specifically aims to determine the effectiveness of Chinese creeper (Mikania macrantha) as as an an antimicrobial antimicrobial drugdrug on on E. coli; comparethe theantimicrobial antimicrobial effect effect of E. coli; compare Chinese creeper (Mikania micrantha) in other pharmaceutical drug (Tertracycline); (Tertracycline); assess the determine level of concentrations ofofthe the level of concentrations theChinese Chinese creeper (Mikania micrantha) leaf extract on the E. coli; and determine the phytochemical constituents of Chinese creeper (Mikania micrantha). III. METHODOLOGY METHODOLOGY The This study study uses uses experimental quantitative research design to determine the antimicrobial effect of Chinese creeper (Mikania micrantha) leaves extract extract on on E. E. coli coli causing diarrhea. Samples of M. micrantha were collected collected from from Basak, Basak, Mandaue City. The extraction and phytochemical testing was done in the chemistry laboratory in the 5th floor, Room room 516A of the Administration building in the University of the Visayas Visayas (Main Campus), D. Jakosalem Street, Cebu City. The plant sample was freshly picked and washed with tap water to remove unnecessary impurities. Leaves were were squeezed and filtered to separate the residue from the pure pure extract. extract. Extract was subject for phytochemical testing and biological testing. The researcher researchersobtained obtained different different levels levels testing. The of concentrations in the the pure pure extracted extracted leaves of M. micrantha and and undergoes undergoesphytochemical phytochemicaland and biological testing. E. coli was procured in the University of the Visayas-College of Medicine, Micro-Parasitology Laboratory in Banilad campus. E. coli broth samples were placed properly in a tightly sealed box for the safety of the researcher and people around the place. In preparing the bacterial culture, the researchers prepared nutritive nutritive agar researcher prepared plate to be used as a media for bacterium to be cultured. In culturing culturing bacteria, bacteria, the the researchers researcher took sample from from the the broth broth culture of one took aa sample bacteria colony. Different levels of concentrations of M. micranta leaf extract extract and antibacterial agent were then added. was then added

25 25

Cabuenas, A. C., Maghuyop, C. L., Ambait, J. M. L. S. and Zapanta, J. M. P.

Kirby-Bauer Disk Diffusion DiffusionSusceptibility SusceptibilityTest Testwas was used to determine the sensitivity and resistance of pathogenic facultative anaerobic bacteria to various antimicrobial compounds in order to assist the researchers in selecting selecting a treatment researcher in option. It It is is aasimple simplemethod methodwhere wherethe a culturing surface inoculated with microbe is exposed to small small disks disks containing containingknown knownamounts amountsof ofa chemical agents agents.resulting This resulted in zone of in a zone ofainhibition inhibition the growth of the microbe of growth showing of the microbe corresponding to the corresponding the strain susceptibility of the In strain susceptibility oftothe to the agent. the to the agent.ofIndifferent the application different level application level ofofconcentrations of to the bacterial to concentrations the bacterial contaminated Petricontaminated dishes. The petri dishes.used The filter researchers usedfilter filterpapers paper. researcher paper. The The papers with the different werefilter soaked withwere the soaked different concentrations concentrations (25 %, 50 75 %, 100and % then and (25%, 50%, 75%, 100% and%, Tetracyclin) Tetracyclin) and then applied to the petri dishes. applied to the Petri dishes. Statistical Treatment (Math is Fun, 2014):

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The following data were tabulated and statistically treated for easier discussion of the results.

exhibited changes in the diameter of the aura compared to the controlled which shows no changes. Tetracycline was observed to be the most effective with the average of 29.33 followed by the experimental controls. This further shows that the greater the diameter of the aura the greater the chance that the bacteria increases. In getting the total diameter, the researchers used a ruler in measuring each zone with the unaided eyes while viewing the back portion of the petri dish. Table 2. Total Area of the aura + Dot Total number of the aura + dot Dosage 100 % 75 % 75% 50 50% % 25 % 25% Tetracyclin Controlled

Trial 1 78.5 38.5 28.3 0.0 660.5 0.0

Trial 2 415.5 201.1 153.9 95.0 706.9 0.0

Trial 3 490.9 227.0 153.9 132.7 660.5 0.0

Average 328.33 155.53 112.03 227.03 675.96 0.0

the aura The table shows the total area of the aura and the dot in every concentration. This further shows that the concentration the least number of bacteria present. This means that 100% solution contains least number of bacteria compared to the lesser number of bacteria compared other While Tetracyclin, which iswhich antito the solutions. other solutions. While Tetracyclin, microbial drug has thehas leastthe number of bacteria is antimicrobial drug least number of comparedcompared to the 100% solution M. micrantha. bacteria to the 100%ofsolution of M. The researcher the formula written in micrantha. Theused researchers used the below formula determining area of the added written belowthe in total determining the aura, total area of the disk and thethe dot.disk and the dot. aura, added

Table 1. Total diameter of the Aura (zone of inhibition) Dosage Dosage 100% % 100

Total Diameter of the Aura Trial TTrialr1ial 11 Trial 2 Trial Trial33

Average Average 19.33 19.33

10 mm23 10 mm mm 10mm 23mm 77mm mm mm 7 mm 16 16mm

25 25mm mm 17 mm 17mm

25 % 25%

66mm mm mm 6 mm 14 14mm 00mm mm mm 0 mm 11 11mm

14 mm 14mm 13 mm 13mm

Tetracyclin Tetracyclin

29 mm mm 29mm 29 mm30 30mm

29 mm 29mm

29.33 29.33

Controlled Controlled

00mm mm 0 mm

00mm mm

75 % 75% 50 % 50%

0 mm

Table 3. Total area of the Ring Total area of the ring

13.33 13.33 11.33 11.33

Dosage

Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

Average

100 %

58.9

395.8

471.2

308.63

7.66 7.66

75 % 75% 50 % 50% 25 % 25%

18.8 8.6 0.0

181.4 134.3 75.4

207.3 134.3 113.1

135.83 92.4 62.83

Tetracyclin Controlled

640.9 0.0

687.3 0.0

640.9 0.0

656.33 0

The table shows the total diameter of the aura (zone of inhibition) in each trial. Each dosage, the experimental and the positive control,

Note: To determine the total area of the ring, the researcher used the formula: ==Area Area of of the the aura aura -- area area of of the aura of the disk diffusion

UV Journal of Research

The table shows that the higher the percentage of the extract the lesser the contamination of the ring. This means that 100 % solution has the 100% greater possibility of inhibiting the bacteria. Table 4. Percentage of E.coli killed Percentages of Bacteria Killed Dosage

Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

100 % % 100 75 % 75% 50 % 50% 25 % 25% Tetracyclin Tetracyclin Controlled Controlled

75.0 % 75.0% 49.0 % 49.0% 30.6 % 30.6% 0.0 % 0.0% 97.0 % 97.0% 0.0 % 0.0%

95.3 % 95.3% 90.2 % 90.2% 87.2 % 87.2% 79.3 % 79.3% 97.0 % 97.0% 0.0 % 0.0%

96.0 % 96.0% 91.3 % 91.3% 87.2 % 87.2% 85.2 % 85.2% 97.0 % 97.0% 0.0 % 0.0%

Average 88.76 88.76 76.83 76.83 68.33 68.33 54.83 54.83 97 97 0 0

The table shows the effectiveness of leaf The table shows the effectiveness of leaf extract concentration in in killing killing E.coli. E. coli.100% One extract concentration hundred percent solution is more effective than solution is more effective than the 25% solution. the %shows solution. Thus, thisthe shows that the Thus,25 this that the higher concentration higher the concentration the amount of the higher the amount the of higher the bacteria killed. the bacteria killed. Furthermore, the M. micrantha Furthermore, the M. micrantha leaf extract is leaf extract istocomparable to the pharmaceutical comparable the pharmaceutical drug which is drug which is Tetracycline. Tetracycline. Table 5. Phytochemical testing of Mikania micrantha

an effective antimicrobial agent’s against E. coli causing diarrhea. The extract holds active constituents that are responsible for the death of E. coli. V. CONCLUSION Based on on the thedata gathered data,the the leaf extract gathered, leaf extract of M. micrantha (Chinese creeper) is is an an effective effective antimicrobial agent against E. coli causing diarrhea. The The leaf leaf extract extract contains contains different active constituents constituents that are are responsible responsible for the death of E. coli. The effectiveness of the antimicrobial activity of M. micrantha depends on the level of concentration. This means that higher the level of concentration the higher the amount of the bacteria killed. Furthermore, the antimicrobial effect of the leaf extract extract of M. micrantha is comparable to the pharmaceutical drug which is the the Tetracycline. Tetracycline. The The leaves leaves extract extract of M. micrantha may now be a promising source in the quest for new antimicrobial drugs due to its efficacy. originality index: similarity index: paper id:

91 % 9% 470233195

Grammarly:

checked

Results

Actual results

Remarks

Alkaloid

Mayer’s reagent

Creamy

Creamy color

Saponins

Water

Foam

Foamy

REFERENCES

Glycosides

Fehling solutions A and B

Red

Tannins

Ferric Chloride

Dark green ppt.

Phenols

Ferric Chloride

Dark green ppt.

Ayensu, E.S. (1981). Medicinal plants of West Indies. Algonac, MI: Reference Publications. Blackwell, W.H. (1990). Poisonous and medicinal plants. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. DeFilipps, R.A., Maina, S.L., & Crepin, J. (2004). Medicinal plants of Guianas. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Facey, B., Mulder, H.P.C., & Porter, R.B. (2004). Mikanolide from Jamaican M i k a n i a micrantha. Acta Crystallographica Section C, 60(1), 798–800. Li, Y., Li, J., Wang, X., & Cao, A. (2013). Antimicrobial constituents of the leaves of Mikania micrantha. HBK PLoS ONE, 8(10): e76725. doi:10.1371/ journal.pone.0076725 Patamona, G. (2004). Medicinal plants of the Guianas. Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana.

Active Constituets

Reagents

Dark green or deep blue Dark green or deep blue

Legend: (-) Negative; (+) Heavy precipitate

Table 5 shows the results of phytochemical testing of M. micrantha in the different reagents used. It further shows that M. micrantha has an active chemical contituents. The result further shows that the leaf extract of M. micrantha has

UV Journal of Research 2014

Date of acceptance: June 30, 2014

ABSTRACT The leaf leafextracts extractsofof P. rubra (Kalachuchi),I.I.aquatica aquatica (Kangkong),M. M.pudica pudica P. rubra (KALACHUCHI), (KANGKONG), (Makahiya), hirta (Gatas-Gatas), and C.and aromaticus (Oregano) were screened (MAKAHIYA),E. E. hirta (GATAS-GATAS), C. aromaticus (OREGANO) were for inhibitory activity against production of S. aureus. The Tube screened for inhibitory activity coagulase against coagulase production of S. aureus. The Coagulase Test and CountCount were were used for the assay.assay. The E.The hirta Tube Coagulase TestColony and Colony used forinhibitory the inhibitory E. (Gatas-Gatas), and C. aromaticus (Oregano) were found have inhibitory activity hirta (GATAS-GATAS), and C. aromaticus (OREGANO weretofound to have inhibitory against aureusS.coagulase production both having a mean grade levelgrade of 1 and a activity S.against aureus coagulase production both having a mean level mean colony count of 193.33 229.67,and respectively. However, the in vitrothe tests of 1 and a mean colony countand of 193.33 229.67, respectively. However, in conducted not, in any thestimulate complexity the human body. vitro tests do conducted doway, not,stimulate in any way, theofcomplexity of theInstead, human these results warrant the E.warrant hirta (Gatas-Gatas) C. aromaticus (Oregano) plant body. Instead, these results the E. hirta and (GATAS-GATAS) and C. aromaticus extracts to further anti-coagulase investigation. (OREGANO) plant extracts to further anti-coagulase investigation. Keywords: inhibitory activity, Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase production, antibacterial, herbal plants I. INTRODUCTION of of nature notnot Herbal plant plant isisa avast vastwealth wealth nature only from the global global environmental environmental perspective perspective but also from the medicinal point of view. It plays a significant role in improving the disease resistant ability and combating against various various unfavorable metabolic metabolic activities unfavorable activities within within the living system. Numerous infectious diseases have been known to be controlled by herbal remedies that have have been proved proven variously variously since primitive to present primitive present history historyof the of mankind. Since time immemorial, man has used various various parts of plants in treatment and prevention of various ailments. Unimaginably, Unimaginably, unrevealed and unmatched varieties of compounds are present in points the diversified herbs on earth. From these points

of view, it it is obvious that natural products, either in a form of pure compounds or as standardized plant extracts, provide unlimited opportunities to develop a variety of new drugs. The increase in drug-resistant bacteria has pressed on the search for alternative and natural sources of antibiotics (Saeed et al., 2005). One potential source of antibiotics is plants (Joshi et al., 2009). Plants such as Kalachuchi, Kangkong, Makahiya, Gatas-Gatas, and Oregano Oregano are widespread species in the Philippines and are used in traditional medicine in the country. Moreover, Moreover, plants are not only very accessible and effective against disease-causing microbes but also safer to use than commercial antibiotics (Chaudhry et al., was shown al., 2006). 2006). A study was

28 28

UV Journal of Research

that extraction of the crude plant P. rubra that contains iridoids that have been reported to have antibacterial, algicidal, cytotoxic, and/or plant growth inhibitory activity (Kardono et al., 1990). It was found that I. aquatica exerted a high magnitude of antimicrobial activity against the tested four types of bacterial species: namely, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, S. aureus and Micrococcus luteus (Majumdar et al., 2009). M. pudica was found to exhibit in vitro bacteriostatic activity (Genest et al., 2008). Leaves of E. hirta which were extracted by maceration in ethanol were used in traditional medicine for the treatment of boils, wounds and control of diarrhea and dysentery (Ogueke et al., 2007). A study was previously conducted on the efficacy of Oregano oil which contains carvacrol and thymol against planktonic S. aureus and S. epidermidis (Nostro et al., 2004). Antibiotic resistance becomes a global concern. The clinical efficacy of many existing antibiotics is being threatened by the emergence of multidrug-resistant pathogens. There is a continuous and urgent need to discover new antimicrobial compounds with diversed chemical structures and novel mechanisms of action for new and re-emerging infectious diseases. Therefore, researchers are increasingly turning their attention to folk medicine, looking for new discoveries that lead to develop better drugs against microbial infections. The increasing failure of chemotherapeutics and antibiotic resistance exhibited by pathogenic microbial infectious agents has led to the screeningofseveral medicinal plants for their potential antimicrobial activity. Recent studies have suggested that several plants species exhibit promising antimicrobial effects. Plant-based antimicrobials have enormous therapeutic potential as they can serve the purpose with lesser side effects that are often associated with synthetic antimicrobials. Staphylococcus is a group of bacteria that can cause a number of diseases as a result of infection of various tissues of the body. S. aureus is a gram-positive cocci, non-motile, non-spore

forming, catalase-positive and facultatively anaerobic organism which belongs to the family Micrococceae. They may be found singly, in pairs, and in irregular clusters that have been described as “bunches of grapes”. The cell wall contains peptidoglycan and teichoic acid. The organisms are resistant to temperatures as high as 50°C, to high salt concentrations, and to drying. Colonies are usually large (6-8 mm in diameter), smooth, and translucent. Colonies appear creamy, white, or light gold and “buttery looking” after 18 to 24 hours of incubation (Stoppler, 2009). S. aureus colonizes mainly the nasal passages, but it may be found regularly in most other anatomical locales, including the skin, oral cavity and gastrointestinal tract. They causes range of illnesses from minor skin infections such as pimples, boils (furuncles), cellulitis folliculitis, carbuncles, impetigo, scalded skin syndrome, and abscesses, to life-threatening diseases such as pneumonia, meningitis, osteomyelitis, endocarditis, toxic shock syndrome (TSS), bacteremia, and sepsis. Staph-related illness can range from mild and requiring no treatment to severe and potentially fatal. S. aureus is identified primarily by the tube coagulase test (Larsen et al., 1995). One important classification of S. aureus is its ability to produce coagulase. The role of S. aureus coagulase is captivating. It causes coagulation that allows the bacteria to coat itself with a layer of fibrin under which it hides from the immune system making it more virulent. Coagulase is part of the S. aureus defense system (Todar, 2011). The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that the mortality rate of S. aureus invasive infection was about 90 % by the year 2011. S. aureus is an opportunistic bacterial pathogen associated with asymptomatic colonization of the skin and mucosal surfaces of normal humans. However, it also is the cause of wound infections and has the potential to induce certain diseases, leading to infections in any of the major organs of the body. It also is responsible for many serious community- and

Past or il, M. F.

nosocomially-acquired the nosocomially- acquired infections, infections, being being the most frequently isolated bacterial pathogen from patients with hospital-acquired infections. Although antibiotic agents are are now now available available in the market, it cannot be denied that antibiotic resistance of S. aureus is great due to its ability to form fibrin clot and thus protecting itself from phagocytosis making it more more virulent. virulent. The The use use of antimicrobial substances with inhibitory mode of action may have fewer side effects than those with bactericidal mode of action. The latter ones tend to kill all of the bacteria in the body including normal flora whereas the former ones just retard the growth of the bacteria which are further killed by the immune response of the body (Doss et al., 2011). The Researchers researcher then then aim aim to to inhibit inhibit that coagulase production of S. aureus using five herbal plants. These are (1) P. (2) P. rubra rubra (Kalachuchi), (KALACHUCHI), I. aquatica (Kangkong), (3) M. pudica (2) I. aquatica (KANGKONG), (3) (Makahiya), M. pudica (4) E. hirta (Gatas-Gatas), and (5) C. aromaticus (MAKAHIYA), (4) E. hirta (GATAS-GATAS), and (5) (Oregano). C. aromaticus (OREGANO). II. OBJECTIVES The study studygenerally generallyaimed aimed to investigate to investigate the the inhibitory activity ofrubra P. rubra (Kalachuchi), I. inhibitory activity of P. (KALACHUCHI), aquatica (Kangkong), E. (KANGKONG),M.M.pudica pudica(makahiya), (MAKAHIYA), hirta (Gatas-Gatas), and C. aromaticus (Oregano) E. hirta (GATAS-GATAS), and C. aromaticus plant extracts against S. against aureus coagulase (OREGANO) plant extracts S. aureus production. Specifically the researcher aimed to coagulase production. Specifically the researchers achieve following: aimed tothe achieve the following: 1. Quantifythe theinhibitory inhibitoryeffect effectof ofherbal herbalplants plants 1. Quantify against coagulase production in S. aureus; aureus 2. Comparethe theinhibitory inhibitoryactivity activityof ofherbal herbal 2. Compare plants in S. aureus coagulase production; production and 3. Identifyherbal herbalplants plantsthat thathave have inhibitory inhibitory 3. Identify effect against S. aureus coagulase production production Null hypothesis. There is no significant difference on the inhibitory activity of P. rubra (Kalachuchi), I. aquatica (Kangkong), M. pudica (KALACHUCHI), I. aquatica (KANGKONG), M. (Makahiya), E. hirta (Gatas-Gatas), and pudica (MAKAHIYA), E. hirta (GATAS-GATAS), andC. aromaticus (Oregano) plant extracts C. aromaticus (OREGANO) plant extractsagainst againstS. aureus coagulase production. S. aureus coagulase production.

III. MATERIALS AND METHODS The research This study study utilizes utilizes experimental experimental research design, specifically parallel group design where where five groups groups were wereused used at same the same time at the time with with single variable(control (controlgroup) group) is only only one one single variable manipulated (Calmorin (Calmorin and & Calmorin, Calmorin, 2002). In this experiment, five different herbal plant extracts extracts were extracts were were compared. compared. All of these extracts obtained through decoction method of extraction with uniform amount of grams of herbal plants and volume of solvent. The experiment was conducted at Pharmacy Laboratory and Medical Technology Technology Laboratory Laboratory of of St. Scholasticaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s College Tacloban. For easy easy access access of of reagent Tacloban. For and laboratory apparatuses, all relevant relevant tests test and measurements, such as weighing and the extraction of the plants were done at Pharmacy Laboratory. However, However, the the inoculation, culturing of S. aureus and performing Tube Tube Coagulase Test were done at Medical Technology Technology Laboratory for safe, regulated, and and conducive conduciveenvironment. environment. IV. PREPARATION OF HERBAL PLANT ExTRACTS Plant Collection. Collection. P.P.rubra rubra(KALACHUCHI), (Kalachuchi), I. aquatica (KANGKONG), (Kangkong), M.M.pudica pudica(Makahiya), (MAKAHIYA), E. E. hirta hirta (Gatas-Gatas), (GATAS-GATAS), and C. aromaticus and C. aromaticus (Oregano) (OREGANO) samples were samples collected werefrom collected Happy from Homes Happy Homes Diit, Tacloban Diit, Tacloban City, Philippines. City, Philippines. The individual The individual plant was plant randomly was randomly collected collected between between 8:00 am 8:0010:00 to am to am 10:00 by uprooting am by uprooting method. Collected method. Collectedwere samples samples wrapped were in wrapped clean plastic in clean bags plastic and bags and transported transported directly to directly the Pharmacy to theLaboratory Pharmacy Laboratory for the preliminary for the preliminary procedures. procedures. The samples The samples were thoroughly were thoroughly washed with washed running with water running to water todebris. remove removeThe debris. plant The materials plant materials were rinsed were rinseddistilled with with distilled water. Each water. sample Eachwas sample weighed was weighed 10 g. Only10the g. Only healthy the healthy looking looking maturedmatured leaves leaves in everyinherbal everyplant herbal were plant picked were and picked randomly and randomlytoselected selected be usedto forbedecoction. used for decoction. Extraction and Purification of Plant Extract. Decoction of each herbal plant was prepared by boiling boiling 10 10gg of the leaves leaves in in 50 50ml ml distilled water in a flask for 20 minutes. The flask containing the leaves and decoction was removed

30 30

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from the heat and allowed to cool. The content of flask was filtered through filter paper to obtain clear decoction. Syringe filter filter with with aa general generalsize sizeofof0.45 0.45 micron will was be used usedtotopurify purifythe the plant plant extracts. stored in in separate Then, each each plant plantextracts extract were was stored placed inside autoclaved reagent bottles bottlesand andwere was placed the refrigerator. refrigerator. Test for Contaminants in Plant Extract. Trypticase Soy Agar (TSA) was used to check the presence of organisms in every plant extract and was prepared according to the manufacturer’s instructions. A small sample of extract was inoculated onto into TSA and was incubated at 37° C overnight. V. PREPARATION OF BACTERIAL CULTURES Isolation of S. aureus Strains. Stock cultures of S. aureus were obtained from the Eastern Visayas Regional Medical Center (EVRMC). The stock cultures were maintained by sub-culturing in Nutrient nutrient Agar agar media and were incubated at 37° C overnight. Identification of Bacteria. Gram’s staining technique was performed to check the morphological characteristics of the S. aureus. Tube Coagulase Test was done for the further confirmation for the presence of S. aureus. One tube was filled filled with with 0.5 0.5 ml ml ofof human human plasma and 0.1 ml of S. aureus. Then, it was with EDTA and incubated at 37° C and was observed up to four hours and 24 hours after incubation. The grade level was was measured measuredas as(4 (4+) +)ififthe thefibrin fibrinclot clotfilled fills the broth; broth; (3 (3 the complete volume occupied by the +) if the clot fills more than half but less than the total volume occupied by the broth; (2 +) if the clot fills less than half the total volume occupied by the broth; (1 +) if there is a little disorganized clot formation; (negative) if no clot observed but a little amorphous deposit might be seen (Spencer and Tatini, 1974). & Tatini, 1974). Standardization of the Bacteria in this study. 0.5 McFarland Standard was used to standardize the approximate number of bacteria in a liquid suspension with a chemical solution

of 1% 1 %barium bariumchloride chloride(0.05ml) (0.05ml)and and9% 9 %sulfuric sulfuric acid (9.95ml). McFarland McFarland Standard Standard was was stored in standing position at 4°C to 8°C and protected from light during 12 weeks. The suspension was whirled again again for for atatleast leastone 1 minute minute to to obtain a homogenous suspension and to break the clumps. A full loop of bacterial growth was obtained with an inoculating loop and placed in a test tube with 3ml 3 mlof of Nutrient Nutrient Broth. Broth. The The test test tube tube was was whirled minute to to break the clumps until for at least 1 one minute break the clumps a fairly turbid suspension was until a fairly turbid suspension wasobtained. obtained. The bacterial suspension’s turbidity was adjusted to be the same as the turbidity of of the the 0.5 0.5 McFarland McFarland standards. More broth was added to the bacterial suspension to reduce turbidity, turbidity, while more more were added added to to increase increase turbidity. colonies were turbidity. The bacterial concentration of the bacterial suspension was 1.5 xx10 1088CFU/ml (colony forming unit/ milliliter). unit/milliliter). Assayof Herbal of Herbal Plant Inhibitory Assay Plant Extract. Extract. The inhibitory activity of the P. The inhibitory activity of the P.rubra (Kalachuchi), (KALACHUCHI), aquatica Irubra . aquatica (Kangkong),I. M. pudica (KANGKONG), (Makahiya), E. M. pudica (MAKAHIYA), E. aromaticus hirta (GATAS-GATAS), hirta (Gatas-Gatas), and C. (Oregano) and C.extracts plant aromaticus were (OREGANO) determinedplant by measuring extracts were the determined grade level ofby the measuring inhibitionthe of the grade clotlevel in theofTube the inhibition ofTest. Coagulase the Six clot test in thetubes Tubewere Coagulase prepared., Test Six test each tube tubes contains were 0.5 prepared, ml human eachplasma tube contains and 0.1 0.5 ml ml of human standardized plasmaS.and aureus. 0.1 mlFive of standardized tubes were treated with ml of planttreated extract,with with 0.1 tubeml 1 S. aureus. Five0.1 tubes were of plant extract, containing P.rubra with (Kalachuchi), tube 1 containing tube 2 I. P. aquatic rubra (Kalachuchi),tube (Kangkong), tube 32M. I. aquatic pudica (Makahiya), (Kangkong), tube tube 4 3 M. E. hirta pudica (Gatas(Makahiya), Gatas) andtube tube4 5E.C.hirta(Gatasaromaticus ° Gatas) and All (Oregano). tubetubes 5 C. were aromaticus incubated (Oregano). at 37All C ° tubesobserved and were incubated up to four at 37 hours C and and observed 24 hours up of to 4 hours andTube 24 hours incubation. 6 was incubation. six wasofleft untreatedTube and served leftbasis untreated and served as for comparison as for comparison onbasis the grade level for on the grade level for coagulase production. coagulase production. HintonAgar Agar(MHA), (MHA), In every plate of Mueller Hilton 0.1µl 0.1 µlof of the the mixture mixture in in each each tube tube were were obtained and immediately streaked with the use of bacterial Growth of colonies in each MHA cell spreader. Growth plate was counted to check if the treated bacteria have the same number of colony growth as to the untreated bacteria.

Past or il, M. F.

VI. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS The Tube Coagulase Test and and MHA MHA colony counting were done in triplicates and the mean values and standard error of the mean were calculated. Tabular form representation was the main tool in this the study study for for easy comparison of results obtained. The researchers researcher used used one-way one-way analysis analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) to analyze the mean of clot inhibition in the Tube Tube Coagulase Test and Colony Count results of the tubes with plant extract as the experimental group with tube 1 extract containing P. rubra rubra (Kalachuchi), (Kalachuchi), tube tube 22 I.I. aquatic (Kangkong), tube tube 33 M. pudica (Makahiya), (Makahiya), tube 4 E. hirta hirta(Gatas-Gatas) (Gatas-Gatas) and and tube 5 C. aromaticus (Oregano) to the control group with no plant extract. Nevertheless, Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT) was also used. It involves the computation of numerical boundaries that allow for the classification of the difference between the

mean of clot inhibition in tubes with plant extract (experimental group) to the mean of tube without plant extract (control group) as significant or nonsignificant. VII. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The results using Plasma Plasma results in in experiment experiment 1 using X and experiment 2 using Plasma Y in grade level after 4 hours, no clot were formed. The grade level and turbidity were measured after 24 hours. 10µl 10 µlofofthe themixture mixtureinineach eachtube tubewere was obtained and immediately streaked in MHA with the use of bacterial cell spreader. spreader. After After 24 24 hours hours of incubation, numerous growths of colonies were seen. Thus, the amount of mixture streaked was reduced reduced to to 0.1 0.1µl in MHA was µl in experiment 3. The number of colony growth obtained shown on Table 1.2 was less than 300 cfu/ml. Also, the plasma used in experiment 3 was pooled plasma from A, B and C.

Gatheredon onGrade GradeLevel Level of of Clot Clot Formation, Formation, Turbidity and Colony Count on the Inhibitory Table 1.2. 1.2. Summary Summary of of Data data gathered Assay against AgainstS.S.aureus aureusCoagulase CoagulaseProduction ProductionUsing UsingPlasma PlasmaXX(Experiment (Experiment1)1)and andPlasma PlasmaYY(Experiment (Experiment2) 2) Experiment No. 1 Grade Level Clot Formation

Turbidity

Colony Count

Grade Level Clot Formation 4 hrs

Turbidity

Colony Count

Herbal Plant Extract

4 hrs

P. rubra rubra (KALACHUCHI) (Kalachuchi)

No clot

Less Turbid

TNTC

No clot

Less Turbid

TNTC

I.I. aquatica aquatica (Kangkong) (KANGKONG)

No clot

Less Turbid

TNTC

No clot

Less Turbid

TNTC

M. pudica M. pudica (Makahiya) (MAKAHIYA)

No clot

Less Turbid

TNTC

No clot

Less Turbid

TNTC

No clot

Turbid

TNTC

No clot

Turbid

TNTC

No clot

Turbid

TNTC

No clot

Turbid

TNTC

No clot

Less Turbid

TNTC

No clot

Less Turbid

TNTC

E. hirta E. hirta (Gatas-Gatas) (GATAS-GATAS) C. aromaticus C. aromaticus (Oregano) (OREGANO) Conrol group

24 hrs

Experiment No. 2

24 hrs

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on Experiment Experiment No. No.33 Grade Table 1.2. 1.2. Summary Summary of ofData data Gathered gathered on GradeLevel Levelof ofClot ClotFormation, Formation,Turbidity Turbidityand andColony ColonyCount Count S. aureus aureus Coagulase Production Using Pooled Plasma (A,B,C) on the Inhibitory Assay Assay Against against S. Experiment No. 3 Trial 1 Herbal Plant Extract

Grade Level Clot Formation

Turbidity

4 hrs 24 hrs P. P. rubra rubra

Trial 2 Colony Count

Grade Level Clot Formation

Trial 3

Turbidity

4 hrs 24 hrs

Colony Count

Grade Level Clot Formation

Turbidity

Colony Count

4 hrs 24 hrs

No clot

Less Turbid

No clot

Less Turbid

No clot

Less Turbid

No clot

Less Turbid

No clot

Less Turbid

110

No clot

Less Turbid

132

M. (Makahiya) M. pudica pudica (MAKAHIYA)

No clot

Less Turbid

129

No clot

Less Turbid

No clot

Less Turbid

hirta E. hirta (Gatas-Gatas) (GATAS-GATAS)

No clot

Turbid

153

No clot

Turbid

246

No clot

Turbid

181

aromaticus C. aromaticus (Oregano) (OREGANO)

No clot

Turbid

228

No clot

Turbid

298

No clot

Turbid

163

Less Turbid

123

No clot

Less Turbid

149

(Kalachuchi) (KALACHUCHI) I. aquatica

I. aquatica

(Kangkong) (KANGKONG)

Conrol group

No clot

112

No clot

The first part deals with measuring the grade level of clot formation of experimental group and control group 24 hours of observation

and counting the number of colonies formed in MHA for in each test solution including the control group and also observing its turbidity.

Table 2.1. Grade Level of Clot Formation of five different plant extracts and control group in Tube Coagulase Test

Replication Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

Treatment Total (T)

P. rubra (Kalachuchi) (KALACHUCHI)

1.33

I. aquatica (Kangkong) (KANGKONG)

1.33

M. pudica (Makahiya) (MAKAHIYA)

E. hirta (Gatas-Gatas) (GATAS-GATAS)

C. aromaticus (OREGANO) (Oregano) C. aromaticus

Control group

Herbal Plant Extract

Grand Total Grand Mean

Treatment Mean (xĚ&#x2026; )

26 1.44

33 33

Past or il, M. F.

The observed clot formation of the five herbal herbal plant extracts against coagulase production of S. aureus may attribute to the compound it possesses. The E. E. hirta hirta (GATAS-GATAS) (Gatas-Gatas) and C. aromaticus (Oregano) werewere foundfound to havetogreater (OREGANO) have effect inhibiting clot formation with the mean greaterin effect in inhibiting clot formation with of The of P. 1. rubra and I. aquatica the1.mean The (Kalachuchi) P. rubra (KALACHUCHI) and (Kangkong) showed the showed same effect terms of I. aquatica (KANGKONG) the in same effect inhibiting clot formation the mean of in terms ofthe inhibiting the clotwith formation with 1.33. WhileofM.1.33. pudica (Makahiya) with the mean the mean While M. pudica (MAKAHIYA)

with the not mean of 2 any did not show any inhibitory of 2 did show inhibitory activity against activity against clot formation since was the clot formation since it was the same asitthe mean same as the mean of the control group based on of the control group based on Table 2.1 data. The Table resultsdo fornot clotprove formation do results2.1 fordata. clot The formation that the not prove that the plant extracts inhibit only the plant extracts inhibit only the S. aureus coagulase S. aureus coagulase production thus production observationthus onobservation turbidity on turbidity and colony count were performed to and colony count were performed to further further investigate inhibitory of the five investigate inhibitory activity activity of the five herbal herbal plant extracts. plant extracts.

Table 2.2. Turbidity Turbidity of of Five five different in in Tube Coagulase Test Table 2.2. Differentplant Plantextracts Extractsand andcontrol Controlgroup Group Tube Coagulase Test Replication

Herbal Plant Extract Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

P. P. rubra rubra (KALACHUCHI) (Kalachuchi)

Less Turbid

I.I. aquatica aquatica (KANGKONG) (Kangkong)

Less Turbid

M. M. pudica pudica (MAKAHIYA) (Makahiya)

Less Turbid

E. E. hirta hirta (GATAS-GATAS) (Gatas-Gatas)

Turbid

Turbid Less Turbid

C. (OREGANO) C. aromaticus aromaticus (Oregano) Conrol group

P. rubra (Kalachuchi), I.I. aquatica The The P. rubra (KALACHUCHI), (Kangkong) (KANGKONG)M.M.pudica pudica (Makahiya) (MAKAHIYA)and and Control group showed showed the thesame samecharacteristic characteristicin in terms terms of of turbidity which is less turbid compared to E. turbidity which is less turbid compared to E. hirta hirta (Gatas-Gatas) C. aromaticus (Oregano) (GATAS-GATAS) and and C. aromaticus (OREGANO) showed in Table 2.2. Less turbid either indicates

that the coagulase production of S. aureus was inhibited or the bacteria were killed by the presence of the herbal plant extracts. Turbid designates the presence of more bacteria in the solution and that the bacteria did not form a clot thus making the solution turbid.

Differentplant Plantextracts Extractsand andcontrol Control Group Tube Coagulase Test Table 2.3. 2.3. Colony Colony Count Count (CFU/ml) (CFU/ml) of of Five five different group in in Tube Coagulase Test Replication

Herbal Plant Extract

Treatment Total (T)

Treatment Mean (xĚ&#x2026; )

Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

14.33

I. aquatica aquatica (Kangkong) (KANGKONG)

110

132

321

107

M. pudica pudica (Makahiya) (MAKAHIYA)

129

249

E. E. hirta hirta (Gatas-Gatas) (GATAS-GATAS)

153

246

181

580

193.33

C. C. aromaticus aromaticus (Oregano) (OREGANO) Conrol group

228

298

163

689

229.67

112

123

149

384

128

P. rubra (Kalachuchi) (KALACHUCHI)

Grand Total Grand Mean

2,266 125.89

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However, the inhibitory activity against S. aureus coagulase production was further determined by the number of colony growth in MHA. The variation of results in the colony count based on Table 2.3, may due to the different components that plant extracts possesses against S. aureus.

The second part deals with determining the significant mean difference of grade level and colony count of the control group and experimental group using one-way ANOVA and DMRT.

Table 3.1. plant extracts andand control 3.1. Analysis Analysis of of Variance Variance(ANOVA) (ANOVA)ofofGrade GradeLevel LevelofofClot ClotFormation Formationofoffive Fivedifferent Different Plant Extracts group Tube Coagulase Test ControlinGroup in Tube Coagulase Test Source of Variation

Degree of Freedom

Sum of Square

Mean Square

5 12 17

3.11 1.33 4.44

0.62 0.11

Treatment Experimental Error Total

Computed F 5.64**

Tabular F 5% 1% 3.11 5.06

The computed F value is larger than the tabular F value at the 5% and 1% level of significance. This implies that the treatment difference in grade level of clot formation of five different plant extracts and control group is said to be highly significant indicated by two asterisks (**) on the computed F value in the analysis of variance. 3.2. Analysis Analysis of of Variance Variance (ANOVA) (ANOVA) ofofColony ColonyCount CountofofFive five Different different plant Table 3.2. Plant extracts Extractsand andcontrol Controlgroup GroupininTube Coagulase Test Test Tube Coagulase Source of Variation Treatment Experimental Error Total

Degree of Freedom 5 12 17

Sum of Square 89,891.78 21,448 111,339.78

Mean Square 17,978 1,787.33

Computed F 10.06**

Tabular F 5% 1% 3.11 5.06

The computed F value is larger than the tabular F value at the 5% and 1% level of significance, the treatment difference in colony count of five different plant extracts and control group is said to be highly significant indicated by two asterisks (**) on the computed F value in the analysis of variance. Table Range Test Test (DMRT) (DMRT) for for Comparing comparing Grade Level of of Clot Clot Formation Formation of of Table 3.3. 3.3. Duncan’s Duncan’s Multiple Multiple Range Grade Level five different plant extracts and control group in Tube Coagulase Test Using the Alphabet Notation Five Different Plant Extracts and Control Group in Tube Coagulase Test Using the Alphabet Notation Herbal Plant Extract

Mean

DMRT

(x̅ ) (MAKAHIYA) M. pudica (Makahiya)

Conrol group Control group

P. rubra (Kalachuchi) (KALACHUCHI)

1.33

I. I. aquatica aquatica (Kangkong) (KANGKONG)

1.33

E. E. hirta hirta (Gatas-Gatas) (GATAS-GATAS)

C. aromaticus(Oregano) (OREGANO)

a b

c d

e f

35 33

Past or il, M. F.

Any two means having a common letter are not significantly different at the 5% level of significance. The above table (Table 3.3) showed that there is no significant difference between Makahiya and Control group; Kalachuchi and Kangkong; GatasGatas and Oregano in terms of inhibiting the clot formation of S. aureus in Tube Coagulase Test. Table 3.4. 3.4. Duncan’s Duncan’sMultiple MultipleRange Range Test (DMRT) Table Test (DMRT) for Colony Count of five plant extracts and control for Colony Count of different Five Different Plant Extracts and group Tubein Tube Coagulase TestTest using ControlinGroup Coagulase Usingthe the Alphabet Alphabet Notation Notation Herbal Plant Extract

Mean (x̅ )

C. C. aromaticus aromaticus(OREGANO) (Oregano)

299.67

E. hirta (GATAS-GATAS) E. hirta (Gatas-Gatas)

193.33

Conrol Controlgroup group

128

aquatica(KANGKONG) (Kangkong) I.I. aquatica

107

M. pudica (Makahiya) M. pudica (MAKAHIYA)

P. rubra rubra (KALACHUCHI) (Kalachuchi)

14.33

DMRT a b c d e

Any two means having a common alphabet Any significantly two means different having a at common are not the 5%alphabet level of are not significantly different at the 5% level of significance. significance. The difference between the largest Rp value difference largest value (The p (TheThe Rp value at p between = 6) of the 83.34 andRthe largest R value at p=6) of 83.34 and the largest treatment p treatment mean C. aromaticus (Oregano) of mean 299.67 is 299.67299.67C. aromaticus is 299.67 (OREGANO) - 83.34 = of146.33. From the 83.34= 146.33. From the array of means obtained, array of means obtained, all treatments means, all treatments that of E.are hirtaless (GATASexcept that of means, E. hirtaexcept (GATASGATAS), than GATAS), are less than computed difference of 146.33. computed difference of 146.33. Hence, they are Hence, are declared significantly different declaredthey significantly different from C. aromaticus from C. aromaticus (OREGANO). Thethe difference (Oregano). The difference between second between the second largest treatment mean E. hirta largest treatment mean E. hirta (Gatas-Gatas) of (GATAS-GATAS) of 193.33 and the second largest 193.33 and the second largest Rp value (the Rp R value of -82.35 p value at p(the = 5)Rpofvalue 82.35atisp=5) 193.33 82.35is= 193.33110.97. 82.35=110.97. From the array of means obtained, From the array of means obtained, all treatments all treatments of Control means, except means, that of except controlthat group are lessgroup than are less than computed difference of 110.97. computed difference of 110.97. Thus theyThus are they are declared significantly from (GatasE. hirta declared significantly differentdifferent from E. hirta (GATAS-GATAS). The difference thelargest third Gatas). The difference betweenbetween the third

largest treatment meaniswhich is thegroup Control treatment mean which the control ofgroup 128 of 128 third Rplargest Rp value (theatRpp value and theand thirdthe largest value (the Rp value = 4) at 81.53 of p=4) of is 128 81.53 - 81.53 is 128-81.53= = 46.47. Because 46.47. Because the meanthe of P. rubraof(Kalachuchi) is less than 46.47, is declared mean P. rubra (KALACHUCHI) is lessitthan 46.47, significantly from the mean ofthe themean control it is declared different significantly different from of group. Thegroup. difference between between the fourth the Control The difference thelargest fourth treatment mean which is the I. aquatica largest treatment mean which is the (Kangkong) I. aquatica of 107 and theoffourth largest Rp value (the Rppvalue (KANGKONG) 107 and the fourth largest at p =R3) of 79.08 is 107-79.08 Because the (the value at p=3) of 79.08 =is 27.92 107-79.08=27.92 p mean of the P. rubra is less than 79.08, it Because mean(Kalachuchi) of P. rubra (KALACHUCHI) is less is declared significantly from the mean of than 79.08, it is declareddifferent significantly different from However the mean I. aquatica However because the, of the(Kangkong). I. aquatica (KANGKONG). However because mean ofthe P. rubra mean(Kalachuchi) of P. rubra (KALACHUCHI) is the only outside is the onlygroupings the outside the already groupings made,already P. rubra made, (Kalachuchi) P. rubra (KALACHUCHI) mean was compared mean was usingcompared the appropriate using the Rp appropriate values with the Rp values rest ofwith the the means restnamely of the control means namely group,(Kangkong) I. aquatica (KANGKONG) and group, Control I. aquatica and M. pudica M. pudica (MAKAHIYA). Of the three comparisons, (Makahiya). Of the three comparisons, the only one only oneiswhose difference is less than the whosethe difference less than the corresponding Rp corresponding Rp value that between M. pudica value is that between M. is pudica (Makahiya) and P. and- P.14.33 rubra=(KALACHUCHI) rubra (MAKAHIYA) (Kalachuchi) 83 68.67 < Rp (at p83= 14.33=68.67 < RpM. (atpudica p=2) of(Makahiya) 75.41. Thus M.P.pudica 2) of 75.41. Thus and rubra (MAKAHIYA) and P. rubra (KALACHUCHI) are (Kalachuchi) are declared not significantly different declared significantly different from each other. from eachnot other. The above table (Table 3.4) showed that there is The above table (Table 3.4) showed that there significantdifference differencebetween betweenOregano Oregano and is no no significant Gatas-Gatas; Gatas-Gatas and Control group; Gatas-Gatas; Gatas-Gatas and control group; control ControlKangkong Group, Kangkong and Makahiya; Kangkong group, and Makahiya; Kangkong and and Makahiya; Makahiya Kalachuchiininterms terms of Makahiya; Makahiya andand Kalachuchi Count. Colony Count. The last part deals with the identification of herbal plants that have inhibitory effect against S. aureus coagulase production. Table 4. Identification of Table of Herbal herbal Plants plants That that Have have Inhibitory Coagulase Production of S. Inhibitory Activity Activityagainst Against Coagulase Production of S. aureus aureus Herbal Plant Extract

Antibacterial

Anticoagulase

P. P. rubra rubra (KALACHUCHI) (Kalachuchi)

I.I. aquatica aquatica (KANGKONG) (Kangkong)

M. M. pudica pudica (MAKAHIYA) (Makahiya)

E. E. hirta hirta (GATAS-GATAS) (Gatas-Gatas)

C. (OREGANO) C. aromaticus aromaticus (Oregano)

UV Journal of Research

study, the the inhibitory inhibitory activities of In In thisthestudy, the herbal plant extractsagainst against coagulase the herbal plant extracts production aureuswere were assessed through production ininS.S.aureus TubeCoagulase CoagulaseTest Test and and MHA colony count. The Tube resulting each tubewas was measured measured and resulting clotclot in in each tube the growth growth of of colonies colonies in MHA was counted. The the results theTube TubeCoagulase CoagulaseTest Test and colony results forfor the countrevealed revealedthat that only plant extract of E. count only thethe plant extract of E. hirta hirta (Gatas-Gatas) C. aromaticus(OREGANO) (Oregano) (GATAS-GATAS) and and C. aromaticus showed showed inhibitory inhibitory activity activity against against the production of ofcoagulase coagulase in in S. aureus. Furthermore, the P. rubra (KALACHUCHI) (Kalachuchi) and andI. aquatica I. aquatica (Kangkong) (KANGKONG) plant plant extracts extracts were wereeffective effectiveinin inhibiting inhibiting the coagulase coagulase production production due duetotoits its antibacterial activity activity against against the bacteria S. S. aureus. aureus.Meanwhile, Meanwhile the the plat plat extract extract of ofM. M.pudica pudica(MAKAHIYA) (Makahiya) did not show show any any inhibitory activity against S. aureus coagulase production. VIII. CONCLUSION The results obtained from the measurement of grade level, turbidity and colony count showed that E. E. hirta hirta (GATAS-GATAS) (Gatas-Gatas) and and C. C. aromaticus (Oregano) plant extracts have inhibitory activity (OREGANO) plant extracts have inhibitory against production of coagulase in S. aureus. activity the against the production of coagulase in The inhibitory activity might due be to due the S. aureus. The inhibitory activitybemight synergistic effectseffects of itsof constituents or the to the synergistic its constituents or presence of bioactive compounds of the the presence of bioactive compounds of two the herbal plant plant extracts. The results the study do two herbal extracts. The of results of this not prove that plantthat extracts of E. hirta study do not prove plant extracts of (GatasE. hirta Gatas) and C. aromaticus (Oregano) (OREGANO) already has (GATAS-GATAS) and C. aromaticus already has therapeutic therapeutic value. The in value. vitroThe tests in conducted vitro tests conducted do not, in any do way, not, stimulate in any way, the stimulate complexitythe of complexity the human body. of theInstead, humanthese body.results Instead, warrant these results the E. warrant hirta (Gatas-Gatas) the E. hirta (GATAS-GATAS) and C. aromaticus and C. aromaticusplant (Oregano) (OREGANO) extracts plant to further extracts anti-coagulase to further anti-coagulase investigation. investigation. originality index: similarity index: paper id:

91 % 9% 470239059

Grammarly:

checked

REFERENCES Calmorin, L.P., & Calmorin, M.A. (2010). Research methods and thesis writing (2nd ed.). Manila: Rex Bookstore Inc. Genest, S., Kerr, C., Shah, A., Rahman M., Saif-E-Naser, G., Nigam, P., Nahar, L., & Sarker, S. (2008). Comparative bioactivity studies on two Mimosa species 7(1): 39-43. Joshi, B., Lekhak, S., & Sharma, A. (2009). Antibacterial property of different medicinal plants: Ocimum sanctum, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Xanthoxylum armatum and Origanum majorana. Kathmandu University Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology, 5(1), 143–150. Kardono, L., Tsauri, S., Padmawinata, K., Pezzuto, J., & Kinghorn, A. (1990). Cytotoxic constituents of the bark of Plumeria rubra collected in Indonesia. Journal of Natural Products, 53(1), 1447-1455. Larsen, H.S., Mahon, C.R., & Manuselis, G. (2006). Diagnostic microbiology (3rd ed). Saunders. Majumdar, P., Bhakta J., & Munekage, Y. (2009). Antimicrobial efficacies of methanol extract of Asteracantha longifolia, Ipomoea aquatica and Enhydra fluctuans against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus and Micrococcus luteus. The Internet Journal of Alternative Medicine, 7(2), 15402584. Nostro, A., Roccaro, A., Bisignano, G., Marino, A.,Cannatelli, M., Pizzimenti, F., Cioni, P., Procopio, F., & Blanco, A. (2007). Effects of oregano, carvacrol and thymol on Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilms. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 56(1), 519– 523. Ogueke, C., Ogbulie, J., Okoli, I., & Anyanwu, B. (2007). Antibacterial activities and toxicological potentials of crude ethanolic extracts of Euphorbia hirta. Journal of American Science, 3(3), 11-16. Saeed, S., & Tariq, P. (2005). Antibacterial activities of Mentha piperita, Pisum sativum and Momordica charantia. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 37(4), 997-1001. Stoppler, M.C. (2009). Staphylococcus infection article. Disease and Condition. Available from: http:// www.medicinenet.com/staph_infection/article. htm Todar, K. (2004). Todar’s Online Textbook of Bacteriology: The Good, the bad, and the deadly. SCIENCE Magazine, 304:1421.

UV Journal of Research 2014

Inhibitory activity of Sandoricum koetjape Merr. (santol) (Santol) leaf extract to Blood Type O fibrin formation Sergio Jabel II Maria Feibe Pastoril Josephine Fe Sheryll Sacramento College of Pharmacy University of the Visayas mafei_pinkgirl@yahoo.com Date submitted: April 11, 2014

Date of acceptance: June 30, 2014

ABSTRACT The the inhibitory activitythe of Sandoricum koetjapeof Merr. leaf extract Thisstudy studyevaluated was conducted to evaluate inhibitory activity Sandoricum to blood type fibrin formation, in which (positive), where negativewarfarin control koetjape Merr.Oleaf extract to blood type Owarfarin fibrin formation, and (positive), different negative extractcontrol concentrations and different (50 %, extract 75 %concentrations and 100 % respectively) (50%, 75%were and compared. The computed F-value for the treatment 238 with of 100%) were compared. The computed F-value for thewas treatment wasdegrees 238 with freedom 2.7. For replication, the computed F-value obtained 3 withwas df of degrees of freedom 2.7. For replication, the computed F-valuewas obtained 3 2.7. former was at 0.5 and 0.1 of probability and 0.1 the withThe degrees of F-value freedom 2.7.significant The former F-value waslevel significant at 0.5 and latter, level of was probability not significant. and the Results latter,showed was not that significant. 100 % concentration Results showed has the thathighest 100% time concentration of coagulation has the andhighest replication time was of coagulation almost the same. but replication was almost the same. Keywords: inhibitory activity; fibrin formation; coagulation; anticoagulant I. INTRODUCTION Coagulation is the process by which blood forms clots (Finkel, Clark & Cubeddu, 2009). It is an important part of hemostasis the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel, wherein a damaged blood vessel wall is covered by a platelet and fibrin-containing clot to stop bleeding and begin repair of the damaged vessel. Disorders of coagulation can lead to an increased risk of bleeding or obstructive clotting. Coagulation begins almost instantly after an injury to the blood vessel has damaged the endothelium lining of the vessel. Cardiovascular disorders such as hypertension and thrombosis are wellknown in adults including arteriosclerosis and congestive heart failure which is caused by problem in blood circulatory system as blood clotting disorders constitute a serious medical problem. Warfarin and heparin and an

antiplatelet Warfarin andagent heparin suchand as also aspirin an antiplatelet are used in disorders of coagulation (Zehnder, 2012; Martin, 2009). Blood-clot strokes can also happen as the result of unhealthy blood vessels clogged with a build up of fatty deposits and cholesterol. The human body regards these buildups as multiple, tiny and repeated injuries to the blood vessel wall. So the body would react to these injuries, if you were bleeding from a wound. This responds by forming clots. According to the 2012 morbidity and mortality chart book on cardiovascular, lung, and blood diseases, stroke ranked seventh for those people aging from 45-64 years and fourth on those aged 65 years and older in 2008. Heart disease was the third leading cause of death for those ages ranging from 25 to 44 years, second, for those ages ranging from 45 to 64 years, and first, for those ages ranging 65 years and older. Based

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on the chart and 2-15 the and chart2-15 bookofheart older. Based2-14 on the chartof 2-14 the disease, stroke and chronic lower respiratory chart book heart disease, stroke and chronic disease were the second, third, and sixth leading lower respiratory disease were the second, causes of death Asian males and of heart disease third, and sixthofleading causes death of and the second leading Asianstroke maleswere and heart diseaseand andthird stroke were cause of death Asian females. an in the second andamong thirdthe leading cause ofIndeath vitro the anticoagulant activity some to thestudy Asianoffemales. In a in vitro studyofof the plant extractsactivity that the of dietary anticoagulant of consumption some plant extracts that anticoagulants contain blood thinning the consumptionwhich of dietary anticoagulants that activity can ultimately reduce or eliminate the contain blood thinning activity can ultimately risk of thromboembolic (Al-saadi, 2013). reduce or eliminate thediseases risk of thromboembolic The study(Al-saadi, justifies 2013). that there traditional diseases This are study justifies or that can the riskthat of thatplant thereextracts are traditional or lower plant extracts thromboembolic disease (Kumar, Joseph, George can lower the risk of thromboembolic disease & Sharma, 2011).George, & Sharma, 2011). (Kumar, Joseph, Santol is credited for its numerous folkloric uses which are still still used. used. Fresh Freshleaves leaves applied applied to to the skin are sudorific, and used by the the skin are sudorific, and used by the Ifugaos for Ifugaos diarrhea.or Decoction infusion diarrhea.for Decoction infusion of or leaves used of used for baths to reduce fever. It is forleaves baths to reduce fever. Also, used for diarrhea also, used for diarrhea and as Bark a tonic after and as a tonic after childbirth. poultice childbirth. Bark poultice used for ringworm. used for ringworm. Bitter roots, bruised with Bitter bruisediswith vinegar and water, is vinegarroots, and water, a carminative; used for adiarrhea carminative; used for diarrhea dysentery. and dysentery. Poundedand barks applied Pounded barks applied ringworm. Leaves to ringworm. Leaves usedto for skin infections used for skin infections and rashes. Roots used and rashes. Roots used as tonic (Godofredo as tonic (Godofredo 2013). 2013). In everyday life, blood clotting is beneficial. Anticoagulants which are also called blood thinners work workbyby interrupting interrupting part part of theof process the process involved involved in the formation in the formation of blood clots. of blood This clots. This means thatmeans bloodthat clotsblood are clots less likely are less to likely form to form when they where are not they needed, are not but needed, can stillbut form canwhen still formare. they when Anticoagulants they are. Anticoagulants increase the increase time it takes the timeblood the it takes to clot the thereby blood topreventing clot thereby harmful preventing clots harmful from forming clots from and blocking forming blood and blocking flow, yet, blood can flow, yet,existing prevent can prevent clots existing from getting clots bigger. from getting When you are bleeding wound, blood work bigger.When youfrom are ableeding from clots a wound, to slowclots and work eventually stop theeventually bleeding. Instop the blood to slow and case of stroke, however, bloodofclots are dangerous the bleeding. In the case stroke, however, because theyare can dangerous block arteries and cutthey off blood blood clots because can block aarteries flow, process andcalled cut offischemia. blood flow, An aischemic process called ischemia. stroke can occur An in two ischemic ways: stroke (a)embolic; can occur and (b) in two ways: strokes. thrombotic embolic and thrombotic strokes.

The study, This study,through throughthethe wonder wonder of santol of santol may may in help in coming with an option for help coming up with up an option for combatting combatting disorders coagulationspecially disorders specially to coagulation to adults who adultssuffer whoand may die due The to may die suffer due to and complication. complication. The introduce study canalikewise study can likewise cheaper introduce and more a cheaper anticoagulant and more accessible accessible alternativeanticoagulant as the plant alternative as the plant is locally found. is locally found. II. OBJECTIVES The purpose of the study is to determine the inhibitory activity of Sandoricum koetjape Merr. (santol) leaf extract to blood type O fibrin formation. Specifically, the study aimed to: 1. Determine Determine the of onset (i.e. the onset actionof(i.e.action coagulation coagulation time)extract of thein plant in time) of the plant terms extract of: terms 1.1 of: 50% concentration 1.1 concentration, 1.2 50 75%%concentration 1.2 75 % concentration, and 1.3 100% concentration 1.3 100the % concentration; 2. Determine clotting activity of the blood 2. plasma Determine clotting activity the afterthe administration of plantof extract blood clot plasma after administration of plant using test score. extract usingthe clot test score; andeffect 3. Compare inhibitory of 3. Sandoricum Compare thekoetjape inhibitory effect of Sandoricum leaf extract to that of koetjape(positive leaf extract to that of Aspirin Aspirin control). (positive control). III. MATERIALS AND METHODS Collection and Preparation of Plant Sample. The leaves of Sandoricum koetjape Merr. was collected in Gullas Medical Hospital at the College of Medicine in Barangay Banilad, Mandaue city. It was authenticated by the Department of Agriculture. Preparation of Leaves Extract. Extract. The collected materials materials were was washed washed with with water and dried on a shade. shade. The The dried dried leaves leaves were were crushed crushed into powders and subjected to maceration for three days with methanol and occasionally shake. The marc is is decanted decanted to to separate separate extract.. extract Then methanol was evaporated through evaporating dish in a controlled temperature of heat. Preparation of Experimental Blood. Three blood samples for blood type â&#x20AC;&#x153;Oâ&#x20AC;?

Jabel II, S., Pastoril, M. F., Fe, J. and Sacramento, S.

taken from to selected were taken selectedstudents studentsofofCollege College of of Pharmacy Pharmacy with with healthy healthy condition condition by using by sterile using sterile syringes, withdrawn from vein arm of right syringes, withdrawn from vein of right and arm and placed inseparately in containing a containers placed separately a container tricontaining tri-sodium citrate to prevent the sodium citrate to prevent the clotting process. clotting process. taken 9ml Each person was Each taken person 9 ml ofwas blood through of blood through Gullas MedicalThe Hospital Gullas Medical Hospital Laboratory. blood Laboratory. bloods then were centrifuged samples thenThe were centrifuged for 15 minutes forrate 15 minutes ratetoof separate 3000 rpmblood to separate at of 3000 at rpm cells bloodplasma cells from order topure obtain pure from in plasma order toin obtain platelet plateletfor plasma for prothrombin test. The plasma prothrombin time test.time The obtained obtained plasmaof samples of eachwere individual plasma samples each individual poured were poured separately in plane separately in plane containers usingcontainers syringes using syringes ant stored at room temperature. and stored at room temperature. Collection of of blood blood and Plasma reCollection calcification. 0.2 0.2 ml ml plasma, plasma, 0.1 0.1 ml ml of crude calcification. extract of of different different concentration concentration and and different different extract volume of of CaCl CaCl2 (25 ml) mM)were werefused fused together volume (25 2 in inaaplain plaincapillary capillarytube. tube.For For control control experiment experiment extract extract solution solution was wasreplaced replacedbyby same volume of % saline saline water. water. The clotting time was of 0.9 0.9% recorded with stopwatch capillary recorded with stopwatch by tilting the capillary tube 5 seconds. is called tube after everyevery 5 seconds. This This timetime is called the the prothrombin time. prothrombin time. Clot Test Score. The tests were scored as (4+) where the fibrin clot fills the complete volume, (3+) where the clot fills more than half but less than the total volume, (2+) where the clot fills less than half the total volume, and (1+) where there is a little disorganized clot formation; (negative) no clot observed but little amorphous deposit might be seen. All of the tests were carried out in duplication. Collection of Crude Extract by Maceration. Figure 1.1 Preparation of test plant by maceration, starting point is collection of leaves and dried under shade at room temperature and when all the leaves are dried 60gg submerged then it is powdered and weighed 60 submerged to 150 ml of methanol and macerated for three days, to make the leaves exhausted it is covered and occasionally shaked. After three days, the mixture was allowed to evaporate over an evaporating dish. The methanol evaporated

0 stored 20crude C until used.of the leaves. Dried and leftatthe extract extract Research was stored Flow. at 20 To0Cenable until used. us to start with the Research experimentFlow. proper, the collection of fresh To enable us to start with leaves and collection samples was the experiment proper, of theblood collection of fresh one ofand the collection things thatof are being considered. leaves blood samples were First, being the considered. collection First, and washing of fresh were fresh leaves were leaves, then right after was the of it collected, washed and then allowed to drying dry under under-shade, when theleaves leaveswere weredried, dried itit was the shade. When the then powdered and macerated methanol powdered and macerated with with methanol for for three occasional shaking of three days days with with occasional shaking of the the container. the solution must be container. Then, Then, the solutions were separated separated from the leaves; powdered leaves; muslin from the powdered muslin cloth was cloth was used togettotally get the extractives. used to totally the extractives. The The extractives subjectedtoto evaporation extractives were aresubjected to get get the the solid solid crude crudeextract. extract.Second, Second,blood the to collection of blood sample, prior to thatstudents was the sample were collected from healthy selection healthyThe student whowere bearsextracted a type O with type of O blood. blood blood. The blood was extracted by a registered by a registered medical technologist in the medical technologist in the the hospital laboratory hospital laboratory where centrifugation where centrifugation of thealso blooddone. sample is of the the blood sample was The also done. Theofcentrifugation sample centrifugation blood sampleofisblood one way to is one way to separate from the separate the plasma from the the plasma blood; the plasma blood; the plasma is placed in otherLastly, container. was placed in another container. the Lastly, was ofthe the experiment conduction theconduction experimentofproper was done proper after thebut preparation prior to itofwas thethe crude preparation extract with of the crudeconcentrations. different extract of different The control concentrations. groups For the controlling consists of the positive groupsand which negative consists controls. of the For the 100 %, 0.2 ml of plasma the was conduction added with positive and negative controls is separated 0.1ml of plant from extract the experimental and 0.3 ml groups. of calcium For the 100%,For chloride. plasma the 50 is 0.2mL %, 0.2added ml of with plasma 0.1mL was of plant with added extract0.1 and ml 0.3mL of plant ofextract calciumand chloride, 0.1 ml 50% of calcium has 0.2mL chloride, of plasma and foradded the with 75 %, 0.1mL 0.2 of plant ml of plasma extract was and added 0.1mL with of calcium 0.1 ml ofchloride, extract formlthe is 0.2mL added and 0.2 of 75%, calciumplasma chloride. As observed, with calcium 0.1mL ofchloride extract has and a 0.2mL of calcium the different volume chloride. As observed, calcium chloride in every different level ofthe concentrations. After has administration different volume different level of the of in theevery extract to plasma, it 0 concentrations. After the administration the was incubated in a water bath with 37 of C and extract toevery checked plasma single it was time.incubated For the said in apositive water control using warfarin a 0.2 ml of plasma was added with 0.1 ml of warfarin 5 mg and 0.3 ml of calcium chloride and instead of incubation it was tilted every 5 seconds.

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Figure 1. Preparation of Test Plant by Maceration

Jabel II, S., Pastoril, M. F., Fe, J. and Sacramento, S.

Figure 2. Research Flow Chart

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IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The experiment conducted for one week. experimentwas was then conducted for After three daysthree of maceration and occasionally 1 week. After days of maceration and shaking to exhaust the leaves occasionally shakingthe to constituents exhaust the of constituents then in evaporated a evaporating to let the of theevaporated leaves then in dish a evaporating methanol the total yield collected of dish to letevaporates, the methanol evaporates, the total crude extract out 60 grams powdered leaves yield collected of of crude extractofout of 60 grams is grams. leaves The yield was then divided into three of 6.66 powdered is 6.66 grams. The yield was sets concentration containing grams of the then ofdivided into three sets of2.2concentration yield crude extract: (a) the 100yield % then had an equal containing 2.2 grams of the crude extract. amount of2.2grams, 75 % had 2.2 grams crude The 100% then had (b) an equal amount of 2.2ofgrams, extract the2.2 diluted toof 0.7 ml ofextract water; and ( c) 50 % 75% had grams crude the diluted to had then grams of 50% crudehad extract also 0.7mL of2.2 water, and then 2.2diluted gramstoofa different volume of diluted 2mL. Into every concentration and crude extract also a different volume of trial, wereconcentration incubated to 370 in a water bath 2mL.they In every andÂ°Ctrials they were and checked minutes incubated toafter 370Cevery in a30 water bathand andrecorded checks for any30 changes. every minutes and recorded for any changes. Table 4.1 Determination of baseline coagulation time using saline solution for the control of plasma. Test Test Negative Negative control control

Plasma Plasma (ml) (mL) 0.2 0.2

Coagulation 0.9 % Calcium Calcium Coagulation 0.9% Saline chloride Chloride times Saline Time (ml) (ml) (minutes) (mL) (mL) (Minutes) 0.1 0.1

0.3 0.3

1.0 1.0

The above table serves servedas asthe thebaseline baseline value value of the blood plasma. This is the basis of the thinning time of blood after the administration of crude extract. As shown, the coagulation time of was plasma before beforeadministration administrationofofplant plantextract extract is one minute. Table 4.2 Determination of coagulation time using warfarin 55mg mgto toaablood bloodtype typeO. O. Test Test Positive Positive control

control

Plasma Warfarin Warfarin Calcium Calcium 5 mg Chloride 5mg chloride (mL) (mL) (ml) (ml)

Plasma (ml) (mL)

0.2

0.1

0.3 0.3

Coagulation Coagulation times Time (Minutes) (minutes)

Table 4.3 Determination of coagulation time using methanol extract for 100 % concentration concentration of of crude extract 100% to the plasma of type O blood to the plasma of type O blood 100 % Crude ExtractConcentration Concentration 100% Crude Extract Plasma

Coagulation

Coagulation times Time (minutes) 4.35 4. 35 min 4.14 4.14 min 4.26 4.26 min

This table shows that at 100 % concentration concentration 100% the blood blood coagulation coagulationwere is 4.35 4.35 minutes, minutes, 4.14 minutes , and and 4.6 4.6 minutes minutes which which suggest that minutes, after the administration of crude extract until the time it coagulates coagulates there therewere was thinning formation which could be comparable to the time results of warfarin. Table 4.4 Determination of coagulation time using methanol % concentration concentration of of crude methanol extract extract for for 75 75% crude extract extract to to the plasma of type O blood. the plasma of type O blood. 75 % Crude ExtractConcentration Concentration 75% Crude Extract Trials Trials

Plasma

0.2 0.2

0.2

22 3

Extract Calcium Calcium Chloride Chloride mL (ml) 0.3 0.10.1 0.3 0.3 0.10.1 0.3 0.1 0.3

Plasma (ml) Extract (ml) mL mL

0.2 0.2 0.2

0.1

0.3

Coagulation Coagulation times Time (Minutes) (minutes) 1.81.8 min 2.02.0 min

1.9

1.9 min

This table shows shows that that at at 75% 75% crude extract concentration the the blood bloodcoagulation coagulationwere is 1.8 minutes, 2 minutes, and 1.9 minutes which suggest that after the administration of crude untilthe thetime time that it coagulates extract until that it coagulates therethere was were thinning formation but as compared it thinning formation but as compared to the 100has % less time of coagulation. concentration, it has less time of coagulation. Table 4.5 4.5Determination Determination of coagulation of coagulation time using time using methanol extract % concentration extract for for50 50% concentrationofofcrude crudeextract extract of of aa blood blood type type O. O.

4.1

4.1 min

The above table table serves serves as asthe thebaseline baseline value value for the positive control using commercialized warfarin. As shown, the coagulation time of plasma after after administration administrationofofwarfarin warfarinwas is four minutes and one second.

Extract Calcium Calcium Chloride Chloride (ml) mL 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3

Trials Plasma (ml) Extract (ml) Trials mL mL 11 0.2 0.2 0.10.1 2 0.2 2 0.2 0.10.1 3 0.2 3 0.2 0.10.1

50 % Crude ExtractConcentration Concentration 50% Crude Extract Plasma

Trials Trials 1 2 23 1 3

0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

Extract Calcium Calcium Chloride Chloride (ml) mL 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.10.1 0.1 0.3

0.2

0.1

Plasma (ml) Extract (ml) mL mL 0.2

0.1

Coagulation Coagulation times Time (minutes) (Minutes) 1.2 1.2 min 1.15

1.15 min 1.23 1.23 min

Jabel II, S., Pastoril, M. F., Fe, J. and Sacramento, S.

The point of of The above above table tableshows showsthat thatatatthis this point concentrationthe thecoagulation coagulation was concentration time wasatat1.2, 1.2, 1.15, 1.15, and 1.23 minutes. This values was comparable and 1.23 minutes. These values were comparable with the negative negativecontrol controland andsuggested suggests that with the that there there was no thinning formation occurred. was no thinning formation occurred. Graph 4.1 Thinning time formations of experimental and controlling groups control groups

Table 4.6 4.6 Results Results of of Multivariate Multivariate Analysis Analysis plasma plasma to to Table concentrations of 100%, 75%, and%,50% crude different crude extract concentrations of 100 75 %, and 50 extract % inconcentration three trials. in three trials. Crude Extract Concentrations Crude Extract Concentrations 100 % 100% 75 % 75% 50 % Total 50%

Trial 1 (minutes) Trial 1 (Minutes) 4.35 4.35 1.8 1.8 1.2 7.35 1.2

Trial 2 (minutes) Trial 2 (Minutes) 4.14 4.14 2.0 2.0 1.15 7.29 1.15

Trial 3 (minutes) Trial 3 (Minutes) 4.26 4.26 1.9 1.9 1.23 7.39 1.23

Coagulation Coagulation time time (minutes) (Minutes) 12.75 12.75 5.7 5.7 3.58 22 3.58

Total

7.35

7.29

7.39

The above table shows the totalvalue forevery trial which then used in solving F-test or two-way analysis of variance. As shown, the obvious highest time value was 100 % concentration which then 100% suggests that at this point of concentration there is a probable blood thinning. Table 4.7 Degree of Freedom with Critical Values of 5% 5% above and 1 % below. above and 1% below. df denominator 7 7

By looking lookingalso alsoat at graph (graph thethe graph (graph 4.1) it4.1) it showed showed a visual a visual representation representation of all the ofdifferent all the concentration trial results compared with the different nconcentration trial results compared positive control control and negative control. It then with the positive and negative control. It directly showed thatthat thelonger longertime time duration then directly show duration of of coagulation was in in 100% coagulation was observed 100 %crude crude extract concentration which has almost the same value with the positive control.

2 9.58 9.58

Numerator

22 4.75 4.74 4.74 4.75

Above Above is ais.05 a .05 level level andand below, below .01islevel. .01 level. The computed F-value obtained forfor replication is 3. The computed F-value obtained replication is The tabular F(2,7) = 9.58 at .05 level 3. The tabular F (2,7) = 9.58 at .05 α and 4.74 at .01. .01 α. Hence, Hence, the the replication replication is is insignificant. insignificant. This means replication replication does doesnot notdiffer differfrom witheach other other.. means For treatment, the computed F-value obtained 238 and thethe tabular F(2,7)= 9.58 at9.58 .05 obtainedisis 238 and tabular F (2,7)= level 4.744.74 at .01 probability, thus the at .05and α and at level .01 α,ofthus the treatment is

Table 4.8 F-test o ANOVA on the Inhibitory of Sandoricum Merr. (santol) Leaf to Table ANOVA Table onTable the inhibitory activity Activity of Sandoricum koetjapekoetjape Merr. (santol) leaf extract blood O on fibrin three different concentration and three replications. Extracttype to Blood type Oformation on FibrininFormation in three different concentration and three replications.

Source of Variance Tials Treatment Error Total

2 2 7 11

0.15 15.5 0.035 16.3

0.075 7.75 0.05 5.096

Observed F 1.5 3.73.83

Tabular F 1% 9.58 9.58

Interpretation insignificant significant

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significant. means This the treatment different treatment isThis significant. means theof treatment of different concentration concentration of crude extract of crude such extract as 100such %, as 100%, and 50%differ reallywith differs each 75 %, and75%, 50 % really onewith another other because the of time of % 100% crude extract is because the time 100 crude extract is the the highest of blood thinning. highest timetime of blood thinning. The computed F-value for treatment is 373.83 with degrees df of 2.7.ofFor replication, the computedthe Ffreedom 2,7. For replication, value obtained is 1.5 with dfisof1.5 2.7.with Thedegrees former of Fcomputed F-value obtained freedom value is significant 2,7. The former at 0.5F-value α andis0.1 significant α and the at latter, significant. This means that not the 0.5 andnot 0.1 levels of probability and the latter, significant.ofThis treatment different meanscrude the treatment extract concentration of different crude administration upon extract concentration to the upon bloodadministration plasma really to the blood differs. Since plasma these are really the statistical differ. Since results, these the are the hypothesis null statistical results, was thenthe accepted. null hypothesis was then accepted. V. Findings and Conclusions V. Summary of Findings and Conclusions Thepurposeofthestudywastodeterminethe anti-coagulant The purpose activity of the of study Sandoricum was to determine koetjape the anti-coagulant activity of Sandoricum koetjape Merr. leaves extract on type O blood plasma. We Merr.specific leaves extract O bloodthe plasma and had aims toon (1)type determine thinning had a specific aims toin(1)minutes determine thinning formation of blood in the relation to formation of blood mean in minutes relation the (1.1) baseline value ofinblood type to O the (1.1) baseline meanthe value of blood: time type of O which table 4.1 shows coagulation which then in table 4.1 shows coagulation plasma without the induction of the plant extract is timeminute of plasma without thethat induction of plant one which indicates anticoagulation extract is one minute indicates there or blood thinning didwhich not occur. On that the onter is no anticoagulation or blood thinning occurred. hand, (1.2) experimental group (1.2.1) blood (1.2)Oexperimental blood type O type with 100 % ofgroup crude (1.2.1) extract concentration with a100% of crude extract concentration had constant time of blood coagulationthat in there of was a constant blood coagulation total 12.75 minutes.time Thisofsuggests that after at a induction total timeofofcrude 12.75extract minutes which the until the suggest time it that after the induction of crude extract until coagulated there is a thinning formation whichthe is time it compared coagulatedtothere is a thinning higher the time results offormation warfarin, which higher extract compared to the timewith results of 75 % crude concentration total warfarin, 75%minutes. crude extract concentration time of 5.7 This also indicates with that total time the of 5.7inductions minutes which indicate also that between of crude extract and between the inductions extract the coagulation time ofofthecrude plasma there until was to the coagulation of the plasma there was actually occurence time of thinning formation, and actually formation occurred, and at 50% at 50 %thinning crude extract concentration which has crude extracttime concentration which has the lowest the lowest among other concentration timecoagulate. among other concentration to This indicates that to thecoagulate, thinning this indicates thinning at a formation at athat totalthe time of 3.58 formation minutes when totalconcentration time of 3.58 is where the concentration is the low compared to 100 % low 75 compared 100%concentration. and 75% crude extract and % crudeto extract concentration.

In comparing the viscosity of the blood blood plasma after administration administration of of plant plant extract, extract The viscosity between plasma of type the betweenthe theblood blood plasma of O bloodtype andOwarfarin containing plasma was blood and warfarin containing plasma based under researcher’s was based under researchers’observation, observation,where when blood plasma containing containing warfarin warfarin was more viscous than to plasma with crude extract. In the two controls graph 4.1 4.1 where the two controls wereis compared, the time interval shows that warfarin warfarin based on observation was wasrapidly rapid acting actingwith withshort short duration of time because coagulation was observed for at least four minutes. minutes This compare is compared to the other to the control other which has control which 0.9%has saline 0.9 % as saline negative as negative control solution control with onewith solution minute. one minute. Therefore at Therefore, at the the baseline mean of blood plasma indicates the level of control for the preceding experiments where the time of was one 1 minute coagulation was minute.so, So,ifif the the preceding experiment exceeds the time of control then there thinning activity activity of ofblood bloodplasma. plasma.Thus, For the is a thinning positive control using commercialized warfarin positive warfarin which therefore at gave a positivity gave a positivity four minutes. at 4 minutes. crude extract concentration Among the thethree three crude extracts, 100 % where 100% has the highest probability of concentration anticoagulation Therefore, anticoagulation. therefore could it could bebeused usedas as an anticoagulant. The treatment concludes that the study was significant though, the results shown in could bebe due to the replication replication was werenot notsignificant significant could due human error. to human error. originality index: similarity index: paper id: Grammarly:

91 % 9% 470238114 checked

REFERENCES Al-Saadi, NH.M. (2013). In vitro study of the anticoagulant activity of some plant extracts. Indian Journal of Applied Research, 3(7), 120-121. Finkel, R., Clark, M.A., & Cubeddu, L.X. (2009). Blood coagulation. Lippincott’s Illustrated Reviews: Pharmacology. Kumar, S., Joseph, L., George, M., & Sharma, A. (2011). A review on anticoagulant/antithrombotic activity of natural plants used in traditional medicine.

Jabel II, S., Pastoril, M. F., Fe, J. and Sacramento, S.

School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 8(1), 1-10. Martin, J.H. (2009). Pharmacogenetics of Warfarin: Is testing clinically indicated? Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, 32(3), 76-80. Zehnder, J.L. (2012). Warfarin and other Coumarin anticoagulants. Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 12(1), 608-609.

UV Journal of Research 2014

Development of choice preference theory in research Brian A. Vasquez Center for Research and Development University of the Visayas brianquez@gmail.com Date submitted: January 23, 2014

Date accepted: June 30, 2014

Republished from: Vasquez, B.A. (2014). Choice preference theory in research. Journal of Institutional Research in South East Asia, 12(1), 38-61.

ABSTRACT The This theoretical theoreticalarticle articleatlases atlasesthe thetheory theoryofofchoice choicepreference preferenceininresearch. research.This Thiswas is initially induced from frommy myexperiences experiencesand andsupplemented supplementedwith: with:(1) (1) confessions from confession of other other researchers; and (2) available relatedliterature. Classicaland andpragmatic pragmaticgrounded grounded researchers; and (2) available literature. I exploited classical theory (GT) that was is exploited modified to suit thestudy. need of thetype study. This of GT modifiedand to suit the need of the This of GT is type coined as is coined as “experience-based theory building”. Initially inductive, it(1) amalgamated: “experience-based theory building”. Initially inductive, it amalgamated: deduction; (1) and (3) retroduction. It obtained: Level I basic (2) deduction; abduction; (2) andabduction; (3) retroduction. It obtained: (1) 13 Level(1)I 13 basic concepts: concepts: monetary, time, formal education, non-formal training, informal learning monetary, time, formal education, non-formal training, informal learning experience, experience, to alternative forms ofno research, no to exposure to the alternative exposure toexposure alternative form of research, exposure the alternative form of forms of acceptance, research, acceptance, respect, disrespect, denial, open system; and close research, respect, disrespect, denial, open and close (2)system; 7 Level(2) II 7 Level II subcategories or constructs: personal, socio-cultural, educational, subcategories or constructs: personal, socio-cultural, economic,economic, educational, learning learning continuum of exposure to the alternative of research tradition, exposure,exposure, continuum of exposure to the alternative form of form research tradition, action action and acceptance (3) 5IIILevel III theoretical categories: philosophical and acceptance system;system; and (3)and 5 Level theoretical categories: philosophical stance, stance, influences, research and tradition and Choice judgment. Choice influences, exposure,exposure, preferredpreferred research tradition judgment. preference preference wasasidentified the core category thatthe interlaced different categories, theoretical was identified the core as category that interlaced differentthe theoretical categories, constructs and basic concepts. Choiceispreference is anprocess individual process constructs and basic concepts. Choice preference an individual and cannot and cannot be imposed. The interaction between the acceptance andcurbs exposure be imposed. The interaction between the acceptance system andsystem exposure the curbs the actions: (1) respect; (2) acceptance; and (4) This disrespect. They are actions: (1) respect; (2) acceptance; (3) denial; (3) anddenial; (4) disrespect. is categorically categorically interpreted as: (1) true wisdom; (3) (2) ignorance; informed; and (3) ignorance; (4) interpreted as: (1) true wisdom; (2) informed; (4) elitism.and Choice elitism. Choice preference engages with the: (1) expenditure to the preferred form; preference engages with the: (1) expenditure to the preferred form; and (2) judgment and (2) judgmentform. to the alternative form. of This is theexposure, synergy of learning exposure, to the alternative This is the synergy learning spelled in its formal, spelled its formal, form, informal non-formalstance form, that and is philosophical that informalout andinnon-formal andand philosophical shaped withstance personal, is shaped by personal, economic, educational and socio-cultural influences. economic, educational and socio-cultural influences. Keywords: choice preference, experience-induced, grounded theory, research I. INTRODUCTION The choice This theoretical theoretical article article enunciates enunciates choice preference theory was was preference theory theory in in research. research. This This theory induced from the: (1) researcher’s experience induced from the: (1) researcher’s experience as qualitative researcher being challenged challenged by by as aa qualitative researcher being quantitative practitioners; (2) available related quantitative practitioners; (2) available literature

literature the debate between andwithin within regardingregarding the debate between and research traditions; and (3) experiences and insights of other practitioners. This theory is an attempt to put the quantitative-qualitative divide in academia to an end. Though argumentation helped in the development of both disciplines,

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it also also crops crops deleterious deleteriousoutcomes. outcomes. This This aim aims to this curtail this circumstance the to curtail circumstance with the with foresight foresight of budding knowledge uncompromised of budding knowledge uncompromised with with unwarranted confinements. hoped that unwarranted confinements. It It is ishoped knowledge, theory and technology building will no longer be boxed-in unnecessarily. The division between and and within within research divide between paradigm/tradition had has been observed since time immemorial. The hype of the quantitativequalitative debate is centered in the diversity in philosophy and methodology (Reichardt & Cook, 1979; Bryman, 1984; Krantz, 1995; Steckler, McLeroy, Goodman, Bird & McCormick, 1992) and the discordancy in both paradigms (Gelo, Braackmann & Beneka, 2008; Rosenberg, 1988; Noblit & Hare, 1988; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Each paradigm/tradition claim superiority over the other compromising utilization of outputs. This had caused confusion onon the caused confusion thepart part of of novice researchers and consumers. Though some would resort to a more pragmatic locus (Gelo, Braakmann & Benetka, 2008; Tasharkkori & Teddlie, 1998), others still sustain the dogma of its pure nature. This debate is also observed within a specific research tradition. Glaser together with Strauss discovered grounded theory methodology (1967/2006). They both diverge after disagreeing

in some procedural stances (Strauss & Corbin, Corbin, 1990; Glaser, Glaser, 1992). This This also also happens happenedwith to Wacquant (2002), Anderson (2002), and Duneier (1999) with their opinions in the use of aa priori, posteriori or or aa combination combination of of both. both. posteriori Currently, no no theory theory is fashioned to describe, Currently, predict and control this circumstance in research. Though pragmatic approaches approaches are are available, available, others still do not subscribe to this idea. The reason may lie behind the failure failure to understand the dynamics, process and meaning of each position. This paper may be able to bridge the gap hoping to limit, ifif not not stop, stop, this this unfavorable unfavorable circumstance. II. DOMAIN OF INQUIRY purpose of of the this study study isis to to develop The purpose a substantive theory grounded from the: (1) challenges I experienced as a qualitative (a) (2) researcher from quantitative adjudicators; (b) quantitative-qualitative debate; and (3) (c) debate within specific specific research researchtraditions. tradition. Furthermore, attemptedtoto transcend substantive theory it attempts transcend thethe substantive theory to formal theory. theory. toormal III. METHOD This utilized Experience-induced Grounded

Table1.1.Sampling SamplingFrame frame Table Source Personal Experience n=1

Unit sampled

• Incidents

Sampling Design design

• Autosampling (purposive)

Remarks or Sampling sampling Frame frame

• Commencing point only • To draw initial concepts with or without properties

• To draw more concepts or develop Interviews or Brain Storming Activity n=6

Literature n = 231 • Books • Journal Articles

• Incidents • Philosophical

Assumptions of Researchers

properties of the identified concepts

• Theoretical Sampling

• Criteria based from previous conceptualization

• Informants must have experienced or

observed the philosophical debates between or within research paradigms

• To draw more concepts or develop • Incidents or cases • Philosophical Arguments

• Theoretical Sampling

properties of the identified concepts

• Criteria based from previous conceptualization

• Cases or philosophical debates between and/or within research paradigms

Vasquez, B. A.

Specifically, this Theory as asaaresearch researchtradition. tradition. Specifically, this off-shoot is an off shoot of classical (Glaser & Strauss, 1967/2006) and pragmatic (Charmaz, 2006) Grounded Theory (GT). What makes this method novel is that it commenced commences from the researcher’s starting point. point. Initially, experience as aa starting Initially, one would think that it is not GT but a specialized form of of autoethnography. autoethnography. However, However, this this does deviate from from the the principle principleofof classical classical GT. not deviate GT. The autoethnographic feature of this research provides descriptive data for abstracting a theory. The autoethnographic part is only a portion of what I coin as “Experience-induced “Experience-induced GT”. GT”. The (1) is is not not yet GT GT but a means descriptive portion: portion (a) of organizing data for for initial initial GT GT analysis; analysis and (2) (b) can be reported reported separately separately as autoethnography autoethnography.. The actual GT is when the descriptions of the is reanalyzed autoethnography are reanalyzedininaaGT GTprocess. process. Sampling. The challenges I encountered The challenges as a qualitative researcher with quantitative researchers were culled purposively as a Theoretical samplingsampling allowed commencing point. point. Theoretical me to engage in: (1) informal interviews with allowed me to engage in: (a) informal interviews individuals who who had had similar experience and with individuals similar experience deviant viewpoints with mine; and deviant viewpoints; and and (b) (2) in culling secondary data from books and articles regarding quantitative-qualitative debate, debate, andas debates as well research traditions. within specific research “Retroductive data analysis is like dancing the cha-cha-cha. The inductive processes are the forward chasses, the deductive processes are the backward chasses, and the abductive processes are the non-directional chasses. Each step taken fostered the theoretical finesse.” Brian A. Vasquez, 2013 Data Analysis. Analysis. Data Dataanalysis analysiswas is patterned Glaser and from the the recommendation recommendation ofof Glaser Strauss (1967/2006), and Charmaz (2006) with modification to: (1) suit the need of my exploration; and (2) incorporate my personal philosophical stances. Open coding was was done to analyze the autoethnographic data to induce

concepts for theoretical theoretical exploration. exploration. Constant Constant comparative analysis was done to related entries Along withwith the in the theautoethnographic autoethnographicnarrative. narrative. Along coding process, memosmemos were drafted document the coding process, were todrafted to the analytictheprocess. only an document analyticInduction process. was Induction is initialanprocess the analysis. the Along way, only initial ofprocess of the Along analysis. the researcher (Hillier, 2010): (1) verified way, the researcher (Hillier, 2010): data (1) deductively; (2) explored the(2) data abductively verified dataand deductively; and explored the (Kapitan, 1992).(Kapitan, I personally data abductively 1992). Ibelieve believe that abducting data broadens knowledge by making sense from nothing (data collected without a priori) objectively (Habermas, 1978) culminating in the introduction newideas ideas(Meyer (Meyer& & Lunnay, the introduction ofofnew 2013). In other words, a retroductive process was employed (Wallace, 1971). 1971). The The chasse chasse of induction and deduction nourished the theorybuilding process. pertinent data Theoretical sampling samplingofofother other pertinent was done to: (1) arrive in data saturation; (2) data was done to: (1) arrive in data saturation; validate or confirm concepts; and (3) (2) validate or confirm concepts; anddeduce (3) frameworks memoed memoed from induced deduce frameworks from concepts. induced These transcripts were derived from: (1) multiple concepts. These transcripts were derived from: formal and informal interviews; (2) brainstorming (1) multiple formal and informal interviews; exercise; and (3) existing literature. printed (2) brainstorming exercise; and These (3) existing resources were considered as were a review literature. These not printed resources not material but data for GT analysis. Constant considered as as a review material but as data for GT comparative analysis was done as narratives; analysis. Constant comparative analysis was done existing texts and transcripts were accumulated. as narratives existing texts and transcripts that Memoing was engaged at each the were accumulated. Memoing was stopover engaged atineach coding process. stopover in the coding process. Selective or focused coding emerged after the core category was identified (Holton, 2010). codes were were dropped droppedwhite and germane Irrelevant codes codes were retained. Theoretical coding was then employed to entwine each part of the puzzle. In this study, I employed concept mapping (Wheeldon & narrative Faubert, 2009) to get rid of too much narrative explanation. This stratagem increased the power of abstraction and relational explanation of concepts in a schematic form. IV. IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHOICE PREFERENCE THEORY The initial focus of the research was on

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Table 2. Formulated Codes Core Category

Category: Theoretical Constructs Level III

Sub Category: Constructs Level II

Basic Concept Level I

Philosophical Stance Personal Socio-Cultural Influences

Economic Educational Educational (Equated with Exposure) (Equated with Exposure) Learning Exposure

Choice Preference

Exposure Exposure (Equated (Equated with with Educational) Educational)

Continuum of exposure to the alternative forms of research tradition

Monetary Time

Formal education Non-formal training Informal learning experience Exposed to alternative form of research Not exposed to alternative form of research

Preferred Research Tradition

Action Judgment Acceptance Systems

Acceptance Respect Disrespect Denial/Refusal/ Confusion Open system Close system

Note: Educational Influence is spelled out as Exposure Exposure for for its its major majorcontribution contribution in inthe thechoice. choice. the challenges encountered by qualitative researchers. As data were constantly compared to each other, the substantive theory of choice preference in research was induced. Commencing with induction, saturated with deduction, and enriched with abduction and retrogression, the original focus transcended into the concept of choice preference, which has formal application in learning and personality. V. DEFINING THE CONCEPTS IN CHOICE PREFERENCE THEORY I would like to begin by defining the following its formal theoretical terminologies using their application.; Its its substantive definition will be presented in the discussion: 1. Preference is the psychological evaluative

judgment in the awareness of liking or disliking (Scherer, 2005) an idea; 2. Continuum of exposure is the gamut between being acquainted (exposed) or not (not exposed) with an idea;: a. No exposure is the state of being not in contact with an idea; b. Exposure is the state of being in contact with an idea; i. Learning exposure is the state of being in contact with an idea that allowed the individual to learn something which can be classified as (OECD, 1996/2010): 1. Formal education is the system of organized and institutionalized learning that involves

Vasquez, B. A.

predetermined purpose and curriculum; 2. Non-formal education is a decentralized and organized system of learning earned thru anarchistic (e.g. free schooling), alternative (e.g. trainings, seminars and workshops), autodidactical (e.g. self-directed learning) or vocational (e.g. direct and specific practical training) systems; 3. Informal learning experience is an unorganized form of learning thru experience; ii. Exposed to the alternative form is the state of being acquainted to another form aside from the preferred form; c. Judgment is the appraisal of evidence to arrive in a preferred choice influenced by the acceptance system resulting to an action; i. Action is the process of performing acceptance, respect, disrespect, denial or refusal in the realization of an intention; 1. Acceptance is the action of agreeing or consenting; 2. Respect is the action of regard;

51 3. Disrespect is the action of disregard; 4. Denial or Refusal is the action of rejection; ii. Acceptance System is the bipolarity between being open or close to an idea; 1. Open System is the openness to an idea rather than the preferred form; 2. Close System is the blindness to an alternative idea and ethnocentricness to the preferred form; d. Influences are personal, socio-cultural, economic and educational dispositions or familiarities that have the capacity to produce an effect on the formation of the individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s philosophical stance; i. Personal Influence is the individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s topographies, experiences, inclinations and demographics that contributed his personal philosophical stance; ii. Socio-Cultural Influence is the common agreed inclination or pressure that influence the formation of the individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s philosophical stance; iii. Economic Influence is the willingness

Figure 1. Theoretical coding: Choice Preference Theory in research

UV Journal of Research of the individual to spend money and time that affect the construction of the individual’s philosophical stance; iv. Educational Influence is synonymous with exposure; it is the utilization of what was learned formally, informally and non-formally that influence the formation of the individual’s philosophical stance; e. Philosophical Stance is the personal way of viewing reality, phenomenon or circumstance (worldview).

VI. The Ideal Scenario Ideally, the choice of what of research Idyllically, the choice what tradition, research design anddesign method use in tradition, and to method to the use conduct in the conduct of any investigation of any investigation are dictated is by dictated the domain by the of domain or inquiry of research inquiry or problem. research How problem. to generate Howthe to generatetothe answer specific answer research to specific question research determines question determines the tasks to undertake. the tasks toIn undertake. the ground, In researchers the ground, researchers and researchand adjudicators, research adjudicators, at times, trail at times, apart trail apart from this from ideal this set-up. idealThe set-up. substantive The substantive theory theory discussed discussed below attempts below attempts to explaintothe explain processes the processesininvolved kind of phenomenon. involved this kindinofthis phenomenon. VII. THE CHOICE PREFERENCE THEORY IN RESEARCH: A SUBSTANTIVE THEORY I would wouldlike liketo to scrounge some concepts scrounge some concepts from economics. from economics. According According to Micheal to Peters Peters (2008), the foundation of all choice theory is preference relation. When given two alternatives, one will pick one one based based from from personal preference. Michael try to pick preference. (2000) claimed claimed that that rational rational choices choice Mandler (2000) allowed individualtotochoose choosean analternative alternative that allow anan individual can provide him greatest pleasure. This utilitarian concept dwells in the idea that promotes selfwelfare. Although Peter’s claim is useful in understanding my own theory, I doubt if the concept of utility and self-welfare, as explained by Mandler, is covered by my theory. While the concept of pleasure is still applicable, the operationalization of pleasure in my theory is defined as inclination, which may not necessarily indicate utility and self-welfare. The mentioned theories were identified after the conceptualization of the choice preference

theory in research. Although there are similarities, similarities the created have practical and in thetheory above Imentioned, the theory I created substantive application in the researcher’s choice have practical and substantive application in of and method. Knowledge of the thedesign researcher’s choice in design andeconomic method. concept of choice be necessary Knowledge to the preference economic may concept of choice in understanding theory.inHowever, my focus preference may be my necessary understanding my dwells in determining choice preference and its theory. However, my focus dwells in determinants resultant action,and which utility and of the choice its departs resultantfrom action, which self-welfare. is then operationalized departs fromRationality utility and self-welfare. Rationality as the synergy betweenas philosophical stance is then operationalized the synergy between and exposure, which does not automatically philosophical stance and exposure, which does mean beneficial. Proclivity is emphasized here not automatically mean beneficial. Proclivity more than utility. It more is the than appetite to consume is emphasized here utility. It is the something that gives comfort appetite to consume something thatand givespleasure. comfort Pleasure then is not equated with functional and pleasure. Pleasure then is not equated with welfare, claimed as by claimed most choice preference functionalas welfare, by most choice theory in economics, cognitivebut gratification. preference theory in but economics, cognitive Cognitive gratification acts towards gratification. Cognitive gratification actsappetitive towards results and denies aversive upshots. A more appetitive results and deny aversive upshots. A comfortable form of knowledge is preferred over more comfortable form of knowledge is preferred something ambiguous to maximize hedonism and over something ambiguous to maximize hedonism minimize discomfort. and minimize discomfort. This theory describes and explains the influences that help shape the individual’s actions. Additionally, this will help predict certain choices. When transcended to its formal form, this has a practical value to education and psychology since it covers a construct on learning. This can also be utilized in other fields, which I failed to identify. Proposition 1. The synergy between the researcher’s philosophical stance and learning exposure determines his preferred research tradition You will notice that I repeatedly use the word synergy instead of amalgamation in this paper. Amalgamation refers to the summation of components, while synergy is more than just summation. The combined effect is greater than the sum of its components. In Gestalt psychology, we say, “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts” (Smuts, 1926). The preferred research tradition is driven by his personal philosophical stance. A philosophical stance is a personal position that requires the researcher to answer the how of things and demands to riposte the why and what (Holden & Lynch, 2004). The development of this standpoint

Vasquez, B. A.

requires the person person to to formulate formulatecopious copious central central assumptions concerning the nature of reality (ontology), knowledge (epistemology), values values (axiology) and methodology (Burrel & Morgan, 1979; Polit & Beck, 2008; Creswell, 2007). The researcher may not necessarily be conceptually conscious about this. This This may may operate operatereflexively reflexively revealed by by his his belief belief system systemon on how, how, what as revealed and why to operate things. The synergy of these central assumptions is consequential to each other (Holden & Lynch, 2004) and manifested researchers actions. This paper will not by the researchers’ dissect the explanation of these assumptions focus. I will suggest that since itit isisbeyond beyonditsits focus. I suggest the reader will do further perusal perusal of of available available literatureconcerning concerning these these concepts. literature Figure 2. Axial Coding: Influences to Philosophical Stance

Figure 2. Axial Coding: Influences to Philosophical Stance

Proposition 2. Philosophical stance is the synergy of personal, economic, socio-cultural and educational influences The philosophical stance is also a synergy of different influences. These are personal, sociocultural, economic and educational dispositions or familiarities. Personal. The characteristics of the researcher including his background and inclinations help form his philosophy: (a) (1) personal values illustrate the axiological assumption; (b) (2) personal relations shape the researcher’s epistemological and methodologic assumption; and (3) (c) personal belief shapes his ontological assumption. These This then thenmoderates moderate in the choice preference to a particular research

tradition. a1If the stringent the researcher researcher follows follows stringent ethical dogmas; he is likely to choose a positivistic over a naturalistic approach. b2If the researcher is more comfortable with interaction; he is likely likely to choose qualitative over quantitative approach. 3cIf the researcher is highly empirical and objective, and acknowledges acknowledgesthat thatthere thereis is a single a single reality, reality, he is likely he is likely totochoose choosequantitative quantitativeover over qualitative approach. The enumerations are only samples and not the only existing reality. It only provides as an idea on how these influences help shape the researcher’s philosophical stance. Socio-cultural. The society and its culture influence the researcher’s philosophical assumption. This then moderates in the choice preference to a particular research tradition. What is communally accepted is commonly cogitated as an agreement reality (Rubin & Babbie, 2001) and most of the time viewed as dogmatic. In an academic culture where quantitative research is a predominantly accepted method, an attempt to do a qualitative research is usually subjected to scrutiny using quantitative criteria. What is preferred is something that everyone else thinks is the only way to do things. If the researcher would like liketo tochallenge challengewhat whatis is normative, normative, then then he would he likely likely desired desirefor foran anunfamiliar unfamiliarapproach approach and prepares himself prepared himself for for academic academic argumentation. argumentation. Economic. The preferred stance may be motivated by austerity measures in time and resource. If a researcher has the luxury of time interpreting transcriptions, then he might choose qualitative over quantitative. Although it does not follow all the time that quantitative research is speedier over qualitative, the researcher will likely pick a method (qualitative or quantitative) that matches with time expenditure. This also holds true with the alacrity of the researcher to expend resources. If the researcher has the lavishness of funds, then that researcher will pick a method that is high-priced. Otherwise, the researcher will prefer an approach that fits the availability of coffers. The presentation may not directly socket as philosophical stance. But if we try to ground it with axiological and methodological postulations, it would make sense. The choice of method is clearly or indistinguishably driven by economic

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(synonymous with resource in this study) study) considerations. How Howthethe researcher researcher valuesvalues time and cost time andiscost definitely are definitely motivated motivated with his personal with his axiological conjecture. personal axiological conjecture. Methodological choice may be directly or indirectly predisposed by economic reasons. In sampling for example, the more time and funds you have, the more number of samples you will get. The more time and funds you have, the likely you will design a methodological frame that will consume more time and expense. Although some would prefer a better option for a method, in some cases, a researcher may opt for the alternative form when time and resource will not allow. This may be one of the reasons why pragmatism in research emerged. Considering the concept of utilitarianism, what can provide much benefit is chosen after cogitating all aspects. Educational. This segment, though part of the influences, is highlighted for its key involvement in explaining the theory. As you can observe in figure 1, it is singled out from the construct of influences. The discussion of exposure is subdivided into two subcategories: (1) learning exposure; and (2) continuum of exposure. Figure 3. Axial Coding: Exposure

Figure 3. Axial Coding: Exposure

Proposition 3. Exposure to the different form of research tradition is the interaction between the continuum of exposure and synergy of learning exposures. When abstracting these concepts during one of my memoing sessions, I have realized that this

theory is not only a theory of research. It is also a theory of learning and personality. Transcending the conception into its formal form (isolating its substantial application to research), it has practical application to any field especially in education and psychology. Exposure is a continuum from exposed to not exposed. A researcher is likely inclined to choose a method that he is acquainted. It is practically obvious that few would pick a certain stratagem that is unfamiliar. However, there are instances wherein a person challenges himself to progress utilizing unfamiliar methods. Initially, you may think that the person is not exposed to this scheme. One must realize that this is a continuum. In the process of acquaintance with the new stratagem, learning occurs. Learning as an action directs accumulative exposure to that system. The accumulation of familiarities with the new information leads him to the pole away from ignorance. Figure 4. Axial Coding: Continuum of Exposure to the Alternative Form of Research

Figure 4. Axial Coding: Continuum of Exposure to the Alternative Form of Research

In adjudicating the alternative form of research, one is likely to renounce it. The acceptability of the other form of research is highly dependent on the individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s exposure to that alternative form. Let us say a researcher is positivistic but has knowledge of naturalistic inquiry, that scientist is likely to respect the legitimacy of naturalism. However, this is not always the case if the knowledge of that researcher is limited or zero. Although exposure of the alternative form can shape its acceptability, other factors may curb the phenomenon that allows the researcher to disrespect the cogency of the other paradigm regardless of exposure. This tends to ensue among purists. This will be explained later in the text.

Vasquez, B. A.

Figure 5. Axial Coding: Learning Exposure of Research

researcher’s philosophical inclination. This guides him in picking the preferred research method. Figure 6. Axial Coding: Choice Preference

Figure 5. Axial Coding: Learning Exposure of Research

Postulate 1. Learning exposure is the synergy of the researcher’s formal, informal and nonformal learning experience. Exposure is an an extensive extensive construct construct that that can be (a) formal; be dissected dissected into into(OECD, (OECD,2010): 1996/2010): (1) ormal; (fb) informal; (2) informal; and (c) and non-formal. (3) non-formal. I will borrow I will borrow the definition the definition from thefrom Commission the Commission on Higher on Higher Education Education Memorandum Memorandum Order No. Order8 No. Series 8 Series of 2009: of 2009: (1) formal (1) informal training training refersrefers to the to the hierarchically hierarchically structured structuredand and chronologically graded learning organized and provided by the ormal school fformal school system system and and for which certification is required in order for the learner to progress through the grades or move higher levels (BP 232); (2) informal learning is incidental learning that results from life experiences, workplacebased learning, volunteer activities, self-directed learning, family responsibilities, and others; and (3) non-formal learning is intentional and gained by the individual through participation in organized workplace-based training, non-credit courses and workshops the completion of which does not lead to to receiving receiving formal formalcredit. credit. Learning exposure is the synergy of the researcher’s formal, informal and nonformal learning experiences. The theories and practical knowledge derived are more than the amalgamation of the three forms. When new information is derived, it is processed by the individual, which results in either acquiescent to the new knowledge, with or without unlearning previous information, or dismissal to the new gen. The pool of learning then influences the

Figure 6. Axial Coding: Choice Preference

Proposition 4. The researcher’s preferred form of research tradition and his judgment towards the alternative form contain his choice preference. There are two basic concepts of engagement that slice-up choice preference, which purports to: (1) expend the preferred form of research; and (2) judge the alternative form of research. This must not be seen as a dichotomy. It is in fact consumed simultaneously. For example, a naturalistic researcher (preference) that evaluates a positivistic paper recognizes the rigor of the work (judgment) since he is exposed to the criteria in evaluating scientific-empirical papers (most of the time quantitative in nature). Paradoxically, a quantitative researcher (preference), who is a pure positivist, magistrates a qualitative report as invalid and unreliable (judgment) since he evaluates the rigor of the report based on quantitative criteria, regardless of his exposure to this kind of work. The former example is further supported with: Proposition 5. The exposure of the researcher to the alternative form of research determines his action towards it. Before discussing Preposition 5, allow me to enumerate the following properties so as to avoid confusion and dogmatic interpretation:

UV Journal of Research 1. Researchers and research adjudicators operate in both system; 2. No researcher and adjudicator solely observe a single system; 3. There is always a dominant system operating; and 4. The system operating at a certain timepoint is primarily dependent to certain conditions.

The following conditions are identified: 1. Person-referent condition – How credible is the source of information? 2. Context-referent condition – How credible is the information? 3. Self-referent condition – I know better than you! 4. Combination of all or any of the identified conditions. A researcher always has a preferred form of research shaped by his philosophical stance. It does not necessarily follow that if a researcher has a preferred form, he is likely to dismiss the alternative. Judging the alternative form is shaped by his learning exposure. The more exposed the researcher to it, the less likely it is dismissed. Take note that I use the word less likely since there is another construct that curbs the phenomenon. The model as shown below will explicate this: Figure 7. Axial Coding: System of Acceptance or Denial of Alternative Research Tradition

Figure 7. Axial Coding: System of Acceptance or Denial of Alternative Research Tradition

Postulate 2. An open system ranges from respect to acceptance of the alternative form of research. Postulate 3. A close system ranges from disrespect to denial of the alternative form of research. Human being operates in two types ofsystems: (1) open; and (b) (a) (2) close. When a researcher is open to the alternative form of research tradition he may respond by: (1) respecting; and/or (2) accepting the alternative. In respecting, the researcher maintains his personal preference while recognizing the rigor of the other form. In accepting, the researcher tends to assimilate in practice the alternative form without discounting the preference. In some rare cases, the researcher may partially disengage to the initial preference. Considering that the person is open-minded, disengagement to the previous preference does not necessarily imply total rejection, but only a change in panache and still with credence of the reputation of the former. When the researcher is close-minded to the alternative form, the initial reaction is disrespect towards total denial. In disrespect, the researcher is acquainted with the rigor of the alternative form but still dogmatically insist with his bias. Denial happens when the researcher denounces the integrity of the other form. In denial, the researcher may may have full to partial acquaintance or totally ignorant to the alternative form. Nonetheless, all operates in a mechanism wherein information is thrown either by: (1) not recognizing the legitimacy and rigor of the alternative after conceptually learning and understanding it; or (2) closing the door to learn and understand the the alternative. According to Hare (2003), the axiology of open-mindedness is acknowledged since the time of Socrates: “I am not speaking dogmatically from the certainty of assured knowledge. I am simply your fellow-explorer in the search for truth, and if somebody who contradicts me is obviously right, I shall

Vasquez, B. A.

be the first to give way.â&#x20AC;? Socrates in Platoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Gorgias, 506 Hare (2003) further claimed that this this Socratic philosophy is reverberated by several philosophers like: (1) (a) John Stuart Mill (1859), who asserts that judgment is trusted from people open to criticisms; (2) (b) C. S. Peirce, who suggested to throw our personal belief the moment new learnt elements are inconsistent (Hartshorne, C., & Weiss, P., 1931); and (3) (c) Bertrand Russell (1950), who claimed that dismissing openness is dangerous. These statements are further dissected in the subsequent models. Figure 8. Pre Metric Modeling: Judgment Matrix of the Alternative Form of Research Tradition (Substantive Form)

Figure 8. Pre Metric Modeling: Judgment Matrix of the Alternative Form of Research Tradition (Substantive Form)

Let X axis be the range of exposure and Y axis the close-open system continuum. This will produce four quadrants: (1) respect; (2) acceptance; (3) disrespect; and (4) denial. These quadrants represent the actions taken by the researcher. With this model, we can derive the following qualitatively verified hypotheses (as per Glaser and Straussâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; [1967/2006, p.39-40], this must be noted as a suggestion, confirmed with theoretically sampled and constantly compared evidence; this is not statistically tested with excessive pile of proof): Hypothesis 1. The more open and exposed the researcher to the alternative form of research the more he accepts or recognizes it. Hypothesis 2. The more closed and unexposed the researcher to the alternative form of research the more he denies or refuses it Hypothesis 3. The more closed and unexposed the researcher to the alternative form of research the more he is confused and thus denies and refuses it. Hypothesis 4. If the researcher is open but unexposed to the alternative form of research he tends to respect it and eventually accepts and recognizes it. Hypothesis 5. If the researcher is closed but

Figure 9. Choice Preference Theory: The Formal Theory

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exposed to the alternative form of research he tends to disrespect it and eventually denies and refuses it. PREFERENCE THEORY: VIII. CHOICE Choice Preference Theory :A A FORMAL THEORY Formal Theory Figures 9 and 10 are the translated models for forformal formaluse. use. The The theory theory can can be be utilized in areas other than research, exempli gratia preferred teaching teachingmethod method among among teachers. teachers. The preferred form form is is shaped shaped by by the teacher’s background, philosophical stance and learning exposure, and his judgment on the applicability of a certain method is dependent on the synergy of all factors open-close vis-à-vis his open close system spectrum and learning exposure continuum. This theory can also be consumed to explain the preferred: (1) school of thought; (2) counseling technique; (3) therapy; (4) mode of treatment; and (5) many more. Figure 10. Pre Metric Modeling: Judgment Matrix (Formal Form)

Figure 10. Pre Metric Modeling: Judgment Matrix (Formal Form) Figure 11. Categorical Interpretation Based from the Judgment Matrix

Although humans operate in both, there is always a dominant system functioning. We can then classify individuals based from their dominant system. The following are the hypothesis with explanation of the interpretation: Hypothesis 6. When the person is open and unexposed, that person exhibits true wisdom In true wisdom, a person is able to process the information and learn from it even though he has no previous exposure to the information. The selective analysis, as a result of the value of respect without disregarding bias, allows the person to comprehend rationally which assists him to become more informed. “The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.” Socrates I recalled one of my lecturers shared that the only way wayto tounderstand understandsomething something new-fangled new-fangled is is empty to empty demitasse. fullcan cup no to the the demitasse. A fullAcup nocan longer longer accommodate something new. This accommodate something new. This does does not not imply be empty. Along imply thatthat our our cupscups needneed to betoempty. Along the the interspaces between matters our cups interspaces between the the matters in inour are gaps that accommodate new learning. If we insist that our cups are full, it can no longer sip new ideas and learning do not occur. This wastes the chances of utilizing something relevant. Information may not be pertinent at the first squint; it will be when understood well. It may not be significant now, but may be in the near future. Hypothesis 7. When the person is open and exposed, that person is well informed and is able to transcend the information to practice

Figure 11. Categorical Interpretation Based from the Judgment Matrix

Well-informed individuals tend to judge accordingly and are able to compartmentalize personal biases with existing logical alternative systems. Thisindividualcansegregate information with respect and values the alternative forms as valid and reliable options to undertake. Although

Vasquez, B. A.

there are always preferences, the ability to put on an alternative lens to be able to see the rigor of the other form is appreciated. This type of individual is able to effectively and selectively appreciate the value of the information and transform this evidence into practice. Being well-informed is not as know Being well-informed is the not same the same as it all it(Swain, 2009). Swain added know all (Swain, 2009). Swain addedthat that being knowledgeable implicates awareness about loads of diverse information, while being a know-all may implicate knowing all there is to know about a phenomenon. When one broadens interest to something beyond the boundaries of his interest allows the person to be well-informed. This provides him a chance of providing good insights and judgment and not boxed in to an exclusive system. Hypothesis 8. When the person is close and exposed, that person overly accentuating elitism “A society’s attitudes to innate intelligence are closely correlated with its levels of inequality.” Danny Dorling, 2010 A word first known in 1947, elitism is defined by Merriam-Webster (2013) as “consciousness of being or belonging to an elite”. This consciousness leads to exclusivity. These groups looked only after their own interest and encouraged powerlessness and unresponsiveness to the nonaffiliates (Wasserman, 2006). Dorling (2010) believed that IQism influences this phenomenon. IQuism defines elitism with its history, but I personally believed it had changed over time. I would like to see elitism now as a claimed privilege among established groups. Although in antiquity, this was fashioned among intellectuals, with the advent of knowledge-for-all, a number of clued-up individuals with differently inclined school of thoughts groomed. Those who prefer the most well established and accepted thought will compromise the elite group while the rest are marginalized. Given this scenario, IQuism

still played a role. However, it is no longer a divide between the knowledgeable vs the rest, but is already a combat between who is more: (1) intelligent; and (2) legitimate scholar. When elitism is highlighted, this leads him to look as if he is ignorant to the alternate form. Ignorance here is not defined as “not knowing anything”, but is the failure to appreciate the authenticity of the alternative form and demonstrating “as if he is ignorant”. This type of ethnocentrism (Leininger & McFarland, 2005) is the plaintiff of the “know-itall” group (Swain, 2009). The claimed superiority of knowledge is actually the ignorance or culturalblindness of the realities beyond their preferred boundaries. Hypothesis 9. When the person is close and unexposed, that person is ignorant Ignorance may lead to judgment from judgment from uncertainty. Perry (2008), Kahneman and Tversky (1996), and Lichtenstein and Fischhoff (1977) suggested that individuals engaged in empirical studies often trust that they are knowledgeable beyond what they actually do. This type of mindset would usually direct to unfavorable consequences. Overconfidence about their knowledge and ability shaped the partialities in judgment and decision-making. Perry (2008) suggested that ignorance trails the individual to be less cautious in their decision-making. In most cases, what is unfamiliar is less accepted and what is familiar is preferred as the superior form. As cited by Smithson (1997), empirical studies in the late 70’s regarding the “Catch-All Underestimation Bias” (Fischhoff, Slovic & & Lichtenstein Lichtenstein, (1978) 1978) signposted that when alternatives are unclear people tend to underestimate it. Individuals verge not to face risk of committing error. They avoid in gambling on an option especially when there is lack of information (Frisch & Baron, 1988). “Open-mindedness is properly thought of as a kind of critical receptiveness in which our willingness to

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consider new ideas is guided by our best judgment with respect to the available evidence. Genuine open-mindedness requires finding some middle ground between being ready to entertain every idea seriously and being excessively resistant to reasonable possibilities. This line of thought suggests a natural connection with an Aristotelian account of virtue as involving a mean[s] between two extremes to be determined by the use of practical wisdom (Nichomachean Ethics, 1107). We may go too far in the direction of critical skepticism and lose sight of open-mindedness; but it is no mark of open-mindedness to be willing to embrace absurdity, to be unwilling ever to draw a conclusion, or to be ready to abandon a promising line of inquiry merely to pursue some other possibility. There may be a sense in which the merits of open-mindedness are obvious, but the confusions outlined above suggest, as Oliver Wendell Holmes (1921) reminded us, that there are circumstances in which what is needed is an education in the obvious (Hare, 2002).” Hare, 2003 Ix. REFLECTION The debate between research traditions will only stop when scrutinizers have an open mind. This is probably the reason why Glaser constantly emphasized the concept of “open-mindedness” (Lillemor & Hallberg, 2010). Although, Glaser (1992) argues with the prescriptions of Strauss and Corbin (1996), I acknowledged the motivation of the argument. Prescriptions hinder the researcher’s scholarship. Glaser and Strauss (1967/2006) emphasized that one, “should not curb anyone’s creativity… they should encourage it”. This includes creating original methods and ideas. Glaser (2006) emphasized that a researcher, especially a PhD candidate, must observe total autonomy, originality and contribution. Scholarly

contribution is limited or slayed when autonomy and originality is compromised. x. CONCLUSION IN METAPHOR Choice preference is the synergy of formal, non-formal and informal learning experiences together with the individual’s philosophical stance. Judgment is shaped by the synergy of exposure and the openness or closeness of the individual to the new information. It is stressed that choice preference is a personal process and it must not be imposed to another individual. This statement is best captured in the Gestalt Prayer: “I “I do do my my thing thing and and you you do do your your thing. thing. II was wasnot notborn bornininthis this world to live upyour to your world to live up to expectations expectations And neither are you to live up to mine… And neither are you to live up to mine… If by chance we meet up, it is fine and If by chance we meet up, it is fine and beautiful. beautiful. But cannot bebe helped Butififnot, not,itit cannot helped. Because I am simply I and you you are simply you.” Because I am simply I and are simply you.” Fritz Perls, 1969, p. 4 Fritz Perls, 1969, p. 4 Although the metaphor emphasized on Althoughof realities the metaphor emphasized on multiplicity that causes differences multiplicity of it realities that causes differences in preference, also stresses the importanceof in preference, itthe also stresses form. the importance acknowledging alternative It is not an of acknowledging the alternative form. It is not egotistical standpoint that pressures selfabsorbed an egotistical that Prayer, pressures selfsovereignty. Juststandpoint like the Gestalt it teaches absorbed Just like theown Gestalt Prayer, us not tosovereignty. ineptly impose our stance to it teaches notothers to ineptly impose ourstance own others nor us allow to impose their stance to that others nordebates allow others impose their to us. In way, are to prevented. In stance to us.inInlife, thatwhether way, debates areofprevented. any facets choice research In any facets or in life, whether choice ofstyle, research methodology strategies in teaching one methodology or strategies in teaching style, one must realize the importance of dissimilarities must realizefor thedevelopment: importance (1) of disagreements dissimilarities as a mode as a mode development: allow eachfor perspective to (1) see disagreements opportunities allow each perspective to see opportunities towards competitive improvement; (2) diverse towards competitive improvement; (2) diverse opinions permit the emergence of new ideas opinions permit the emergence of new ideas that help improve practice in any profession; that (3) helpdissimilar improve schools practiceofinthought any profession; and break the and (3) dissimilar schools In of thought the monotony in knowledge. totality, break it signals monotony in knowledge. In refine totality, signals more explorations to expand, andit develop more to expand, refine and develop a bodyexplorations of knowledge. a body of knowledge.

Vasquez, B. A.

REFERENCES Anderson, E. (1999). Code of the street: Decency, violence, and the moral life of the inner city. New York: W.W. Norton. Batas Pambansa (BP) Bilang 232. Education Act of 1982: An act providing for the establishment and maintenance of an integrated system of education. Bryman, A. (1984). The debate about qualitative and quantitative methods: A question of method or epistemology? British Journal of Sociology, 35 (1), 75–92. Burrell, G., & Morgan, G. (1979). Sociological paradigms and organisational analysis. Hants: Ashgate. Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative analysis. London: Sage Publication. CHED Memorandum Order (CMO) No. 8 Series of 2009. Revised policies and guidelines for the Expanded Tertiary Education Equivalency and Accreditation Program (ETEEAP) pursuant to Executive Order (EO) 330. Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication. Dorling, D. (2010). The return to elitism in education. Retrieved October 18, 2012 from http://www. sasi.group.shef.ac.uk/publications/2010/ Dorling_2010-03_Soundings.pdf Duneier, M. (1999). Sidewalk. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. Fischhoff, B., Slovic, P., & Lichtenstein, S. (1978). Fault trees: Sensitivity of estimated failure probabilities to problem representation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 4(2), 330–344. Frisch, D., & Baron, J. (1988). Ambiguity and rationality. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 1(3), 149–157. Gelo, O., Braakmann, D., & Benetka, G. (2008). Quantitative and qualitative research: Beyond the debate. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science, 42, 266–290. Glaser, B. G. (1992). Basic of grounded theory analysis: Emerging versus forcing. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. Glaser, B. G. (2006). The roots of grounded theory. The Grounded Theory Review, 5(2/3), 1-10. Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967/2006). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago: Aldine. Habermas, J. (1978). Knowledge and human interests. London: Heinemann Educational.

Hare, W. (2010). Is it good to be open-minded? International Journal of Applied Philosophy, 17(1), 73-87. doi:10.5840/ijap20031718 Hartshorne, C. & Weiss P. (1931). Collected papers of Charles Sanders Peirce Vol. 1. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Hillier, J. (2010). The role of theory. [Powerpoint slides]. Retrieved October 18, 2012 from AESOP PhD Workshop 2010, GURU New Castle University: http://www.aesop-youngacademics.net/uploads/ events/selli_island_phd_workshop__2010/ Role_of_Theory.ppt Holden, M. T., & Lynch, P. (2004). Choosing the appropriate methodology: Understanding research philosophy. Marketing Review. 4(4), 397-409. Holton, J. A. (2010). The coding process and its challenges. The Grounded Theory Review, 9(1), 21-40. Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1996). On the reality of cognitive illusions. Psychological Review, 103(3), 582–591. Kapitan, T. (1992). Peirce and the autonomy if abductive reasoning. Erkenntnis, 37(1), 1-26. Krantz, D. L. (1995). Sustaining versus resolving the quantitative-qualitative debate. Evaluation and Program Planning, 18(1), 89-96. Leininger, M., & McFarland, M. R. (2005). Transcultural nursing: concepts, theories, research & practice (3rd Ed. – International Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical Publishing Division. Lichtenstein, S., & Fischhoff, B. (1977). Do those who know more also know more about how much they know? Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 20(1), 159–183. Lillemor R. M., & Hallberg, L. R. M. (2010). Some thoughts about the literature review in grounded theory studies. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being, 5(3), 5387. doi:10.3402/qhw.v5i3.5387 Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publication. Mandler, M. (2001). A difficult choice in preference theory: Rationality implies completeness or transitivity but not both. Millgram, E. (Ed.), Varieties of Practical Reasoning (pp. 373-402). MIT Press. Merriam-Webster (2013). Elitism. Retrieved October 18, 2012 from http://www.merriam-webster.com/ dictionary/elitism Meyer, S. B., & Lunnay, B. (2013). The application of abductive and retroductive inference for the design and analysis of theory-driven sociological research. Sociological Research Online, 18(1), 12, 10.5153/sro.2819. Mill, J. S. (1859). On liberty. London: J. W. Parker.

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Noblit, G. W., & Hare, R. D. (1988). Meta-ethnography: Synthesizing qualitative studies. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publication. Perry, V. G. (2008). Is ignorance bliss? Consumer accuracy in judgments about credit ratings. The Journal of Consumer Affairs, 42(2), 189-205. Peters, M. (2008). Preferences. [Lecture notes]. Retrieved October 18, 2012 from Econ304-Honours Microeconomics, Department of Economics, University of British Columbia: http://montoya. econ.ubc.ca/Econ304/preference_theory_304. pdf Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2008). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice (8th Ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Reichardt, C. S., & Cook, T. D. (1979). Beyond qualitative versusquantitative methods . In Cook, T. D., & Reichardt, C. S. (Eds), Qualitative and quantitative methods in evaluation research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publication. Rosenberg, A. (1988). Philosophy of social science. Boulder, CO: Westview. Rubin, A., & Babbie, E. (1993). Research methods for social work (2nd Ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Russell, B. (1950, June 11). Can we afford to keep open minds? New York Times Magazine, 9,37-39. Scherer, K. R. (2005). What are emotions? And how can they be measured? Social Science Information, 44, 695-729. Smithson, M. J. (1997). Human Judgment And Imprecise Probabilities. CiteSeerx β. doi:10.1.1.41.3008&re p=rep1&type=pdf Smuts, J. C. (1926). Holism and evolution. New York: The Macmillan Company. Socrates (380 B.C.). In Plato’s Gorgias 506. Translated by Hamilton, W. (1960). Harmondsworth: Penguin. Socrates (399 B.C.). In Plato’s The apology: Defense of Socrates. Retrieved October 18, 1981 from http://www.san.beck.org/Apology.html Steckler, A., McLeroy, K. R., Goodman, R. M., Bird, S. T., & McCormick, L. (1992). Toward integrating qualitative and quantitative methods: An introduction. Health Education Quarterly, 19(1), 1–8. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. London: Sage Publication. Swain, H. (2009, February 10). The art of being wellinformed. The Guardian. Retrieved October 18, 2012 from http://www.guardian.co.uk/ education/2009/feb/10/how-to-be-a-student Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (1998). Mixed methodology: Combining qualitative and quantitative

approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Directorate for Education, Education and Training Policy Division (1996/2010). Recognition of nonformal and informal learning. Retrieved January 1, 2013 from http://www.oecd.org/ edu/skills-beyond-school/recognitionofnonformalandinformallearning-home.htm Wacquant, L. (2002). Scrutinizing the street: Poverty, morality, and the pitfalls of urban ethnography. American Journal of Sociology, 107(6), 1468– 1532. Wallace, W. L. (1971). The logic of science in sociology. Now York, NY: Aldine. Wasserman, G. (2006). The basics of American politics (12th ed.). New York: Pearson Longman. Wheeldon, J., & Faubert, J. (2009). Framing experience: Concept maps, mind maps, and data collection in qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 8(3), 68-83.

UV Journal of Research 2014

Intelligence and video games: Attention theory Aljoriz M. Dublin College of Arts and Sciences University of the Visayas aljoriz@v.edu.ph Date submitted: March 29, 2014

Date of acceptance: October 15, 2014

ABSTRACT This study study aims to determine describe the relationship perceived relationship between video The explore the perceived between video games and games and intelligence among the selected individuals. The study makes use of the intelligence among the selected individuals. The study uses of the video game video game “BRAIN oneof ofthe theresearch. tools of the end the of the study “BRAIN AGE” as one AGE” of theas tools At research; the end ofAt thethe study, collected the collected of theshow informants showed thatcan video gamescontribute can slightly responses of responses the informants that video games slightly to contribute to mental and development andwas a new theory was developed theAttention “Dublin mental development a new theory developed the “Dublin Game game attention a person grows older his time theory” that as atheory” personwhere growsasolder, his time to attention spanto forattention playing span video for playing video games becomes more shorter but does not necessarily reflect in a games becomes more shorter but does not necessarily reflect a loss of interest lossgaming of interest in the gaming hobby. the hobby. Keywords: Video Games, Intelligence I. INTRODUCTION In our generation, of generation, with with the the advent advent of computers, tablets and android phones, children are exposed to various video games. Video games are everywhere from Angry Bird, Flappy Bird and Plants vs Zombies. Even Casual Gamers, those who do not play, frequently are lulled into the idea of playing for the very first time. With all these modern video devices, parents are bent on labeling them themasas distractions, distractions, wherefore wherefore can one find can one the findanswers the answers and turn and to turn for to help? for There help? have been There havevarious been researches various researches on the effects on the of video games effects of video to games the youth to the but rarely youth do but they rarely use an actual do they use video an actual game video as onegame toolsasforone testing. tools Different for testing.video Different games video affect games brain affectactivity brain (Gentile, (Gentile, activity 2009) by 2009) way ofthrough example playing playing First Person Games reduces brain activity but playing puzzle game game increases increased brain brainactivity. activity;Douglas brain activity. (July, 2009) Douglas supports supports thethe brain brainage age principle but does brain activity really denote an increase in intelligence? The naval army funded study supports the relationship between video games and intelligence (Perez, 2010): 2010):

“We have discovered that video game players perform 10 to 20 percent higher in terms of perceptual and cognitive ability than normal people that are nongame players,” BBC “Brain training experiment” (Fernandez, 2009) on the cognitive effects of video games which shows a favorable favorable result on the effects of gaming actually contradict at least three other researches thus in essence the article needed on recommended more more researches researchesareare needed the the topic. Among the problem studystudy notednoted was for topic. Among the problem the of time as much studies often often used was length the length of time as much studies longerlonger play time as a as basis for brain effect; no used play time a basis for brain effect; study showed howhow a smaller and incremental play no study showed a smaller and incremental time time affects actual academic performance. It is play affects actual academic performance. important to show that onthe at least in a Philippine It is important to explore phenomenon in the setting, Pinoys are gamers too gamers and a shorter anda Philippine setting. Pinoys are too and more direct determination may showmay at show least shorter and more direct determination some effectseffects of video gaming to the at leastperceived some perceived of video gaming to academic standing of a of student. Perhaps all that the academic standing a student. Perhaps all

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that playing Super Mario is after not after all timetime spentspent playing Super Mario is not all for for naught. out that naught and Possibly, possibly finding that finding out “the princess is in another castle” was not an exercise in futility but one that teaches patience. patience? II. PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTION AND PARADIGMS In most guides guides to to making making aa qualitative qualitative research, one of of the themost most basic basic is is the creation Philosophical assumption, paradigms and of a philosophical theoretical framework. Yin (2011) believes that selecting a philosophical assumption and the appropriate methodologies are tantamount to saving time and showing affection towards the disciple of research making. making. This The study opts to use epistemology; as it allows the researcher to assume an “insider” role. By exclusion the other ontology, axiology, methods like ontology, axiology, rhetorical and methodological were were considered consideredbut butultimately ultimatelyI epistemology is more suitable as itas is Idecided decidedthat that epistemology is more suitable encapsulates it is encapsulates the main the main crux of crux theofpaper. the paper. as the I used used the theconstructivist constructivistepistemology epistemology as paradigm for this I as a researcher can not the paradigm forstudy, the study, I as a researcher have a detached can not maintain cannot have aappearance detachedandappearance and an objective position as part of the study. The cannot maintain an objective position as part book and Research design of theQualitative study. The Inquiry book Qualitative Inquiry and (Creswell, design 2007) defined the Social Research (Creswell, 2007)Constructivist defined the as oneConstructivist who believesas one that who eachbelieves individual Social that makesindividual their own understanding of the world each makes their own understanding andthe it world is theirand understanding that affects their of it is their understanding that perception interpretations of their perceived affects theirand perception and interpretations of relationships specially between video between games their perceived relationships specially and their intelligence. In the study,InI the am study, more video games and their intelligence. how the informants view their Iconcerned am more with concerned with how the informants perceived rather than therather actual gain; in view theirgains perceived gains than it isthe this vein of the study thatvein we strive showthat theirI actual gain; it is in this of thetostudy perceptions via multiple case studies.via multiple strive to show their perceptions case studies. III. REFLExIVITY AND RIGOR Reflexivity Defined. It is is defined “by III. REFLEXIVITY AND RIGOR its Reflexivity characteristics as careful interpretation Defined. It is defined “by its and refection” (Alvesson Sköldberg, 2009). characteristics as careful &interpretation and Reflexivity is a continued process by the reflection” (Alvesson & Sköldberg, 2009). researcher. This that in reflexivity Reflexivity is a means continued process by the researcher acts researcher. Thisas means a quasi thatsource the researcher by selecting acts

a quasi source selecting andasinterpreting thebydata henceand theinterpreting researcher thenot data. Hence, the researcher just active not a is just a passive watcher but a isvery passive watcher butbiases a very of active participant. In it the the participant. researcher In it, the biases the researcher are also are also made knownofhence the researcher can knownignore thus, the cannot not made just simply theresearcher possibilities that just the simply ignore theby possibilities thatbiases. the study study can be affected his perceived The can be instead affectedopens by hishis perceived biases. researcher biases for all to The see researcher instead opens his biases forthe all to see and to accept the immutable fact that study andcontrolled acknowledge relativity was to a the certain degree.of truth/reality. Residence.I I am am a resident Official Residence. resident of CebuCity CityPhilippines Philippinesand andisisaa tenured faculty Cebu of the University theVisayas. Visayas.He I have of the University ofofthe has taught social science have a various various social science subjects.subjects. His has aI hearing hearing impairment and is one possibly onefew of impairment and is possibly of the the few empowered instructors from the empowered instructor from the aforementioned aforementioned university. University. Full disclosure. I, the researcher, am an avid video gamer. I had played with Pac-man as my baptism to the video gaming addiction. Even at the age of thirty-five, I still buy and collect video games much to the chagrin of my wife, who often reminds me of the increasing expenditure of having such an expensive hobby. This may explain my inherent bias to bring the matter than indeed video games makes me smarter. I have been in constant communication with a least two local gaming community one in Cebu Cebuand andthe the other other in in Manila. I, the researcher, ama personal on a personal Manila. I, the researcher, am on name name basistwo with twopopular of the popular video game basis with of the video game shops in shops in Ithe I am an administrator of www. the City. amCity. an administrator of www.pinoy-n. pinoy-n.com forum dedicated to the Filipino com a foruma dedicated to the Filipino gaming gaming community. I also own 360 an X-box community. Finally I Finally, also own an X-box with 360 with Kinect sensorironically (which ironically was a Kinect sensor (which was a wedding wedding from my PSthree vita and three gift from gift my sister), PSsister), vita and Nintendo Nintendo held machines. hand heldhand machines. the following following tools: tools: the the interview I used the brain age schedule, their Brain Age game game score and actual oftheir theirgaming gaminghabits. habits.The The brain observation of Brain Age age game not actually game for game is notwas actually game intended for research purposes as it was made as a series of mini games that are assumed to stimulate mental mental activity. activity. brain age Granted that the Brain Agesoftware software does not give strata for a stratum forperformance performanceasasitit merely merely describes performance by way of images that show speed like an image of a person walking, biking, riding a

Dublin, A. M.

car and ultimately ultimatelyaajet jetplane. plane.These Theseacts act as the in in game scores; though these scores can be cheated in some way. The The defect defect of of this tool is remedied by interpretation of their habits when playing games through actual observation. Another tool that supplants the study is the interview schedule, a guide for extracting information from informants. The first step to the study was selecting informants through through purposive purposive sampling, when then proceeded to briefing, using the brain age software, interview schedule and analyzing the culled data through coding to find common themes trends or or schemes schemes in the responses of the six informants. From From all the six informants, I selected the majority to act as representative generalization of the their collected view points. Nintendo’s official response. The Researcher tried to acquire an official approval from Nintendo, but due to the number of request, their standard reply it is to decline such request but it is noted that under Philippine and U.S. Intellectual Property laws this research invokes the principle for the fair use policy. II. OBJECTIVES This study seeks to answer the following concerns This study hopes to discover theof perceived 1. To discover the perceived effects gaming effects of gaming to the informants to the informants intelligence; 2. intelligence To identify the gaming habit of the Informants; 2. This study hopes to identify the gaming 3. To determine if there is any effect of gaming to the lives of informants; and 4. To contribute to an understanding of the gaming hobby for non-gamers. III. DESIGN METHODS This research uses multiple case studies as a method of naturalistic inquiry. Multiple studies allow the researcher to attain a vast corpus of information that will then under go rigorous analysis, interpretation, and assessment. Varied tools are also employed in this study in order to collect data to name a few: written interviews

Figure 1 – Flow chart of the study

and actual interview schedules for conversations. Multiple Case Study was chosen so as to reveal a varied set of data; often you can acquired data. Yin, R.K. (2009) said “the rationale for multiple case designs derives directly from your understanding of literal and theoretical replications” (p. 59). By naturalistic approach, the study tries to put informants in their native “habitat” with regard to the gaming hobby, since we seek to understand and explain their perceptions. What better way to do it than to observe them in their own “native” environment, by observing the informants game at their own residences or area of familiarity.

UV Journal of Research

explain thethe phenomena of The study study also alsotries triesto to explain phenomena gaming andand howhow they they perceive its effect to their of gaming perceive its effect to intelligence.intelligence. They where code name informant’s Theyassigned where assigned code based on their favorite games or gaming genre to name based on their favorite games or gaming genre easy recall. A theory was then generated based to easy recall. A theory was then generated based data mined, theory on the gathered data.the The theorywas wasthen thendebriefed debriefed for their their perusal. perusal. All All culled data culled to participants participants for data were treated with utmost confidentiality. confidentiality. IV. PRESENTATION OF CASES AND SUMMARY OF CASES Case No. 1 -The Call Guy A 20-year old guy who just happens to be engrossed in video games since he was young. His answers to the questions were quite engaging as they point to specific time lines of his age. Currently, he is employed in the Business Product Out Sourcing field, and in his break time he “steals time” by checking up on his games either on android phone or a portable handhelddevice. How the informant does this, despite strict company policies, is best left to our imagination. He opined that he started playing video games around three to four years old, in his primary school where it was only allowed to play on weekends, coming college life he played it everyday to such point, as later to be revealed, his failed some of his minor subjects on account of excessive gaming. His choice of video games ranges from First Person Shooters (Doom) to Role playing games like final fantasy and fighting games. I noted his selections are games that are very conducive to social interaction and may explain his people relationship skills. When quizzed on his perceived causal effect of video games to his intelligence he attributed it to making who he is, his love for video games contributed to his appreciation of the art of making pixels, pixels are small dots that when lumped together will give a shape or things. He attributed the same for his engaging in the 3D art profession though I can only surmise which came first: his love for drawing stuff or his love for video games. On fifth query, I saw the glint of the informant social skills. He narrated

how he he would would go goto tohis hisneighbors neighborshouse housetoto play play video games and going go to various internet shops in to various internet shops in his his place place just justtotocompete competewith withhis hisfriends friends on on a simulated killing game (first (first person person perspective) perspective) that involved shooting mechanics and team cooperation. Informant was referring to a game when you play either as a terrorist or a member of a para military special force team. Informant made mention of an arcade game game called called “Tekken “Tekken Tag”, Tag”,which which can can only only be be found found around popular arcade hang hang outs outsininshopping shoppingmalls malls in in the city the city like SM Cebu and Ayala Center Cebu. He also participated in an official Tekken tag tournament. The game tekken is a fighting game where you can “tag” or swap between two characters, the game is known for its combo system that requires memorizing move sets. Generally he viewed that gaming has a positive impact on his life except that he attributed excessive gaming to his failure in a minor subject. When he was tested for brain age, gaming may have been a factor to developing intelligence, his level of intelligence is average. Case No. 2 -Girly Gamer The Girly Gamer attributed her gaming to her parents who exposed to the Nintendo family computer at the age of 4. She games incessantly between three to eight hours per day, she plays Role Playing Games. These games are often similar to a fictional novel in depth and in the number of readable text. Not surprisingly, her favorite genre is puzzle games. She can often be seen playing a Massive Multi-player Role Playing game like league of legends on her PC during her free time mostly in t h e evenings, she also owns a hand held console Nintendo 3DS, which she says “never leaves my side to most of the time.” It was noted that her selections of games are those center on either a strong story driven plot themed game or a puzzle game. She considered gaming as a double edged blade: positive and negative. The former teaches her micro management, when quizzed on particular examples she cited that as a woman she must be able to do and notice

Dublin, A. M.

more than one single task like performing all assignments in her class. She noted that as a student, she cannot answer all of these task if these pending works all occur on the same day and with the same dead line. However, gaming taught her that one should be able to concentrate on a single task than moving on the next and proper time management was her key to micro management. She also made mention of the importance of budgeting as she preferred original game. She considered gaming as an expensive hobby one that requires constantly protecting her hard earned money so she can spend more than one hundred hours to finish a certain game. The only bane of gaming for our girly gamer is the decrease of social life. When a new game has been acquired, she rarely goes out with her friends choosing to spend her time finishing a good game and at times even playing at the crack of dawn. When given a Brain Age she scored almost perfect score. Gaming may have improved her mathematical intelligence. Case No. 3 -The busy father Informant three is a tad tricky to deal with as his answers were sent via e-mail and may have been busy tending to the needs of his baby. He said that he started playing video games at the age of three years old. He plays daily but cannot give actual specifics regarding his actual play time. He owns at least two hand held devices a PS VITA and a Nintendo 3DS. In his youth, his idea of a social gaming was limited only to his cousins and friends. He views gaming as a positive contribution to his mental development as his reading skill, reading comprehension and vocabulary. Although I noted that most of his responses via e-mail are often made using textspeak and at time have a grammatical error. Due to his busy nature as a father, family man and quite possibly a wage earned, he was not able to participate in the BRAIN AGE testing session. I noted his reluctance as this informant can be considered as a reluctant one.

Case No. 4 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The Gamer Historian This particular informant is perhaps one of the most cooperative in the study often giving his opinion at certain times, to such extent that volunteering unneeded information. Exploring his responses was a chore as his responses to the interview were verbose and the length were astounding (see VII Transcript). His first exposure to video games was with arcade gaming cabinets, later to Mortal Kombat, then a fighting game. He recalled playing from 5:30 to 11:00 pm but played the whole day during weekends when he was young. Currently, his play time has decrease due to family concerns. He plays video games competitively to such extent that his cousins would rather not play with him, often avoiding his invitations for playing. He often spends time with a Real Time Strategy genre, this is a genre best described as playing with a toy soldiers with enemies moving thus when playing one needs to change tactics or plans at moments notice. Informant was also very conscious about the nature of the research as he often suggests other researches without citing proper citations. This is not to say that the informant was an obstructionist rather his enthusiasm was welcomed and considered refreshing from the rest of the informants. He attributes his â&#x20AC;&#x153;multi tasking skillâ&#x20AC;? to playing video games. In fact, he says that video games made him more interested into the study of history and world war two. He considered video gaming both a positive and a negative effect. Positive for reasons stated above and negative as it leads to a corrosion of relationships between family and his love life, his girlfriend who would later become the mother of his child. I never bother asking his marital status as I considered it as of no consequence to the study. Video games also led to his poor eye sight and at often neglecting his physical needs like food and exercise due to excessive play time. Based on the Brain age software, his brain performed at par with his age, ( there might be an indication of an affirmation as to the perceived

UV Journal of Research

positive effects gaming to thepositive brain). effects of affirmation as toofthe perceived gaming to our informant’s brain. Case No. 5 – Mr Nice Guy Case No. 5 – Mr Nice guy to case 3 as his This informant is similar answers This were informant shortis and similar direct to case to the 3 as point, his weredelivered short and direct to theNopoint, answers were only via e-mail. data answers were delivered via e-mail. No data were received regarding only his brain age testing as wasdeclined receivedusing regarding his brainHe ageconsidered testing as he the software. he declines using games the software. He considered the usage of video as a positive experience the usage of video a positive with playing Role games Playingas games as experience his forte, withattributed playing Role Playing hisminute forte, he gaming for games makingaslast he attributes decisions whengaming driving for be itmaking to out run lastthe minute other decisions car, driving when defensively driving beand it toother out run skills the other such car,backing as driving to defensively the garage. and This other information skills suchwas as backing culled after to the a post garage; interview. this information In addition,was Pokemon culled after a him helped postininterview. his zoologyAddition subject by that helping Pokemon him has helped identify thehim various in hisanimals zoology in subject consonance by helping to him Pokemon the identify the designs. variousHe animals played in consonance socially with to the Pokemon presence of designs a local and support He plays group socially that with met the presence weekly at an industrial of a local support park in the group Citythat andmeets with weekly at an industrial park in the City and with his cousins. his cousins. Case No. 6 - The Pokemon Maniac Case informant No. 6 - The This isPokemon the oldestmaniac with a 32- year This as age, informant his code is implies the oldest he is awith certified a 32 year Pokemon age, as his playing code implies he is a certified Pokemon addict on international events. He started addict playing events. He playing aroundon theinternational age of seven events or eight. started ageRole of seven orgames eight His playing favorite around genres the were Playing Table 1.0 Summary

and puzzle genres games.were He clocked his play time his favorite Role Playing games andto puzzle games clocks play time 5 “Around 5 to 8He hours on his weekdays, 12toto“Around 18 hours on weekends but modified by hours availability to play”. – 8 hours on weekdays, 12 – 18 on weekends butattributed modified by to play.games though He theavailability playing of puzzle to still the depends on availability to play”. He attributes developmentofhis prefrontal cortex, a part of the playing of puzzle games to the development of his brain concerned by brain activity. In his review prefrontal cortex, part of brain concerned he supported the aeffect of the video games to his by brain activity. In his he supports intelligence by careful andreview meticulous planningthe to effect of video damage his opponent games to his in Pokemon intelligence games. by careful To and meticulous such extent, he planning even managed to damage to memorize his opponent the in Pokemon damage formula games made and by the to such creator extent of Pokemon. that he was even able Informant eventovolunteers memorize the this damage formulaformula to the made the creator of Pokemon. Informant even researcher. volunteers this formula to the researcher.

Adding that video video games gamesenhance enhance his his puzzle puzzle solving skills. When we was asked to use the skills. When we was asked to usebrain the age software Informant that this formula brain age software, theswears informant swears that has helped so many wins in an wins official this formulahim has log helped him log so many in online Pokemon and being and an official an official online tournament Pokemon tournament being registered Pokemon player online, he expects to an official registered Pokemon player online, he be able to with Pokemon in expects to play be able to various play with various players Pokemon

Dublin, A. M.

players in an official Pokemon match online (March, 2014). Viewing that gaming has its ups and downs. He is positive that gaming did have a positive impact on his life citing the fact that he became an officially registered Pokemon player, and adding in jest during the post interview that the amount of information in Pokemon is more than enough to wallop anyone who calls Pokemon as child’s game or even a glorified game or rock paper and scissors. The collected data represented in Table 1.0 is not exclusive. Body languages, mannerism and the likes were included in the analysis. V. DISCUSSION Harrel (2010) reporting for TIME cited another study by Journal nature reporting that various brain exercises has no direct impact on the brain intelligence rather the improvement was attributable to the phenom of “practice makes perfect; based on the study theses factors: repetition and practice were attributed to such mental growth. This particular study found no relationship, leading the TIME writer to almost state the oft mentioned quote “no approved therapeutic claims”. The study focused the six facets of brain reasoning like memory, non-verbal reasoning, spatial, attention and visual spatial. The participants of that particular study underwent three hours of mental activity for a six week period. Some neuro-scientist who commented on the result mentioned the number of hours spent was a too short period for brain development. On a study developed by the Institute of Development, Aging and Cancer (Kawashima, 2008) connected to the Tohoku University, Japan co-funded by the German Institute for Japanese studies showed a key to “curing” dementia or even unlocking the Alzheimer’s disease. In his study, Dr. Kawashima (June, 2008) focused his study with a sample size of 32 with an average age of 82. He focused on the elderly as he believed that a brain that is not used frequently will lose its “muscles” due to age decline. Among the tools of his study were

the creative use of Magnetic Resonance Imaging for various activities like watching television, reading, or solving Sudoku puzzles, where it was found out that passive activities like watching TV does not promote circulation of blood in the prefrontal cortex of the brain whereas, solving quick math problems induced more blood flow to the brain. At the end of the study, Dr. Kawashima (June, 2008) developed a set of brain training game which were picked up by the Nintendo and was further developed into a handheld game. This tool was later used in 700 nursing homes and 56 in Japan. The end result was astounding as there was an improved cognitive function among the elderly. It seemed that dementia can be fought based on his studies. It would seem that Dr. Kawashima’s finding is akin to a midnight sensation or a newly-discovered talent over YouTube but his research was not without criticism. Japan was noted as a country with a very high life expectancy where people can live more than 80 years old. It was believed that this is attributable to the diet of the Japanese hugely consisting of soy beans, fish and tofu. Some say that the study may not be repeatable as other countries have a low life expectancy. Another criticism on his study is the development of “Faux theories” which are aimed to vertically increase the sales of his brain training soft wares; his peers in the neuroscience world, those outside of Japan, would mock his ideas as if he was selling a herbal medicine. The lack of scientific research on video games, brain exercise in relation dementia is a new research topic. Reeling from a seeming “over night success” Dr. Kawashima (June, 2009) is afraid that his study will be scrutinized with an over bearing eyes from the academic and scientific community. Another criticism was the selection of tools used. It would seem overkill to use an expensive tool like a Magnetic Resonance Imaging just to determine blood flow to the brain, does a higher blood flow really mean better brain activity? Isn’t blood flow attributable to anxiety specially in older people?

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VI. FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND THEORY GENERATION The study shows that video game may slightly affect brain development in relation to their speed or mastery of solving random math problems as generated by Nintendo’s Brain age software. The culled result cannot give a cohesive representation of their answers. Informants perceive gain on their intelligence was slightly contributed by video games. Still, their responses were enough to say that the gaming community was indeed alive in the Philippine culture. In the study, I can see the following categories of importance: income earning capacities, time investment on the hobbies, and the age of informants. These factors are related to the theory generation since they will be playing an important part in the proposition making. From the culled data, I can surmise the following propositions, to wit: Proposition No. 1 At the childhood stage, the parents are the number one buyers of video games. This is attributable to the fact that the children do not have income generating capacity. Thus, their free time is used entirely for playing games. Hence, the parents play a crucial role in the development of the interest of their child when it comes to gaming. Parents should be more proactive in choosing the game for their child. A study in the Economic Journal by Hao, Hotz & Jin (2008) showed that parents act as a model for their child further stating that the various factors, like economic models and emergence of birth control methods to control the growth of the family, degrade the prevalence of the “spoiled brat” syndrome where the influence of parents decreases but is still a factor in the selection of the gaming habits of the child. Narine & Grimes (2009) also identified the contributions of Hollywood movies and video games to the perception of as a violent delinquent, hardly a stereotype that can be attributed to gaming thus the need for guidance of the parents when it comes to video games. Assuming parents decide on the gaming

purchases of the child it leads to the second proposition that shows the growth of a person from childhood to adolescence stage. Proposition No. 2 Upon reaching the age of employment, those who played video games continue to do so. This proposition is supported by the number of informants who admitted to playing video games at a young age but still continuing to play video games. In a study taken from the Psychology Marketing Journal (Niu, Chiang, & Tsai, 2012), they were able to identify the factors that decide the decision making process of an Otaku, an Otaku is a sub-genre of the Japanese culture wherein an adolescent would purchase games, anime and manga based on anime franchises. These factors further are the willingness of their respondents to invest time and emotional investment to participate in the series or franchise. In the Human Communication Journal (Scharrer & Leone, 2008), it was identified that rules set by parents as a deciding factor on the positive perception of the teenagers towards self and others; various factors were also indicated but what made the study engaging is the use of varied games of different ratings by the Electronic and Software Rating Board of America. By these, I have established the proposition as that as the child grows the hobby continues. As the saying goes: “You can take the child out of gaming, but you cannot take the gaming out of the child”. Proposition No. 3 The prevalence of the other modes of piracy such as burning and ISO burning are not considered in the development of the theory, as it is a negative factor that hurts the gaming industry as a whole. From the Journal of World Intellectual Property (Kariithi, 2011), it was postulated that the absence of the usage of Critical theory on the subject of piracy contributed to a myopic causal relationship between piracy and gaming, it further criticizes the British Government Body: The Business Software Alliance for using unjustified application of previously published

Dublin, A. M.

data piracy.From the of From pertaining the Journal to of communication (Ki,Journal Chang, & Communication (Ki, Chang, & Khang,identifying 2006), a Khang,2006), a study was presented the factors study was presented that contribute identifying to music the piracy, factors factors that contribute music piracy, factors like earningtocapacity, income level like and earning market size. capacity, income level and market size. Finally, fromthethe Business Ethics Journal Finally, from Business Ethics journal (Lau, 2003) showed (Lau, 2003) showed a shocking a shocking revelation revelation that in 2001 that the2001 in piracy therate piracy at the rate Asia-Pacific at the Asia-Pacific region was region at a sky high was at aofsky 54%. high Showing of 54 %. that Showing half of the that software half of usedsoftware the in business used establishment in business establishment as well as that as of educational well as that of institutions educational were institutions found towas stolen found or pirated to stolensoftware or pirated thus software establishing thus aestablishing huge loss ofa huge of profit for the software industry. profitloss for the software industry. The Emergent Theory. This This study study showed shows the emergence of a new theory “Dublin “Dublin Game game Attention Theory”.inInthis thisnew newtheory theory,ititisisposited posited attention theory” that as a person grows older his time to play video games is often inversely proportional to his age that as he grows older his attention span to play video games is affected by a plethora of factors Familylife, life,work, work, like family andschool. school. Social life other factors.

The Attention Theory Conditions. The following are the identified conditions for the existence of the attention theory. The must havehave maintained a group Thesubject subject must maintained a of friends who shares his gaming hobby. The. group of friends, who shares his gaming hobby parents of the has inculcated a love and The parents of subject the subject has inculcated a love appreciation of technology. The third condition for technology and its appreciation. The third is that a person havemust the means to sustain condition is thatmust a person have the means the hobbythe thus gamers pirate notmay be to sustain hobby thuswho gamers whomay pirate inclusive of the attention theory.theory. not be inclusive of the attention Impact of the theory. The stated theory explains a wide range of behavior in relation to the gaming hobby. It explains the propensity of children to play video game although they may not have the drive to actually finish the game. The theory also explains the emergence of video

game collectors, collectors who whobuy buygames gamesleft left and and rightright but but hardly any to time to finish the actual hardly have have any time finish the actual game. game. it explains gamingasasa Further,Furthermore, it explains that gaming that as hobby hobby as a social element, although can gaming be said social element although it can be saiditthat that is an individual still experience; stillthe it is angaming individual experience; it explains explains existencegaming of various gaming online existencethe of various online forums and fora andfor threads for therights bragging on the threads the bragging on therights discovery of discovery of cheats, codes and other that cheats, codes and other secrets that asecrets game may ahave. game may have. The This study study hopes hopes that that another more in depth study can be performed using a much wider variety of samples and a longer time frame for a more cohesive output for theory generation, testing and an application of of the theory application the theorygenerated. generated. originality index: similarity index: paper id:

100 % 0% 412967624

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REFERENCES Alvesson, M., & Sköldberg, K. (2009). Reflexive methodology: New vistas for qualitative research. California, LA: Sage Publications Inc. Creswell, J., (2007). Qualitative inquiry & research designs (2nd ed.). California, LA: Sage Publications Inc. Fernandez, A. (2010). BBC “brain training” experiment. Retrieved February 20, 2013 from http:// sharpbrains.com/blog/2010/04/20/bbcbrain-training-experiment-the-good-thebad-the-ugly/ Gentile, D. (July, 2009). Video games affect the brain. February 2013 2013 from fromhttp://www.. http://www Retrieved February dana.org/Cerebrum/Default.aspx?id=39414 Hao, L., Hotz, V.J., & Jin, G.Z. (2008). Games parents and adolescents play: Risky behaviour, parental reputation and strategic transfers. The Economic Journal, 118(528), 515–555. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-0297.2008.02132.x Harrel, E. (2010). Study: Brain exercises don’t improve cognition. Retrieved March 5, 2014 from http://content.time.com/ time/health/article/0,8599,1983306,00. html#ixzz0lhe3Oiri Jootun, D., McGhee, G., & Marland, G.R. (2009). Reflexivity: Promoting rigour in qualitative research. Nursing Standard, 23(23), 42-46. Kariithi, N.K. (2011). Is the devil in the data? A literature review of piracy around the world. The Journal

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of World Intellectual Property, 14(2), 133– 154. doi: 10.1111/j.1747-1796.2010.00412.x Kawashima, R. (June, 2008). Neuro Science and smart aging. Retrieved March 10,2014 from www. dijtokyo.org/events/SMP_DAY1_Kawashima. pdf Ki, E.-J., Chang, B.-H., & Khang, H. (2006). Exploring Influential Factors on Music Piracy Across Countries. Journal of Communication, 56(2), 406–426. doi: 10.1111/j.14602466.2006.00026.x Lau, E.K.W. (2003). An empirical study of software piracy. Business Ethics: A European Review, 12(3), 233–245. doi: 10.1111/14678608.00323 Narine, N., & Grimes, S.M. (2009). The turbulent rise of the “child gamer”: Public fears and corporate promises in cinematic and promotional depictions of children’s digital play. Communication, Culture and Critique, 2(3), 319–338. doi: 10.1111/j.17539137.2009.01040.x Niu, H.-J., Chiang, Y.-S. & Tsai, H.-T. (2012). An exploratory study of the Otaku adolescent consumer. Psychology and Marketing, 29(10), 712–725. doi: 10.1002/mar.20558 Scharrer, E., & Leone, R. (2008). First-person shooters and the third-person effect. Human Communication Research, 34(1): 210–233. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2958.2008.00319.x Yin, R.K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (Vol. 5). California: Sage Publications, Inc. Yin, R.K. (2011). Qualitative research from start to finish. New York, NY: The Guilford press.

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Antipsychotic polypharmacy in selected Asian countries Emma A. Yaun Sheryll B. Sacramento University of the Visayas- Banilad Campus uv.pharmacy@yahoo.com Date submitted:

January 5, 2014

Date accepted: October 15, 2014

ABSTRACT determines the antipsychotic antipsychotic polypharmacy polypharmacy inin selected selected Asian Asian The study determined countries particularly particularly Japan, Japan, Singapore, Singapore, Korea, Korea,China, China,Taiwan, Taiwan, and and Hongkong. Hongkong. It is is a adescriptive that utilizes This descriptivecorrelational correlational study study which utilizedthe theclustering clustering data data mining technique.Data Gathered data from were the internal technique. from the internet gatheredand andanalyzed analyzed using using appropriate statistical management. that Japan and Singapore have the highest management.Findings Findingsreveal revealed that Japan and Singapore have the prevalence of antipsychotic polypharmacy. In terms of care settings, antipsychotic highest prevalence of antipsychotic polypharmacy. In terms of care settings, polypharmacy is prevalentlyishigh in both high general hospitals psychiatric antipsychotic polypharmacy prevalently in both generaland hospitals and facilities. Being maleBeing of increasing age and the of illnessofare directly psychiatric facilities. male of increasing ageduration and the duration illness are proportional to the prevalence of antipsychotic polypharmacy. directly proportional to the prevalence of antipsychotic polypharmacy.

I. INTRODUCTION The study deals dealt with with the issues issues andand trends trends on antipsychotic polypharmacy on antipsychotic polypharmacyamong among selected Asian countries. Polypharmacy pertains to the use of multiple medications by a single patient. When a patient uses two to four medications, it is termed minor polypharmacy while the use of more than four medications constitutes major polypharmacy. Psychotic symptoms are reported at a higher and varying rate in Asia (Chong, 2010) and antipsychotic medications are among the most common drugs being taken in multiple numbers by a single patient. patient. According to Stibich (2010), the prescription of an alarming number of uncoordinated medications to a single patient constitutes who is old polypharmacy. An individual patient, patient who under the thecare careofofmultiple multiple physicians, may and under physicians, may experience polypharmacy polypharmacy (Hanlon, (Hanlon, most likely experience polypharmacy 2007; Stibich, 2010). 2010). Antipsychotic Antipsychoticpolypharmacy in East Asia had been widely employed as a prescribing practice in the management of clients (Sim, Su, Yang, with psychotic symptoms (Chong et Fujii, al., n.d.).

TheUngvari, need to the trend in Chong, et.alunderstand 2004). the The practice antipsychoticthepolypharmacy need ofto understand trend in the in different especially in Asia is ina practice of countries antipsychotic polypharmacy critical in the inmanagement of different component countries especially Asia is a critical psychotic such as schizophrenia. component disorders in the management of psychotic Moreover, getting abreast withMoreover, the prevalence disorderssuch as schizophrenia. getting of antipsychotic polypharmacy andantipsychotic aware of its abreast with the prevalence of related factors and allowaware healthof care professionals polypharmacy its related factors to medication regimen allowestablish health care better professionals to establish better management. medication regimen management. Given these, the researchers believe that it is necessary to be vigilant in this practice in order to make this management more acceptable as a treatment modality and decrease the likelihood of antipsychotic polypharmacy to generate more health-related problems in the future. II. OBJECTIVES The This study determined the prevalence of antipsychotic polypharmacy and explored its related factors in selected Asian countries. Specifically, it sought the association of antipsychotic polypharmacy to patients in terms

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of demographics and (b) (b) clinical clinicalfactors. factors. of: (a) demographics; Finally, it aimed to identify recommendations to prevent health-related problems related to its practice. III. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEwORK The conduct conductofofthis thestudy study is based basedononthethe was premise that medication regimen management practice is highly dynamic. The researchers believe that the mechanics of drug prescription can be beattributed attributedto to the number of factors. a number of factors. Having Having this inthe mind, the researchers to this in mind, researchers submit tosubmit the idea the that pharmacologic approaches to treat thatidea pharmacologic approaches to treat psychotic psychotic can vary significantly. symptoms symptoms can vary significantly. This holds This holds true for polypharmacy. trying to true for polypharmacy. In trying to In understand understand authorsto attempt to this concept,this theconcept, authorstheattempt uncover uncover significant can be related significant variablesvariables that canthat be related to the to the prescription of multiple medications to a prescription of multiple medications to a single single psychiatric This is of substantial psychiatric patient.patient. This is of substantial value as value as healthcare delivery system has nowadays healthcare delivery system nowadays greatly has greatly evolved into a more sophisticated but evolved into a more sophisticated but complex complex process. process. IV. REVIEW REVIEw OF RELATED LITERATURE The study study of ofXiang, He et Wang, al. in 2011 Si, Lee,reveals He, Ungvari, that the of antipsychotic et.al proportion in 2011 revealed that thepolypharmacy proportion prescription decreased from 46.8 prescription % in 2001 of antipsychotic polypharmacy to 38.3 % from in 2004, and increased to % 43.4 % in decreased 46.8 % in 2001, to 38.3 in 2004, and increased 2009 with wide to 43.4 inter-country % in 2009, with variations wide interat country each survey. variations The research at each used survey. multiple The research logistic used multiple regression analysis logistic of regression the entire analysis sample of which the entire sample revealed that patients which revealed who mostthat likely patients experience who most likely experience polypharmacy were young, polypharmacy and receiving were young, higher and receiving dosage of neuroleptics higherespecially dosage those of neuroleptics with more especiallyand negative those positive with more symptoms. negativeThis and positive implied that age and severity of that illness something symptoms. This implied agehave and severity of to do have withsomething the occurrence of the antipsychotic illness to do with occurrence polypharmacy. of antipsychotic polypharmacy. A study meta-analysisof nineteen of 19 A studyusing using meta-analysis studies involving 1,2291,229 subjects reveals that (19) studies involving subjects, revelaed antipsychotic polypharmacy that antipsychotic polypharmacyexhibited exhibited a significant advantage over monotherapy for psychotic patients patients ininterms termsof of efficacy efficacy and and allalldiscontinuation. Moreover, the cause cause discontinuation. Further, the simultaneous use of two neuroleptic simultaneous use of twoagents neuroleptic appears toagents be

appears more beneficial to be more than adding beneficial a second than adding drug toa a concurrently second drug to aused concurrently medication. usedMost medication. of the positive were conducted in China (Correll, Most of studies the positive studies were conducted in Rummel-Kluge, Kane, & Leucht, China (Correll, Corves, Rummel-Kluge, Corves,2009). Kane, & Previous Leucht, 2009).studies of the prescription patterns of antipsychotic drugsofinthe patients with psychotic Previous studies prescription patterns disorders including schizophrenia havepsychotic revealed of antipsychotic drugs in patients with widely variable ratesschizophrenia (13â&#x20AC;&#x201C;90%) ofhave antipsychotic disorders including revealed polypharmacy, as the%) use more than widely variable defined rates (13â&#x20AC;&#x201C;90 of of antipsychotic one antipsychotic (Ito, asKubota, polypharmacy, defined the use&ofSato, more1999; than Keks,antipsychotic Alton, & Hope,(Ito, 1999; Weissman, 2002;1999; Jaffe one Kubota, & Sato, & Levine, Keks, Alton, 2003; & Hope, Tapp, 1999; Wood, Weissman, Secrest,2002; Erdmann, Jaffe Cubberley, & Levine, 2003; & Kilzieh, Tapp,2003). Wood,The Secrest, wide Erdmann, variation in the rates Cubberley, & Kilzieh, of combination 2003). The wide antipsychotic variation therapy in the between rates of countries combination has been antipsychotic attributed to differences therapy between in countries healthcarehassystems been attributed affecting availability to differences and in economic healthcare costsystems of antipsychotics affecting (McCombs, and availability Nichol, economic Johnstone, cost of Stimmel, antipsychotics Shi, & Smith, 2000),et local (Johnstone al., prescription 2000), localtraditions prescription and culture as well traditions andas culture personalas experience well asand personal choice (Fleischhacker, experience and 2003). choice (Fleischhacker, 2003). The Thehigher higher rates rates ofof antipsychotic polypharmacy may be related to the treatment setting, since a psychiatric hospital has a higher likelihood of admitting more seriously ill patients compared with a general hospital psychiatric unit. The combination of more than one antipsychotic may be an attempt at preventing the rapid escalation of the dose of any single medication (Freudenreich, (Freudenreich & & Goff, 2002) or as an alternative towards the management of treatment unresponsiveness or partial response (Stahl, 2002). V. DESIGN DESIGNAND ANDMETHODS METHODS The study used a descriptive correlational design to establish an association between the impact on the prevalence of ofpolypharmacy polypharmacyand anditsits impact on different factors. It alsoItused design the different factors. alsocomparative used comparative o find out significant difference difference in the extent tdesign to for finda out for a significant in that extent the polypharmacy that polypharmacy impacts on impacts the countries on theinct erms of gender ountries in terms and treatment of gender setting. and treatment setting. Data were gathered from internet sources particularly Data were US gathered National from Library internet of Medicinesources National Institute particularly US National of HealthLibrary and Online of MedicineBritish

Yaun, E. A. and Sacramento, S. B.

National Institute of Health andmore Online British Journal. The database contains than 21.6 Journal. The database contains more than 21.6 million records from 5,582 selected publications coveringrecords million biomedicine from 5,582 and selected health publications from 1950 to the present covering biomedicine and facilitates and health evidenced-based from 1950 medicines. to the present Articles andpublished facilitateshere evidenced-based are built on extensive searches medicines. Articles to published make the here findings are built useful on and meaningful. extensive searches to make the findings useful and The meaningful. variables in this study were (1) prevalence, The variables measured in inthis terms study of percentage were (1) per population prevalence, measured who experienced in terms ofantipsychotic percentage polypharmacy per populationinwho a certain experienced Asian antipsychotic country; (2) demographics, in polypharmacy measured a certainin Asian terms country; of age and (2) gender; and (3) clinical demographics, measured factors, in terms measured of age in terms and of the duration gender; and (3) clinical of illness, factors, use measured of anticholinergic in terms drugs, of the and duration treatment of illness, setting. use of anticholinergic drugs, Data andmining treatment techniques setting. that was are utilized in this Datastudy mining wastechniques clustered in that order was toutilized group clustering variables in this study based was on clustering certain characteristics. in order to It group was employedbased variables to generate on certain tentative characteristics. generalizations It was and theories employed to based generate on tentative the groupings generalizations of certain variables. and theories based on the groupings of certain variables. VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION VI. RESULTS The table ANDpresents DISCUSSION the prevalence of antipsychotic The tablepolypharmacy presents the(APP) prevalence in the six of Asian countriespolypharmacy in terms of percentage. It also antipsychotic (APP) in the six (age & gender) gender) Asian in demographics terms of percentage. It also shows countries the data on (age, shows data onfactors demographics (age, gender) as wellthe as clinical (DOI, ACU, treatment settings) as well asthat clinical couldfactors influence (DOI,orACU, be associated treatment with the antipsychotic settings) that could influence polypharmacy or beprevalence. associated with the antipsychotic polypharmacy prevalence. Table 1. 1. Data Data Distribution distribution Country

APPPa

Age

Male

Female

DOIb

ACU

Gen Hosp GenHosp

Psych Setting PsychSetting

Japan

78.6

52.9

58.4

41.6

65.8

50.4

78.1

Singapore

70.3

46.2

58.7

41.3

6.7

100

Korea

35.5

39.1

17.7

37.1

38.7

China

25.2

38.5

50.9

49.1

28.1

34.7

67.3

Taiwan

22.2

38.2

55.6

44.4

25.7

48.6

61.4

100

Hongkong

45.4

58.3

41.7

52.8

46.3

100

a prevalence a Antipsychotic Antipsychotic polypharmacy Polypharmacy Prevalence b Duration of illness (>20 years) b Duration of Illness (>20 years) cc Anticholinergic Anticholinergic use Use

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prevalence have higher genderof gender involvement. In termsfemale of duration involvement. In terms of duration of illness, illness, Japan and Hongkong have the Japan most and Hongkong have the most number of patients number of patients whose illness have been whose illness have than been 20 existing thanuse 20 existing for more years.forAsmore for the years. As for the use of anticholinergics, Singapore of anticholinergics, Singapore appears to have a appears to have a significantly percentage significantly lower percentage lower compared to the compared to the other five nations. Because those other five nations. Since those drugs counteract drugs counteract antipsychotic adverse antipsychotic adverse reactions, the reactions, use of the use of these agents possibly, though not these agents possibly, though not conclusively, conclusively, induced an influence on Singaporeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s induce an influence on Singaporeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s antipsychotic antipsychotic polypharmacy prevalence. polypharmacy prevalence. On treatment settings, On treatment settings, more antipsychotic more antipsychotic polypharmacy incidences polypharmacy incidences werein experienced by were experienced by patients the psychiatric patients in the psychiatric facility as compared to facility as compared to those in the general those in the general hospitals. hospitals. The table table below below presents presents the the results results of of data data The analysis using multivariate clustering. This analysis using multivariate clustering. This was was done done in in order order to to group group the the countries countries according according to to some some similar similar characteristics. characteristics. Table 2. Cluster Analysis

As seen on the table, table, Japan Japan and and Singapore Singapore in the have the highest prevalence of antipsychotic polypharmacy as compared to the four other countries. Relevant to the development of these nations, it is not surprising that those psychotic patients from these areas experience polypharmacy practically fact practically because because of of the the fact that they are capable of purchasing multiple medications. The average age at which patients experience antipsychotic polypharmacy in these nations appears to be also higher as compared to other nations. Still with Japan and Singapore, males are more likely to experience this healthrelated issue which is contrary to their female counterparts. This is also true with Hongkong. The other three countriesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;China, Korea, and Taiwan with lower antipsychotic polypharmacy prevalence have higher female

Variable

Cluster Cluster11

Cluster 2 Cluster2

Grand centroid

APPP

74.45

23.725

40.6333

Age

49.55

40.3

43.3833

Male

58.55

55.45

56.4833

Female

41.45

44.55

43.5167

DOI

48.9

31.075

37.0167

ACU

28.55

42.1833

HospSetting

55.525

63.6833

PsychSetting

89.05

76.5

80.6833

As observed in the table, cluster 1 consists of countries with high prevalence of antipsychotic polypharmacy namely, Japan and Singapore while cluster 2 countries are those with lower ages of antipsychotic polypharmacy prevalence specifically Korea, China, Taiwan and Hongkong. Cluster 1 composed ofcomposes countries with demanding lifestyle due to the nature of their jobs, economic advancement and the tendency to encounter stressful activities. These activities are one

Yaun, E. A. and Sacramento, S. B.

of the contributing factors that can affect the psychological performance of a person resulting to the use of antipsychotic drugs. The data reveal that clustered developed countries, practiced APP due to remarkable sources of funds. Hence, can afford to spend costly effective medicines and very much influence on the therapeutic effects of polypharmacy because of advance information in medicine. While cluster 2, as poor countries they have the tendency to purchase cheaper drugs which may have higher side effects that require the use of another anticholinergic drugs. Thus, the rate of ACU is high. They have limited information on the advancement of medicine and not very much influenced of multiple drug combination specifically related to polypharmacy. The use of anticholinergic drug for most developed countries is low since the costly effective medicines use, exhibit lesser side effects hence do not require another anticholinergic drugs for its side effects. The findings reveal that as the age increases, the antipsychotic polypharmacy prevalence also increases. This implies that the older one gets, the more likely he or she be required to take multiple medications to treat psychotic symptoms. This is due to long term use of drugs that produce multiple side effects and it is where other medications are again required for such new side effects. ‘Stable’ patients with psychosis, receiving long- term antipsychotic monotherapy, may develop an acute exacerbation of psychotic symptoms, worsening of agitation or insomnia and be prescribed of an additional antipsychotic on an ‘as required’ or short-term basis. However, such short-term or ‘as required’ prescriptions may develop into medium- or long-term adjuvant treatments, particularly if considered successful in the short term. A natural reluctance to risk a recurrence of symptoms tends to perpetuate this situation and ultimately results in long-term antipsychotic polypharmacy (Langan & Shajahan, 2010). In cluster 1, being male also dictates an increase in the antipsychotic polypharmacy prevalence than cluster 2. The demand of lifestyle,

nature of jobs, economic and technological advancement play an important role to the deleterious health status of people in Japan and Singapore. It is more prevalent on psychological effects rather than in other illnesses. Thus, the need of polypharmacy is more common in developed countries due to greater responsibility in the society. With this, it also signifies that gender has an impact on the prevalence of antipsychotic polypharmacy. Another is, receptor interaction follows therapeutic pattern in terms of pharmacokinetic response, male requires higher dose of drugs since dosage requirement is based on weights of the person and surface area of the body (Katzung, 2010). Most males are structurally bigger than the females, with this, male requires more APP than female. In cluster 2, the role of female in cultural, domestic and pattern of responsibility is highly emphasized in poor countries resulting to psychological manifestations among females, hence tend to use APP than in cluster 1. Furthermore, the phenomenon increases significantly with longer duration of illness that means that the longer the illness persists and the more it becomes chronically severe, it would necessitate the use of more neuroleptic medications. When clinicians aim to switch their patients from one antipsychotic to another by cross-tapering, the switch may never be fully completed as symptoms stabilize or improve. This leads to reluctance on the part of clinician or patient to complete the switch and may postpone the completion of the switch indefinitely, leading to long-term antipsychotic polypharmacy (Langan & Shajahan, 2010). A study conducted in Tokyo, showed longer duration of illness and lower subjective distress caused by side effects were predictive for a more favorable subjective response to medication. On the other hand, female gender, younger age, and lower BPRS scores were independently correlated with a positive subjective response to medication in Beijing. Total variance explained by the regression model was 27 % for the Tokyo group and 35 % for the Beijing group (Kuroda et al., n.d.).

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Finally, the treatment locations, particularly psychiatric setting, also increase the antipsychotic polypharmacy prevalence. In cluster 1, developed countries are more particular of confinements due to readily available funds and advance understanding of medicine, while cluster 2 most especially in China they will supplement or employ alternative medicine, thus hospital setting would not be more preferable. A study was conducted on “Attitudes toward taking medication among outpatients with schizophrenia: cross-national comparison between Tokyo and Beijing” showed that of that, years years of of education education and and total length of hospitalization were significantly longer for subjects in Tokyo. In addition, samples were significantly different regard to to health different with in regards economic resources; all subjects in Tokyo had health insurance, % of the insurance, whereas whereas only only 25 25% subjects in in Beijing Beijing had hadinsurance insurance (Kuroda et (Kuroda et. al.). al., n.d.).beliefs Cultural can alsothe influence Cultural canbeliefs also influence decisionsthe of decisions of confinements China, Korea and confinements in China, Koreainand Taiwan. Taiwan. This implied that in-patients (admitted patients) This implies are more that likely in-patients to experience (admitted antipsychotic patients) are more polypharmacy likely to experience in antipsychotic psychiatric facilities. p olypharmacy In most in psychiatric admitted patients, facilities. they In most are exposed to admitted patients, APP because they are of exposed some to complications APP because that of some maycomplications likely to occurthat while mayexisting likely occur APP drugs while are in used. existing APP drugs If complication are in used.occur If complications specialized doctors occur, specialized are needed doctors and are another needed drugs and may another be prescribed drugs may bethat prescribed will contribute that will contribute to the use to the of polypharmacy drugs.drugs. use of polypharmacy VII. CONCLUSION Financial resources greatly influence the health needs of a person. If more financial funds are available, the more drugs can be provided for its treatment. Countries like Japan, Singapore, China and China, and Korea Korea being developed countries with high financial resources have high APP prevalence. There are factors that influence APP most especially the demographic and clinical profile of the patients. The prevalence of antipsychotic polypharmacy is associated with both demographic and clinical factors. This

is of important consideration for health care professionals in order for them to establish psychiatric management holistically, paying significant attention to demographic and clinical variables.

originality index: similarity index:

91 % 1%

paper id:

470234427

Grammarly:

checked

REFERENCES Correll, C.U., Rummel-Kluge, C., Corves, C., Kane, J.M., & Leucht, S. (2009). Antipsychotic combinations versus monotherapy in schizophrenia: A metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 35(2), 443-457. Freudenreich, O., Goff, D.C. (2002). Antipsychotic combination therapy in schizophrenia. A review of efficacy and risks of current combinations. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 106(5), 323-30. Ito, C., Kubota, Y., & Sato, M. (1999). A prospective survey on drug choice for prescriptions for admitted patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 53(1), S35-S40. Katzung (2010). Antidepressants: Katzung (2010) review. The Feria Journal of Medicine. Rerieved from http://theferiajournalofmedicine.blogspot. com/2010/10/antidepressants-katzung-2010review.html Keks, N.A., Altson, K., Hope, J., et al (1999). Use of antipsychosis and adjunctive medications by an inner urban community psychiatric service. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 33(1), 896-901. Langan, J., & Shajahan, P. (2010). Antipsychotic polypharmacy: Review of mechanisms, mortality and management. Psychiatric Bulletin, 34(1). 58-62. doi: 10.1192/pb.bp.108.024257 McCombs, J.S., Nichol, M.B., Johnstone, B.M., Stimmel, G.L., Shi, J., & Smith, R. (2000). Antipsychotic drug use patterns and the cost of treating schizophrenia. Psychiatric Services. 51(4), 525527. Sim, K., Su, A., Fujii, S., Yang, S.Y., Chong, M.Y., et al. (2004). Antipsychotic polypharmacy in patients with schizophrenia: A multicentre comparative study in East Asia. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 58(1), 178–183. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2004.02102.x Tapp, A., Wood, A.E., Secrest, L., Erdmann, J., Cubberley, L., & Kilzieh, N. (2003). Combination

Yaun, E. A. and Sacramento, S. B.

antipsychotic therapy in clinical practice. Psychiatric Services, 54(1), 55-59. doi: 10.1176/ appi.ps.54.1.55-59 Xiang, Y.T., Wang, C.Y., Si, T.M., Lee, E.H., He, Y.L., Ungvari, G.S., et al. (2011). Clozapine use in schizophrenia: Findings of the research on Asia Psychotropic Prescription (REAP) studies from 2001 to 2009. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 45(1), 968â&#x20AC;&#x201C;975.

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Psychosocial determinants of corruption G. Nalzaro Queen HeneylourJonalyn S. Relatorres, CSP Donald B. Narra Maguindah Lumarog Nemenzo Maguindah JonalynL.G.Nemenzo Nalzaro University of the Visayas drelatorres@gmail.com Date Submitted: March 15, 2014

Date accepted: October 18, 2014

ABSTRACT determinants ofofcorruption corruptionwas were recommended in order to Psychosocial determinants recommended in order to give emphasis give emphasis that corruption that corruption is innate is in innate natureinin nature which discontentment in which discontentment and security takes place astake a motivating why a certain corruption, it and security place as factor, a motivating factor; person why a committed certain person commits involves Maslow’s Hierarchyused of needs whichhierarchy determines the self-actualization as corruption. The researchers Maslow’s of needs which determines the higher needs of man belief that he/she wasorfully used that all their potentials self-actualization as or thea higher needs of man a belief he or she was as a result of full . In Sociological Perspective, man fully used all his satisfaction or her potentials as a resultand of Psychological full satisfaction. In sociological has and its psychological own individual perspective, characteristics, man hasability its own to perceive individualwhat characteristics, is right andability what is aswhat well is asright the ability to observe and is being As to wrong, perceive and what is wrong as adopt well aswhat the ability toobserved. observe and determinants corruption twoAs (2)determinants theories are of involve anchored Bandura’s adopt what is of being observed. corruption, twoby theories are observation Theory . (1)TheLearning FreudianTheory: theory (1)The which asserts man Id , anchored byLearning Bandura’s Observation Freudian theory ego andasserts super man’s –ego and theory imitatetheory observable antiwhich id, the ego(2) andsecond superego; andeventually the (2) second eventually social acts that would immediately their needs . Derived propositions are imitates observable anti-social acts satisfy which would immediately satisfy their needs. the following: (1) People with low sense of guilt will eventually imitate observable Derived propositions are the following: (1) people with low sense of guilt will anti-social that would immediately satisfy (2)immediately Some people satisfy prefer eventually acts imitate observable anti-social actstheir thatneeds would to commit actspeople because it has but with less threat legal their needs;corrupt (2) some prefer to greater commitpayoff corrupt acts because it hason greater punishment.( 3) less Individual great sense of his moral conscience achieve payoff but with threat with on legal punishment;(3) individual with can great sense self-actualization. (4) Actualized People will never engage corruption. (5) Selfof his moral conscience can achieve self-actualization; (4)in actualized people will actualized people are Incorruptible. never engage in corruption; and (5) self-actualized people are incorruptible. Keywords: psychosocial, corruption, self-actualizer I. INTRODUCTION Corruption is one of the primary problem problemsand and concerns manyunder underdeveloped concern ininmany developed and developing nations. Substantial portion of funds allocated to spur social and economic activities in the countries are siphoned into the pockets of few individuals, thus resulting resulting into into sub substandard standards delivery delivery of of goods and service in the countries. countries The United Nations (2009) estimated that roughly 25 % of the national budgets of countries listed as among those with high corruption incidences remain remains unaccounted for and end up in the personal custody of highly highly

authoritative individuals. authoritative individuals. While While governments governments ofof the countries have passed laws and ordinances ordinances the countries have passed laws and imposing stiff stiff sanction sanction on on individuals individuals convicted convicted for for imposing corruption, the situation has essentially remained corruption, the situation has essentially remained the same same over over the the years. years.Government Governmentinterventions interventions the that target the symptoms of corruption that target the symptoms of corruption ratherrather than than the cause of corruption are and will always the cause of corruption are and will always remain in remain ineffective. The of dimension corruption effective. The dimension corruptionofcommitted in committed in the sphere of the legal economy are the sphere of the legal economy are possibly obvious possibly obvious butbe that may, indeed seenfor to but that may, indeed seen to be more be reason be more for on thethe study of corruption the studyreasonable of corruption interactional level. on the interactional level. This paper attempts to This paper attempts to explain the psycho-social

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explain the psycho-social causes of the prevalence of corruption with the end-in-view of providing a more effective strategy to combat corruption on a national scale. Corruption is most commonly defined as the misuse or the abuse of public office for private gain (World Bank, 1997; UNDP, 1999). It can come in various forms and a wide array of illicit behavior, such as bribery, extortion, fraud, nepotism, graft, speed money, pilferage, theft, and embezzlement, falsificationofrecords,kickbacks,influencepeddling, and campaign contributions (Klitgaard, n.d.). On the criminological study of Huisman and VandeWalle (1999), corruption is a symptom of deep rooted economic and political weakness and start coming in the legislative and judicial system of the country. In the democratic environment, “corruption” is widely expressed in different forms of action and social behavior as a form of culture. Unfortunately, here in the Philippines our legal provisions do not provide any definition of graft and corruption. However, the Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act (Republic Act 3019) enumerates certain punishable corrupt practices of public officers. Our courts of law do not generally prescribe clear-cut definitions of the terms “graft” and “corruption” since they may be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to contain all the elements of the different types of graft and corruption in one sweeping generalization. II. LITERATURE REVIEW Personality (innate) Factor. At the individuallevel, a person’s propensity to be corrupted is related to his contentment and feeling of security. Guiltiness is an innate factor. As to define guilt it is realizing you have done wrong, usually for some particular sin but because of less spirituality of human or less of deeper understanding in God’s law and truth; people tend to do sinful acts and do not even make a realization out of the sin they made. Realization and conscience are innate and part of human’s ability in perceiving what is right and wrong. Spiritual aspect of man is personal yet it needs guidance and follow- up, because as human as we are, we find it hard to understand contentment and seek personal security that may lead us to be

corruptible beings. Geni (1999) attested that it is a general misconception that the prevalence of corruption is at the level of high status in society. In fact, corruption has a good deal at the low-level from the local government employees to community personnel. On Balko (2001), corruption practices flourished in systems where employees have a high job security but the level of professionalism is low. Corruption is also often attributed to the low salaries of civil servants. This scenario portrays need driven (satisfying basic requirements for survival) or greed driven (satisfying desires far from status and comfort that salaries cannot match). In the higher level of religious context, selfactualized people are incorruptible. Individuals who are deeply contented with their lives and who feel secure about their social and economic status will not be vulnerable to corruption. The satisfaction will depend on how he inclines himself with acts that define goodness in attending to his needs. For an individual to survive he must of course to eat, drink and have a place to live. Eventually, these basic needs were added as man learned to think greater than his survival. A known theorist in the name of Abraham Maslow categorizes the human needs as: (1) physiological (food, water and sex); (2) safety (shelter); (3) belongingness (connection to others); (4) self-esteem (achievements); and (5) self-actualization (contentment). According to him, thwarting of basic needs leads to some kind of pathology that can result in people lying, cheating, stealing, even killing or feeling of dissatisfaction. Maslow contends that very few people can step to the highest form of need, the self-actualization. A very essential component of this postulation relates to the fact that even if one attains the upper-level needs, the lower or more basic needs are deprived; the person ignores the higher needs in order to address the basic one Jung’s (2012) view states that man’s thinking by nature is embedded in past, present and future: it consists of consciousness and unconscious elements which he called tendencies. This contradictory tendency and impulse must be into harmony with each other. He theorized that self-actualization is achieved when a harmony on the tendency and impulse of an individual exist but

Relat orr es, Q. HJ.. S., M. B. L. and o, J. G. M. L. Nalzaro, G.,Nemenzo, Narra, D. andNalzar Nemenzo,

self-actualization must be sought and it does not occur automatically. Sociological and Psychological Perspective of Corruption. According to Freud (2000), a well-defended personality may never breakdown unless placed in environment circumstances that participate on stress and lead to an exacerbation of defensive mechanism. As an individual, man is more vulnerable if conflicts and fixations that occur earlier in life. At this time being the more dependent on immature defenses in dealing with anxiety. Immature defense is created by one’s ego, a personality structure that governs a person to do or act something in response to his needs. This phenomenon takes place during the nurturing stage of a child to become a full grown person. The type of nurture that an individual had can influence his way of thinking and decision making. An individual may become corrupted when from the start of his growth, corrupt acts have been observed from the parents and eventually or unconsciously became a part of the nurturing process. This shows that man’s corrupt behavior can be a product of imitating others or learning illegal way of thoughts. This may disturb the mental balance of the individual. On the other hand, people who are likely to be observed with corrupt behavior are individuals who have strong characteristics and most likely those with high–level status. A person’s social status can drive one towards illegal path. Bandura’s Observational Learning Theory (2000) argues that much of what we learn is obtained by observing others. This is more efficient than learning through direct experience because it spares countless responses that might be followed. Essentially, the psycho-social perspective of this phenomenon (corruption) should be linked with the innate and outward behavior of a person. Myers (1994) stresses that nice people also become corrupted through excessive social pressure. He advocated that good and dirt free man may modify his or her behavior on the basis of community and family pressure and consequently pursue a wrongful path. External influences can lead one to conform to the group norms or obey a perceived authority figure. Conformity to this context can be

defined as changing one’s behavior or beliefs to match those of other individuals or group members due to unspoken pressure. Bandura (2001) identifies four main processes that are crucial for observation learning: attention, retention or representation, behavioral production and motivation. In order to learn through observation, one must attend to the model. Factors that regulate attention include the frequency with which the individual must be able to make some representations of what they have witnessed in memory. Behavioral production involves the process of converting the mental representations into appropriate actions. Lastly, observational learning is most effective when observers are motivated to an act the modeled behavior. The motivation of such individual may depend on whether they encounter a situation in which they believe that the response is likely to lead favorable consequences for them. Favorable consequence may come from a legal or illegal action. If one individual observed that there is a prevalence of a corrupt act in their workplace that leads to a favorable consequence, then he or she would join them or would just do the same. The person may just think “I’m just following them, anyway everybody is doing it.” Such act will be fully realized especially if the individual does not perceive the consequence of his action as a threat to his interest. Antonova (2013) emphasizes the role of society and environment in law enforcement, and allege that the negative practices of high ranking police officers may influence their subordinates to engage in unethical behavior. This situation may lead to higher tendency of corruption in the police parlance. Contrastingly, Adler (2001) explains that making an evaluation of a person’s behavior out of context, and judging only their physical status, their environment or upbringing will be a mistake. Freud (2004) states that the Id personality dictates for individual needs. Maslow (2009) claims that thwarting of the basic needs creates anxiety, Adler (2001) relates this postulation as a condition of inferiority. This inferiority tends to serve a natural motivation factor or a driving force in every individual’s life. Thus, out of individuals’ inferiority

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tends to serve us asource naturalofmotivation factor or a causes of ofcorruption corruptionisisbased basedononthe thequery, query, When when feelings are the all human striving driving force in every individuals Thus, out of can an individual become vulnerable to corruption? towards self-growth, expansion life. or competence. individual’s inferiority are the behavior is is influenced Alder (2001) theorizesfeelings that people aresource drivenof byalla Basically man’s behavior influenced by human strivingand towards expansion or personal, behavioral and environmental factors. lust for power a needself-growth, to dominate over others factors. competence. Alder theorized that people are driven This premise is primarily anchored on Bandura’s and the environment. Thus, it can be said that an on Bandura’s by a lust foract power andsatisfaction a need to dominate over Freud Personality Personality Trait Trait individual’s for the of his need is Observational Learning, Freud’s others andmotivated the environment. Thus, it behavioral can be said that primarily by personal, and Structures and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. an individual’s act for the satisfaction of his need is Man by by nature nature has has needs from the basic to the environmental determinants. The environmental Man primarily motivated by personal, behavioral and higher needs (Maslow). Needs are are governed by influence may only be a justification of one’s needs (Maslow, 2009). Needs governed environmental determinants. toThe environmental a human personality structure behavior and a rationalization dress up the flaws by a human personality structurecalled calledthe the id id that influence may only be a justification of one’s serves serves as motivator in one’s self. motivator to tosatisfy satisfyone’s one’s needs needs(Freud). (Freud, behavior and(2009), a rationalization to dress upBandura’s the flaws 2004). However, anotheranother personality structure the ego, Maslow Freud (2004) and However, personality structure the in one’s self. deals with the demands of reality and lead a person (2001) theories can be the bases to a psychosocial ego, deals with the demands of reality and lead a Maslow, Freud and causes Bandura’s theories can make decisions. Such Such decisions are based on the approach in determining of corruption on be an person make decisions. decisions are based on the bases to a psychosocial approach in determining superego that dictates which act isact good or bad. the superego that dictates which is good or This bad. individual level and eventually lead to conceptualize causes of corruption on become an individual level and cycle a person to survive in in hishis everyday an approach on how to an incorruptible Thisguides cycle guides a person to survive eventually lead to conceptualizing an approach on living. The cycle of personality structures individual. living. The cycle of personality structures in how to become an incorruptible individual. satisfying man’s needs may be affected affectedor or influenced influenced bybyexternal externalfactors factorssuch suchas, as,opportunity opportunity to cope cope III. THEORY FORMULATION III. THEORY FORMULATION up with the needs, the needs, behavior behavior of others of others that that model model how This section presents a minimal set of self- with This section presents a minimal set of selfhow to satisfy the needs and pressures (Bandura). evident truth or axioms that would later be used to satisfy the needs and pressures (Bandura, 2001). evident truthpropositions or axioms that later be used AA framework of the to generate andwould eventually develop the interrelationship interrelationship of the the three to generate propositions eventually the main theory of the study.and The argumentdevelop on root theories is presented in Figure Figure 1. the main theory of the study. The argument on root Figure 1. Psychosocial Bases of Corruption

Relat orr es, Q. HJ.. S., M. B. L. and o, J. G. M. L. Nalzaro, G.,Nemenzo, Narra, D. andNalzar Nemenzo,

According to Freud (2002), our moral conscience only defines good behavior and sets rules which are considered bad. When we engage in actions that conform to goodness, we feel good about ourselves or proud of our accomplishments. When we do things that our conscience considers bad, we experience feelings of guilt. Sense of guilt is a product of struggle between ego and super ego, its degree is being affected if the individual is incapable of remorse after doing something which is considered to deviate from the social norms. Thus, our Axiom 1 is: A person has the capability of doing bad things. He also has a sense of guilt. Vedackumchery (2001) argues that impurity of the conscience increased the low sense of guilt of a person. A person gets to use of doing bad acts because his own judgment towards an act is not perceived as bad. Things are based on truth; people who often committed crime and any other deceit and impurities know the truth but were blinded with lies that lead them to skip out of their conscience, remove their sense of guilt and loss their fear in judgment and condemnation both in human or spiritual law. As individuals, we are aware that each of us is very vulnerable in different kinds of temptation that lead us to commit bad actions. Because of that vulnerability, we become immune and loss our sense of guilt. The situation above can lead to Axiom 2: that people with low sense of guilt would likely tend to commit bad acts. People who do not feel guilty every time they commit bad acts cannot manifest an ill feeling or shame towards other people. According to Hedman (2013), guilt may not influence the social anxiety disorder (ill) of an individual; it can be hidden because the doer use to do acts that does not conform to the social norms. One can do anything and can be a strange advantage over the majority of people who are kept in line by their conscience. These people practicing corrupt acts will most likely remain undiscovered. This strengthens the desire of doing bad acts to satisfy their basic and security needs.

Axiom 3: People will imitate other behaviors/ actions if they perceived such actions as favorable to them. Beccaria (2008) argues that crime is an act of less work but greater pay off. Hence, corruption in general is categorized as a crime. It carries the same criteria of offering pleasure towards the individual. On the other hand, the id which observes the pleasure principle drives for an immediate satisfaction of the desire. Satisfaction of the desire is not always realistic or even possible. It rules entirely by the pleasure principle, one may find grabbing from other peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hands just to satisfy the craving. He may also imitate anotherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s action/behavior if he perceives that the act is pleasurable which can satisfy his needs. The above situation can lead to Proposition which is individuals with low sense of guilt will eventually imitate observable anti-social acts that would immediately satisfy their needs. When people in the environment are doing bad act, others may learn and follow the same. According to McLeod (2013), learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions, this coded information serves as a guide for action. They pay attention to some of these people (models) and encode their behavior. At a later time, they may imitate the behavior they have observed. On the principles of Felson and Clark (2010), some products offer more tempting crime opportunities. Corruption as a crime depends on two things: the presence of at least one motivated offender who is ready or willing to engage in a crime, and the conditions of the environment in which that offender is situated, to wit, opportunities for crime. According to Cohen, Felson, and Lane (2008), crimes require opportunity, but not every opportunity is followed by crime. A large part

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On the principles of Felson and Clark (2010), classified and name a type of corruption in a small of this assumption on how crime variations more or daily in their encounter with public some products offerfocuses more tempting scale which is less called Petty Corruption which refers to administration and services like hospitals, in lifestyle or routine activities affect the opportunities. Corruption as a crime depends on the modest sums of money usually involved, and has opportunities crime. becomesalsoschools, local“low licensing police,totaxing two things: the for presence of Opportunity at least one motivated been called level”authorities, and “street level” name the limiting factor that determines the outcome authorities and so on. People committing this are offender who is ready or willing to engage in a crime, the kind of corruption that people can experience in to crime because thethatin authority they canencounter invoke discretion of andantheenvironment conditions ofprone the environment in which more or lesswhere daily, in their with public offender generally has little or no control over judgment. This phenomenon attracts individuals offender is situated, to wit, opportunities for crime. administration and services like hospitals, schools, the conditions of Lane the environment the local wholicensing might offer bribes police, in lewd of the service Cohen, Felson, and (2008), crimesand require authorities, taxing authorities conditions that permit particular crimes are needed. opportunity but not every opportunity is followed and so on. People in this type of work are what we often rare,A unlikely orofpreventable. Thus,focuses it can called Maslow’s of needs describes by crime. large part this assumption person in hierarchy authority where they can invoke be assume that (Axiom 4) Acts of Corruption that self-actualizer is a person who is living on how variations in life-style or routine activities discretion of judgment. This phenomenon attracts always offers opportunity to an individual. creatively and fully using his or her potentials. affect the opportunities for crime. Opportunity thus individuals who might offer bribes in lewd of the Satisfaction of the need not always In his study, becomes the limiting factor that isdetermines the service needed.Maslow found that self-actualizers realistic possible. prone It is ruled entirely by shareOnsimilarities whetheroffamous or unknown, outcomeor in even environments to crime because Maslow’s hierarchy needs describes that the pleasure principle that we might find our educated or not, rich or poor. Self-actualized the offender generally has little or no control self-actualizer is a person who is living creatively self out what other people’s hands to people orordisapprove certain overgrabbing the conditions of the environment, and the and fullyapprove using his her potentials. In hisactions study, satisfy our own craving. People tend to commit quite instinctively. A person with high moral conditions that permit particular crimes are often Maslow found that self-actualizers share similarities crime if they or perceived thatThus it has onlybeless risk of conscience knows what is right from or wrong rare, unlikely preventable. it can assume whether famous or unknown, educated not, (punishment) and greater reward out of that and because of that, he highly reaches his goal that (Axiom 4) Acts of Corruption always offers rich or poor. Self-actualized people approve or action (Becarria, 2008). Thus, it leads to the in moral standard. tends to fit on opportunity to an individual. disapprove certain Self-actualizer actions quite instinctively. A proposition 2: That individual will engage the profile in Figure 2. With these qualities can Satisfaction of the need is not always realistic person with high moral of conscience knowsitwhat himself in a crime corruption if he finds said with Axiom 5: Individuals withhighly selfor even possible. If of were ruled entirely by that the isbe right and wrong and because of that, they punishment towards such act is lesser than actualize qualities will sustain their lifestyle pleasure principle, we might find our self, grabbing reach their goal in moral standard. Self-actualizer the favor heofcan getpeople’s out of hands it. There is another with on what out other to satisfy our tends to moral fit on deeds. the profile in Figure 2. With these type of corruption that is consumated in a small Axiom 3, Axiom and Axiom Axiom 55:derived the own craving. People tend to commit crime if they qualities it can be said4with Individuals scale which is itcalled Petty Corruption. It refers and Proposition 3: that anqualities individual who has selfperceived that has only less risk (punishment) with self-actualize will sustain his to the modest sums of money usually involved, actualized qualities will only imitate moral greater reward out of that action Becarria (2008). lifestyle with moral deeds. and alsotobeen called “low2:level” “street actsAxiom and avoid immoral (corruption). Thushas it lead the proposition Thatand individual 3, Axiom 4 andacts Axiom 5 derived the level”. This kind of corruption is experienced will engaged him in a crime of corruption if he Proposition 3: that an individual who will have finds that punishment towards such act is lesser a self-actualize qualities will only imitate moral than the favor he can get out of it. On the study of acts and avoid immoral acts (corruption) and; Figure 2. Self- Actualize Qualities Self- Actualized People 1. Efficient perception of reality

Ability to perceive other people correctly and efficiently, to see reality as it is, rather than as they wish it to be.

2. 2. Comfortable Comfortable acceptance acceptance of of self self ,, others, nature others, nature

They respect and esteem themselves and others. They are not, however, self-satisfied but are concerned about discrepancies between what is and what might be or should be in themselves, others, and society.

3. Spontaneity

They are not externally motivated or even goal-directed- rather their motivation is the internal one of growth and development, the actualization of themselves and their potentialities.

Relat orr es, Q. J.HG., . S.,Narra, Nemenzo, L. Nemenzo, and NalzarM.o, L.J. G. Nalzaro, D. B.M. and

4. Task Centering

They are mission-oriented, often on the basis of a sense of responsibility, duty, or obligation rather than personal choice. This characteristic would appear to be related to the security and lack of defensiveness leading to compassionateness.

5. Continued Freshness of application

They are ready and willing to learn from anyone. Learning from them is not the end but the beginning of continuous application from all theyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve learned.

6. Continued freshness of appreciation

The repeatedly, though not continuously, experience awe, pleasure, and wonder in their everyday world.

7. Fellowship with humanity

Deep interpersonal relations with others. They are selective, however their circle of friends may be small, usually consisting of other self-actualizing persons, but the capacity is there. They attract others to them as admirers or disciples.

8. Comfort with solitude

The quality of detachment; the need for privacy. It is perhaps related to a sense of security and self-sufficiency.

9. None-hostile sense of humor

Their sense sense of of humor humor was was the the spontaneous, spontaneous, thoughtful thoughtful type, type, Their intrinsic to to the the situation. situation. It It does does not not involve involve hostility, hostility, superiority, superiority, or or intrinsic sarcasm. sarcasm.

10. Peak experience

They have experiences of ecstasy, awe, and wonder with feelings of limitless horizons opening up, followed by the conviction that the experience was important and had a carry-over into everyday life.

A person with the sense of morality will acts of corruption. A person with the sense of morality will toin perceiving things which are right. They are always do the right thing and they highly reach With the aforementioned propositions always do the right thing and he highly reaches utilized as a tool in reaching those desires and their goal in a moral standard. Guevara, (2010) anchored from the theory of Freud, Bandura and his goal in a moral standard. Guevara (2010) goals without any acts of corruption. define moral as the sense of doing what is good. Maslow, Theory of Incorruptibility is formulated. defines moral as the sense of doing what is With the aforementioned propositions A person with sense of morality will always Theory of Incorruptibility is a theory that good. A person with a sense of morality will anchored from the theory of Freud, Bandura maintain goodness in every act he does because explains on how an individual can prevent himself always maintain goodness in every act he or and Maslow, the Theory of Incorruptibility is if he can do even a single immoral act he will feel to commit corrupt practices from the individual she does because if he can do even a single formulated. Theory of Incorruptibility is a guilty about it. level to a national scale. Psychosocial study immoral act, he will feel guilty about it. theory that explains how an individual can prevent Proposition 4: Self-actualized people are of corruption paves way on us to understand Proposition 4: Self-actualized people are himself to commit corrupt practices from the Incorruptible. how an individual can be vulnerable to very incorruptible. individual to a national scale. Psychosocial study In the history, people like Albert Einstein single / simple of acts of corruption, with these and In the history, people like Albert Einstein of corruption paves way to understand how an Aristotle were credited for achieving some understandings we were able to seek out on how and Aristotle are credited for achieving some individual can be vulnerable to very single simple levels of self-actualization. They may not be to prevent an individual in engaging such act. levels of self-actualization. They may not be fully of acts of corruption. With these understandings, fully achieved it but there are some criteria or achieved it but there are some criteria or the researchers are able to seek out on how to manifestation on how to achieved on the levels of IV. HYPOTHESIS manifestation on how to achieved on the levels prevent an individual in engaging such act. self-actualization. The following hypotheses were drawn from of self-actualization. People who reach self-actualization is open the axioms and proposition. People who reach self-actualization are IV. HYPOTHESIS minded, creative and use all his means of the Hypothesis 1: the higher the threat of legal open- minded, creative, and use all his means The following hypotheses were drawn talents and potential he has and do it in morally punishments for corruption the greater the fear of of the talents and potential he has and does it in from the axioms and propositions. upright way. Those potentials are use in perceiving individual to commit such act. morally upright way. Those potentials are used things which is right that will help them as a tool Hypothesis 2: the higher spiritual learning in reaching those desires and goals without any the greater foundation on individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s moral

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conscience Hypothesis the higher 1: the achievements higher the threat of selfof legal actualization.for corruption the greater the fear punishments of individual to commit such act. Hypothesis 3: The higher sense of being selfactualized Hypothesis the 2:greater the higher possibility spiritual learning to be incorruptible. and the greater foundation on individual’s moral conscience the higher achievements V. CONCLUSION of self- actualization. Hypothesis 3: The higher sense of being selfThe psychosocial determinant of corruption lies actualized, thewithgreater in innate,possibility psychological to and be environmental aspects which simultaneously incorruptible. occur within an individual. To deal with this V. CONCLUSION phenomenon, a multiple approach must be employed The psychosocial with the dimensions determinant which of contribute corruption lies within innate, psychological andthe environmental in the development of desire of individual aspects which occur an for corrupt acts.simultaneously It also appears thatwithin to avoid individual. To dealonewith phenomena, acts of corruption, must these fully achieved selfaactualization. multiple However approach it must be employed is impossible for an considering dimensions which contribute individual tothe achieve it because as human as we in development desirebeofvulnerable the individual are,the is vulnerable andofalways to the for corrupt acts.by It corruption. also appears that to avoid pleasure offered acts In of the corruption, one must achieve selfhistory, people likefully Albert Einstein actualization. However, it is for and Aristotle were credited for impossible achieving some levels an individual of self-actualization. to achieve it They because mayhuman not be is fully achieved vulnerable to the it pleasure but thereoffered are some by corruption. criteria or manifestation Acts of corruption on how tovary achieved on different on the levels. levels of self-actualization. The level of self-actualization These are beingiscategorized, inversely hence like actstoofthe proportionate corruption differentvaries formsonand different level diversions. of corruptions. TheseBylevels adopting, of self-actualization practicing and were proportionate internalizing these levels, with the this different may deter forms the of corruptions. individual to engage By adopting in corruptand practices. practicing and internalizing these levels, this may deter the individual to engage in corrupt practices. originality index: similarity index: paper id:

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REFERENCES Adler, A. (2001). Psychotherapie und Erziehung. Alfred Adler Institute of San Francisco: Adler Translation Project Archives. Balko, R. (2001). Does obesity justify big government. Freeman, 2005 retrieved from http://www.cato.

org/publications/commentary/does-obesityjustify-big-government Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory and clinical psychology. In Smelser, N.J., & Baltes, P.B. (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 21(1), 14250-14254. Beccaria, C. (2008). Criminology: The core. Belmont CA: Thomson Learning Byrne, E. (2007). The moral and legal development of corruption: Nineteenth and twentieth century corruption in Ireland. (Ph.D. Thesis University of Limereh). Retrieved from:http:// elaine.ie/2009/07/31/definitions-and-types-ofcorruption/ and http://www.u4.no/document/ faqs5 . Cohen, D., Nisbett, R.E., Bowdle, B.F., & Schwarz, N. (1996). Insult aggression and the southern culture. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(5), 945–960. Felson, M. , & Clark, R. (2010). Opportunity makes the thief: Practical theory for crime prevention. Police Research Series Paper 98. London: Home Office. Freud, S. (2000, December). The psychologist 13. Retrieved from http://www.thepsychologist.org. uk/archive/archive_home.cfm?volumeID=13&e ditionID=51&ArticleID=158 Freud, S. (2004). Personality development: Motivation and emotion. Retrieved from http://en.wikiversity. org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Textbook/ Motivation/Sex_offenders Gine, J.T. (2009). A psychological analysis of corruption in Nigeria. Retrieved from www.rrojasdatabank. info/corruption Huisman, W., & Vande Walle, G.,(1999). The criminology of corruption. Retrieved from http://expertise. hogent.be//files/6109339/9th_chapter_ Criminology_of_Corruption.pdf Jung’s, C. (2012). Carl Jung’s archetypes. Retrieved from http://wiredcosmos.com/2012/08/21/carl-jungsarchetypes/ Klitgaard, R. (1995). Strategies against corruption. Retrieved from http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/ groups/public/documents/clad/clad0035403.pdf McLeod, M. (2013). A people and a nation: A history of the United States. Retrieved from http://books. google.com.ph/ Myers, D.G. (1994). How nice people get corrupted: In exploring social psychology. McGraw-Hill, Inc.,USA United Nation Development Program (1999). Institutionalizing strategies to combat corruption: Lessons from East Asia Conference. Makati, Philippines, August 12-13, 2000.

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United Nations (2009). United Nations convention against corruption. Retrieved from https://www.unodc. org/unodc/en/treaties/CAC/ Vedackumchery, J. (2001). Wounded justice and the story of indian police: Training and performance of sourcebook. McGraw-Hill. World Bank (1997). The role of theworld bank in controlling corruption. Retrieved fromhttp://scholarship. law.georgetown.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article =1011&context=hartlecture

UV Journal of Research 2014

Vulnerability of Asian countries to climate variability hazards: A fractal analysis Ryan O. Tayco1 Rosemarie Cruz-Español2 Tourism and Hospitality Management Department 1 Negros Oriental State University1 College of Business Administration2 University of the Visayas2 tycs_ryn415@yahoo.com Date submitted: February 10, 2014

Date accepted: October 18, 2014

ABSTRACT This study study demonstrates the use a newly-developed The useofoftechniques techniquesassociated associatedtoto a newly-developed this induces fractal statistics in the analysis analysis of of roughness roughness hazards hazardsby bycountries countries.asResults reveal λ a consequent ruggedness between in the vulnerability of the different countries. the roughness correlation hazards and vulnerability is RAsian = 0.9996, that is, Results revealed roughness between and vulnerability around 99.96 %. that The the findings implycorrelation that hazards inducehazards a considerable roughness is the Rλ =vulnerability 0.9996, that of is,various aroundAsian 99.96%. This finding implies that hazards induce in countries. Specifically, countries that are more a considerable roughness in the vulnerability various Asian exposed to hazards are the same countries that areofvulnerable. Thesecountries. countries Specifically, countriestothat are more expose to hazards are also the countries are more vulnerable natural hazards because they possess fewer resourcesthat and are vulnerable. These countries are more vulnerable to natural hazards because mechanisms to alleviate the impacts. they possess fewer resources and mechanisms to alleviate the impacts. Keywords: fractal statistic, hazards, vulnerability I. INTRODUCTION The World Risk Report (WRR) consists of an index, a priority topic and case studies. The index describes the disaster risk for various countries and regions. The main focus of the report is on the threat from or exposure to natural hazards and the rise in sea level caused by climate change, as well as social vulnerability in the form of the population’s susceptibility and their capacity for coping and adaptation. The concept of the World Risk Index (WRI) is based on the understanding of risk from research on natural hazards and disasters. In this context, risk is defined as an interaction between a natural hazard and the vulnerability of societies. Vulnerability includes social conditions and processes that are reflected in susceptibility, coping capacity and adaptive

capacity. While adaptation adaptation refers refers primarily primarilytoto the society’s long-term strategies for change, coping refers to the immediate response to ongoing natural natural hazard hazardprocesses. processes. It is similar Unlike similar that studies studies assumed that assume that a natural that a hazard natural or hazard or climate change climate affects change a well-ordered affect a well-ordered society. society, The WRI thetakes WRI into takesaccount into account that not that only not only the the natural natural hazard hazard but but alsoalso thethesocial, social, economic and environmental environmental factors factors which characterize as well as governance a society society–– as governance aspects aspects–– are crucial in determining whether a natural hazard or natural event (floods, earthquakes, storms) However can turn into a disaster (WRR, 2012). However,, countries in Asia are more vulnerable to natural hazards as they possess fewer resources and mechanisms to mitigate the the impacts. impacts. This The study looks into how the roughnesses of the natural hazards in various Asian countries persuade persuade

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the corresponding variability or roughness of vulnerability of the different countries. A hazard is defined as “a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage” (UNISDR, 2009). Hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin and effects. Each hazard is characterized by its location, intensity, probability and likely frequency. Typical examples of hazards can be the absence of rain (leading to drought) or the abundance, thereof (leading to flooding). Chemical manufacturing plants near settlements can also be regarded as hazardous; similarly, incorrect agricultural techniques will in the long run lead to possible disasters. Hazards can either be a creation of humans (anthropogenic) or the environment (natural). Although the former can be easily planned for than the latter, in both cases the management of the hazard will remain the same. Our development efforts and attention should therefore be focused on the presence of various hazards and this must inform our planning. A distinction should also be made between normal natural occurrences and natural hazards. Natural phenomena are extreme climatological (weather), hydrological (water), or geological (earth) processes that do not pose any threat to person or property. A massive earthquake in an unpopulated area (e.g. the Sahara desert) is a natural phenomenon. Once the consequences (a possible hazardous situation) of this natural phenomenon come into contact with human being, they become a natural hazard. If this natural hazard (due to the unplanned or poorly planned activities of the human beings) affects them and that they are unable to cope, the situation becomes a disaster (USAID, 2011). Vulnerability is defined as the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that make it susceptible to the damaging

effects of a hazard. Moreover, vulnerability is a set of prevailing or consequential conditions arising from various physical, social, economic and environmental factors which increase the susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards (UNISDR, 2002:24). It can also comprise physical, socio-economic and/or political factors that adversely affect the ability of communities to respond to events (Jegillos, 1999). Blaikie et al. (1994) are of the opinion that vulnerability is constituted by the characteristics of a person or group in terms of their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a hazard. In addition, vulnerability can be expressed as the degree of loss resulting from a potentially damaging phenomenon or hazard. It is therefore the extent to which a community will degrade when subjected to a specified set of hazardous conditions. Thus, vulnerability has some distinct underlying causes. The magnitude of each disaster, measured in deaths, damage, or cost (for a given developing country) increases with the increased marginalization of the population. This can be caused by a high birth rate, problems of land tenure and economic opportunity, and the misallocation of resources to meet the basic human needs of an expanding population. As the population increases, the best land in both rural and urban areas are taken up, and those seeking land for farming or housing are forced to accept inadequate land. This offers less productivity and a smaller measure of physical or economic safety, thus rendering the community vulnerable (USAID, 2011). Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as natural disaster, but there are natural hazards. A disaster is the result of a hazard’s impact on society. Sotheeffectsofadisasteraredetermined by the extent of a community’s vulnerability to the hazard (conversely, its ability, or capacity to cope with it). This vulnerability is not natural, but the result of an entire range of constantly changing physical, social, economic, cultural, political and even psychological factors shape

Tayco, R. O. and Español, R. C.

people’s social, economic, lives and create an cultural, environment political in and even psychological which they live.” Twigg factors (2001:6). that shape people’s livesInandthis create the environments in which they study, the researchers attempt live.” Twigg (2001:6). to look into how the roughness of natural In this we attempt to look intopersuade how the hazards in study, various Asian countries roughnesses of the natural hazards various the corresponding variability or in roughness Asiavulnerability countries by persuade thenewly-developed corresponding of using the variability or roughness of vulnerability of fractal technique called roughness correlation the different countries by using the newly(Rλ) (Padua, 2013). They expect that countries developed fractal hazards technique roughness exposed to natural arecalled more vulnerable correlation (Rλ)fewer (Padua, 2013).and Wemechanisms expect that as they possess resources countries expose natural hazards are to mitigate the to impact. Practically, it more will vulnerable as they possess fewer resources and present how natural hazards made significant mechanisms toto mitigate the impacts. Practically, contributions the vulnerability of certain it will countries. be presented in the research how natural Asian hazards have made significant contributions to theMETHODOLOGY vulnerability of a certain Asian countries. II. The data utilized in the study were obtained II. METHODOLOGY from online data sets. Using the hazards and vulnerability The data we data utilized by in countries this study taken were from obtained fromRisk online datasets. Using the the the World Report (WRR) 2012, raw data of the hazards fractal dimensions of theand twovulnerability variables were t by countries, from the World Risk Repor determined. (WRR) the fractal dimensions of the two(2) The2012, fractal dimensions of the two variables were determined. variables, the hazards (x) and vulnerability (y), fractalby dimensions of two wereThe obtained transforming the (2) datavariables, sets into the hazards and vulnerability (y) were graphs. The (x) one-dimensional representation obtained by transforming the datatells sets how into of the variables in question representation agraphs. straightThe line one-dimensional segment is fragmentized by the of the variables in question. question The tellsdegree how ofa random variable in straight line segment is fragmentized by the fragmentation or roughness is summarized in random in fractal question. The degree of an index variable called the dimension (λ). The fragmentation or roughness summarized in fractal dimension is calculatedis through the boxan index method called the fractal The counting which is dimension automated (λ). through fractal the freeware dimension fractalis software. calculated through the boxcounting method which is automated through The result of two-dimensional configuration the freeware (x,y) will tell afrak.out. fractal figure. The fractal dimension The result of two-dimensional of this two-dimensional configuration is likewise obtained configuration by the box(x,y) counting will tell algorithm a fractal using figure. the The fractal dimension of this two-dimensional frak.out software. configuration is likewise obtained byhow the boxIn this paper, it investigates the counting algorithmofusing frak.out fractal dimension thethe two (2) software. variables correlate In thiswith paper, each it investigates other. The results how the will fractal look of the twoof(2) intodimension how the roughness thevariables hazards correlates in various each other. The results will look into Asian countries influence the corresponding

variability how the roughness or roughness of the of vulnerability hazards in various and the Asian countries influences the corresponding formula is as follows: variability or roughness of vulnerability by countries and the formula is as follows:

Where: ƛ = ƛx = ƛy = Rƛ=

fractal dimension of scatter plot fractal dimension of X fractal dimension of Y roughness correlation

III. RESULTS Figure 1 illustrates the fragmentation induced by hazard on the smoothness of the natural hazards on various Asian countries. Figure 1: Fragmentation or fractality induced by hazard on various Asian countries.

Figure 1: Fragmentation or fractality induced by hazard on various Asian countries.

As seen, hazard seen, fragmentations fragmentations of of the the hazard data are are obvious obvious on on the theother otherside sideends. ends.These This mean variations of hazard are found meansthat that variations of hazard are among found countries with the highest variation, either among countries with the highest variation, increase or decrease. The countries that that are either increase or decrease. The countries most exposed to hazards are are the Philippines, are most expose to hazards Japan, Brunei, Bangladesh, Cambodia, East Timor, Vietnam, Indonesia, Kyrgyzstan and Burma Burma. while Whilecountries countriesthat thatare arenot notexposed expose to hazards are Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, UAE, Oman, Israel, Mongolia, Singapore, Iraq, Kuwait and Yemen. Then researchers Then the I computed the computed dimensionthe of dimension of which this graph of whichΛy theis resulting this graph of the resulting equal to Λy is equal 1.5636. the Thisinitial supports the initial 1.5636. Thistosupports observation on observation on the the data graphset that the data set shows the graph that shows fractality; that fractality; is, the data are far more rugged is, the datathat is far more rugged than a straight than a straight The fractal spectrum line. The fractal line. spectrum is displayed for isa deeper analysis of the situation: displayed for a deeper analysis of the situation:

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Figure 2. Fractal Spectrum of the Hazard

Λ 1.4983which whichisisless lessrugged ruggedthan thanthe theprevious previous Λxx ==1.4983 data set. data set. Figure 4. Fractal Spectrum of the vulnerability by countries.

Figure 2. Fractal Spectrum of the Hazard

The spectrum shows multi rather than monofractal observations. For countries belonging to the smaller scale, low fractal dimensions are noted while for countries belonging to the larger scale, high fractal dimensions are observed. In other other words, words,theweresearchers observe observe greater greater variability in the forwith countries variability in the hazard for hazard countries higher with higher hazards scores i.e. countries which hazards scores i.e. countries which are generally are generally exposed are more variant in terms expose are more variant in terms of the hazard. of hazard. In contrast, least exposed countries In the contrast, least expose countries are relatively are relatively more homogeneous in terms this more homogeneous in terms of this indexofsince index since their fractal dimensions their fractal dimensions are lower. are lower.

Figure 4. Fractal Spectrum of the vulnerability by countries.

rather than than monomonoThe spectrum shows multi rather fractal observations. observations. For Forcountries countriesbelonging belonging to to the smaller scalehave havehigh highfractal fractaldimensions dimension the smaller scale while for countries belonging to the larger scale low fractal fractal dimensions. dimension. To have low To be exact, we observe greater consistency for countries with larger vulnerability score. scores. Figure 5. Plot of hazards versus vulnerability by countries, Λxy = 1.0050.

Figure 3. Fragmentation or fractality induced by vulnerability of various Asian countries.

Figure 5. Plot of hazards versus vulnerability by countries, Λxy = 1.0050. Figure 3. Fragmentation or fractality induced by vulnerability of various Asian countries.

The graph of of the the data data on onvulnerability vulnerabilityisis of the data shown in Figure Figure 3. 3. The Thefragmentations fragmentation of areevident evidentononopposite oppositeends, end, specifically among is countries that are vulnerable. These countries include East Timor, Yemen, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Cambodia, Burma, Iraq, Iraq, India India and and Laos. Laos While countries countries that that are resilient are Japan, while Singapore, UAE, Qatar, Israel, Brunie, Kuwait, Bahrain, Kazakhstan, Oman and Saudi Arabia. fractal dimension dimensionof ofthis thisgraph graphisis The computed fractal

the plot plot of of the therelationship relationship Figure 5 presents the between hazards versus vulnerability by hazard versus countries. The plot has has aa fractal fractal dimension dimension of Λx = 1.0050. 1.0050.As As seen seen from from the the plot, plot, there there is no = visible relationship if we use classical statistics. Let us now turn to a complimentary statistics called roughness correlation, load the fractal dimension values valuestotoitsitsformula formula and and findfind outout if the if roughness the roughness or variations or variations in hazards in hazard is induced is induced by the by the roughness roughness in vulnerability in vulnerability of various of various Asian countries. Asian countries. Roughness correlation (Rλ) between two

Tayco, R. O. and Español, R. C.

variables reveals the degree of roughness induced on the dependent variable by the independent variable. If its value is Rλ = 1, there is a perfect roughness correlation; that is, the roughness or variation in the independent variable perfectly induces the roughness in the dependent variable. On the other hand, Rλ = 0 implies the absence of roughness correlation. The roughness correlation between hazard and vulnerability is Rλ = 0.9996, that is, around 99.96 %. Thus, it follows that hazard induce a considerable roughness in the vulnerability of various Asian countries. IV.

DISCUSSION In the study, the researchers attempted to use roughness correlation in the analysis of the ruggedness in hazard use induced by the corresponding ruggedness of vulnerability by different Asian countries. Indeed, high scores in hazard cause the increase in the levels of vulnerability by countries. However, they admitted that current measurement of the variables may not be comprehensive enough. Other variables could be used to replace or add the current exposure to hazard and vulnerability by countries. For example, mitigation and other measures of levels of coping mechanism to disaster can be used to measure the vulnerability. Nevertheless, current literature offers evidence that to some extent hazards cause the rise in the levels of vulnerability. The researchers situate the current findings in the theoretical advancement occurred with the At Risk volume, especially the (PAR model) pressure and release model (Blaikie et al., 1994; Wisner et al., 2004). The pressure and release model (PAR model) views disaster as the intersection of two major forces:(1) those processes generating vulnerability on the one hand, and (2) the natural hazard event. The PAR approach underlines how disasters occur when natural hazards affect vulnerable people (Blaikie et al., 1994; Wisner et al., 2004: 49–86). In this case, the researchers have provided evidence that countries exposed to hazards increase the vulnerability of the area. In particular, the exposure of a country to hazards

somehow dictates the levels of vulnerability in that country. The framework stresses the fact that vulnerability and the development of a potential disaster can be viewed as a process involving increasing pressure on the one hand and the opportunities to relieve the pressure on the other. Villagrań de Leoń (2004) also explains vulnerability in the hazard and risk context. He defines a triangle of risk, which consists of the three components of vulnerability, hazard and deficiencies in preparedness (Villagrań de Leoń, 2004:10). His figure reflects the ‘‘risk triangle’’ developed earlier by Crichton (1999). However, he defined vulnerability as the preexisting conditions that make infrastructure, processes, services and productivity more prone to be affected by an external hazard. In contrast to the positive definition of coping capacities, he used the term ‘‘deficiencies in preparedness’’ to capture the lack of coping capacities of a society or a specific element at risk (Villagrań de Leo´ n, 2001:4). Although, the term exposure is not directly mentioned, he viewed exposure primarily as a component of the hazard (Villagrań de Leoń, Chapter 16). The relationship between hazard and vulnerability is evident. For example, countries that are vulnerable like Bangladesh, Burma, Cambodia, and the Philippines etc. are also countries which are more exposed to natural hazards. Inversely, countries that are resilient are also countries which are least exposed to hazards like Qatar, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Israel, Singapore, Kuwait, Bahrain, etc. Furthermore, countries that are resilient to natural hazards are developed and well-off Asian countries as they possess more resources and mechanisms to mitigate the impacts. V.

CONCLUSION The study offers evidence on the relationship of hazard to vulnerability by countries. The variation or roughness in hazards induces the roughness in the levels of vulnerability by countries. Countries that are more exposed

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to hazards are are also thevulnerable countries towhich are These countries more natural vulnerable. These they countries are more hazards because possess fewer vulnerable resources to hazards to because they possess fewer andnatural mechanisms alleviate the impacts. resources andand mechanisms to alleviate the The pressure release model (PAR Model) impacts. pressure that and release (PAR thereforeThe supported there model are certain Model) therefore that there are underlying causes,supported dynamic pressures andcertain unsafe underlying dynamic pressures and unsafe conditions causes, which contribute to vulnerability. A conditions which contributed A key factor influencing the levelto of vulnerability. vulnerability in key influencing the level of in any factor community is the existence ofvulnerability hazards. any community is the existence of hazards. originality index: similarity index: paper id: Grammarly:

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REFERENCES Blaikie P., Cannon, T., Davis, I., Wisner, B., (1994). At risk: Natural hazards, people’s vulnerability, and disaster. London: Routledge. Crichton, D. (1999). The risk triangle. In Ingleton, J. (Ed.), Natural disaster management. London: Tudor Rose. Jegillos, S. (1999). Fundamentals of disaster risk management: How are Southeast Asian countries addressing these? In Risk, Sustainable Development and Disasters: Southern Perspectives (pp. 7-16). Cape Town: Periperi Publications. Padua, R., et al. (2013). Statistical fractal inference. Unpublished manuscript. Twigg, J. (2001). Physician heal thyself? The politics of disaster mitigation. Benfield Greig Hazard Research Center, University College London, Disaster Management Working Paper 1/2001. UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (1999). Living with risk: A global review of disaster reduction initiatives. Geneva: UN Publications. UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction) (2002): Living with risk: A global review of disaster reduction initiatives. Geneva: UN Publications. USAID (2011). Disaster risk reduction training programme for South and Southern Africa. Retrieved from http://www.preventionweb. net/files/26081_kp1concepdisasterrisk1.pdf Villagra´n de Leo´ n, J.C. (2004). Manual para la estimacio´n cuantitativa de Riesgos asociados a diversas amenazas. Guatemala: Accio´ n Contra el Hambre, ACH.

World Risk Report (2012). Environmental degradation increases disaster risk worldwide. Retrieved from http://www.ehs.unu.edu/article/read/ worldriskreport-2012

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APPENDIx COUNTRIES ASIA Countries ofOF Asia 1. AZERBAIJAN Azerbaijan Armenia 2. ARMENIA Bahrain 3. BAHRAIN Bangladesh 4. BANGLADESH Bhutan 5. BHUTAN 6. BRUNEI Brunei Burma 7. BURMA Cambodia 8. CAMBODIA 9. China 9. CHINA 10. East Timor 10. EAST TIMOR 11. INDIA India 11. 12. INDONESIA Indonesia 12. 13. Iran 13. IRAN 14. Iraq 14. IRAQ 15. ISRAEL Israel 15. 16. Japan 16. JAPAN 17. Jordan 17. JORDAN 18. Kazakhstan 18. KAZAKHSTAN 19. KUWAIT Kuwait 19. 20. Kyrgyzstan 20. KYRGYZSTAN 21. Laos 21. LAOS 22. Lebanon 22. LEBANON 23. Malaysia 23. MALAYSIA 24. Mongolia 24. MONGOLIA 25. Nepal 25. NEPAL 26. Oman 26. OMAN 27. Pakistan 27. PAKISTAN 28. Philippines 28. PHILIPPINES 29. Qatar 29. QATAR 30. Saudi Arabia 30. SAUDI ARABIA 31. Singapore 31. 32. SINGAPORE Sri Lanka 32. LANKA 33. SRI Syria 33. SYRIA 34. Tajikistan 34. 35. TAJIKISTAN Thailand 35. 36. THAILAND Turkey 36. 37. TURKEY Turkmenistan 37. 38. TURKMENISTAN UAE 38. UAE 39. Uzbekistan 39. 40. UZBEKISTAN Vietnam 40. 41. VIETNAM Yemen 41. YEMEN

Hazard 13.16 14.51 4.27 31.7 14.81 41.1 14.87 27.65 14.43 25.73 11.94 19.36 10.19 8.08 6.41 45.91 10.53 9.11 9.04 16.63 9.55 11.14 14.6 6.52 9.16 6.41 11.36 52.46 0.28 2.93 7.82 14.79 10.56 12.98 13.7 12.25 13.19 5.93 16.18 25.35 9.04

Vulnerability 46.34 48.49 42.44 63.78 55.14 38.72 61.57 62.07 48.83 66.59 60.95 55.48 48.85 61.2 37.88 29.46 46.5 42.47 41.03 51.1 60.03 45.75 44.74 49.66 62.19 42.48 63.86 53.35 36.18 44.53 32.47 52.67 53.81 56.99 47.03 46.35 49.65 34.84 53.84 50.83 66.13

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Fractal analysis of AIDS prevalence across economic demographics Joel B. Serad1 Charlo Iradel2 Graduate School1 College of Education2 University of the Visayas joelserad@gmail.com Date submitted: February 14, 2014

Date of acceptance: June 30, 2014

ABSTRACT percentageof ofreported reportedAIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency infections differ The percentage infections differ from oneSyndrome country to another. Thus, from one country to another. Thus, this the prevalence of AIDS among this paper illustrates the prevalence ofpaper AIDS illustrates among different countries across the globe. Thecountries different data shows across that the number globe. The of people data shows who gets thatinfected the number with AIDS of people does not who ollowinfected fgets a normal with distribution. AIDS doesThe notanalysis follow aof normal this AIDS distribution. prevalence The hasanalysis been observed of this AIDS to ollow a fluctuating pattern and to so follow the researchers attempt to present fractal model fprevalence has been observed a fluctuating pattern and so athe researchers of the said attempt to phenomenon. present a fractal Results modelreveal of thea said seemingly phenomenon. considerable Results fractal reveal dimension a seemingly of prevalence. It fractal furtherdimension exposes that countries with high percentage of reported considerable of prevalence. It further exposes that countriesAIDS with casespercentage follow a more fractal distribution than those infractal countries with lower percents high of reported AIDS cases follow a more distribution than those in reported. Furthermore, majority of the countries havemajority AIDS prevalences which have are countries with lower percents reported. Furthermore, of the countries concentrated nearwhich or onare theconcentrated mean fractal dimension AIDS prevalences near or on value. the mean fractal dimension value. Keywords: AIDS, prevalence, fractal dimension, fractal model I. INTRODUCTION Throughout history, humans have been plagued by various diseases. Malaria, cholera, TB, flu, small pox, AIDS and many more are caused by organisms which easily reproduce and evolve. Rapid multiplication and easy transport of these disease-causing microbes are facilitated as human populations start to domesticate animals, store food, construct dams and wells, exponentially grow in number and become more mobile. Of all these diseases, the prevalence of AIDS epidemic has become a serious concern for humans. Technological and medical advancements helped eradicate this disease. Study of the initial stages of HIV transmission along a socio-geographic network -- a large, complex, spatially focused social network with possibly fractal geometry -- is extended to include

interaction between a low-dimensional ghettoized ‘core group’ within which the disease spreads very rapidly and a higher dimensional, more loosely structured ‘general population’ in which spread is relatively slow. A mathematical modeling exercise suggests that contextually modulated interaction between them can be highly nonlinear and may greatly increase the initial rate of disease transmission within the general population (Wallace, 1992). For decades now, people continue to suffer from AIDS. In 2011, 34.2 million people were (UNAID, 2011). A infected and 1.7 million died (UNAID,2011). number of factors may be attributed to the rapid transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that causes the disease. These factors

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include, among others, lifestyle, cultural practices, poverty, lack of education, poor social services,and and even climate change. “Populations with currently high rates of HIV are the most vulnerable to a worsening or prolongation of the epidemic due to climate change” (Butler, 2009). The factors for forthe theeasy easytransmission transmissionare areasas fractal as its prevalence in various countries. In act, the HIV HIVitself virusis itself is veryMedical fractal.solutions Medical fact, very fractal. solutions in understanding the fractality of the in understanding the fractality of the virus include virus include the use drug of nano-scale drug (Huanthe use of nano-scale (Huan- He, 2008) and He, 2008) the use of a aims vaccine which aims the use of and a vaccine which at training the at training human mind to recognize the human mindthe to recognize the patterns of the AIDS patterns of the AIDS virus (Mukul Pal, 2008). virus (Mukul Pal, 2008). Viruses have fractal have very very high high fractal dimensions than the infected cells. Since they have higher fractal dimension, they have higher metabolic rates than the infected cells and can have enough energy to reproduce. This is very fatal o the tto the invaded invaded cells. cells. However, However, recent developments in fractal analysis shed light to the possible solution to the AIDS problem. One break through is by nanotechnology wherein a nano-scale drug will smoothen the surfaces body of the virus and consequently lessen its metabolic rate (Huan-He, 2008).

This makes makesunderstanding understanding nature of the the nature of AIDS AIDS occurrence so puzzling in the minds of occurrencesopuzzlinginthemindsofpeople.Thus, people. in order on to this comprehend on this in order Thus, to comprehend phenomenon, phenomenon, study todimensions find out study attemptsthis to find outattempts the fractal the fractal dimensions of AIDS developing prevalenceand in of AIDS prevalence in developed, developed, developing andInunder developed under developed countries. trying to develop countries. to develop a methodof to an analyze a method In totrying analyze the prevalence HIVthe prevalence of an HIV-caused acquired immune caused acquired immune deficiency syndrome, deficiency syndrome, the researchers present the researcher presents a model that alsoa model that also conform to the fractal nature of conforms to the fractal nature of viruses. AIDS viruses. has globally, been reported globally, at has been AIDS reported at different scales, different scales, in different periods. in different periods. Reporting AIDS Reporting cases has AIDS cases of the most essential become onehas of become the mostone essential ingredients to ingredients to the development of solutions for the development of solutions for the decline of the the decline of the plague. In this paper, a paradigm plague. In this paper, a paradigm of HIV (human of HIV (humanvirus) immunodeficiency immunodeficiency transmission alongvirus) very transmission along very large sociogeographic large ‘sociogeographic’ networks -- is extended to networks is extended to include fractal structures. include fractal structures. II. LITERATURE REVIEw II. LITERATURE Despite theREVIEW chaotic situation brought Despite about by the the AIDS chaotic epidemicsituation in many brought nations, about by the AIDS epidemic in many there is fractality or pattern observed nations, in this there is a fractality or pattern phenomenon. Illumination on theobserved fractalityinofthis the phenomenon. Illumination thevirus fractality the AIDS phenomenon and theon AIDS itselfofmay AIDS phenomenon andthe theproblem. AIDS virus may eventually help solve UN itself Secretary eventually help solve theUN problem. Secretary General Ban says “the goal ofUN halting and General says “the UN will goalbeofmet halting and reversingBan the spread of AIDS by 2015”. reversing the spread AIDS will be methalf by 2015”. Furthermore, he says,ofthat “more than of the Furthermore, he says “thatincome more than half of are the low income and middle countries low and middle income countries are receiving

The overwhelming majority of people with HIV live in low- and middle-income countries. Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for two-thirds of all infected people. South and Southe-East Asia have the second highest number of people living with HIV.

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treatments. However,However, the antiretroviral therapy receiving treatments. the antiretroviral must bemust expanded.” Concerted effort byeffort the therapy be expanded.” Concerted by the philanthropists, philanthropists, human human rights advocates, rights advocates, health health workers, workers, scientists scientists and mathematicians and mathematicians lead lead closer closer to this to this goal. goal. Fractality Fractalityisisone one dimension which may help the human race understand the epidemiology of HIV. HIV. AIDS AIDS affects affect the political, social and economic situation of any government. This study The research focuses focuses ononthe theprevalence prevalence of of AIDS across economic tier. This has a cyclical effect to the economy – like likeaatrap. trap.Poor Pooreconomy economyspeeds speed up transmission and prevalence of AIDS in a country. Impoverish families Impoverished families receive receive poor poor health health care and resort care and resort to migration to migration or prostitution or prostitution. Likewise, the economy Likewise, the economy of a country of a iscountry affected is by affected high prevalence by high prevalence of AIDS. Poor of economy AIDS. Poor consequently economy cause high AIDS consequently causesprevalence. high AIDS prevalence. The HIV/AIDS The epidemic affect HIV/AIDS epidemic the affects economy thein economy fractal ways: in fractal by ways: (a) by reversingthe orgrowth slowinginthe growth in reversing or slowing labor supply, labor supply; (b) decreasing savings and by decreasing thebysavings and the investments of investments andthe (c) expenditures by diverting the families and ofbyfamilies; diverting to expenditures to health spending. health spending.

Descriptive Statistics: Variable N AIDSlamb 140

N* 1

Mean 1.2001

Median TrMean StDev 1.1693 1.1916 0.1278

Variable SE Mean Minimum Maximum Q1 Q3 AIDSlamb 0.0108 1.0488 1.6379 1.1016 1.2863

Based on data,the the mean onthe data, mean lambda lambdawhich which is 1.2 indicates that the data are ruggedly And although theset data set follows a distributed. Although the data follows a fractal fractal presentation, the AIDS percentages across presentation, AIDS percentages across different different is not that diversified. countries countries are not that diversified. This tellsThis us tells us that holistically, the prevalence of AIDS that holistically, the prevalence of AIDS from from among the nations dogreatly not greatly among the nations do not varyvary fromfrom one each other fromone each other. The another or or areare notnot soso farfarfrom another. fractal nature of AIDS prevalence signifies that there is an observed fluctuation in the number of disease. people who gets infected with the disease. FRACTAL SPECTRUM OF AIDS PREVALENCE

III. RESULTS HISTOGRAM OF COMPUTED LAMBDA (AIDS PREVALENCE) FRACTAL SPECTRUM OF AIDS PREVALENCE

HISTOGRAM OF COMPUTED LAMBDA (AIDS PREVALENCE) TIME SERIES PLOT OF COMPUTED LAMBDA (AIDS PREVALENCE)

TIME SERIES PLOT OF COMPUTED LAMBDA (AIDS PREVALENCE)

The concentration of data are is in the medium scale of the fractal spectrum. Meanwhile, at the lower scale, more data with higher values appear to converge. This says otherwise to the data at the bigger scale which practically contains lower percentages of AIDS prevalence. Further, the spectrum shows that the countries with high AIDS prevalence have a higher fractal dimension as compared to the countries with lower AIDS prevalence. IV. ANALYSIS On a macro level or worldwide scale, low fractality in AIDS prevalence is observed and majority of the countries are in the mean fractal value. However, on a micro level, high fractality

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is observed observed among amongthe thecountries countrieswith withlow low AIDS AIDS prevalence. Barret Barret and and Swallow prevalence. Swallow (2003) cites two kinds of poverty, poverty: the transitory transitory poverty poverty and persistent poverty. In their paper entitled Fractal Poverty Poverty Traps, Traps, they they suggested suggested multiscalar approach to the persistent poverty poverty traps. Thus, the result implies that a persistent fractal multi-scale approach. The problem like likeAIDS AIDSneed needs multi-scale approach. approach will depend on the fractality dimension The approach will depend on the fractality of the developed, developing and underdimension of the developed, developing and developed countries. underdeveloped countries. V. CONCLUSION CONCLUSION Countries with high percentage of HIV infections have high fractal dimensions, which means that these countries countries vary vary diversely diversely in erms ofofthe infected people. terms thenumber numberofofAIDSAIDS infected The fluctuations or spikes in the the prevalence prevalence of to be wide AIDS across these these countries countries appears appear to and very irregular. irregular. The vast fractality of AIDS prevalence may may be attributed prevalence attributed to to the diversity in population, cultural practices, technological advancement, literacy levels, political strifes and socio-economic instability in the world. This chaos called HIV which beset the world is highly fractal with low fractal prevalence on a macro level (across economic demographics all over over the world) and high fractal prevalence prevalence on a micro under-developed )) countries. level (among under-developed originality index: similarity index: paper id: Grammarly:

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REFERENCES Barrett, C., & Swallow, B. (2003). Fractal poverty traps. Retrieve January 10, 2014 from http://dyson. cornell.edu/research/researchpdf/wp/2003/ Cornell_Dyson_wp0342.pdf Butler, J. (2009). Experts fear climate change will slow global fight against HIV/AIDS epidemic. Retrieved January 10, 2014 from http://www.ee news.net/stories/1059969539 Huan He, J. (2008). Fatalness of virus depends upon its cell fractal geometry. Retrieved January 10, 2014

from http://works.bepress.com/ji_huan_he/45/ Mukul, P. (2008). Patterns, valuations and the AIDS vaccine. Retrieved January 10, 2014 from http://www.business-standard.com/article/ markets/patterns-valuations-and-the-aidsvaccine-108112401087_1.html Poundstone, K., Strathdee, S.,& Celentano, D.(2004). The social epidemiology of Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. vRetrieved January 10, 2014 from http://epirev. oxfordjournals.org/content/26/1/22.full UNAID (2011). How to get to zero: Faster, smarter, better. Retrieved January 10, 2014 from http:// www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/ documents/unaidspublication/2011/JC2216_ WorldAIDSday_report_2011_en.pdf Wallace, R. (1994). A fractal model of HIV transmission on complex socio-geographic networks. Part 2: Spread from a ghettoized ‘core group’ into a ‘general population’. Retrieved January 10, 2014 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pubmed/12287595

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Tourist arrivals and climate risk indices: Impact of the ruggedness of climate risk conditions on tourism industry across the globe Ryan O. Tayco1 Rosemarie Cruz-Español2 Grissil P. Babon2 Tourism and Hospitality Management Department 1 Negros Oriental State University College of Business Administration2 University of the Visayas Tycs_ryn15@yahoo.com Date submitted: January 23, 2014

Date accepted: June 30, 2014

ABSTRACT The study with fractal statistics in the study demonstrates demonstratesthe theuse useofofmethods methodsassociated associated with fractal statistics in the analysis ofofdata of the climate risk condition measured by a Global analysis dataroughness roughness of the climate risk condition measured by aClimate Global Risk Index among countries the world this induce subsequent in Climate Risk Index among in countries in as the world as athis induces ruggedness a subsequent the number ofininternational arrivals in thetourist different countries. reveal ruggedness the numbertourist of international arrivals in Results the different that there isResults a considerable amount unevenness in theamount climate of risk conditions in of the countries. reveal that thereofare considerable unevenness countries studied and that such irregularities occur more apparently in the less stable climate risk conditions of the countries studied and that such irregularities occur and more risky nations. thatrisky the weather situation of a more apparently in theThis lessfinding stable implies and more nations.patterns This finding implies country, specifically climatesituation risk condition, has considerable international that the weather patterns of a country, specificallyeffects climateonrisk condition, tourist arrival. Current findings lend support that changing climate findings and weather has considerable effects on international tourist arrival. Current lend patterns at tourist destinations and tourist generating countries can significantly support that changing climate and weather patterns at tourist destinations and affect the tourists travel decisions. implications the study are decisions. discussed tourist generating countries can Theoretical significantly affect the of tourists travel later in the study. Theoretical implications of the study are discussed later in the study. Keywords: fractal statistics, global climate risk index, international tourist arrival I. INTRODUCTION Tourism contribution contribution isis estimated estimated at some 55% % of of the the GDP’s GDP’s of countries across the globe particularly in Asia-Pacific region. In the Philippines, tourism contributes 5.9 5.9% % to to the the GDP in 2011. Philippines is an archipelago comprised of 7,107 7, 107islands. islands. It offers It offers a rich a rich biodiversity biodiversity with with its tropical its tropical rainforests, rainforests,mountains, mountains, beaches, coral reefs, islands, and diverse range of flora and fauna, making it as one of the mega diverse countries in the world. Tourism is reliant on an intact ecosystem and on influential structures that can respond to the needs of local and

international visitors. Hence, governments governments strive strive to attract tourists through various strategies aimed at establishing an image of a desirable ourist destination ttourist destination for for the the country. country. It It is said that an abundance of tourist sites and efficient services alone are not sufficient to guarantee a strong tourism industry. In another study, Tayco (2013) demonstrated that on top of a typical tourist’s destination destination criteria criteriaisisapeace peace and and safety of the destination. This study looks into how the roughness (variability) of the climate risk indices in various countries influence the corresponding variability or roughness of international tourist

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arrivals. The United Nations Development Program (UNDP, 2008) defines disaster as a serious destruction of nature causing extensive human, materials, environmental and trade industry fatalities which surpass the capability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources. It is a must that every locality is prepared before the calamity occurs. Disaster risk reduction involves elements to be contemplated hoping to lessen vulnerabilities and disaster risks to prevent and mitigate unfavorable effects (UNDP, 2008). According to Birkmann and Bogardi (2004), disaster risk consists of four elements: hazard, exposure, vulnerability, and capacity or measures. This present tudy focuses on fluctuation in the climate risk conditions in various countries in the international tourist arrivals across the globe. According by UNWTO (2012), an ever expanding tourism destinations have started and invested in development, directing contemporary tourism into a prime operator of socio-economic development through revenues from export industry, establishment of employment and enterprises, and improvement of infrastructure. As a global marketed service, inbound tourism has become a major global trade industry. Inbound tourism generated US$ 1.2 Trillion (2011) or an average 3.4 Billion a day income from export taking in passenger transport. It accounts 30 % of the global trades of commercial services, while the overall export of goods and services is 6 %. Globally, it ranks fourth after fuels, chemicals and food. For a number of developing countries, it becomes one of the prime initiators of income from foreign exchange. As a top export industry, it generated much needed job opportunities necessary for development. For rich economies, it impacts the GDP ranging from 2 to 10 %. For developing countries, the leverage can be even stupendous in some tourist destinations that accounts for up to 25 %. Harmeling and Eckstein (2012) warned that the world needs to accept the variability of climate

and its effects to the tourism industry. More than 530,000 expired as an answering upshot of nearly 15,000 drastic weather conditions. In 19922011, Global losses of more than USD 2.5 trillion (in PPP) arose. The World Bank underlines the existential threats to the world and in particular the defenseless populace in developing countries would expect the 4 Â°C. The international community needs to avoid temperature increase that may affect the tourism industry across the globe. Harmeling and Eckstein (2012) explained that the Climate Risk Index assess the disaster risk. It points out an amount of risk and vulnerability to impactful conditions which nations should use in counteracting the crises. The most recent available data from 2011 and even for the period from 1992- 2011 were considered. But in the study, the researchers only use the data set for the year 2011 because of the unpredictable climate that happens every year across the globe. In 2011, 302 accounts of climate related disaster were recorded, where in more than 200 million were affected and roughly cost USD 366 billion economic damage (UNISDR, 2012). Most affected countries in the year 2011 were Thailand, Cambodia, Pakistan, El Salvador, the Philippines and Brazil. The investigation reaffirms that less developed nations are predominantly more affected compared to industrialized nations. As said by UNWTO and UNEP (2008), the rapid variation in climate increased global awareness emphasizing the potential hazardous impact it may bring to the natural, human and economic resources. The tourism industry recognized that this is not a distant event but an existing circumstance that impacts the tourist destinations. Furthermore tourism industry also contributes in greenhouse gas emission (GHG), particularly the transportation system they are using as they travel from one destination to other. The study looks into how the fluctuation in the climate risk conditions in various countries influence the corresponding variability of the international tourist arrivals across the globe.

Tayco, R. O., E., R. C. and Babon, G. P.

II. Research Design and Methods One hundred sixteen (116) countries across One hundred sixteen (116) countries across the globe were used in this study, because this the globe were used studysets (these are the countries had in allthis the data usedare in the countries with complete study. Secondary data setsdata weresets). usedSecondary to collect data setsused werein also TheClimate Climate Risk Index the data theutilized. study. The (CRI) was collected from the Global Climate Risk Index Report by Harmeling and Eckstein (2012). Information on International Tourist Arrivals was obtained from the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO, 2013). fractal dimensions dimensions of of this 2013), The the fractal data were determined. The fractal dimensions of the two (2) Thefractaldimensionsoftwo(2)variables,the variables, thetourist international arrival (y) international arrival (y)tourist and global climate and risk index (x) obtained risk global index climate (x) were obtained bywere transforming by data sets graphs. The the transforming data sets intothe graphs. The into one-dimensional one-dimensional representation of the variables representation of the variables in question tells in question tellsline how a straight line segment by is how a straight segment is fragmentized fragmentized by the random variable question. the random variable in question. Theindegree of The degree ofor roughness fragmentation or roughness fragmentation is summarized in an is summarized in an index called the fractal index called the fractal dimension (λ). The dimension (λ). The fractal dimension is calculated is calculated through the box-counting through the is box-counting method is method which automated through thewhich freeware automated frak.out. through the freeware frak.out. The result of two-dimensional configuration (x,y) will reveal a fractal figure. The fractal dimension of this two-dimensional configuration is likewise obtained by the box-counting algorithm using the frak.out software. In this paper, it investigates how the fractal dimension of the two (2) variables correlates each other. Theresults resultswill willlook lookinto intohow howthe theroughness roughness other. The (variability) of the the climate climate risks risk condition condition in various countries countries influences influence the corresponding variability or roughness of international tourist arrivals. Thethe formula is as arrivals and formula isfollows: as follows:

Where: Where: ƛ = fractal dimension of (x,y) plot ƛ = fractal dimension of (x,y) plot ƛx = fractal dimension of X ƛx = fractal dimension of X ƛy = fractal dimension of Y ƛy = fractal dimension of Y Rƛ= roughness correlation Rƛ= roughness correlation The analyses have the following steps. First, the data sets are converted into pictorial The analyses had the following steps.forms First,

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by For the into independent variable thecreating data setsgraphs. are converted pictorial forms (Global Climate Risk the researchers by creating graphs. ForIndex), the independent variable (Global used values Climate of 0Risk as the Index), dependent we usedvariable values of and 0 as the dependent values of CRI as the variable independent and values variable. of CRI They as the independent did a similar move variable. for the Wedependent did a similar variable move for the dependent (International Tourist variable Arrival). (International This time, Tourist they Arrival). used the This valuetime, of 0 we as the usedindependent as the independent variable variable and thethe international 0 values and the tourist international arrival as tourist the dependent they plotted the arrival as thevariable. dependentNext, variable. Next, we plotted the relationship relationship between between thethe two twovariables variables on on a graph. Then Then the fractal fractal dimensions dimensionswere were obtained using freeware Lastly, they frakout. entered of the the three graphs frak.out. using the freeware Lastly, the result we entered of fractalthe dimensions result of fractal in thedimensions roughness in the roughness correlation formula correlation explicatedformula above. explicated above. III. RESULTS III. RESULTS The results present the findings of the study conducted The results on the present impact theoffindings climate of risk theon study the conducted on tourist international the impact arrivals of climate across risk the on globe. the international Figure 1 illustrates tourist thearrivals fragmentation across induced the globe. by Figure the global 1 illustrates climate risk theindex fragmentation on the ruggedness induced by of the climate riskrisk condition across the globe. of the global climate index on the ruggedness climate risk condition across the globe. Figure 1. Fragmentation or fractality induced by GCRI on nations across the globe

Figure 1. Fragmentation or fractality induced by GCRI on nations across the globe

The computed fractal dimension is λ = 1.6204 1.6204 which indicates that climate risk condition across the different countries in the world is quite rough and irregular. Fragmentations of the climate risk indices data are revealed are revealed on both on the ends. both These ends.mean This means that variations that variations of climate of risk climate indices riskareindices found are found among countries among countries with the with lowest theand lowest highest and highest variation, variation, (increase either or increase decrease). or decrease. The fractal The fractal spectrum spectrum is displayed is displayed below for below a deeper for aanalysis deeper analysis of the situation. of the situation.

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Figure 2. Fractal Spectrum of the Global Climate Risk Index

The computed fractal dimension is λ = 1.7590 1.7590 which indicates that the international tourist arrival across arrivals acrossthe thedifferent differentcountries countries in in the world is more are morerough roughand andirregular irregular compares comparedto to climate risk indices. The fractal spectrum is displayed for a deeper analysis of the situation: Figure 4. Fractal Spectrum of the travel and tourism competitiveness

Figure 2. Fractal Spectrum of the Global Climate Risk Index

countries belonging belonging to to the the smaller For countries scales, high fractal dimensions are noted while for countries belonging to the larger scales, low fractal dimensions are observed. In other words, we observe they observegreater greatervariability variabilityin inthe theclimate climate risk indices for countries with smaller GCRI scores like Thailand, Thailand,Cambodia, Cambodia,Pakistan, Pakistan, El Salvador, El Salvador, the Brazil,the United Philippines, Brazil, UnitedStates Statesof of America, Guatemala, Sri Lanka and Honduras which are generally risky and are more irregular in terms of the GCRI. While countries that have higher GCRI scores are Swaziland, Suriname, Sierra Leone, Seychelles, Qatar, Senegal, Mongolia, Moldova, Macedonia, Luxembourg, Lesotho, Brunei Darussalam, Cape Verde, Cyprus, Egypt, Hong Kong, Iceland, Israel, Jordan, Latvia and United Arab Emirates, as the least risky countries and are relatively more homogeneous in terms of this index since their fractal dimensions are lower. Figure 3 shows the fragmentation of the countries induced by tourist arrivals. Figure 3. Fragmentation or fractality induced by tourist’s arrival on nations across the globe.

Figure 3. Fragmentation or fractality induced by tourist’s arrival on nations across the globe.

Figure 4. Fractal Spectrum of the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness

Countries belonging to the tosmaller scales For countries belonging the smaller have low fractal dimensions while countries scales have low fractal dimensions while for belonging to the larger scalelarger have scales high fractal countries belonging to the have dimensions. To be exact,Tothey observe greater high fractal dimensions. be exact, we observe inconsistency for countries with larger greater inconsistency for countries with tourist larger arrival because their fractal dimensions are tourist arrival because their fractal dimensions higher. TheseThese countries include France, the are higher. countries include France, United States of America, China, Spain, Italy, Turkey, United Kingdom, Germany and Malaysia. Countries that belong to lower scale and have the lowest international tourist arrivals are Sierra Leone, Moldova, Mali, Seychelles, Benin, Suriname, Madagascar and Burkina Faso. Figure 5: Plot of international tourist arrival versus global climate index, Λxy = 1.29

Figure 3: Plot of international tourist arrival versus global climate index, Λxy = 1.29 .

Tayco, R. O., E., R. C. and Babon, G. P.

As seen on the two variables, the Climate Risk Indices data set is more fragmented than the data on International Tourist Arrival. The fragmentations of CRI almost happen at all of its levels. On the other hand, fragmentations of International Tourist Arrival data only occur at the start to the middle. The calculated fractal dimension of the Global Climate Risk Index of countries across the globe amounts to 1.6204. The implication is that there is a wide range of variability in the climate risk condition of the country across the globe considered in the study with greater uniformity for the least risky country and higher variability across countries that are most risky. In other words, the researchers observe greater variability in the climate risk indices for countries with smaller CRI scores i.e. Thailand, Cambodia, Pakistan, El Salvador, the Philippines, Brazil, the United States of America, Guatemala, Sri Lanka and Honduras. Generally, countries that are risky are more variant in terms of the Global Climate Risk Index. In contrast, more risky countries are relatively fluctuating in terms of this index since their fractal dimensions are higher. The same can be said in the roughness and irregularity of the tourist arrivals with a computed fractal dimension of 1.7590. To be exact, they observe greater inconsistency for countries with more tourist arrivals. These countries include France, the United States of America, China, Spain, Italy, Turkey, the United Kingdom, Germany and Malaysia. When the two variables were simultaneously analyzed for roughness, it resulted in a fractal dimension of 1.2903. The roughness correlation measure is therefore RÎť = 0.8792. That is, around 87.92 % of the variability in the tourist arrivals in the countries is accounted for by their global climate risk ratings. It appears that score ratings of GCRI correspondingly induce a reduction in the roughness of international tourist arrival. Specifically, the countries that are not risky have higher international tourist arrival than the countries which are generally risky.

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The link between climate change and international tourist arrival is evident. Climate is a fundamental resource for tourism considering that tourist patronizes the beach, nature and winter sport tourism events. Variations in the climate and weather patterns can notably disturb the comfort and travel decisions among tourists. This alters the demand and tourist flows which will eventually trouble the tourism industry. Climate change issue has emerged as one of increasing importance to the tourism and hospitality industries in terms of both the potential contribution of tourism to climate change and its effects to each other (UNWTO & UNEP, 2008). Cavallo and Noy (2010) investigated on the economics of natural disaster by summarizing the state of the economic literature and examining the aggregate impact of disasters. Further, this reviews the main disaster source available, discusses the determinants of the direct effects, and distinguishes between short and long- run indirect effects. Then, relevant policies were identified; make projections about future disasters, and gaps in literature. The study is related to the present study in terms of the investigation of disaster and its effects but this present one looks into how the fluctuations in the climate risk conditions have made significant effects to the international tourist arrival of countries. It should be noted that tourism business partakes a primal part in facing the challenges of climate change. The impressive increase of arrivals offers both challenges and opportunities. The patrons and service providers both acted to this over the years and noticeably threaded up its response. There is currently an explicit understanding of the industryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s role solving issue (UNEP, 2008). This evidence develop awareness among government administrations, policy makers and tourism stakeholders to heedfully examine the effects of tourism policies for climate change mitigation.

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IV. DISCUSSION The consequence of these observations is extensive. Important considerations, such as the climate risk condition of the locality topped in the foreignerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s list of preferred vacation places. The climate risk condition in various countries influence the corresponding international tourist arrivals. When the country is relatively not risky, more tourists are expected to visit on those countries. The top countries for International Tourist Arrivals are mostly from developed nations especially the European countries. Together with Asia and the Pacific, Europe surpassed expectations in 2011 with a growth of 6 % for international tourist arrivals. In spite of unrelenting economic doubt, international arrivals in the year 2011 to Europe reached 504 million, accounting for 29 million of the 43 million additional international arrivals recorded across the globe. But for the Climate Risk Indices, that mostly on the highest ranking, are countries that are mostly affected on severe weather events in 2011 and these countries are always prone to typhoon and flood i.e. Thailand, Cambodia, Pakistan, El Salvador, the Philippines, Brazil, the United States of America, Guatemala, Sri Lanka and Honduras which are generally risky and are more irregular in terms of the GCRI scores. The lowest ranking and seldom to have catastrophic event are countries that belong to the SubSaharan and Middle East Countries. The relationship between global climate risk index and international tourist arrival is obvious. For example, in most developed countries, tourist arrivals have been increasing every year and most of the countries with higher CRI scores are countries like France, the United States, China, Italy, Turkey, the United Kingdom, Germany and Malaysia. Forexample,theincidentinCentralPhilippines due to Typhoon Yolanda caused catastrophic destruction in the Visayas, particularly on Samar Island, Leyte, Northern Cebu and Panay Island causing undesirable impact on the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

image as a preferred tourist destination. Travel advisories issued by other countries to their citizens against Philippines as tourist destination do not help bolster the tourism prospects for the entire country because even if the advisories are specific to Visayas, these translate to the country as a whole by mere association. In general, global climate risk condition of the locality is the utmost reason in choosing countries of preferred vacation places. This study looks into the roughness of the climate risk condition as basis of tourist arrival across the globe. In their decisions and actions for travel and destination, tourists are advised to take account the climate risk conditions as part of their considerations. Foreign tourists are advised to read the GCRI as their precautionary measure. Frequent events or rare, but extraordinary catastrophes may happen when they visit certain touristâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s destination. Hence, the importance of having an effective and concrete disaster risk reduction program in all locales is undisputable. V. CONCLUSION In this paper, the researchers offer evidence on the effects of climate risk condition of countries on tourism. They found out that variations or roughness in climate risk condition induces the roughness in the level of international tourist arrival across the globe. The current evidence lends proof that the weather patterns of a country, specifically climate risk condition, has considerable effects on international tourist arrival. Climate change and unpredictable weather affect tourist decisions and arrivals in tourist destinations. International travellers naturally choose to go to reliable and safe places even if the tourist sites in these countries are not as attractive as those in the Asia-Pacific regions. originality index: similarity index: paper id: Grammarly:

95 % 5% 464259009 checked

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REFERENCES Blanke, J., & Chiesa, T. (2013). The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2013. In The World Economic Forum. Cologny/Geneva Switzerland. Bogardi, J., & Birkmann, J. (2004). Vulnerability assessment: the first step towards sustainable risk reduction. Disaster and Societyâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;From Hazard Assessment to Risk Reduction. Logos Verlag Berlin, Berlin, 75-82. Cavallo, E., & Noy, I. (2010). The economics of natural disasters. IDB Working Paper Series, IDB- WP124. Inter-American Development Bank. Department of Research and Chief Economist. Highlights, U.T. (2012). UN World Tourism Organization Tourism Highlights (2012 ed.). Retrieved from http://mkt.unwto.org/en/publication/unwtotourism-highlights-2012-edition. Highlights, U. T. (2013). UN World Tourism Organization Tourism Highlights (2013 ed.). Retrieved from http://mkt.unwto.org/en/publication/unwtotourism-highlights-2013-edition. Laukkonen, J., Blanco, P. K., Lenhart, J., Keiner, M., Cavric, B., & Kinuthia-Njenga, C. (2009). Combining climate change adaptation and mitigation measures at the local level. Habitat International, 33(3), 287-292. Most, W.S., & Weather, E. (2012). Global Climate Risk Index 2013. Padua, R., et al. (2013). Statistical fractal inference. Unpublished manuscript. Simpson, M.C., GĂśssling, S., Scott, D., Hall, C.M., & Gladin, E. (2008). Climate change adaptation and mitigation in the tourism sector: Frameworks, tools and practices. UNEP, University of Oxford, UNWTO, WMO: Paris, France. So, P. (2008). Philippine Tourist Destinations. Binondo, Manila: Action Holidays Tour Corporation. Tayco, R. (2013). Tourist arrivals and peace indices: Ascertaining the impact of the irregularities and ruggedness of peace situation on tourism across the globe. NORSU, Prism, 18(1). UNEP (2007). Disaster risk reduction in tourism destinations. Disaster reduction through awareness, preparedness and prevention mechanisms in coastal settlements in Asiademonstration in tourism destinations. Milan, Paris, France: UNEP. UNEP, (2008). Disaster risk management for coastal tourism destination responding to climate change. A practical guide for decision-makers. Paris, France: UNEP. UNEP, (2008). Disaster risk reduction. A toolkit for

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tourism destinations: Practical examples from coastal settlements in Asia. Paris, France: UNEP. UNEP & FU (2008). UN collaborative programme on reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries (UNREDD). Framework document. UNICEF & UNDP (2008). Improving local service delivery for the millennium development goals. Restoring the image of Blue Mongolia: Rural water supply & sanitation, Ulaanbaatar. United Nation International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (2013). Business resilience top agenda for future disaster risk reduction. Retrieved from http:// www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/05/28/ business-resilience-top-agenda-future-disasterrisk-reduction.html UNWTO & WMO (2007, 2008). Climate change and tourism: Responding to global challenges. Advanced Summary, October. UNWTO (2013). UNWTO Tourism highlights. Retrieved 3rd October 2013 from http://mkt.unwto.org/ en/ publication/unwto-tourism-highlights-2013edition.pdf World Bank Group (2012). World development indicators 2012. World Bank Publications.

Country Climate Risk Index Intâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;l Tourist Arrivals 33. Estonia 82 2665 34. Ethiopia 92 523 35. Finland 57.67 4192 36. France 53.5 81552 37. Georgia 44.67 1319 38. Germany 47.33 28352 39. Greece 89.67 16427 40. Guatemala 16.17 1225 41. Honduras 19 871 42. Hong Kong SAR, China 94.17 22316 43. Hungary 69.83 10250 44. Iceland 94.17 566 45. India 27.17 6309 46. Indonesia 57.67 7650 47. Iran 70.67 3354 48. Ireland 48.83 7134 49. Israel 94.17 2820 50. Italy 43.67 46119 51. Jamaica 72.83 1952 52. Japan 38 6219 53. Jordan 94.17 3900 54. Kazakhstan 83.5 4093 55. Kenya 61.17 1750 56. Korea, Republic 37.33 9795 57. Kuwait 73.5 269 58. Latvia 94.17 1493 59. Lebanon 86.83 1655 60. Lesotho 94.17 398 61. Lithuania 89.5 1775 62. Luxembourg 94.17 863 63. Macedonia 94.17 327 64. Madagascar 35.5 225

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Country Climate Risk Index Intâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;l Tourist Arrivals 1. Albania 93.33 2865 2. Algeria 44.67 2395 3. Argentina 43.33 5705 4. Armenia 91.83 758 5. Australia 23.5 5 875 6. Austria 77.67 23012 7. Azerbaijan 87.83 1562 8. Barbados 94.17 568 9. Belgium 51.67 7494 10. Benin 84.67 209 11. Bolivia 31.33 946 12. Bosnia and Herzegovina 49.67 392 13. Brazil 14.33 5433 14. Brunei 94.17 242 15. Bulgaria 59 6328 16. Burkina Faso 56 238 17. Cambodia 7 2882 18. Cameroon 60.17 604 19. Canada 39 16016 20. Cape Verde 94.17 428 21. Chile 39.33 3137 22. China 31.5 57581 23. Colombia 33.5 2045 24. Costa Rica 40.33 2192 25. Croatia 92.17 9927 26. Cyprus 94.17 2392 27. Czech Republic 93.83 9019 28. Denmark 53.67 7363 29. Dominican Republic 35.67 4306 30. Ecuador 74.67 1141 31. Egypt 94.17 9400 32. El Salvador 11.83 1184

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Climate Risk Index Intâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;l Tourist Arrivals 69.17 767 60.17 24714 52.83 160 92.83 965 25.5 23403 94.17 75 94.17 460 92 9342 27.5 1027 38 736 89.33 11300 55 2601 24.83 1060 38 715 39.5 4963 10.5 1000 80.83 1473 20 524 56.17 2598 11.83 3917 79.17 13350 90.17 7412 94.17 2500 73 1515 78.33 22686 49.67 17400 94.17 1001 41 764

Country Climate Risk Index Intâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;l Tourist Arrivals 93. Seychelles 94.17 194 94. Sierra Leone 94.17 52 95. Singapore 88 10390 96. Slovenia 88.17 2037 97. South Africa 64.5 8339 98. Spain 63.5 56177 99. Sri Lanka 16.5 856 100. Suriname 94.17 220 101. Swaziland 94.17 879 102. Sweden 75.33 9959 103. Switzerland 36.33 8534 104. Tanzania 44 843 105. Thailand 2.5 19230 106. Turkey 74.67 34654 107. Uganda 42.67 1151 108. Ukraine 68.17 21415 109. United Arab Emirates 94.17 8100 110. United Kingdom 68.5 29306 111. United States 15.17 62711 112. Uruguay 65.83 2857 113. Venezuela 64 595 114. Vietnam 25.33 6014 115. Zambia 84 906 116. Zimbabwe 66.17 2423

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Country 65. Malawi 66. Malaysia 67. Mali 68. Mauritius 69. Mexico 70. Moldova 71. Mongolia 72. Morocco 73. Namibia 74. Nepal 75. Netherlands 76. New Zealand 77. Nicaragua 78. Nigeria 79. Norway 80. Pakistan 81. Panama 82. Paraguay 83. Peru 84. Philippines 85. Poland 86. Portugal 87. Qatar 88. Romania 89. Russia 90. Saudi Arabia 91. Senegal 92. Serbia

Source: Global Climate Risk Index 2013 (Harmeling and Eckstein, 2012) and the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO, 2013)

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Extent of knowledge on falls by staff nurses in Baguio-Benguet healthcare settings Jose Reinhard C. Laoingco Cay Darhyl R. Tabugader College of Nursing Saint Louis University dr. jorel@yahoo.com Date Submitted: June 16, 2014

Date Accepted: October 27, 2014

ABSTRACT The study aims to determine the extent of knowledge on falls by staff nurses in Baguio-Benguet health care settings. As a descriptive type of research, it necessitates a structured questionnaire as data gathering tool. The researchers surveyed 120 staff nurses as respondents using the nonprobability convenience sampling method and the analysis make use of means and the t-test. Through this study, the researchers were able to formulate a module on falls, its prevention and management in order to enrich the knowledge of the staff nurses regarding falls. In addition, the researchers recommend that there ought to be a manual about fall prevention and management programs in every hospital. Keywords: falls, knowledge, Baguio-Benguet hospitals I. INTRODUCTION Vicki Stephens went to a hospital’s outpatient department for a hernia assessment. Six hours later she emerged with her face looking like it “had been hit by the rear end of a bus”. The 69year old woman had two black eyes and lacerations after fainting and falling face-first on to the emergency department floor from a wheelchair. She was claiming when she was left unattended by the staff, despite warning them she was feeling light-headed and short of breath. “The hospital bundled me home as quickly as they could with no follow- up plan for my facial injuries. No one has called to check if I am okay. I

feel like the hospital must have a duty of care because they left me unattended.” - Sunshine Coast News, February 1, 2010 The American Nurses Association in its National Database for Nursing Quality Indicators (2009) defined Falls as unplanned descent to the floor or extension of the floor, (e.g. trash can or other equipment) with or without injury. According to Morse (2009), there are three classifications of falls: accidental, unanticipated physiological, and anticipated physiological. Accidental falls which contribute to 14 % of inpatient falls, are caused by the patient slipping or tripping, usually attributed to environmental hazard such as water on the floor. Unanticipated

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physiological falls which make up 8 % of hospital falls, are attributed to physiological factors that cannot be predicted before the first fall. Anticipated physiological are falls by person considered at risk for falling, which comprise about 78 % of hospital falls. Accidental and anticipated physiological falls has long been a subject for researches to prevent up to 92 % of hospital falls and this research is no different wherein the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on accidental and anticipated physiological falls will be determined. Falls in health care settings are yet a considerable challenge across all age groups, with the older adults being more vulnerable to falls due to physiological changes. Decreasing vision, poor balance, dizziness from low blood pressure and/or medications, and environment factors such as inadequately marked step, broken furniture, loose rugs, and poorly equipped bath areas are the most common causes of falls among older adults (Hogstel, 2005). Fall risk increases as one ages, as indicated by the study conducted by National Center for Inquiry Prevention in 2007. According to the Center for Disease Control (2006), one of every three older adults falls each year, hence, with the increasing population of older adults, the healthcare workers should be intensively prepared to prevent falls. The United Nations Statistics Division (2000) found out that since 2005, there are fall cases among 672 million older adults and this is projected to increase up to 1.9 billion by 2050. In the United States, falls are the leading cause of accidents for people over the age of 65 (CDC, 2007). Falls among hospital inpatients are common, generally ranging from 2.3 to 7 falls per 1, 000 patient days (Halfon et al., 2001). Approximately 30 % of inpatient falls result in injury, withfourtosixpercentresultinginserious injury (Ash, Macleod, & Clark, 1998). These fallrelated injuries could lead to death, making falls the number one cause of injury- related death for males 80 years old and older and for

females 75 years old and older (National Safety Council, 2009). With the increasing incidence of inpatient hospital falls in the United States, the National Patient Safety Goals, under the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations, advocates for institution- wide risk assessment for falls and documentation of a fall-prevention program (VHA National Center for Patient Safety, 2004). The trend of increasing number of fallrelated cases among the elderly population is not different in the Philippines. According to the United Nations Statistics Division (2000), by 2025, the proportion of these incidents is projected to rise to 7.68 million or about eight percent of the total population. Falls are common, frequently unreported yet preventable, and are often the cause of injury and unnecessary restriction of activity among elderly patients. Falls contribute to the reduction of overall health and quality of life (Rubenstein & Josephson, 2002). In fact, falls are the most common type of hospital accident, reportedly accounting for up to 70 percent of hospital accidents (Krauss et al., 2004). Consequences of falls in hospitals can vary from no effect at all to severe injuries or even death. Between 30 to 40 percent of falls in hospitals cause injuries (Halfon, Eggli, Van Melle & Vagnair, 2001), with most common injuries being soft tissue injuries, fractures, and cranial trauma (Chu, et al., 1999). Hence, falls can cause an increasing need for additional diagnostic procedures and increasing stress for the elderly and their families. Even if there is no injury, elderly patients often lose confidence in their mobility, which can cause them to reduce their walking and other activities. Over time, falls can result in deconditioning which increases the risk of further falls (Hendrich, 2003). The primordial aim of the Nursing Law is primarily to protect the public. Thus, the accountability of nurses to their patients for their nursing services is presumed (Robles & Dionisio, 2001). Nurses can be held legally liable

Laoingco, J. R. C . and Tabug ader, C . D. R.

if proven guilty of malpractice, which may force them to compensation that includes medical expenses, lost salary, a certain sum of money or pain and suffering, and sometimes for emotional damages (Robles & Dionisio, 2001). According to the Philippine Health Statistics Report from the Department of Health, the mortality rate of accidents including falls was 42.3 per 100, 000 population in 2002. Accurate data are still lacking as to the morbidity and mortality of hospital falls. The newly-established National Electronic Injury Surveillance System is still in its pilot stage, thus, injury data from hospitals are likewise not currently consolidated nationally. There is no current available statistics of hospital fall incidents among elderly in the region. Precise data to the actual number of fall incidents are uncertain since disclosures are far rarer than errors (Blendon et al., 2001). This may be caused by the typical reaction of healthcare workers best described by an excerpt from an interview with a healthcare worker (Wu, 2000): “Virtually every practitioner knows the sickening realization of making a bad mistake. You feel singled out and exposed— seized by the instinct to see if anyone has noticed. You agonize about what to do, whether to tell anyone, what to say. Later, the event plays itself over and over in your mind. You question your competence but fear being discovered. You know you should confess, but dread the prospect of potential punishment and of the patient’s anger”. The Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (2006) reviewed patient fall incidents between 1995 and 2004, and found out that the primary root causes of falls as reported by healthcare organizations are: (a) inadequate staff communication; (b) incomplete patient assessment and reassessment; (c) environmental issues; (d) incomplete care

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planning and unavailable or delayed care provision; and (e) an incomplete orientation and training. Some or most stated factors stated are present in most of the healthcare organizations in the country. Since four of the five root causes of falls identified by the JCAHO are directly linked to healthcare providers’ capabilities and efforts, nurses’ lack of knowledge and updates on fall prevention may affect the provision of safe and quality nursing care. Safely, the freedom from psychological and physical injury, is a basic human need (Potter & Perry, 2007). In fact, safety is a need next to the most important physiological needs in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, 2000. Because nursing is concerned with promoting health, which is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as the extent to which an individual is able to satisfy needs and the complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity (Bok, 2008). It is one of the inherent functions of nurses to keep the patient away from harm. Nurses’ responsibilities and legal obligations include evaluating each patient’s safety and acting. According to the Philippine Board of Nursing (2009), providing safe and quality nursing care is one of the eleven key areas of responsibility for Filipino nurses. This patient care competency is indicated by performing age- specific safety measures in all aspects of client care (Board of Nursing, 2009). Falls can produce physical and psychological complications to older adults and such can be the results of poor nursing care. In the United States of America, fall rates in hospitals are included in nursing quality indicators, which are monitored by the American Nurses Association and by the National Quality Forum (ANA, 2009). As a nursing quality indicator, high fall rates imply poor quality nursing services. Quality and excellence in the care of the patients are the goals of nursing practice. To do these, nurses must see to it that quality nursing care and practice meet the optimum standard

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of safe nursing practice (Code of Ethics for Philippine Registered Nurses, 2004). However, in the drive to cut healthcare costs, there has been a steady drumbeat to do more with less, forcing overburdened personnel to the edge of the safety envelope that increased risks exist for patients (Henriksen, 2007). With various issues in the healthcare setting, patient safety is sometimes compromised. While older adult falls continue to be a problem in hospitals, the research results offer help for clinicians in practice today by igniting awareness to hospital administrators and chief nurses of the importance of staff nurses’ knowledge on fall prevention and management. Study results can serve as an assessment on the current knowledge as to fall prevention and postfall care, making way for quality improvement efforts and staff development programs. These can provide ways for the staff nurses to strengthen their roles in preventing falls and doing post-fall interventions. Moreover, the study results can also be a basis for formulating good nursing care plans. The formulated module hopes to contribute to staff nurses’ knowledge on falls, how to prevent them and what to do if they happen, and assist in their provision of quality care. In nursing education, it is a challenge to produce knowledgeable nurses. The research anticipates contributing information to the existing dearth of knowledge on falls and gives ideas to faculty members on what areas to give emphasis to in teaching student nurses. The results can also aid in curriculum development for the safe and quality nursing practice of future staff nurses. Theories provide structures to researches. Nursing theories are distinctive because they are conceptualizations of some aspect of reality, viewed from the perspective of nursing, used to describe, explain, predict, or prescribe nursing care (Meleis, 2007). Neuman’s Systems Model has been described as a grand nursing theory by Walker

and Avant (1995). A grand theory consists of a global conceptual framework that defines broad perspectives for practice and includes diverse ways of viewing phenomena based on those perspectives. As a grand theory, the Neuman Systems Model provides a comprehensive foundation for nursing practice, education, and research (Alligood & Tomey, 2009). The model discusses adjustment as the process by which an organism maintains its equilibrium, and consequently its health, under varying stressful situations. Stressors are tension-producing stimuli with the potential for causing disequilibrium, such as falls. Falls are stressors which may disrupt the homeostatic process of the older adults. Hence, they should minimize the fall risk factors and employ fall prevention interventions to prevent falls to meet their safety needs. The nurses’ role is to help the older adults to dynamically and continuously adjust fall risk factors and do fall prevention interventions. Neuman (1995) related prevention levels to nursing in the following manner: (a) Primary prevention occurs when a threat to health exists but no stressor invasion reaction has occurred; (b) Secondary prevention happens when stressor invasion has occurred and action is taken to prevent the state of disequilibrium from progressing to the point at which basic structures become threatened; and (c) Tertiary prevention is aimed at reconstituting a system seriously impacted by stressors to restore the system to equilibrium, optimal wellness, or its stable state (Alligood & Tomey, 2009). The above concept is significant to the study since it aims to determine the extent of staff nurses’ knowledge on fall prevention interventions and post-fall interventions. Primary prevention is the most valuable of all levels of prevention. Falls are great threats to health as well as to the lives of the older adult patients, thus, considered as a stressor. Fall prevention interventions which include fall risk assessment, preventive and educative interventions, are primary prevention

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against falls. Secondarypreventioninvolves interventions or treatment initiated after the symptoms from stress have occurred. Both the older adults’ internal and external resources would be used toward stabilization of the system to strengthen the lines of resistance, reduce the reactions, and increase resistance factors. After a fall, staff nurses institute secondary prevention— post-fall interventions. Patient-centered tasks aim to stabilize the patient and minimize the complications acquired from the falls. Since the incidents of falls affect the whole system, organizational tasks should also be instituted. Tertiary prevention focuses on readjustment toward optimal client system stability. A primary goal is to strengthen resistance to stressors by reduction to help prevent recurrence of reaction or regression. This process leads back to primary prevention— strengthening the older adults’ resistance to another incidence of falls and reducing the already existing modifiable fall risk factors. Neuman’s model also reflects general systems theory, that is, the nature of living open systems and all the elements are in interaction in a complex organization (Alligood & Tomey, 2009). Falls can be attributed by intrapersonal and extrapersonal factors. Intrapersonal factors are found in older adults themselves that may have contributed to the fall incidents. Thus, patient-centered tasks or the interventions done by staff nurses to older adults to prevent and minimize post-fall complications, are imperative. Patient-centered tasks include postfall assessments and interventions. On the other hand, extrapersonal factors encompass the organizational policies and hospital environment. Hence, organizational tasks or the interventions done by the hospital organization to ensure prevention and management of falls, are also crucial. The study intends to determine the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on falls. Specifically, the study aims to answer the following: (1)

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what is the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on fall prevention interventions, particularly along (a) assessments, (b) preventive interventions, and (c) educative interventions; (2) is there a significant difference in the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on fall prevention interventions when staff nurses are grouped according to hospital affiliation, length of service, and area of practice; (3) what is the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on post-fall interventions, particularly along (a) patientcentered tasks and (b) organizational tasks; and (4) is there a significant difference in the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on post-fall interventions when staff nurses are grouped according to hospital affiliation (where the staff nurse is currently affiliated with), length of service (the span of employment as a staff nurse in the hospital currently affiliated with and is measured in years), and area of practice (the specific unit or area the staff nurse is assigned to at the time of data gathering). The research outputs are a proposed manual and module on falls, fall prevention interventions and post-fall interventions. II. METHOD The study used the quantitative, nonexperimental, descriptive design with the purpose to observe, describe, and document aspects of a situation as it naturally occurs (Polit & Beck, 2008). The study was conducted in the selected health care settings in Baguio City and La Trinidad, Benguet namely: Saint Louis University Hospital of the Sacred Heart, Baguio Medical Center, and Benguet General Hospital. Research population was staff nurses from the abovementioned hospitals. Nonprobability convenience sampling was used. Questionnaires were answered by respondents who happened to be in the areas where the questionnaires were floated. These are the areas and wards where the older adults are commonly admitted including general wards—

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and wards where the older adults are commonly Thirty three staff nurses (27.5 percent) medical wards, surgical wards, medical orthopedic arewith 33 public staff hospitals nurses (27.5 are admitted including general wards— wards, are There affiliated while%)Eighty wards, palliative wards, ophthalmology wards, affiliated with public hospitals while 87 staff surgical wards, orthopedic wards, palliative wards, seven staff nurses (72.5 percent) are with private nurses (72.5 with of private hospitals. As to ear, nose, andwards, throat specialty ophthalmology ear, wards, nose, andand throat wards, hospitals. As to%) theare length service, 66.7 percent areas— emergency rooms, medical and surgical the length of service, 66.7 % of the respondents and specialty areas— emergency rooms, medical of the respondents or eighty staff nurses have one intensive units,careoperating rooms,rooms, and year or or 80 longer staff nurses have year or longer service, and surgicalcare intensive units, operating service andone 33.3 percent or forty staff coronary care units. Excluded were obstetric and and 33.3 % or forty staff nurses have less than one and coronary care units. Excluded were obstetric nurses have less than one year service. With regard year service. With regard to area of practice, 68 of gynecologic wards, delivery rooms, pediatric and gynecologic wards, delivery rooms, pediatric to area of practice, sixty eight of the respondents wards, pediatric intensive care units, pediatric the respondents (56.7 %) are in general wards, wards, pediatric intensive care units, pediatric (56.7 percent) are in general wards, whereas surgery units,nursery, nursery, neonatal intensive whereas the respondents %) are are in surgery units, andand neonatal intensive care fifty two of 52 the ofrespondents (43.3 (43.3 percent) in care units and the psychiatric unit. Slovin’s specialty areas. units and the psychiatric unit. Slovin’s Formula was specialty areas. Formula was usedthe tosample determine the sample size. The used to determine size. The respondents The tool tool used used in in the the study study isis the the structured structured questionnaire. The researcher The respondents consisted of 120 staff nurses or consisted of 120 staff nurses or 75 percent of the questionnaire. The researcher constructed constructed 75 % population of the population (161) staff nurses all the the questionnaire questionnaire items items about about fall total (161) of staffofnurses in all in three fall prevention prevention three hospitals. There are 65 out of 94 or 69 % interventions and post-fall interventions hospitals. Sixty five out of ninety four or 69 percent interventions and post- fall interventions based based on on reading books, journals and internet articles. of staff nurses in Saint Louis University Hospital of staff nurses in Saint Louis University Hospital of reading books, journals and internet articles. of Sacred Heart, 22 out 88 %five from The thethe Sacred Heart, twenty two of out25 of or twenty or The questionnaire questionnaire underwent underwent content content validity, validity, Baguio Medical Center and 33 out of 42 or 79 which concerns the degree to which it 88 percent from Baguio Medical Center and thirty which concerns the degree to which it has has an an % of staff nurses in Benguet General Hospital appropriate sample of items for the construct three out of forty two or 79 percent of staff nurses in appropriate sample of items for the construct being being participated. measured Benguet General Hospital participated. measured and and adequately adequately covers covers the the construct construct Table 1 presents the distribution of the domain (Polit & Beck, 2008). Experts Table 1 presents the distribution of the domain (Polit & Beck, 2008). Experts in in Nursing Nursing respondents when they are grouped according practice and education in Baguio City were asked respondents when they are grouped according to practice and education in Baguio City were asked to to to hospital affiliation, length of service, area hospital affiliation, length of service, andand area of evaluate evaluate the the individual individual items items in in the the questionnaire. questionnaire. of practice. The panel of of experts experts comprise: Mr.Joselito Joselito D Datud, practice. The panel comprise: Mr. atud, Nurse Supervisor, Baguio General Hospital and Nurse Supervisor, Baguio General Hospital and Table 1. Profile of the respondents as to the study’s Medical Center; Ms. Nancy Dakiwas, Head Nurse, Table 1. Profile of the Respondents as to the Study’s Medical Center; Ms. Nancy Dakiwas, Head Nurse, variables (n = 120) Saint of the Variables (n = 120) Saint Louis Louis University University Hospital Hospital of the Sacred Sacred Heart; Heart; Ms. Rufina Abul, Department Head, Ms. Rufina Abul, Department Head, Coll College ege of of Nursing, Saint Louis University; Ms. Norenia Variables Frequency Percentage Nursing, Saint Louis University; Ms. Norenia DaoDaoayen and Ms. Ms.Carolina CarolinaPangwi, Pangwi, Faculty, ayen and Faculty, ColCollege lege of of Hospital Affiliation Nursing, Saint Louis University. Suggestions Nursing, Saint Louis University. Suggestio ns and and comments from the thepanel panelof ofexperts, experts,the theGra Graduate Public 33 27.5% comments from duate Program Coordinator, Ms. Elizabeth Bautista, and Program Coordinator, Ms. Elizabeth Bautis ta, and 72.5% Private 87 the researcher’s Thesis Adviser, Dr. Jose Reinhard the researcher’s Thesis Adviser, Dr. Jose Re inhard Length of Service Laoingco, werecarried carriedout outby bythe theresearcher. researcher. Laoingco, were A pretest was conducted to test A pretest was conducted to test the the reliability reliability One year or more 80 66.7% of the questionnaire. The questionnaires were were of the questionnaire. The questionnaires 33. 3% Less than one year 40 floated to 15 staff nurses in the obstetric and floated to fifteen staff nurses in the obstet ric and pediatric wards of of the theparticipating participatinghospita hospitals. Area of Practice ls. The The pediatric wards pretest respondentswere werenot notincluded included actual pretest respondents as as actual General wards 68 56.7% respondents. The gathered data were statistically respondents. The data gathered were stati stically treated with Cronbach’s Cronbach’salpha. alpha.The Thequesti questionnaire treated with onnaire Specialty areas 52 43.3% had a Cronbach’s alpha reliability value had a Cronbach’s alpha reliability value of of 0.83 0.83 Total 120 100% interpreted asvery veryreliable. reliable. interpreted as

Laoingco, J. R. C . and Tabug ader, C . D. R.

The questionnaire is composed of three parts: first part contains the profile of the respondent, specifically the hospital affiliation, length of service, and area of practice; second part is composed of items regarding fall prevention interventions and consists of three sections with 20 items each: assessment, preventive interventions, and educative interventions; and third part is composed of items regarding post-fall interventions and is consisted of two sections with 20 items each: (a) patient-centered tasks; and (b) organizational tasks. The items in parts two and three are stated in declarative sentences. The respondents were requested to check the appropriate answer on the “True” or “False” box. Some items are negatively stated but were pre- identified as the correct answers. In each section under fall prevention interventions and post-fall interventions, there are eight false correct answers. In coming up with the scores of the respondents, the correct answer in each item, whether it is a true or a false statement, is counted as one point. For items with subquestions requiring multiple answers (item 1 under assessment and item 3 under patient-centered tasks), one or more checks under the wrong box The datawrong, gathering is considered hence,process no pointstarted is given.with getting necessary permission fromstarted the selected Thethedata gathering process with getting the necessary permission from the

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selected hospitals through a letter addressed to the hospital administrator and/or the chief nurse. The research was not subjected to the ethics committee of the hospitals. The questionnaire was forwarded by letter to the respondents informing them of the purpose and asking their consent and participation. It further assured respondents of anonymity and confidentiality. The gathered data underwent statistical treatment including mean and t-test. The mean was used to determine the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on falls. In determining if there is a significant difference in the extent of knowledge on falls when staff nurses are grouped according to hospital affiliation, length of service, and area of practice, t- test was utilized. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software was used to determine the t-value and the p-value. If the p-value is equal or less than the preset level of significance, 0.05, reject the null hypothesis. The following scale was used in the interpretation of the gathered data, based on the following: Range = Highest possible score- lowest possible score = 20 – 0 = 5 Number of Categories 4

Range of Scores and Interpretation According to Extent of Knowledge on Fall Prevention Interventions and Post- Fall Interventions Range of Score

Extent of Knowledge

Interpretation

16.00 – 20.00

Highly Knowledgeable

If 80 – 100% 100 %of ofthe the expected expected correct answers were chosen, answers were chosen, staff nurses highly knowledgeable the staffthe nurses would are be highly knowledgeable on fall fall preventionintervent interventions ionsand andpost-fall post- fall interventions prevention interventions.

11.00 – 15.99

Moderately Knowledgeable

If 55 - 79 79 % %of ofthe theexpected expected correct were chosen, correctanswers answers were chosen, staffwould nurses moderately knowledgeable on the staffthe nurses beare moderately knowledgeable on fall fall prevention interventions and postfall interventions prevention interventions and post-fall interventions.

6.00 – 10.99

Slightly Knowledgeable

If 30 – 54% 54 %ofofthe theexpected expected correct were chosen, correct answers answers were chosen, staff nurses the staffthe nurses would are be least leastknowledgeable knowledgeableononfallfall preventioninterventions interventionsand andpost-fall post- fall interventions prevention interventions.

0.00 – 5.99

Not Knowledgeable

If 00 –– 29 % of the chosen, the 29% the expected expectedcorrect correctanswers answerswere were chosen, staff nurses would knowledgeableonon fall prevention the staff nurses arenot notbe knowledgeable fall prevention interventionsand andpost-fall post- fall interventions interventions interventions.

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III. DISCUSSION Extent of Knowledge of Staff Nurses on Fall Prevention Interventions. The Philippines being a third world country strongly emphasizes on health promotion and prevention of diseases and disabilities, and this encompasses fall prevention. As the saying goes, “An ounce of prevention is better than a pound of cure.” This practice is observed in various settings including hospitals. Diagnostic, medical and pharmaceutical costs bonded with complications of falls require staff nurses to have knowledge on interventions to prevent falls. Table 2 presents the mean scores and interpretation on the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on fall prevention interventions. Table 2. Extent Extent of of Knowledge knowledge of of Staff staff Nurses nurses on on Fall fall prevention interventions in in the the Areas areas of of Assessment, assessment, Prevention Interventions preventive Preventive interventions Interventions and and educative Educativeinterventions Interventions Mean Score

Interpretation

Assessment Assessment

13.85

Moderately knowledgeable

Preventive Preventive interventions interventions

13.97

Moderately knowledgeable

Educative Educative interventions interventions

14.18

Moderately knowledgeable

Grand Mean

14.00

Moderately knowledgeable

Area

Table 2 shows that the mean scores of all the areas fall within the range of 11.00 to 15.99, with the grand mean of 14.00. Such ratings have a qualitative interpretation of moderately knowledgeable. In particular, considering the mean scores, the staff nurses have the highest extent of knowledge of fall prevention interventions in the area of educative interventions with a mean score of 14.18, followed by preventive interventions with 13.97. Assessment has the lowest with a mean score of 13.85. This finding means that staff

nurses are knowledgeable mostly on educative interventions, then preventive interventions and least on assessment of fall risk factors Fall risk assessment is done for the welfare of the older adults and the ethical and professional responsibilities, including a duty of care to protect patients against harm, especially the fallvulnerable older persons. Identifying fall risks is an essential part of healthcare for older adults because it is imperative to initiate preventive interventions for people at risk for falls. Older adults’ incidents of falls, especially if recurrent, may be a sign of unmet medical needs and should accordingly trigger an in-depth diagnostic process and intervention by healthcare workers. Because prevention of falls and fallfall-related related injuries is an important aspect of safety promotion for older adults, all nurses working with older adults are responsible for assessing and documenting fall risk factors. There are few opportunities as simple and as important as fall risk identification to improve patient outcomes and to increase patient safety (Hendrich, 2003). The item with with the the highest highest percentage percentage of correct answers in the the area area of of assessment, assessment,“Assess “Assess the patient for risk of falls during admission, shift,when when patient’s condition changes, every shift, patient’s condition changes, and and when is transferred when patientpatient is transferred to anotherto unitanother before unit beforeis only discharge” is only whereas 96.67 percent discharge” 96.67 percent, for the, whereas for the areasand of preventive and educative areas of preventive educative interventions, interventions, the highest percentages the highest percentages are 99.17 are and99.17 100 and 100 respectively. percent, respectively. of falls percent, IncidentsIncidents of falls happen happen more commonly periods immediately more commonly in periodsinimmediately following a transition betweensettings different settings afollowing transition between different (Capezuti, (Capezuti, Boltz, Renz, Hoffman & Norman, 2006). Boltz, Renz, Hoffman, & Norman, 2006). Fall Fall risks also vary over time and can change risks also vary over time and can change quickly quicklythere whenisthere is a sudden the when a sudden change change in the inolder older adults’ the necessity to assess adults’ status,status, hencehence the necessity to assess the the older adults riskofoffalls fallsduring during admission, older adults forfor risk every shift, when their condition changes, when transferred to another room or unit and before discharge. The latter is for formulation of strategies of fall prevention in their home since fifteen percent of olderdischarged people discharged from 15 % of older people from hospital

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have one or more falls in the first month after their return home (Mahoney, Sager, Dunham, & Johnson, 1994). Concepts on safety were probably instilled and grasped by staff nurses through nursing education and hospital exposure as student nurses. They may have learned how to assess older adults for possible risk factors that may jeopardize their safety. Irawaty (1995) supported this with the statement, “nurses, during their early years in school, were trained how to gather complete and relevant information about their patients.” Furthermore, nurses perhaps are very much familiar with assessment, being the first step of the nursing process that all interventions are based on. Nurses can not formulate a nursing care plan to prevent falls without doing a comprehensive and appropriate fall risk assessment from timeto-time. Staff nurses thoroughly assess and collect complete information about their patient condition in order to come up with a good nursing diagnosis, a practice that eventually leads to quality patient care (Mangaoang, 1998). “Impaired cognitive function, as evidenced by confusion, disorientation, and short-term memory loss, can predispose a patient to fall” is the second highest with 93.33 % of correct answers, which is lower compared to the areas of preventive and educative interventions with 95 and 96. 67 %, respectively. There are a number of different behaviors that contribute to increased fall risk in older adults with cognitive impairment, including agitation, wandering and impulsiveness. Cognitive impairment is a common symptom for older people in hospitals, with up to 40 % of older people admitted to hospitals (O’ Connell & Myers, 2002). With such percentage, staff nurses may have had opportunities and may have encountered older adults with cognitive impairments during their current and undergraduate training, thus have knowledge that impaired cognitive function, such as agitation, wandering and impulsiveness, can

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predispose an older adult patient to fall. The negatively stated item, “The shift with the highest number of staff has usually the highest incidence of falls,” has the lowest percentage of correct answers, 22.50 %. Staff nurses may have assumed that the shift with the highest number of staff has usually the lowest incidence of falls with the notion that with greater number of nurses, fall preventive interventions are intensified. Recent studies (Sovie & Jawad, 2001; Unruh, 2003) say otherwise. More nurses are assigned in areas where there are patients with greater illness severity, needing more assistance and care, thus, nurses have more tasks to accomplish. Such situations predispose the high risk of falls. The area of assessment obtained the lowest mean score, 13.85, among the three areas under Fall Prevention Interventions. The finding may be comparable to a similar study in the Middle East which found out that nurses’ knowledge on the causes of patient falls was low (Mostafa, 2009). This is an alarming finding since lack of knowledge on the fall risk factors would not allow for prevention interventions. Non-intervention against the risk factors could in turn contribute to the incidence of falls. Hence, the lack of knowledge or awareness on fall risk assessment can possibly hasten fall incidence. This unexpected finding probably was brought about by practical knowledge overpowering theoretical knowledge of staff nurses. It is possible to acquire the skills of fall risks assessment without acquiring the concepts behind. Such was defined by Polanyi (1997) as “tacit knowledge,” the cognitive processes or behaviors that are performed without reference to a conscious effort in the part of staff nurses (Altmann, 2007). Hence, staff nurses may have been subconsciously doing fall risks assessment and yet, are not much aware about the fall risks assessment concepts when answering the research tool. The lack of protocols or non-use of existing protocols on fall risks assessment in older adults in some hospitals may perhaps be a contributing

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factor to the finding. Although the process of assessment of fall risks is probably integrated in nursing practice, the presence of protocols may guide and remind the staff nurses on the concepts of fall risks assessment. Through constant practice of established protocols, the nurse may be enabled to develop a greater sense of salience (Benner, Tanner, & Chesla, 2009). Brain drain may also be a factor. There has been a noticeable trend of outward migration of nurses. The Philippines is considered as one of the biggest “exporter” of nurses in the world. From 1992 to 2006, Philippines has deployed 115, 871 professional nurses as overseas Filipino workers (Lorenzo, 2008). With the significant years of work experience as a requirement in working abroad, the exported nurses probably tend to be the ones who are well-trained, skilled and experienced. Some have areas of specializations but are enticed to work overseas possibly due to economic factors. The Philippines has been mass producing nursing graduates each and every year not to attend to domestic health demands. In the year 2000, it was estimated that 85 % of the total demand for Filipino nurses are found abroad (Lorenzo, 2008). The immediate end-result of this brain drain phenomenon is a shortage of skilled, experienced and knowledgeable nurses in healthcare settings. Hence, some may not be knowledgeable on safety concepts, such as fall risks assessment. This perhaps contributed to the unexpected finding that the area of fall risks assessment obtained the lowest mean score among the three areas. Another possible factor is the high nursepatient ratio in hospital settings, which can reach from 1 nurse to 26 patients in private hospitals and 1 nurse to 100 patients in public hospitals (Tan, 2004). With such ratio, the nursing care time allotted to each patient may be minimal, which is only a maximum of 30 minutes to one hour, according to a study conducted in a Baguio public hospital (Kiblasan, 2006), thus, making it nearly impossible to do a comprehensive assessment on each patient. The nursing care

time for each patient is probably fully consumed in carrying out doctors’ orders and therapeutic interventions. Most likely, assessment of fall risk is simultaneously done during nursing rounds. The current trend of high nurse- patient ratio may jeopardize older adult patients’ safety. If staff nurses lack the knowledge on assessment of fall risk factors and is not done, it is most likely that falls may not be prevented; hence, the possibility of increase in fall rates in hospitals. This finding needs to be given more consideration since a high incidence of falls in a hospital setting is a major concern in any health system. The possible lack of knowledge or consciousness on fall risks assessment points to the importance of designing a module on falls, fall prevention and management for staff nurses based on the knowledge gaps. The possible nonexistence of a comprehensive fall prevention and management program that encompasses fall risks assessment may also play a role in the staff nurses’ lack of knowledge as to fall risks assessment, hence, the relevance of a manual to be proposed to the nursing departments of the participating hospitals. Primary fall prevention continues from assessment to preventive interventions, which are actions todirectly prevent falls. Based on the fall risk assessment, preventive interventions are formulated to strengthen the older adults’ line of defense against falls. “Maintain consistency in procedures, routines and schedules, and staff, as much as possible” obtained the highest percentage of correct answers with 99.17 %. Older adults are special group of people who requires special kind of care thus, the birth of Gerontology Nursing, a field in the nursing profession that focuses on aging and the aged. With care of older adults integrated in the nursing undergraduate curriculum, nurses early in their education may have been made aware of preventing falls through recognizing and dealing with older adults’ difficulty of immediate adaptation to the new environment, routines, procedures and people. Sudden change can cause confusion or

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agitation to older adults, which in turn can lead to hospitals rely on Foreign Assisted Projects (FAPs) falls, hence, maintain consistency in procedures, for expenditures on hospital equipment (Lavado, routines and schedules, and staff, as much as Dunleavy, Jimenez, & Matsuda, 2010). With such problem, staff nurses most likely improvise and possible. “Promote early mobility and incorporate sometimes permanently lock the broken movable measures to increase mobility, such as daily equipment, thus, decreases the action of locking walking, if medically stable and not otherwise and unlocking the equipment. As to broken contraindicated” is second highest with 95 % bedrails and foot stools, staff nurses are possibly of correct answers. Exercise has been shown in improvising by using pillows, rolled linens and different studies to result in a range of health wooden boxes to meet the safety needs of older benefits for older people. Activities of daily living adults. Moreover, the transfers and transports of not only promote patient independence but patients may be frequently done by transport can also help to maintain muscle mass, strength aides, nursing aides and institutional workers. and mobility. Physical activity may help improve functional outcomes and potentially reduce fall The delegation of work possibly puts staff nurses rates. Media give a great deal of attention to the out of action in the transport and transfer of older importance of physical activity and exercises, adults, making their knowledge with it unreliable. Preventive interventions ranked second with which may remind the staff nurses of the relevance of simple daily activities that they may a mean score of 13.97, interpreted as “moderately knowledgeable.” Preventive interventions are have probably learned first in nursing school. Nursing as a service industry continues to actions to directly prevent falls. The finding grow and develop new roles. With shortage of may have been brought about by the integrated nurses, lower budgets and increased number concepts of comfort rounds and bedside care, of patients, the trend is to do more with less. both of which are included in the area of fall The issue of high patient-nurse ratio possibly preventive interventions. According to Collado encourages staff nurses to instigate measures to (1993), provision of comfort is a basic need that older adults and their families to practice self- a nurse never fails to perform and assistance at bedside is the major core of the nursing care as much as possible. “Lock movable equipment after transferring profession. Hence, regardless of technological patient” acquired the lowest percentage of advances and increased technical responsibilities correct answers, 18.33 %. Equipment, such as of staff nurses, providing comfort and bedside wheelchairs, stretchers and beds can contribute to care is probably never erased from nurses’ to-dorisks of falls. Ensure that the movable equipment lists. Hospitals are used basically for treatment are locked before the older adults are transferred. The low percentage may be attributed to (Lavado et al., 2010). Thus, it is most likely that the common problem of broken, nonfunctional older adults and their family expect a hands-on or damaged equipment in the hospital areas. care. With such expectations, staff nurses probably According to the Philippine Daily Inquirer (2009), increase their personal knowledge by immersing the Philippine Commission on Audit has found themselves in practice (Altmann, 2007). The staff nurses are only moderately 42.1 M worth of defective and unutilized medical equipment in various hospitals nationwide. In knowledgeable on fall preventive interventions addition, the percentage share of equipment probably because of the possibility of tacit purchase vis-à-vis the total fund utilization knowledge, wherein some of the staff nurses are among hospitals has been decreasing. DOH probably operating on principles that they could

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not articulate et.al., 2009). However However,, articulate (Benner et al., 2009). it is worthwhile to emphasize that nursing as an “applied” profession not only requires skills, but also procedural and theoretical knowledge since it is impossible to excel in nursing merely by drawing exclusively from trail and error and from imitation without acquiring and using articulatable scientific knowledge (Benner et al., 2009). Another possible factor is that one- third of the staff nurses nurses in inthe thehospitals hospitalsunder understudy studyhave has only less than a year length of service. This may have been brought about by the current trend of nurses seeking greener pastures. Western orientation of nursing education makes the graduates marketable to foreign countries; countries, hence, most of the skilled nurses are most likely to work abroad while some who are still in the country are relatively unskilled and inexperienced, and after a year or two of gaining experience, also go overseas (Lorenzo, 2008). Patient education has long been considered aa major major part part in in the the repertoire repertoire of standard care provided providedby bythe the nurse nurse (Bastable, 2003). Generally,, Generally the thepurpose purposeofofeducating educatingthe the older older patients patients is tto increase o increase their theirknowledge knowledgefor for self-care self- care and management managementtotoprevent preventfalls. falls. Patient education can can also also empower empower older adults to become actively involved in planning their involved in planning theirown ownsafe safecare. care. As Coulter and Coulter andEllins Ellins(2007, (2007,p.24) p.24) stated, “patient outcomes outcomesare aremuch much improved improved when when patients are involved in in their involved theirown owncare care and and have have adequate explanations explanationsand andtime timetotodiscuss discusstheir theirconcerns.” concerns.” The Theitems items“Orient “Orient patient patient to surroundings, ffacilities, acilities, andand assigned assignedstaff” staff”and and “Instruct “Instruct the patient patient on on activities activitiesprior priortoto initiating initiating them” obtained obtained the the highest highest percentages percentagesofof correct answers,answers, 100 %100 andpercent 96.67and %,96.67 respectively,. percent Orienting respectively. newly Orienting admitted newlypatients admitted as patients to the ward as to or theunit wardsetting, or unitthe setting, staff the andstaff the and health the care health team’s care team’s regularregular checkschecks and procedures and procedures have always has always beenbeen a part a part of of the thestaff staffnurses’ nurses’ routine. Providing Providing necessary information about the older adults’ adults’surroundings, surroundings,the the facilities, facilities, the assigned staff staff and and the the activities prior to initiating them can decrease decrease their their anxiety, anxiety, which which in in turn turn can can reduce reduce

the possibility of confusion and agitation in in older older adults and probably lessen the risks of falls. The nursing curriculum integrates the care of ofconfused confusedand and demented demented older older adults. adults. The staff nurses’ basic knowledge nurses’ basic knowledgemay mayhave havebeen been honed through training and experience of orienting through and experience of orienting and and re-orienting confused and older demented reorienting confused and demented adults. older“Advise adults.family “Advise to time takeintheir time to family take their attending itno attending to patient’s “Lethave the patient’s needs” and needs” “Let theand family family have their way as to the cleanliness and their way as to the cleanliness and organization organization of the environment”, both negatively of the environment”, both negatively stated stated items, lowest percentages of items, acquired the lowest correct and 25 and %, respectively correctanswers, answers,20.83 20.83%percent 25 percent,. Filipinos are known for their close family ties. respectively. Filipinos are known for their The family plays major role plays in providing close family ties.aThe family a majorbasic role careinand safety to thecare older adult. Since theolder staff providing basic and safety to the nurses cannotthe devote one 100can % not of their timeone to adult. Since staff nurses devote only one patient, the family serves as the partner hundred percent of their time to only one patient, in that as thethe patient will not fall. that The theensuring family serves partner in ensuring culture emphasizes the family what the patient will not that fall. The cultureknows emphasizes is best the older adult patient, theolder staff that theforfamily knows what is bestthus, for the nurses respect family decisions as to attending adult patient, thus, the staff nurses respect family to patient’s andto patient’s the cleanliness decisions as toneeds attending needs andand the organization of the environment. cleanliness and organization of the environment. The area of educative interventions obtained the highest mean score of 14.18, interpreted as “moderately knowledgeable.” Perhaps the integration of health education in professional nursing subjects contributed to the knowledge of staff nurses on educative interventions. Staff nurses during their nursing undergraduate years possibly underwent continuous practice of promoting safety to older adults and family. They were probably taught of the principles in teaching, specifically, what to teach, when to teach, and how to teach older adults. Experiential learning enables the nurses to have a clinical grasp of the situation for them to assess the needs of patients and plan for them (Benner et al., 2009). Another factor may have been the higher percentage (66.7 of respondents with more (66.7%) percent) of respondents than a year service. Having more opportunities in with more than a year service. Having more experiencing safety promotion through educative opportunities in experiencing safety promotion interventions, the interventions, knowledge of the staff nurses through educative knowledge with than year than service on service educative of staffmore nurses witha more a year on interventions may be greater. educative interventions may be greater.

Laoingco, J. R. C . and Tabug ader, C . D. R.

Extent of Knowledge of Staff Nurses on Fall Prevention Interventions according to Variables. Significant difference on the staff nurses’ knowledge on fall prevention interventions was also measured along variables, such as hospital affiliation, length of service and area of practice. Tables 3a, 3b and 3c present the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on fall prevention interventions when they are grouped according to hospital affiliation, length of service and area of practice. The tables also contain the summary of the t-test procedures. Hospital Affiliation. Table 3a displays the mean of the respondents on the extent of knowledge of staff nurses regarding fall prevention interventions when they are grouped according to hospital affiliation. The table shows that staff nurses affiliated with public and private hospitals are moderately knowledgeable on areas of assessment, preventive interventions and educative interventions. With regard regard to toassessment, assessment,the thetable tableshows shows that the pp-value value isis0.038, 0.038,which which is significant is significant at at level. null hypothesis 0.050.05 level. The The null hypothesis which that statesstates that “There is no significant difference in the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on fall prevention interventions along the area of assessment

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when staff nurses are grouped according according to to hospital affiliation” is rejected. This implies that the classification of the hospital where the respondents are employed influences their perceived knowledge on fall risk assessment. Staff nurses from both hospital affiliations are moderately knowledgeable, but those affiliated with private hospitals got a statistically significant higher mean score of 14.10 compared to mean score, 13.18, of the staff nurses affiliated with public hospitals. Thesignificantdifference bebe attributed by The significant differencemay may attributed the varied nurse-nurse-patient patient ratio inratio the two settings. by the varied in the two Public hospitals, which are to cater to settings. Public hospitals thatdesigned are designed to cater more serious to more seriousdiseases, diseases,are arealso also accommodating cases that can be handled by lower level facilities such as Rural Health Units (Lavado et al., 2010). Furthermore, public hospitals provide services About forty of patients mostly to tothe thepoor. poor. About 40percent % of patients in in public hospitals are poor, compared toabout only public hospitals are poor, compared to only about percent in private Such 13 % thirteen in private hospitals. Such hospitals. arrangements arrangements lead to overcrowding public lead to overcrowding in public hospitals,in reaching reaching ratiopatients of 1 nurse 100 ahospitals, ratio of 1 nurse toa 100 (Tan, to 2004), patients the (Tan,time 2004), limitingofthe timetoallotment limiting allotment nurse care for of nurse to care eachaffiliated patient. with Staff private nurses each patient. Stafffor nurses affiliated have with probably private hospitals has care probably hospitals more nursing time more to each patient the to eachnursing patientcare withtime the maximum ratio ofwith 1 nurse maximum ratio of 12004). nurseHence, to 26 staff patients (Tan, to 26 patients (Tan, nurses in

Table 3a. Extent of Knowledge of Staff Nurses on Fall Prevention Interventions according to Hospital Affiliation (n = Table 3a. Extent of knowledge of staff nurses on fall prevention interventions according to hospital affiliation (n = 120) 120) Hospital Affiliation Public n = 33

Areas Mean Score Assessment Assessment

13.18

Preventive Preventive interventions interventions

14.06

Educative Educative Interventions Interventions

14.03

Legend: S = Significant NS = Not significant

Interpretation Moderately knowledgeable Moderately knowledgeable Moderately knowledgeable

Private n = 87 Mean Score 14.10 13.93 14.23

Interpretation Moderately knowledgeable Moderately knowledgeable Moderately knowledgeable

-2.012 0.285 -0.350

0.038 S 0.777 NS 0.727 NS

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private hospitals can possibly allot more timecan for 2004). Hence, staff nurses in private hospitals fall risksallot assessment. For increase of one possibly more time forevery fall risks assessment. hour in total nursing per patient fall For every increase of hours one hour in total day, nursing rates 1.9 % lower (Dunton, Gajewski, Klaus hourswere per patient day, fall rates were 1.9 percent & Pierson, 2007). lower (Dunton, Gajewski, Klaus & Pierson, 2007). Public hospitals are characterized by the minimal fee for services, providing free room and board, and waiving of professional fees for its service patients, while private hospitals, fully dependent on its income, are expected to charge fees (Lavado et al., 2010). With the perception that public hospitals provide inferior service compared to private hospitals (Avestruz, 1995), patients in private hospitals may possibly expect higher quality of nursing services compared to public hospitals in exchange of the fees they are paying. Hence, to put the level up the notch, staff nurses affiliated with private hospitals may be pressured to increase their knowledge on fall prevention, specifically on fall risks assessment. To equal the the quality quality of of private private hospitals, are are undertaking joint some government governmenthospitals hospitals undertaking ventures with the sector, sector, such assuch one as of joint ventures withprivate the private the participating hospitals in this in study. one of the participating hospitals the Under study. this system, charity patients can availcan of the same Under this system, charity patients avail of services pay patients enjoy at a minimal the samethat services that pay patients enjoy price at a (Avestruz, 1995). minimal price (Avestruz, 1995). Another possible contributory factor is the lopsided number of respondents from private to public public hospitals. hospitals.87Eighty seven compared to respondents respondents percent) are with private (72.5 %) are (72.5 with private hospitals, while only hospitals, while only thirty percent) 33 (27.5 %) represented thethree public(27.5 hospitals. represented theBoard public of hospitals. While the Nursing expects each While thenurse Board toof maintain Nursing expects each professional and even professional nurse to maintain and expected even develop develop competencies that are of competencies are expected their work, it their work. It that is their individualofresponsibility is their individual that they to see that they responsibility are updated toinseeknowledge are updated in put knowledge and doesatnot putintheir and does not their patients risk the patients at riskofintheir the performance of their duties performance duties (Board of Nursing, (Board of Nursing, 2010). 2010). In the area of preventive interventions, the table shows that the p- value is 0.777, which is not significant at 0.05 level. The null hypothesis which states that “There is no significant difference in the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on

fall prevention interventions along the area of preventive interventions when staff nurses are grouped according to hospital affiliation” is accepted. This implies that hospital affiliation does not influence the respondents’ perceived knowledge on fall preventive interventions. Staff nurses from both hospital affiliations are moderately knowledgeable; however, the staff nurses affiliated with public hospitals got a slightly higher mean score of 14.06 than those affiliated with private hospitals, 13.93. Staff nurses’ knowledge knowledge on on fall fall preventive preventive interventions was probably gained through training and experience. High nurse-patient ratio, which is more evident in public hospitals (Tan, 2004), can probably make the nurses knowledgeable in preventing falls in older adults. The increased client acuity levels plus the nursing shortage are most likely putting pressure for the nurses in public hospitals to keep track on the current knowledge of fall prevention to effectively promote safety in older adults. Nurses, even with only the basic knowledge on fall prevention, when exposed to the hospital settings, can probably adapt to how other nurses prevent falls. Through their own experiences in fall prevention, they may have learned effective actions to prevent falls (Benner et al., 2009). For educative interventions, the table shows that the pp-value value is is 0.727, which is not significant at 0.05 level. The null hypothesis which states that “There is no significant difference in the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on fall prevention interventions along the area of educative interventions when staff nurses are grouped according to hospital affiliation” is accepted. This means that the classification of hospital where staff nurses are affiliated does not impact their perceived knowledge on fall educative interventions, but the staff nurses affiliated with private hospitals got a slightly higher mean score, 14.23, than the mean 14.03 by staff nurses mean score score14.03 in public hospitals. Staff nurses from private hospitals are slightly more knowledgeable of educative interventions

Laoingco, J. R. C . and Tabug ader, C . D. R.

maybe because of the need to involve in planning of safe care the older adults and their families, maybe because of the need to involve in planning who may be expecting a safer environment and of safe care the older adults and their service in return of their payment of families, hospital who may be there expecting a saferpatients environment and bills. In fact, are more who come service in return of their payment of hospital in private hospitals for health education, 7.3 bills. In fact, there are more whohospitals come in % compared to only 1.9 %patients in public private hospitals for health education, 7.3 percent (Lovado et al., 2010). Older adult patients and compared to only 1.9 percent their families probably wantintopublic keephospitals abreast (Lovado al., 2010). Older with adultregard patients with the ethealth care team to and the their families probably want to keep abreast current health status of the patient and with seek the health care teamtowith to the current information on how helpregard in promoting health health status of thesafety patient information and maintaining of and theseek patient. In this on how they to help in promoting and manner, may gain some sensehealth of power maintaining safety of the patient. In this manner and control to the situation. theyLength may gainofsome sense Table of power controlthe to Service. 3band exhibits the situation. mean scores of the respondents on the extent Length of Service. exhibits the of knowledge of staff Table nurses3bregarding fall mean scores of the respondents on thegrouped extent prevention interventions when they are of knowledge of staff nursesThe regarding fall according to length of service. table shows prevention whenless theythan are grouped that nurses,interventions both those with a year according length of service. The table shows and those towith a year or more duration of that nurses, both those with less than a year service are moderately knowledgeable on areas andassessment, those with preventive a year or interventions more durationand of of service areinterventions. moderately knowledgeable on areas educative of assessment, and In the area ofpreventive assessment,interventions the table shows

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that the p-interventions. value is 0.091 which is not significant educative at 0.05 level. null hypothesis that shows states In the areaThe of assessment, the table “There significant in significant the extent that theisp-no value is 0.091,difference which is not of knowledge of null staffhypothesis nurses regarding fall at 0.05 level. The which states prevention interventions along the area that “There is no significant difference in the of assessment when of staff nurses grouped extent of knowledge staff nursesareregarding according to length of service” accepted. fall prevention interventions alongis the area This means that length serviceareis grouped not an of assessment when staffofnurses influential factor in of theservice” respondents’ perceived according to length is accepted. This knowledge on fallof risk assessment. However, means that length service is not an influential it is noteworthy to state that the group with factor in the respondents’ perceived knowledge one year longer service has aitslightly higher on fall riskorassessment. However, is noteworthy mean of 14.09 to the mean to statescore that the group compared with one year or longer score those with higher less than year of service, serviceofhas a slightly meana score 14.09 which is 13.38. compared to the mean score of those with less statistically extent of thanWith a year service, whichequivalent is 13.38. knowledge, staff nurses from both groups With statistically equivalent extent of may be providing the from sameboth levelgroups of fallmay risks knowledge, staff nurses be assessment in same olderlevel adultofpatients. may be providing the fall risksThis assessment because regardless of This length service, in older adult patients. may of be because staff nurses have the regardless of length of same service,responsibilities staff nurses when it comes to patient safety. have the same responsibilities when itGregorio’s comes to study 1991 Gregorio’s affirmed that length of service is patientinsafety. study in 1991 affirmed not determinant onisthe of staff nurses’ that alength of service notquality a determinant on the performance of nurses’ patient care. quality of staff performance of patient care.

Table 3b. Extent Extent of of Knowledge knowledge of of Staff staff nurses Table 3b. Nurseson on fall Fallprevention Preventioninterventions Interventionsaccording accordingto to length Lengthofofservice Service(n(n==120) 120) Length of Service Areas

One year or longer n = 80 Mean Score

Assessment Assessment Preventive Preventive interventions interventions Educative Educative Interventions Interventions

14.09 13.88 14.22

Legend: S ==Significant Significant Notsignificant significant NS ==Not

Interpretation Moderately knowledgeable Moderately knowledgeable Moderately knowledgeable

Less than one year n = 40 Mean Score 13.38 14.15 14.08

Interpretation Moderately knowledgeable Moderately knowledgeable Moderately knowledgeable

1.705 -0.638 0.278

0.091 NS 0.524 NS 0.782 NS

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The slight difference in the extent of during their nursing undergraduate years. years. can contribute contributetoto advancement advancement knowledge can best be explained by the the saying, saying, Experience can is the thebest bestteacher.” teacher.”With Withlonger longeryears years in in knowledge knowledge and and skills, however, experience experience is “Experience is staff nurses nurseshave havemore moreexperiences experiencesinin more of service, staff more than than the the passage passage of of time or longevity. It is adult patients patients of offall fallrisk riskfactors. factors. the assessing older adult the refinement refinement of of preconceived preconceived notions through Through observation observation and and experience, experience, they they encounters encounterswith withmany many actual actual practical practical situations learned the the risk risk factors factors that that contribute contribute that that add nuances or shades differences of theory have learned al.(2009) (2009)emphasized emphasize (Altmann,2007). 2007).Benner Benner et al. to fall incidents incidents and and the the strategies strategies to to minimize (Altmann, is aa requisite requisite for for that thatpractice practicewould wouldprobably probablybebeofof little little avail these risk factors. Experience is wereitit not preceded by training concerning expertise (Benner (Benner etetal.,al., 2009). 2009). According According to to were year the Dunton et al. (2007), for every increase of a year therelevant relevant features features in in various various situations situations and nurse experience, experience, the the fall fallrate rateiswas some theoretical theoretical understanding understanding of appropriate in average nurse 1 %1% some were also also noted notedininareas areaswith with nursing lower. Lower rates were nursingtheory. theory.Hence, Hence, the the argument argument that despite of nurses nurseswho whohave havemore morethan than considerable higher percentage of considerableexperience, experience,some some nurses nurses may may never experience in in nursing. nursing. ItIt isis therefore, therefore, achieve ten years experience achieveexpertise. expertise. imperative to retain experienced However, the limitation havehave been been with imperative experienced nurses since However, limitationmay may they are are paramount to provision of high quality with the clustering wherein there isthere a thinisline between they the clustering wherein a thin line and safe safe care. care. the two the groups. first The group have at least and between two The groups. first group havea preventive interventions, interventions, the the table shows at year or a12 months service the and second For preventive least year or 12 of months of and service the that the p-value p- valueis is 0.524, 0.524, which is not not significant second group have less than a year, example, 11 and that group have less than for a year, for example, nullnull hypothesis which states that a11 half months. at 0.05 0.05level. level.The The hypothesis that states and a half months. “There is no significant difference in the the extent extent Another limitation is probably the wide on fall fall prevention prevention categorization of knowledge of staff nurses on categorizationofofstaff staffnurses nurseswith with one one year and of preventive longerlonger years years of service, that that is, staff nurses with at interventions along along the thearea area of preventive of service, is, staff nurses with yeara ofyear service are grouped together with interventions when when staff staff nurses nursesare aregrouped groupedleastat aleast of service are grouped together length of of service” service” isisaccepted. accepted.This This staff who who may may havehave significant length of according to length withnurses staff nurses significant length forfor example, tenten years service. indicates that length of service does not at all service, of service, example, years service. influence the staff nurses’ perceived knowledge Table 3b shows that for educative on fall preventive interventions, the pvalue ofof 0.782 0.782 is is not on preventive interventions, interventions, though thoughit is it interventions, p-value worth mentioning thatthat the group with less than a significant significant at at 0.05 0.05level. level.The Thenull null hypothesis is worth mentioning the group with less year service a higher of 14.15 which states thatis “There is no significant than a year has service has mean a higher meancompared of 14.15 that states “There no significant difference to the mean of 13.88 of those with one year or difference in the extent of knowledge of staff compared to the mean of 13.88 of those with one in the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on longer nurses on fall prevention interventions alongarea the year or service. longer service. fall prevention interventions along the area of educative interventions when staff nurses Even if promoting patient patient safety safety has long of educative interventions when staff been integrated integrated in nursing practice, it is only in are are grouped according to is been to length lengthof ofservice” service” the last decade that falls was given attention to, accepted. This implies that staff nurses’ length the last decade that falls were is accepted. This implies that staff nurses’ when the American Nurses of service doesdoes notnot impact when Nurses Association included length of service impacttheir their perceived falls in in 1998 1998 as one of nursing quality indicators knowledge knowledge on fall falleducative educative interventions, interventions, but falls (Montalvo, 2007). 2007). With With such such recognition recognition of of falls, falls, the the group group with with one one year year or or longer longer service has (Montalvo, further researches and body of knowledge on a higher mean score of 14.22 compared to the a higher mean score of 14.22 compared further researches and bodies of fall preventive preventive interventions interventions are are developed. developed. Most Most mean mean score score of of 14.08 14.08 of of those with less than a year fall than aa year year service service have have service. service. staff nurses with less than graduated later later than thanthose thosewith withlonger longer service, service; Being in the same level in the hospital accessible andand organizational chart, staff nurses, regardless of hence, they theyprobably probablyhad hadmore more accessible data on fall available data fall preventive preventive interventions length of service, are moderately knowledgeable

Laoingco, J. R. C . and Tabug ader, C . D. R.

in educative interventions. Having similar responsibilities as per job description, their routines and activities in safety education may have been also parallel. Yet, with more opportunities in educating older adults on fall prevention, those with longer years of service have slightly higher extent of knowledge, hence, the saying, “Practice makes perfect.” Study results show that fewer falls occur with more experienced nurses (Blegen, Vaughn, &Goode, Goode, 2001). Retaining Vaughn & experienced nurses and providing coaching from experts are worthwhile investments in promoting safe and quality nursing practice. Area of Practice. Table 3c displays the mean scores on the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on fall prevention interventions when they are grouped according to area of practice. The table shows that staff nurses, regardless of area of practice, are moderately knowledgeable on areas

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of assessment, preventive interventions and educative interventions. As the table shows, in all areas of of fall fall prevention interventions, staff nurses who assigned in in specialty specialty areas areas got got slightly are assigned higher means compared to those who work in general wards. In the area of assessment, the displays that that the the p-value p- value isis 0.814, 0.814, which table displays is not significant at 0.05 level. With regard to the pvalue of of 0.166 preventive interventions, the p-value is not significant at 0.05 level. For educative value which which is is 0.264 is also interventions, the pp-value not significant at 0.05 level. The null hypothesis which states that “There is no significant difference in the extent of knowledge of staff nurses regarding fall prevention interventions when staff nurses are grouped according to area practice.” is accepted. of practice”

Table of Knowledge knowledge of according totoarea of of practice (n (n = 120) Table 3c. 3c. Extent Extent of of staff Staffnurses Nurseson onfall Fallprevention Preventioninterventions Interventions according Area Practice = 120)

Area of Practice Areas

General ward n = 68 Mean Score

Assessment Assessment

Specialty Area n = 52 T

Interpretation

13.90

Moderately knowledgeable

-0.236

0.814 NS

Moderately knowledgeable

14.29

Moderately knowledgeable

-1.395

0.166 NS

Moderately knowledgeable

14.50

Moderately knowledgeable

-1.123

0.264 NS

Interpretation

Mean Score

13.81

Moderately knowledgeable

Preventive Preventive interventions interventions

13.72

Educative Educative Interventions Interventions

13.93

Legend: S ==Significant Significant NS ==Not Notsignificant significant NS

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Staff nurses, especially the newly-hired, are possibly floated on every ward and unit of the hospital to have adequate orientation on the practices of the areas. As general practitioners, the knowledge on falls and fall prevention may be a requisite as a basis for fall risk assessment and fall prevention interventions implemented on vast number of patients with different diagnoses. Patients in the intensive intensive care units and and other other specialty areas have, have, most likely, likely, more acute and severe conditions requiring more than the regular care staff nurses provide in the ward areas. According to Blegen and Vaughn (1998), the proportion of care given by nurses was highest in specialty areas, such as intensive care units than other types of areas. Due to the need for constant observation, assessment, and interventions, lower nursenurse-patient patient ratio ratio is is observed in specialty areas compared to general ward. These factors brought about norms and values that staff nurses employ based on specific areas of the hospital. Regular assessment of the older adults’ vital signs, comfort rounds, toileting and close collaboration with interdisciplinary members for patient care are some of the norms and values in the specialty areas. Ward culture may be formed through norms and values of a specific hospital area. area. Positive Positive ward safety culture, or safety norms and values values that result to positive outcomes, can perhaps enable the staff nurses to adapt to become safetyconscious in that specific ward, ward, regardless where they were floated from. Safety culture is defined by Cooper (2000, p.177) as, “part of of the the overall overall culture of the organization that affects member’s attitudes and perceptions related to hazards and risk control.” A study entitled “Safety “Safety Culture Culture Perceived Perceived by Health Care Staff Staff”” by by Andersen Andersen (2002) (2002) revealed revealed that responses of nurses across the different wards appear appear to to show show differences differences in in several several of the safety culture indices: communication, stress management, morale and and motivation, motivation, and recognition of human error. The aboveabove-mentioned mentioned

results reflected the differences in tasks and work conditions in the different hospital areas. Such variations in task characteristics may give rise to ward- based cultures in a hospital. With possible safety culture in the specialty area, staff nurses conscious of the fall prevention are probably more conscious interventions. nurses from specialty wards have Staff nurses from specialty wards have a slightly a slightly higher extent ofon knowledge on higher extent of knowledge fall prevention fall prevention in the areas interventions in theinterventions areas of assessment, preventive of assessment, preventivebecause and aside educative and educative interventions from interventions their experiencesbecause of handling asidemorefrom vulnerable their experiences patients likeofolder handling adults, more safety vulnerable culture patients is more like older adults, intensified in specialty safety culture areasisof more theintensified hospitals in specialty since patients areas catered of thetohospitals are more since prone patients to catered falls, brought to are about more prone by thetonew falls,and brought unfamiliar about by the new hospital environment and unfamiliar and physical hospitaland environment functional and physical conditions andand limitations functional(Victorian conditions Quality and limitations Council, 2009). (Victorian Knowledge Quality on Council, fall prevention 2009). Knowledge on may interventions fall prevention be essential interventions in promoting may be essential safety to ill-stricken in promoting older safety adults, to ill-who stricken are older adults,towho susceptible falls.are susceptible to falls. Extent of Knowledge Knowledge of of Staff Staff Nurses on PostPost- Fall Fall Interventions. Interventions. After After an older adult patient has fallen, there may still be an opportunity to reduce the level level of harm by prompt detection and effective treatment of unapparent and obvious injuries, consideration of why the patient fell and application of interventions that could limit the risk of another incident of falls. Table 4 presents the mean scores of the extent of knowledge knowledge of of staff staff nurses nurses on onpostpost-fall fall interventions. The table shows that staff nurses moderatelyknowledgeable knowledgeable in in areas of patientare moderately organizationaltasks. centered tasks and organizational As the table shows, the mean scores of all the areas are within the range of 11.00 to 15.99, with the grand mean of 13.19. Such ratings have a qualitative interpretation of of moderately moderately knowledgeable. This signifies that staff nurses fall are moderately moderately knowledgeable knowledgeable on on postpost-fall interventions in the areas of patient-centered tasks and organizational tasks.

Laoingco, J. R. C . and Tabug ader, C . D. R.

Table 4. 4.Extent ExtentofofKnowledge knowledgeofofStaff staffNurses nurseson onPostpost-fall Fall interventions in the the areas areas ofofPatientpatient-centered tasks and and Interventions in centered Tasks organizational tasks Organizational Tasks Area

Mean Score

Interpretation

Patient-centered Patientcentered tasks tasks

13.55

Moderately knowledgeable

Organizational Organizational tasks tasks

12.82

Moderately knowledgeable

Grand Mean

13.19

Moderately knowledgeable

Specifically, Specifically, considering considering the the mean mean scores, staff nurses have the higher extent of knowledge of postpost-fall fall interventions interventions in in the the area area of patientcentered tasks with a mean score of 13.55. The area of organizational tasks has the lower mean score of 12.82. The above above findings findings imply imply that that patients patients are the most important in the hospital settings since without them to care for; for, there there will be no clients of nurses, thus no nurses and nursing. As Armstrong (1995, p.115) emphasized, “patients are human beings who need respect and they are the main reason for the existence of staff nurses.” Patients also identify quality care because they are are the main recipients of nursing services. As Wise (2006, p.119) stated, “Consumers of nursing care are important because they define quality care.” Patient-centered Patient- centered tasks tasks are are nursing nursing activities focused on the patient after after an an incident incident of of fall, fall which include include postpost-fall and postpost-fall fall assessment and fall interventions. Staff nurses obtained higher mean scores in the area area of of patientpatient-centered centered tasks tasks since the percentages of correct answers that they got are generally generally higher in the abovementioned area compared to the area of organizational tasks. “Assess patient’s functional, sensory and psychological status” status” and and “Assess “Assess the the patient for injuries at the time of the fall including neurological assessment and evaluation for head, neck, neck,spine, spine,and/or and/or extremity injuries” extremity injuries” got

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got the the highest highest percentages percentages with with 100 percent 100 % and respectively. Effective the 99.17 percent, %, respectively. Effective care tocare theto older older adult starts withassessment assessmentofof the adult who who fell fell starts with patient’s functional, sensory and psychological status, taking note for injuries. Assessment of post- fall injuries injuries isis vital vital for for management management of post-fall immediate effects of falls such as cuts and delayed delayed complications such as traumatic brain injuries. Post- fall assessment assessment can can also give significant Post-fall information about the causes and contributory factors to the fall, which can be used to help formulate plans of action to reduce future incidents of falls to the patient and others. The nursing process starts with assessment. The utilization of the nursing process probably contributed to the knowledge of staff nurses on post-fall assessment.Nursing Nursing education post- fall assessment. education also also give emphasis gives emphasis to safety to safety for the forsake the sake of theofpatient the patient and the nurse. and the nurse. The The older older adults adults havehave the the right right to be to freefree be from from harm harm during duringtheir theirstay stayininhealth health care settings. Staff nurses, on the other hand, can lose their license if proven guilty of negligence that resulted to postpost-fall fall injuries. injuries. Hence, staff nurses are knowledgeable of of postpost-fall fall assessment assessment for urgent interventions of injuries and prevention of legal measures against them. However, However, in theinarea the of area patient-centered of patient- centered tasks, tasks, are there there items are items that few thatstaff few staff nurses nurses answered have answered Only correctly. correctly. 25 %Only of staff 25 nurses percent correctly of staff nurses correctly identified the identified statementthe“Suggest statementthat “Suggest the that the prescribed prescribed medications medications be reviewed be reviewed by the by the physician” physician” as “False”. as “False”. In In the thepast, past,the the nursing profession had been stereotyped stereotyped as ashandhand-maiden maiden of medicine, with lack of autonomy autonomy and and power. power. The explanation was said to lie in nursing’s predominantly female workforce and because it has absorbed the values of its own activities which assumed a level of passivity and compliance Wills,2009). 2009). Through Through the the dramatic (Naido and & Wills, advancement of of the nursing profession in the advancement recent years, staff nurses are are more autonomous and assertive, as evidenced by expanding roles and independent nursing interventions. interventions. However However,, the autonomy of staff nurses may still probably

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not fully realized. Staff nurses scored low on the above mentioned item possibly because in the hospital settings, review of medications is frequently done by medical students, clerks, attending physicians and consultants. Though, staff nurses can review the prescribed medications themselves to determine if the medicines contributed to the incident of falls. A study exploring the origins of physicians’ medication errors in England found that physicians, particularly younger ones, rely on both nurses and pharmacists to keep medication errors from reaching patients. One of the specific errors is assuming that nurses would be aware of the medications the patient was receiving (Worth, 2010). With reliance on nurses as safety nets, medication review is imperative in prevention of consequent fall incident. The low percentage may also be brought about by inadequate knowledge of medication hazards. Albeit the integration of pharmacology in professional nursing subjects in the undergraduate nursing program, staff nurses was the least knowledgeable of medication hazards among the three practitioner groups— nurses, physicians and pharmacists, according to a study of Markowitz, Pearson, Kay and Loewenstein (2001). The area of post-fall interventions obtained a higher mean score of 13.55, interpreted as “moderately knowledgeable.” Nursing is a humanistic profession, focused on the patient as the recipient of nursing interventions. Patient care possibly comprises the bulk of the nursing curriculum, compared to organizational tasks that are tackled in the Nursing Administration and Management. Henriksen (2007) emphasized, that organizational tasks are not something for which many nurses have received any training. Hence, staff nurses are slightly more knowledgeable on patient-centered tasks than organizational tasks. The area of assessment being lowest in fall prevention and post-fall patient-centered tasks being high mean score may probably imply a

reactive nursing process which is more of cure than prevention. With the current fad of high nurse-patient ratio, staff nurses may possibly be activity-centered and focused on the “here and now” rather than planning of care for fall prevention. The finding may also imply that with less assessment, more incidents of falls may have been probably occurring, hence the more extensive knowledge on fall management than fall prevention. The organization plays a big role in instilling safety culture. Factors in the organization such as the staff nurses’ working environment, salary, recognition may affect job satisfaction or dissatisfaction. If nurses are dissatisfied, they are not motivated to work at their best; hence, their performance is of low quality that may lead to accidents, such as falls. Organizational problems are often concealed causal factors that contribute or even lead to the occurrence of human error made by frontline personnel (Reason, 1997). The majority of contributing causes to major accidents may possibly be attributed to the organizations themselves. The area of organizational tasks obtained a lower mean score than patient-centered tasks. The item “Develop and/or review protocol for postfall patient care” obtained the highest percentage of correct answers with only 95.83 %, lower than the highest item under patient-centered tasks with 100 %. At a minimum, an appropriate postfall patient care protocol includes responding to the patient’s immediate needs for care, using a consistent and standard definition of a fall as adopted by the organization, and reporting the falls incident, using the processes and documents defined by the organization (VHA National Center for Patient Safety, 2004). Well- defined and written protocol for postfall patient care may not exist in the health care settings, but staff nurses, through theoretical concepts which may have learned in nursing schools, are probably aware that to prevent another incident of falls, organizational tasks include developing or reviewing the protocol

Laoingco, J. R. C . and Tabug ader, C . D. R.

for post-fall care. The post-fall care protocol provides a backbone for guidance on what should happen after a fall, which may include adopted or organizationally formulated checklists and flow charts to steer staff checking for injuries, deciding when to do fall risk assessment again, and acting to limit the possibility of another fall. The item “Establish a process for assessment of the hospitalized patient on admission for risk of falling” obtained the second highest percentage of correct answers with 91.67 %, which is lower than the percentage (99. 17 %) of the second highest in the area of patient-centered tasks. Fall risk screening to all older adult patients may provide an efficient means of determining that older adult patient is at high risk for falls. Although nurses’ clinical judgment of fall risk is considered as one way of determining older adults’ falls risk status, research has shown that this approach has limited accuracy when used in isolation (Myers & Nikoletti, 2003). Hence, a fall risk screening tool can be included in the formulation of a fall risk screening process as a guide for quick fall risk assessment. Some hospitals in the region may not be currently implementing a fall risk screening to older adults. Still, staff nurses possibly have the knowledge that to limit the recurrence of falls, establishing a process for assessment of the hospitalized patient on admission for risk of falling is crucial. The knowledge may have been gained through access to the internet, which is a vast source of information on fall risk screening process in health care settings. Source of knowledge may also be from personal anecdotes of staff nurses’ acquaintances and colleagues from other countries as to the process of fall risk screening in their workplaces. The third highest is “Develop a Falls Incident Report Form or add a falls section to existing incident report form” with 90 percent. Documentationhas long been a part ofstaff nurses’ daily routine for continuity of care to patients, for communication to other members of the health care team and as a basis for quality improvement.

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Fall incident reporting provides data to track fall rates, identify patients at risk for falls and injuries and recognize common contributory factors and causes of falls. A fall incident report form or a fall section to existing incident report form can serve as a guide in documenting necessary information about a falls incident. While health care setting in the region may have not been developed yet, an exclusive form for falls incident reporting, staff nurses perhaps have the knowledge about it. In this information era, staff nurses most likely try to keep track of the trends in other hospital settings here and abroad about fall incident reporting through internet articles and foreign textbooks. They may not be able to fully utilize the knowledge now in their current workplace but in search for greener pastures, staff nurses may apply fall incident reporting overseas. The item with the lowest percentage is “Ensure incident data are analyzed annually to define the scope, common causes, and common complications arising from falls” with only 20 percent, which is lower than the lowest percentage in the area of patient-centered tasks of 25 percent. To define the scope, common causes, and common complications arising from falls, falls incident data are analyzed regularly, at least quarterly (The Victorian Quality Council, 2009). Findings from periodic reviews of falls data can help in formulating organizational strategies to minimize fall risks and reduce the rate of falls. The low score of staff nurses on this item may be contributed by absence of such process in their workplaces. With non-existing separate form or section for fall incident reporting, the data on falls are not analyzed exclusively. There is an existing computer software for management and analysis of hospital adverse outcomes, such as falls, among others. The Hospital Operations and Management Information System (HOMIS) is a computer-based system created to systematically collect, process, store, present and share information in support of hospital functions. Hospital statistical reports are supposed to be

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generated through HOMIS by each hospitals and are submitted on a quarterly, semi-annual, and annual basis (Lavado et al., 2010). The computer software may be expensive but a reliable set of data is probably vital before any performance benchmarking can be done. Although the DOH mandates hospitals to submit reports on hospital activities, no sanctions are imposed for hospitals that do not submit the reports. Furthermore, the last consolidated annual report was prepared in 2004 (Lavado et al., 2010). Quality control procedures, such as falls statistical reports, are probably accomplished merely for compliance purposes rather than for assuring high quality and safe patient care. Data analysis of adverse outcomes, such as falls, may be accomplished in the hospital levels. However, results were possibly not shared with staff nurses, as a reslt, the lack of knowledge may be evident. Staff nurses may perhaps also show disinterest in such organizational activities because it has been emphasized in the undergraduate nursing curriculum that nursing is a humanistic profession. Albeit the subject of Nursing Administration and Management, that touches the topic of adverse outcomes data analysis, is integrated in the nursing curriculum, with lack of actual experience, staff nurses are most likely, still blind on that area. As Henriksen (2007) emphasized, after all, it is not something for which many nurses have received any training. The area of organizational tasks under post-fall interventions obtained a lower mean score of 12.82, interpreted as “moderately knowledgeable.” The finding may possibly have been attributed by lack of actual experience in organizational tasks because of probable absence of such procedures in the health care settings where they are affiliated to. In addition, data gathering and analysis are possibly not done since there are no sanctions given to hospitals that do not pass statistical reports to the national level. Even even if data gathering and analysis are done, the results, perhaps, may not have been shared with staff nurses. Theoretical knowledge may have been imparted during the staff nurses’

nursing undergraduate years, thus, the extent of moderate knowledge. However, while practice without theory cannot alone produce fully skilled behavior in complex coping domains such as nursing, theory without practice has even less chance of success (Benner et al., 2009). Extent of Knowledge of Staff Nurses on Post-Fall Interventions according to Variables. Table 5a, 5b and 5c present the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on post-fall interventions when they are grouped according to hospital affiliation, length of service and area of practice. The tables also contain the summary of the t-test procedures. Hospital Affiliation. Table 5a exhibits the mean scores of the respondents on the extent of knowledge of staff nurses regarding post-fall interventions when they are grouped according to hospital affiliation. The table shows that staff nurses affiliated with public and private hospitals are moderately knowledgeable on areas of patient-centered tasks and organizational tasks. As the table shows, staff nurses who are affiliated with public hospitals got slightly higher means than those affiliated with the private hospitals in all areas of post-fall interventions. In patient-centered tasks, the public group has a mean score of 13.73, higher than the private group’s mean score of 13.48. With regard to organizational tasks, 12.97 is the mean score of the public group while the private group got a mean score of 12.76. In patient-centered tasks, the table shows the p-value is 0.659 which is not significant at 0.05 level. The null hypothesis that states “There is no significant difference in the extent of knowledge of staff nurses regarding post-fall interventions along the area of patient-centered tasks when staff nurses are grouped according to hospital affiliation” is accepted. This finding shows that hospital affiliation is not an influential factor in the staff nurses’ perceived knowledge on post-fall patient-centered tasks. However, it is noteworthy that staff nurses from public hospitals got a slightly higher mean than private staff nurses.

Laoingco, J. R. C . and Tabug ader, C . D. R.

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Table 5a. 5a. Extent Extent of of Knowledge knowledge of staff affiliation (n (n = 120) Staff nurses Nurseson onpost-fall Post- fallinterventions Interventionsaccording accordingtotohospital Hospital Affiliation = 120) Hospital Affiliation Public n = 33

Areas Mean Score Patient-centered Patientcentered tasks tasks Organizational Organizational tasks tasks

13.73

12.97

Private n = 87

Interpretation

13.48

Moderately knowledgeable

-0.442

0.659 NS

12.76

Moderately knowledgeable

-0.436

0.664 NS

Interpretation

Mean Score

Moderately knowledgeable Moderately knowledgeable

Legend: S ==Significant Significant NS ==Not Notsignificant significant The slight difference in the extent of knowledge on post-fall care with the public group getting the higher mean may be contributed by higher nursepatient ratio in public hospitals, wherein the ratio can reach one nurse for 100 patients (Tan, 2004). With overloading of staff, the risk for falls is high. To manage falls and fall-related injuries, they are most likely knowledgeable in what to do if a patient fell. In addition, with the number of patients that staff nurses in public hospitals handle, they may have learned to work effectively and efficiently as much as possible, thus, the knowledge on post-fall patient-centered tasks is imperative, to save time in one patient and to proceed to the next. It is noted that nursing allotted time care per patient is 30 mins to 1 hr maximum (Kiblasan, 2006). The staff nurses in public hospitals got higher mean scores in post-fall interventions than those in private hospitals. This finding may possibly implicate that staff nurses in public hospitals are more reactive than pre-emptive. Considering the high nurse-patient ratio, the incidence of falls is possibly in public hospitals too. Thus, it is higher extent of knowledge of staff nurses on post-fall interventions than in fall prevention interventions. This concern may have been contributory to the present perception that public hospitals provide inferior service compared to private hospitals (Avestruz, 1995). Hence, people who can afford the

services of private hospitals prefer them even for services that are offered free in the public hospitals (Lavado et al., 2010). This should be given attention to public hospitals cater to the 70 percent of the population who can not afford the fees in private hospitals (Lavado et.al., 2010). This finding may also be reflective of the mismatched allocation of budget in the government sector wherein curative health services are given 71.9 percent of the budget whereas only 13 percent goes to public health services that involve preventive measures (Gualvez, 1999). Private hospitals, on the other hand, have higher mean score in fall prevention interventions than in post-fall interventions. With the spirit of competition, private hospitals are more customeroriented; hence, managerial decisions are to attract and maintain customers (Avestruz, 1995). The investment on technological advances may be more evident in private hospitals. However, hospital technologies in the Philippines are generally backlogged compared to developed countries. Technology vintage in private hospitals appears to be within about 5 to 10 years behind what is commonly used in developed countries. Public hospitals, however, appear to have technology in much earlier vintage, with equipment as old as 20 years (Avestruz, 1995). With more budget on spital equipment, environmental risk factors of

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ffalls alls can perhaps be minimized minimized with with the theproper properuse use and maintenance maintenanceof ofequipments. equipment. Thus, Thus, itit is possible possible that private hospitals may have lower lower incidence incidence of ffalls. alls. statistics show that Moreover, reported statistics private compared recovery rates tend to be higher in private to public hospitals (Avestruz, to public hospitals (Avestruz, 1995). 1995). Being customer- centeredand and the the prevention prevention of of financial financial customer-centered losses through legal suits can probably attribute to possibly less less adverse adverse outcomes, outcomes, patients patients this. With possibly are more satisfied satisfied with the services provided with the services provided by private hospitals hospitals compared to public the nurses in private hospitals (Avestruz, hospitals (Avestruz,1995). 1995). organizational tasks, the table In the area of organizational shows that the pvalue isis 0.664, 0.664, which which is not p-value significant at hypothesis, which significant at0.05 0.05level. level.The Thenull null hypothesis that “There significant difference difference in states that “There is is nonosignificant the extent extent of ofknowledge knowledgeofofstaff staff nurses nurses on on postfall interventions along the area of organizational fall interventions along the organizational tasks when staff nurses are grouped according to hospital affiliation,” hospital affiliation,”is is accepted. accepted. This This means means thatthat the classification of hospital the staffthe nurses affiliated the classification of hospital staffare nurses are with doeswith not influence perceived affiliated does not their influence theirknowledge perceived on organizational tasks but it tasks is worth knowledge on organizational but mentioning it is worth that staff nurses withaffiliated public hospitals got a mentioning thataffiliated staff nurses with public higher mean than those affiliated hospitals gotscore a higher mean score with thanprivate those hospitals. affiliated with private hospitals. In contrast to public hospitals, hospitals, the the motivation motivation establishment of private private hospitals hospitals appear for the establishment

tto o be based on some financial financial motive, motive, either eitherto to to ensure ensure financial financial promote practice or at least to viability years of of operation operation (Avestruz, (Avestruz, viability in in the the future years protect the interest, interest, the power power and and 1995). To protect some private hospitals may not be autonomy in some staff nurses. nurses. fully decentralized decentralized to to the the level of of the staff Organizational tasks are possibly frequently done Organizational tasks frequently done thethe rank. With With such by hospital hospital executives executiveshigh highupup rank. situation, staff staff nurses on private hospitals are such situation, nurses on private hospitals slightly less knowledgeable than public staff nurses are slightly less knowledgeable than public staff on organizational tasks. tasks. nurses on organizational hospitals are not Furthermore, private hospitals to the level thelevel hospital mandated totoreport report to national the national the statistical statistical data (Lavado al., 2010), it is hospital dataet (Lavado et hence, al., 2010), possible they have tendency to do hence, it that is possible that more they have more not tendency datatogathering analysis adverse of outcomes, not do data and gathering andofanalysis adverse including falls. outcomes, including The nonexistence falls. The nonexistence of data processing of data may perhaps have contributed the slightlyto lower processing may perhaps have to contributed the extent of knowledge of staff nurses in private slightly lower extent of knowledge of staff nurses hospitals to organizational tasks. in privateashospitals as to organizational tasks. Table 5b displays the mean Length ofofService. Service. Table 5b displays the scoresscores of the staff nurses the extent of knowledge mean of the staffonnurses on the extent of on post- fallon knowledge interventions post-fall interventions when they are when grouped they according are grouped to length according of service. to length The table of service. shows that The those shows with less than and with thoseless withthan moreand than one table that those those year ofmore service areone bothyear moderately knowledgeable with than of service are both on the areas of patient-centered and moderately knowledgeable on the areastasks of patientorganizational centered tasks tasks. and organizational tasks.

Table of Knowledge knowledge of interventions according tototo length ofof service (n (n =(n120) 5b. Extent Extent of of staff Staffnurses Nurses on Post-fall Interventions according Length ==120) Table 5b. Nurseson onpost-fall Post- fall Interventions according Length ofService Service 120) Length of Service Areas

One year or longer n = 80

Less than one year n = 40

Mean Score

Interpretation

Patient-centered Patientcentered taskstasks

13.70

Moderately knowledgeable

13.25

Moderately knowledgeable

0.862

0.391 NS

Organizational Organizational tasks tasks

12.92

Moderately knowledgeable

12.60

Moderately knowledgeable

0.709

0.480 NS

Legend: SS ==Significant Significant NS ==Not Notsignificant significant NS

Laoingco, J. R. C . and Tabug ader, C . D. R.

As the table shows, staff nurses with one year or longer service got higher means than those with less than a year in all areas of postfall interventions. In patient-centered tasks, the senior staff nurses have a mean score of 13.70, higher than the new staff nurses’ mean score of 13.25. In terms of organizational tasks, the one year or longer service group obtained the mean score of 12.92, while the less than one year group got a mean score of 12.60. In patient-centered tasks, the table shows that the p- value is 0.391 which is not significant at 0.05 level. The null hypothesis that states “There is no significant difference in the extent of knowledge of staff nurses regarding post-fall interventions along the area of patient-centered tasks when staff nurses are grouped according to length of service” is accepted. This means that length of service is not a variable that influences the staff nurses’ perceived knowledge on postfall patient-centered tasks, however, senior staff nurses obtained a slightly higher mean than staff nurses with less than a year service. The slight difference in the mean may be explained by the learning experiences of senior staff nurses when it comes to post-fall patient care. Experience is necessary in gaining knowledge and expertise. It is the learning of exceptions, shades of meaning and individual contexts that are acquired only through concrete experiences (Benner et al., 2009). In contrast, new staff nurses may probably still be adjusting to the demands of the job focused on efficiently accomplishing the assigned workload. It may also be during the first year of service that new staff nurses possibly realize the reality of the job that is sometimes far more than the ideal they expected. New to the job, staff nurses adopt to the demands of the job whereby disillusionment may quickly overtake them (Lacanaria, 1992). Another possible contributory factor to this finding is the unbalanced number of respondents. Most of the respondents (80 staff nurses) have more than one year length of service compared to only 40 respondents with

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less than one year service. This may have been brought about by the limitation as to the wide categorization of the group with more than one year service. In the area of organizational tasks, the table shows that the p-value is 0.480 which is not significant at 0.05 level. The null hypothesis that states “There is no significant difference in the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on post-fall interventions along organizational tasks when staff nurses are grouped according to length of service” is accepted. This means that length of service does not at all impact staff nurses’ perceived knowledge on post-fall organizational tasks, yet senior staff nurses got a slightly higher mean score than the new staff nurses. The above finding signifies that at equal level on the organizational hierarchy, staff nurses, regardless of length of service are with the same extent of autonomy, authority and accountability. However, with the longer duration of service of senior staff nurses, they probably tend to exercise more of their autonomy compared to new staff nurses who may be afraid to make mistakes when they practice autonomy. Experienced nurses in hospitals have mastered a kind of knowledge not available from the classroom (Benner et al., 2009). This can be reflected by the slightly higher mean of staff nurses with one year or longer service with regard to extent of knowledge on organizational tasks. Through experience, it is possible that senior staff nurses have developed intuition, which is defined by Benner et al. (2009, p.17) as, “neither wild guessing nor supernatural inspiration but is the sort of ability, explainable in physiological terms, that we use all the time as we go about our everyday tasks.” Having possibly more experience, the real-world elements of organizational tasks are probably considered by senior staff nurses. Thus, those with a year or longer service most likely have fine-tuned to the health care settings of the hospital they are affiliated with. They may

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Table 5b. Extent of knowledge of staff nurses on post-fall interventions according to length of service (n = 120) Table 5b. Extent of Knowledge of Staff Nurses on Post- fall Interventions according to Length of Service (n = 120) Area of Practice General ward n = 68

Areas Mean Score Patient-centered Patientcentered tasks tasks Organizational Organizational tasks tasks

Specialized area n = 52 T

Interpretation

13.83

Moderately knowledgeable

0.985

0.327 NS

13.17

Moderately knowledgeable

-1.452

0.149 NS

Interpretation

Mean Score

13.34

Moderately knowledgeable

12.54

Moderately knowledgeable

Legend: S ==Significant Significant NS ==Not Notsignificant significant have established working relationships with interdisciplinary health care team members. They are probably well-familiarized with the procedures, policies, and their work setting. These perhaps gave them the advantage to have minor difference in the extent of knowledge on organizational tasks. But yet again, the finding may have been affected by the lopsided number of respondents, with greater number of those with more than a year service and the limitation as to the wide clustering of the group with a year or more service. Findings, again, point out that it is a wise investment for safe and quality practice to retain experienced nurses by formulating strategies to increase job satisfaction. Area of Practice. Table 5c presents the mean scores of the respondents on the extent of knowledge on post-fall interventions when they are grouped according to area of practice. The table shows that staff nurses from general wards and specialty areas are moderately knowledgeable on areas of patient-centered tasks and organizational tasks. As the table shows, staff nurses in special areas got higher mean scores than those

in general wards in all areas of post-fall interventions. In patient-centered tasks, the specialty area staff nurses have a mean score of 13.83, higher than the general ward staff nurses’ mean score of 13.34. In terms of organizational tasks, staff nurses from specialty areas got the mean score of 13.17 while the group of general ward staff nurses got a mean score of 12.54. In patient-centered tasks, the table shows that the p-value is 0.327 which is not significant at 0.05 level. The null hypothesis that states “There is no significant difference in the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on post-fall interventions along the area of patient-centered tasks when staff nurses are grouped according to area of practice” is accepted. This means that the staff nurses’ area of practice does not at all influence their perceived knowledge on post-fall patient-centered tasks; however, specialty area staff nurses got a slightly higher mean score than the staff nurses in general wards. This finding may possibly be explained by the nature of the more intensive nursing tasks and the safety culture in the specialty area where there is a higher patient acuity. Hence, close care is expected from them. Being in the intensive care unit, the expectations are high when it

Laoingco, J. R. C . and Tabug ader, C . D. R.

comes to patient care—may it be prevention of adverse outcomes or their management. To meet these expectations, staff nurses possibly keep reading articles in post-fall patient care and take continuing courses to stay on top of patient care and safety. On the other hand, staff nurses from general wards may have more patients to care of whom they may have less allotted time for nursing activities. According to Blegen and Vaughn (1998), total nursing care hours per patient day were lower in general wards compared to specialty areas. The proportion of care given by nurses was also lowest in general wards. Thus, the rate of patient falls was highest in general wards. The inadequate staffing may perhaps contribute to dissatisfaction and delays in providing post-fall care, and eventually, the quality of care and safety decreases. In the survey conducted by the American Nurses Association (2001), it was revealed that 56 % of nurses have less time for patient care. In the area of organizational tasks, the table shows that the p-value is 0.149 which is not significant at 0.05 level. The null hypothesis that states “There is no significant difference in the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on post-fall interventions along the area of organizational tasks when staff nurses are grouped according to area of practice” is accepted. This means that the nurses’ area of practice does not cause a variation in the perception of nurses on post-fall interventions along the area of organizational tasks. The slight difference in the means may be rationalized by the variations of standard operating procedures of different units, which are mostly dependent on the various activities in the area. Handling older adults with severe illnesses, staff nurses in specialty areas are probably practicing more the role of patient advocates. Specialty area staff nurses frequently and closely work and collaborate with other members of the health care team. With such roles, staff nurses, consciously or

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not, are Nurse on knowledgeable Falls, Fall Prevention, of the and concepts Post-Fall of Care. The findings the research show that organizational tasks.of Fostering collaboration staffbeen nurses are moderately has emphasized by many asknowledgeable a key strategy on fall preventive interventions and post-fall for improving patient safety (Goode, Clancy, interventions. Kimball, MeyerHowever, & Eisenberg, to deliver 2002).excellent and safe Addressing care to olderthe adults, Learning they would Needs need of more Staff extensive Nurse onknowledge. Falls, FallToPrevention, help meet theand knowledge Postgaps,Care. Fall the researchers The findings made of athis module research on show falls, all prevention fthat staff nursesand are post-fall moderately careknowledgeable for the staff nurses. on fall preventive A proposedinterventions manual on fall andprevention post- fall and post-fall interventions interventions. However, towasdeliver also done excellent by the researchers and safe care to to be older forwarded adults, to they the participating would need hospitals more extensive throughknowledge. the chief nurses. To help Themeet module the and the manual knowledge gaps, originally the researcher intendedmade for prevention a module andfalls, on management fall prevention of falls and in older post-fall adults, care however, for afterstaff the review nurses. of the research A proposed outputs, manual they can on also fall be applied toand prevention general post-fall adults. interventions was also done by the researcher to be forwarded to the participating hospitals through the chief nurses. The module and manual were originally intended for prevention and management of falls in older adults, however, after review of the research outputs, they can also be applied to general adults. Some hospital organizations may have not yet established a comprehensive fall prevention program or an in-service educational program on falls. The proposed manual offers help in establishing a fall prevention program and provides a basis for formulating an educational program, such as seminars, as to what specific fall topics are needed to be emphasized and who are the target population that would benefit to the program the most. The module, on the other hand, hopes to relieve the information gaps on fall prevention and post-fall care among staff nurses. In addition, there is no current published literature that discusses exclusively the topics on falls, fall prevention, and post-fall care in the hospital settings. The researcher intends to process the proposed manual and module to be patented and possibly for sale for wider dissemination of knowledge on falls among older adults.

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IV. CONCLUSIONS, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The study aimed to determine the extent of knowledge on falls by staff nurses in BaguioBenguet health care settings. Specifically, it sought to determine the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on fall prevention interventions in the areas of assessment, preventive and educative interventions; the extent of knowledge of staff nurses on post-fall interventions in areas of patient-centered tasks and organizational tasks; the significant differences in the extent of knowledge of fall prevention interventions and post-fall interventions when respondents are grouped according to hospital affiliation, length of service and area of practice. Based on the analyses of the gathered data, the salient findings in the study include: staff nurses are moderately knowledgeable on fall prevention interventions in the areas of assessment, preventive and educative interventions. When the staff nurses were grouped according to hospital affiliation, a significant difference was noted in their extent of knowledge on fall prevention interventions, specifically in the area of assessment. As to the areas of preventive and educative interventions, no significant difference was noted. When the staff nurses were grouped according to length of service and area of practice, it was found out that there was no significant difference in their extent of knowledge on fall prevention interventions in all the areasâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; assessment, preventive and educative interventions. With regard to post-fall interventions, staff nurses are moderately knowledgeable in the areas of patient-centered tasks and organizational tasks. When grouped according to hospital affiliation, length of service and area of practice, there was no noted significant difference in the extent of their knowledge on post-fall interventions in both the areas of patient-centered tasks and organizational tasks.

In conclusion, staff nurses lack knowledge on falls prevention interventions, which are imperative to prevent fall incidents, and or consciousness on post-fall interventions, which are relevant in minimizing complications from falls and in preventing further fall incidents. Hospital affiliation does not at all influence the respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perceived knowledge in all the selected areas of post-fall and fall preventions interventions except on assessment. Likewise, length of service and area of practice do not at all affect the staff nursesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perceived knowledge in all the selected areas of fall prevention interventions and post-fall interventions. A module on falls, fall prevention and management was formulated to meet the knowledge gaps of staff nurses. A manual is also to be proposed to the hospitals which participated, and to help in the absence of comprehensive fall prevention and management programs. In light of the findings, the researchers recommend that staff nurses should intensify learning about falls, fall prevention, and post-fall care in older adults. Nurse administrators should develop or improve their staff development programs that include orientation programs, inservice programs and continuing education programs which tackle on prevention and management of falls in the older adults. The hospital organization should consider formulating a comprehensive fall prevention program that includes, but not limited to, fall risk screening and assessment, post-fall care protocol and incident reporting. The nursing service of the hospitals should strengthen their patient education program on fall prevention and management to empower older adult patients and their families to self-care. This strategy can be a big help for the appropriate allocation of inadequate financial and human resources. The research hopes to contribute in nursing education, that results of the study will be used as basis to review the existing Bachelor of Science in Nursing curriculum in relation to the concept

Laoingco, J. R. C . and Tabug ader, C . D. R.

of falls. should basis to Nurse reviewinstructors the existing BSN emphasize curriculumthe in concept fall prevention and post-fall care relation of to falls, the concept of falls. Nurse instructors from older adults to student nurses.of falls, fall should emphasize the concept With dearth of local prevention and postfalland carenational in olderresearches adults to on falls, nurses. further studies are highly recommended. student A similar of of research should be made in the With type dearth local and national researches future, participation on falls,encompassing further studies aarebroader highly recommended. of respondents, consideration to all in types A similar type of with research should be made the of interventions and avaried variables. Studies future, encompassing broader participation of respondents, should be with undergone consideration focusing to allontypes other of interventions and classifications of varied clients,variables. such as Studies pediatric should and be undergonepatients. psychiatric focusing Studies on other should classifications also be of clients,on made such theas prevalence pediatric patients and incidence and psychiatric of falls in patients. settings hospital Studies to should have tangible also be data madethat on may the prevalence reflect the graveness and incidence of the of problem falls in on hospital falls. settings Since thetoCordillera have a tangible region has datasuch thatrich mayculture, reflect studies shouldof also be made the graveness the problem on to falls.determine Since the the fall risk factors that may beculture, uniquestudies in the Cordillera region have such rich region. and reliability studiesthe of fall fall risk should Validity also be made to determine assessment toolsbe should also considered. factors that may unique in the be region. Validity Researches onstudies the effectiveness of differenttools fall and reliability of fall risk assessment prevention post-fall interventions should also and be considered. Researchesare on also the encouraged. effectiveness of different fall prevention and postfall interventions are also encouraged. originality index: similarity index: paper id:

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Erlbaum Associates. Armstrong, R. (1995). The nurse and their patients. St. Louis Missouri: Mosby Year Book Inc. Ash, K.L., Macleod, P., & Clark, L.A. (1998). Case Control Study of Falls in Hospital Setting. Journal of Gerontology Nursing, 24(1), 7-15. Avestruz, F. (1995). A study of Philippine hospital management administrative system (electronic version). Discussion paper series no. 95, Philippine Institute for Development Studies. Bastable, S. (2003). Nurse as educator: Principles of teaching and learning for nursing practice (2nd ed.). London, UK: Jones and Bartlett Publishers International. Benner, P., Tanner, C., & Chesla, C. (2009). Expertise in nursing practice (2nd ed.). MA: Springer Publishing Company. Blegen, M.A., Vaughn, T.E., & Goode, C.J. (2001). Nurse experience and education: Effect on quality of care. Journal of Nursing Administration, 31(1), 33-39. Blegen, M.A., & Vaughn, T.E. (1998). A multisite study of nurse staffing and patient occurrences, (electronic version). Blendon, R.J., Schoen, C., Donelan, K., Osborn, R., Des Roches, C.M., Scloles, K., Davis, K., Binns, K., & Zapert, K. (2001). Physicians’ view of quality of care: A five-country comparison. Health Affairs, 20(3), 233-243. Board of Nursing. (2009). National core competency standards for Filipino nurses. Retrieved April 2, 2010 from http://bonphilippines.org/index.php Bok, S. (2008). Rethinking the WHO Definition of Health. International Encyclopedia of Public Health, 1(6), 590-597. Capezuti, E., Boltz, M., Renz, S., Hoffman, D., & Norman, R.G. (2006). Nursing home involuntary relocation: Clinical outcomes and perceptions of residents and families. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 7(8), 486-492. Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2006). WISQARS Leading Causes of Nonfatal Injury Reports, 2006. Retrieved May 14, 2009 from www.cdc.gov Center for Disease Control (2007). Quickstats: Annual rate of nonfatal, medically attended fall injury episodes, 2007. Retrieved March 29, 2010 from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ mm5831a6.htm Clare, B. (2010). Sent home after hospital fall. Sunshine Coast News. February 1, 2010. Retrieved February 10, 2010 from http://www. sunshinecoastdaily.com.au/story/2010/02/01/ woman-was-bundled-home-after-fall-inemergency-roo/ Collado, E.P. (1993). Quality of nursing care as perceived by patients and their watchers in selected surgical wards of VLGH-AFP Medical Center. (Unpublished Master’s Thesis, University of the

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General Hospital and Medical Center in Baguio City, Philippines. (Master’s Thesis). Krauss, M.J., Evanoff, B., Hitcho, E., Ngugi, E.K., Dunagan, W.C., Fischer, I., Birge, S., Johnson, S., Constantinou, E., & Fraser, V.J. (2005). A case-control study of patent, medication, and care-related risk factors for inpatient falls. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 20(1), 116-122. Lavado, R.F., Dunleavy, A.B.R., Jimenez, J., & Matsuda, Y. (2010). How are government hospitals performing? (electronic version). Philippine Institute for Development Studies. Lorenzo, F.M.E. (2008). Special report: Nursing shortage. Retrieved April 7, 2010 from http://www. manilatimes.net/national/2008/dec/07/yehey/ top_stories/20081207top1.html Mahoney, J., Sager, M., Dunham, N., & Johnson, J. (1994). Risk of falls after hospital discharge. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 42(1), 269-274. Mangaoang, J.J. (1998). Perceived performance of staff nurses of the Bachelor of Science in Nursing curriculum in patient care (Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Saint Louis University). Markowitz, J.S., Pearson, G., Kay, B.G., & Loewestein, R. (2001). Nurses, Physicians, and Pharmacists: Their Knowledge of Hazards of Medications. Nursing Research, 30(6), 366-370. Meleis, A.I. (2007). Theoretical nursing: Development and progress (4th ed.). Philadelphia: JB Lippincott. Montalvo, I. (2007). The National Database of Nursing Quality Indicators. Online Journal of Issues in Nursing, 12(3). (electronic version) Morse, J.M. (2009). Preventing patient falls (2nd ed.). NY: Springer Publishing Company. Mostafa, G.M.A. (2009). Enhancing nurses’ knowledge and awareness about risk management: System design. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 15(5), 1135-1144. Myers, H., & Nikoletti, S. (2003). Fall risk assessment: A prospective investigation of nurses’ clinical judgment and risk assessment tools in predicting patient falls. International Journal of Nursing Practice. 9(3), 158-165. Naidoo, J., & Wills J. (2009). Foundations for health promotion (3rd ed.). Bailliere Tindall: Elsevier. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control (2007). 10 Leading Causes of Nonfatal Injury, United States. Retrieved March 29, 2010 from http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/wisqars/nonfatal/ quickpicks_2007//allinj.htm National Safety Council (2009). Slips, trips and falls. Retrieved November 28, 2009 from www.nsc. org O’ Connell, B., & Myers, H. (2002). The sensitivity and specificity of the Morse Fall Scale in an acute care setting. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 11(1), 134-136. Polit, PF., & Beck, CT. (2008). Nursing research principles

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and methods (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins. Potter, P., & Perry, A. (2007). Basic nursing care of the older adult: Essentials for practice (6th ed.). Bailliere Tindall: Elsevier. Promulgation of the Code of Ethics for Registered Nurses (2009). Retrieved December 10, 2009 from www.prc-bn.gov.ph Reason, J. (1997). Managing the risk of organizational accidents. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. Robles, A.B., & Dionisio, G.S. (2001). Philippine nursing law, jurisprudence and ethics (13th ed). Malabon, Phils.: Giuani Prints House. Rubenstein, L.Z., & Josephson, K.R. (2002). The epidemiology of falls and syncope. Clinics in Geriatric Medicine, 18(1), 141-158. Sovie, M.D., & Jawad, A.F. (2001). Hospital restructuring and its impact on outcomes: Nursing staff regulations are premature. Journal of Nursing Administration, 31(1), 588 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 600. Tan, J.Z.G. (2004). The brain drain phenomenon and its implications for health: 10 strategic solutions for action by Filipino leaders. Paper read at the International Conference of the Medical Workforce sponsored by the United States Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates, Washington DC, 4-7 October 2004. United Nations Statistics Division (2000). New United Nations demographic yearbook 2000. Retrieved November 28, 2009 from http://unstats.un.org/ unsd/ Unruh, L. (2003). Licensed nurse staffing and adverse events in hospitals. Medical Care, 41(1), 142 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 152. VHA National Center for Patient Safety (2004). Falls toolkit. Retrieved May 14, 2009 from www. visn8.med.va.gov Victorian Quality Council (2009). Minimizing the risk of falls & fall-related injuries. Retrieved May 14, 2009 from http://www.health.vic.gov.au/ qualitycouncil/pub/improve/falls.htm Wise, Y. (2006). Leading and managing in nursing (4th ed.). St. Louis: Mosby Company. Worth, T., & Pfeifer, G. (2010). In the news: Nurses as sentinels for safety. American Journal of Nursing, 110(3), 19. Wu, A.W. (2000). Medical error: The second victim. British Medical Journal, 320(1), 726 -727.

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The academe as the source of research and the knowledge utilization uptake in the health care system Edsel P. Inocian Graduate School University of the Visayas edselinocian@gmail.com Date submitted:

January 5, 2014

Date accepted: June 30, 2014

ABSTRACT This descriptive-correlational research determined the relationship between the perceived level of the characteristics of the academe as the source of research and the knowledge utilization uptake of the academic research among health care professionals in the health care systems. Researcher-made questionnaire was used consisting of items related to credibility, accuracy, reasonableness, support, sophistication and communication quality was also employed. Moreover, an adapted questionnaire from the Knowledge Utilization Uptake Scale was used. The overall level of the perceived characteristics of the source in terms of the credibility, accuracy, reasonableness, support, sophistications and communication quality was fair. Generally, a very poor level of knowledge utilization uptake of the academic research was identified. Respondents were highly aware of the research but very poor in the aspects of reception, cognition, discussion, reference, effort, adoption and impact. Pearson r revealed a strong positive correlation between the variables. Finally, the perceived level on the characteristics of the source of the health research was associated with the knowledge utilization uptake. Hence, this contributed to the theory on the research translation from the academe to the health care system that source was an influential element. Keywords: characteristics of source, academic health research, utilization, research knowledge I. INTRODUCTION Worldwide, Worldwide, the the idea idea of of where where the research information information comes from has gained increasing interest to users in many fields The tomany manypotential potential users in many fields. Southwest Educational DevelopmentDevelopment Laboratory The Southwest Educational (SEDL) in 2008 emphasized source of that the Laboratory (SEDL) (2008) that emphasized information be considered in developing source of themust information must be considered knowledge-based that underlies in developing knowledge base that utilization. underlies Hence, it is one of the five common utilization. Hence, it is one of the core five elements common to success. Furthermore, this source can strongly core elements to success. Furthermore, this influence effectiveness utilization source canthe strongly influenceofthethe effectiveness

of the the information. utilization ofIn the In this of theinformation. study, the academe is study, considered the academe the source is considered of information. the sourceThe of health information. research Theishealth conducted research as isa conducted requirement as before a requirement finishingbefore a degree. finishing As the a degree. production As the of academic productionhealth of academic research, health theresearch, new knowledge the new developed knowledge must developed improve must theimprove health profession. the health Hence, profession. source Hence, credibility source credibility of the health of the research health knowledge research knowledge has become hasabecome common a common issue. issue. The Trustees Trustees of of Columbia University University in the the City City of of New New York (2013) mentioned that utilization utilization of of references references is is aa means means of of supporting supporting

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the argument made that means references need to be credible and authoritative. In addition, SEDL (2008) argued that the source producing research outcomes to more important than the quality of the trust research design. Similarly, authors trust authors references with credible stand. references with credible stand. Lastly, the source Lastly, the source must necessarily possess these must necessarily these characteristics characteristics idealpossess for use among potential amongthe potential that care will usersideal that for willuse improve qualityusers of health improvedelivery. the quality of health care service delivery. service Since source credibility is the extent to which a recipient perceives a source to be trustworthy and an expert, in previous knowledge transfer research, trust and reputation of a knowledge source collectively define a source’s credibility (Joshi et al., 2004; Ko et al., 2005). In addition, Cook (2013) suggested that in the legal realm, to decide credibility, health care professionals must choose any of the following glitches, if present, whether they are serious: improbabilities, implausibilities, impossibilities, contradictions implausibility, impossibilities, and inconsistencies. Desberg and Fisher (1998) identified criteria used to evaluate credibility such as as breadth, breadth, depth, depth, time, format, format, content and accuracy. Similarly, Similarly, evaluating evaluating aa physical an accuracy. information source can be done even before having the physical item in hand. In addition, addition,Gilbert, Gilbert, and Lindzey FiskeFiske and Lindzey (1998) (1998) noted there were otherembraces factors noted that therethat were other factors embraces person’s credibility but, according a person’sa credibility but, according to source to source credibility theory, the two factors credibility theory, the two factors most regularly most regularly perceived recognized were recognized perceived were expertise, and expertise, and trustworthiness of the references. trustworthiness of the references. Furthermore, Furthermore, source credibility theory research source credibility theory research also indicated also indicated that the capacity to adopt that the capacity to adopt the message the is message is subjective to receiver’s understanding. subjective to receiver’s understanding. Hence, Hence, Beebe (2005) added Beebe and Beebe (2005) addedthat thatcredibility credibility is considered as the capability of the believer whom he had conversed. Health care professionals can also appraise a source by first examining the bibliographic citation. Bibliographic citations’ components can help determine the usefulness of this source for the paper (Cornell University Library, 2010). With the current the current understanding understanding of of the academe as the source of information, the

study argued that a connection exists between the uniqueness of the source— those involved in the production of research knowledge in the academe and the utilization of research knowledge in the the health healthcare caresystem systemininterms termsofof the credibility, accuracy, reasonableness, support, accuracy, reasonableness, support, sophistications and communication quality of the source. By considering the characteristics of the academe as the source of research information, this can potentially improve the knowledge utilization uptake in the health care system which can in turn improve the health care practice. II. THE PROBLEM The This study study determined determined the relationship between the characteristics of the academe as the source of the health research and the knowledge utilization uptake of the academic health research in the health care system. Specifically, answered Specifically, ititanswered the following questions: What is the characteristic of the academe as 1. What is the characteristic of the academe the source healthofresearch in terms of: in as of thethe source the health research 1. What the characteristic of the academe termsisof: as credibility; the source of the health research in 1.1 terms of: 1.2 accuracy; 1.3 1.1reasonableness; credibility; 1.4 1.2support; accuracy; 1.5 and 1.3sophistications; reasonableness; 1.6 quality?; 1.4communication support;; 2. What 1.5 sophistications; is the knowledge andutilization uptake of academic health research in the 1.6the communication quality? health andutilization uptake 2. What is care the system?; knowledge 3. Isofthere a significant relationship between the academic health research in the the characteristics health care system?of the academe as source of the health research and 3. Isthe there asignificantrelationship between the utilization of the the knowledge characteristics of the uptake academe as academic in the health the sourcehealth of theresearch health research and care system? the knowledge utilization uptake of the academic health research in the health III. METHODOLOGY care system? Descriptive-correlational research design III. METHODOLOGY was used to determine the perceived Descriptive-of the academe correlational research characteristics as the source of designhealth was used to determine perceived the research and thetheknowledge utilization uptake among health care

Inocian, E. P.

professionals health care system. characteristics ofinthethe academe as the source of Subsequently, relationship between the the health research and the knowledge utilization perceived characteristics the academe as uptake among health careofprofessionals in the the source of the health research and the health care system. Subsequently, relationship knowledge among of health between theutilization perceiveduptake characteristics the care professionals in the health careresearch system was academe as the source of the health and also sought. A researcher-made the knowledge utilization uptake questionnaire among health was with six characteristic themes namely: care used professionals in the health care system was credibility; reasonableness; support; also sought.accuracy; A researcher-made questionnaire sophistications; communication quality. was used with 6 and characteristic themes namely: This consisted of 31 reasonableness; items related tosupport; the six credibility; accuracy; themes. Contentand validity was sought through sophistications; communication quality. Delphi technique anditems pilotrelated testingto ofthethe This consisted of 31 6 tool was Content also done. Reliability themes. validity was testing sought revealed through aDelphi Cronbach’s alpha 0.993. In addition, an technique andofpilot testing of the tool adapted from the revealed Knowledge was also questionnaire done. Reliability testing a Utilization Uptake ScaleIn (Bonin, was Cronbach’s alpha of .993. addition,2007) an adapted used to assess from the the knowledge utilization of questionnaire Knowledge Utilization the academic health2007) research consisted of Uptake Scale (Bonin, was used to assess the knowledge different utilization statements that determined of the academic health the level consisted of knowledge from the research of the utilization different statements university’s health researches which utilization consisted that determined the level of knowledge of 34 the items. This consisted 34 items related from university’s healthofresearches which to the nine consisted of 34stages items. of Thisknowledge consisted ofutilization 34 items uptake. Content validity was soughtutilization through related to the 9 stages of knowledge Delphi and pilot testing of the tool uptake. technique Content validity was sought through was also done. and Reliability testing revealed Delphi technique pilot testing of the tool wasa Cronbach’s alpha oftesting 0.993.revealed Finally,a descriptive also done. Reliability Cronbach’s and statistics were used after the alphainferential of .993. Finally, descriptive and inferential data werewere gathered, collated and encoded in MS statistics used after the data were gathered, excel. collated and encoded in MS excel. IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS DISCUSSIONS The Thissection section presents presents the the results on the levels of the perceived characteristics of the academe as the source of research knowledge and the knowledge utilization uptake of the academic health research research among among the the 100 health health care professionals that which included the physicians included the physicians and and specialists, nurses, medical medicalmedical specialists, nurses, medical technologists, technologists, radiologic technologists, radiologic technologists, pharmacists, pharmacists, occupational and physical occupational and physical therapists and therapists and Subsequently, nutritionist-dietitians. nutritionist-dietitians. the result Subsequently, the between result on relationship on the relationship thethe variables is also between the variables is also presented. presented.

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Level of the perceived characteristics of the academe as the source of research knowledge. Table 1 presents the level of perceived characteristics of the academe as the source of research knowledge. It is described in terms of its credibility, accuracy, reasonableness, support, sophistications, and communication quality. Table 1. Level of the Perceived Characteristics of the Table 1. Level the perceived characteristics Academe as theofSource of Research Knowledgeof the academe as the source of research knowledge Indicators

Interpretation

A: Credibility

1.92

.129

Fair

B: Accuracy

1.98

.155

Fair

C: Reasonableness

1.74

.164

Poor

D: Support

2.11

.049

Fair

E: Sophistications

2.12

.034

Fair

.032

Fair

.170 .170

Fair Fair

F: Communication Quality Grand Grand Mean Mean

2.09 1.98 1.98

Note. n= 100. Parameters: 1.0-1.75 Poor; 1.76-2.50 Fair; 2.51-3.25 Moderate; 3.26-4.0 High As shown in table, the overall level of the perceived characteristics of the academe as the source of the research knowledge is fair. This is attributed to the fair results in relation to credibility, accuracy, support, sophistications and communication quality. Hence, the academe still needs to improve the areas related to the characteristics of the sourcetoenhance knowledge utilization uptake of the health care professionals. In terms of the credibility, health care professionals should make a strong conclusions according on facts, proof of authenticity and reliability or credibility, believability which is very vital. Accurateness must be the target of the academe to guarantee that the information is truthful so that health care professionals perceived it useful for the knowledge utilization. Meanwhile, support must be addressed by the academe as this is concerned with the source and corroboration of the information. Finally,

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communication quality must be considered by the academe to disseminate the findings of their research outputs. The highest highest was wasnoted notedininthe the aspect of fair aspect of fair sophistications. sophistications. It It is is the the quality of the academe as source of ofthe theinformation informationwhere whichit can as the source can be readily readily used used or or applied. The result is attributed tto the fair research knowledge presented with o the fair research knowledge presented appropriate appropriateinformation, information,information information with rigor and the andresearch researchknowledge knowledge oriented oriented toward use useoror application from source. Meanwhile, application from thethe source. Meanwhile, the thelowest lowestwas wasrelated relatedto tothe thepoor poor reasonableness. Hence, Hence, the academe as as thethesource the academe source poorly developed objectivity reasonedactions actions developed objectivityand and reasoned of of the the research research knowledge. McGraw-Hill Higher Higher Education (2003) stressed that the source such Education (2003) stressed that the source such as the academe must establish reasonable, stable, as the academe establish reasonable, stable, factual, rational,must no conflict of interest, absence of actual, rational, notone. conflict ofisinterest, absence of fallacies or slanted This directed towards allacies or slanted tone. This is directed towards references references that that manage manage the the subject considerately and and rationally rationally and and aa truthful truthful source. source.However, However, the the present result still lacks sufficient reasonableness. present still lacks sufficient The result present findings added toreasonableness. the argument The present findings added to the argument made made by Trustees of Columbia University in the CityCity of of New York New York(2013) (2013)that thatthe the utilization of references referencesisisaaway way of of supporting the argument, meaningmeaning sources of reference sources of referenceneed needstoto be credible authoritativewhich which only credible and authoritative was was only fairly fairlyachieved achievedbyby academe as source the source thethe academe as the of the ofresearch the research knowledge. In like manner, the knowledge. In like manner, the findings findings related with Gilbert, Fiske and also also related with Gilbert, Fiske and Lindzey Lindzey (1998) thefactors other that factors maya (1998) on theon other maythat involve involve person’s credibility person’sa credibility and Beebeand and Beebe Beebe (2005) on on thethe trustworthiness trustworthinessisischaracterized characterized as as the individual’s ability to to trust individual’s ability trusttoto one’s one’s honesty wherein wherein the the academe academe only fairly achieved this dimension. With the results revealed revealed in in this the study, it is noted that the academe as one of the sources needs totoexert exert more more efforteffort to meettoevery meet criterion every of the characteristics criterion of the characteristics related to related the source to the necessary source necessary for the effective for the knowledge effective knowledge utilization uptake. Even utilization uptake. if theyEven will ifnot they able will to not possess possess the highest the highest standard standard of quality, of they quality, mustthey be able must to address these areas areas to to achieve achieveevidenceevidence-based based

practice in the health care system. system. Level of knowledge utilization uptake of the academic research among health care professionals. Table 2 presents the level of the knowledge utilization uptake of the academic health research among health care professionals. It is presented in terms of the different stages of utilizing knowledge uptake that includes awareness, reception, cognition, discussion, reference, effort, adoption, implementation and impact. Table 2. ofof thethe 2. Level Level of of knowledge Knowledgeutilization Utilizationuptake Uptake Academicresearch Researchamong amonghealth Health Care Professionals academic care professionals Stages 1. Awareness 2. Reception 3. Cognition 4. Discussion

5. Reference 6. Effort 7. Adoption 8. Impact

Grand Mean Grand Mean

M 3.93 1.67 1.60 1.31 1.24 1.14 1.01 1.00 1.44 1.44

SD .030 .622 .037 .035 .025 .014 .005 .000 .823 .823

Interpretation High Very Poor Very Poor Very Poor Very Poor Very Poor Very Poor Very Poor VeryPoor Poor Very

Note: n= 100. Parameters: 1.0-1.80 Very Poor; 1.812.60 Poor; 2.61-3.40 Moderate; 3.41-4.20 High; 4.21-5.0 Very High As shown in the the table, table, the the health health care care professionals are highly aware of the academic health research. High awareness is attributed to the high perceived levels of the academic learnedexistence. about its However, existence they and health research, research learnt old about tare its poor existence. are all all very in theHowever, aspects they of reception, very poor in the aspects of reception, cognition, discussion, reference, effort,cognition, adoption discussion, reference, effort, adoption and and impact, respectively. Generally, theyimpact, have respectively. Generally, they have very poor level very poor level of knowledge utilization uptake knowledge of the academicutilization research. uptake of the academic research. The findings support the theory developed The the findings support the theory through deductive approach on thedeveloped academic through thetranslation: deductive knowledge approach translation on the knowledge academic series knowledge translation that knowledge involves of stages in new translation series of stages creation andinvolves its impact. The nine stagesconcerning built upon in new knowledge creation and its , impact used, the previous stages are: awareness; reception or the nine stagescognition; built upondiscussion, the previous stages transmission; reference

Inocian, E. P.

such as:adoption; awareness, reception or transmission, effort; implementation and impact. cognition, discussion, reference, effort, adoption, In the same manner, every stage of knowledge implementation and impact. In the same utilization scale is measured differently. manner, every stages of knowledge utilization Moreover, every stage comparable to the scale are stages measured differently. every previous in which factorsMoreover, are explainable stage comparable to the previous stages in on how potential intended beneficiaries climbs which factors are explainable on how potential the heights of knowledge utilization. Knowledge intended climb oftheawareness heights to of utilization beneficiaries started in echelon knowledge utilization. Knowledge utilizationor, transmission or reception, transmission started in echelon of awareness to transmission reception to the echelon to that of cognition, or reception, reception to the from cognitiontransmission to discussion,orthen discussion to echelon to that of cognition, from cognition to reference, from reference to effort, from effort discussion, discussion to reference, from to adoption,then adoption to implementation and reference to effort, from effort to adoption, finally, from implementation to impact on the adoption to of implementation and finally, from perspectives the health care professionals. The implementation to impact in the perspectives of interactions of the influential elements identified the health care professionals. The effectiveness interactions have significant influence on the of the influential elements identified have of the whole knowledge translation process of significant influence on the effectiveness of the the academic health research in the health care whole translation process of the system. knowledge Hence, constant evaluation of the overall academic health research in the healthincare knowledge translation process is crucial the system. Hence, constant evaluation of the overall effectiveness of the whole process to successfully knowledge translation process is crucial in the have research and evidence-practice in the health effectiveness of the whole process to successfully care system. However, numerous barriers related have research and evidencethe health to the identified elements practice must beindealt with care system. However, numerous barriers related accordingly as they are minimizing the likelihood o identified elementsutilization must be uptake dealt with t fthe research knowledge and accordingly as they are minimizing the likelihood climbing echelon of the heights of knowledge of research knowledge utilization uptake and utilization uptake. climbing echelon of thecare heights of knowledge Finally, a health professional does utilization uptake. not possess the attributes necessary to the Finally, utilization a health care professional doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t knowledge uptake of the academic possessresearch the and attributes necessary to of the health fail to climb the ladder the knowledge utilization uptake of the academic stages. In addition, the findings contribute to the health andthrough fail to climb the ladder of the theory research developed deductive approach

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stages. addition, translation the findingsfrom contribute to the on the In knowledge the academe theory developed through deductive approach to the health care system. Hence, the health care on the knowledge translation from the academe professionals should design effective ways to fully to the health care system. Hence, the health care climb the ladder of knowledge utilization uptake professionals design effective to fully specifically inshould the academic health ways research to climb the ladder of knowledge utilization uptake advance service quality delivered to clientele. specifically of the academic to Relationship between health the research perceived advance service quality delivered to clientele. characteristics of the academe as the source perceived and Relationship the knowledgebetween utilizationthe uptake among characteristics of the academe as the source health care professionals in the health care and the knowledge utilization uptake among system. Table 3 presents the relationship health in the healthofcare betweencare the professionals perceived characteristics the system. as Table 3 presents theknowledge relationship academe the source of research and between the perceived the the knowledge utilizationcharacteristics uptake among of health academe as the source of research knowledge and care professionals in the health care system. the knowledge utilization uptake amongproduct health As shown in the table, a Pearson care professionals in was the health care to system. moment correlation computed determine As shown in the table, a Pearson product the relationship between the perceived moment correlation was computed to determine characteristics of the academe as the source of the relationship between the utilization perceived the health research and the knowledge characteristics the academe as the source of uptake among of health care professionals in the the health research and the knowledge utilization health care system. There is a strong positive uptake among health the care variables. professionals the correlation between (r= in.730, health care system. There is a strong positive n= 100, p<.05). Hence, the null hypothesis is correlation between the variables. (r= fair .730,level n= rejected. Thus, this indicates that the 100, p<.05). Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected. of perceived characteristics of the academe as Thus, this indicates the fairislevel of perceived the source of healththat research directly related characteristics of the academe as the source of to the very poor knowledge utilization uptake health research is directly related toin thethe veryhealth poor among health care professionals knowledge utilization uptake among health care care system. Hence, increase in the perceived professionals in the health care system. Hence, characteristics of the academe as the source, the increase in utilization the perceived characteristics of the knowledge uptake also increases. On academe the source, the knowledge the otherashand, the decrease in the utilization perceived uptake also increases. the other decrease characteristics of the On academe ashand, the source of in the perceived characteristics of the academe as the health research also results to significant

Table 3. Relationship Relationship between betweenthe thePerceived perceivedCharacteristics characteristics of of the theAcademe academe as as the theSource source and and the theKnowledge knowledge Utilization utilization Uptakeof ofthe theAcademic AcademicHealth HealthResearch Research(n=100) (n=100) uptake Variables

Computed Pearson correlation

p-value

Decision over Ho

Perceived Characteristics of the Academe as the Source and the Knowledge Utilization Uptake

.730

.000

Reject Ho

Note: Correlation is significant at at thethe 0.05 level (2-tailed). Note. **. Correlation is significant 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Interpretation Significant Relationship

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decreases in the thehealth knowledge utilization uptake the source of research also result to significant among health decreases care professionals in the knowledge in the utilization health uptake care system. among health care professionals in the health As care affirmed, system. confidence and validity of knowledge As affirmed, foundation confidence collectively and validity defined of knowledge accuracy references foundation necessary collectively for subsequent defined references utilization knowledge accuracy necessary (Joshi et al.,for 2004; subsequent Ko et al., knowledge 2005). In addition, utilization it affirmed (Joshi et al., SEDL 2004; (2008) Ko etthat al., 2005). In addition, individual’s trust references it affirmed with SEDL credible (2008) stand. that individual’sthe trust references credible stand. Moreover, present resultswith indicated that the Moreover, characteristics the present results indicated perceived of the academethat as the perceived characteristics of the academe as the source of the research knowledge had significant source of the research knowledge had significant influence on the knowledge utilization uptake of influence the professionals. knowledge utilization uptake of the healthoncare Hence, the result the the health care professionals. Hence, the toresult of hypothesis testing contributed the of the hypothesis contributed the emergent theory on testing knowledge translationtofrom emergent theory on health knowledge from the academe to the care translation system through the academe to the health care system through deductive approach. In addition, the favorable deductive approach. the favorable characteristics relatedIntoaddition, the perspective of the characteristics to source the perspective of the academe as therelated credible of the research academe asare thealso credible source the research knowledge high. Thus, theofacademe must knowledge is levels also high. Thus, the academe must possess high of the characteristic themes possess high levels ofaccuracy; the characteristic themes namely: credibility; reasonableness; namely: credibility; accuracy; support; sophistications; and reasonableness; communication support; tosophistications; and communication quality effect have greater chances of quality to utilization effect have greater chances of knowledge uptake. However, constant knowledgecharacteristics utilization uptake. constant evaluation mustHowever, be done to ensure evaluation characteristics must be done to ensure the favorableness for subsequent knowledge the favorableness forinsubsequent utilization uptake that turn leads toknowledge successful utilization uptake that in turn lead to successful knowledge translation. knowledge translation. Therefore, the health care professionals in the Therefore, the health in the health care system shouldcare askprofessionals relevant questions health carethe system shouldofask relevant regarding credibility the source questions as they regarding the credibility of thewith sourceinformation. as they are are constantly surrounded constantly Hence, they surrounded must have withthe information. skill necessary Hence, they to evaluate must have the credibility the skill necessary of the source to evaluate of the the credibility research knowledge of theforsource subsequent of theutilization. research knowledge for Additionaly, areasubsequent of source credibility utilization.has Hence, very area of source significant practical credibility implications has very in the significant field of practical implications evidence-based practice in the in health. field ofLastly, evidencethe based practice health care professionals in health. Hence, should the continually health care ask professionals should continually questions, questions, follow up and reflect onask the sources to followrealize up andthe reflect on the sources to help for realize help credibility of the source the the credibility of the source for the subsequent subsequent knowledge utilization uptake of the knowledge utilization uptake of the research research knowledge produced.

knowledge produced. V. CONCLUSION The academe as the source of research V. CONCLUSION knowledge is associated with the knowledge The academe source of research utilization uptake of as the the health care professionals. knowledgethe is associated with the knowledge Hence, high credibility, accuracy, utilization uptake support, of the health care professionals. reasonableness, sophistications and Hence, the high credibility, communication quality demonstrated accuracy, by the reasonableness, support, sophistications and academe influenced the knowledge utilization communication quality demonstrated by care the uptake of academic research in the health academeFinally, influenced the knowledge system. this indicates that the utilization generated uptake of academic research the health hypotheses contributed to theintheory wherecare the system.isFinally, this indicates theknowledge generated source an influential elementthat in the hypotheses uptake contributed to the theory where utilization of the research from the source is to an the influential element in the knowledge academe health care system among health utilization uptake ofHence, the research from the care professionals. we recommend academe to the health care among should health that the administrators of system the academe care ways professionals. Hence, we recommend find to enhance and sustain their high that the administrators of the academesupport, should credibility, accuracy, reasonableness, find ways to enhance and sustainquality. their high sophistications and communication credibility, accuracy, reasonableness, support, sophistications and communication quality. originality index: 95 % similarity index: 5% originality index: 95 % paper id: 463734239 similarity index: 5 % checked Grammarly: paper id: 463734239 REFERENCES Grammarly: checked Beebe, S., & Beebe, S. (2005). Public speaking: An REFERENCES audience-centered approach (6th edition). Allyn Publishers. Beebe, S.,and&Bacon Beebe, S. (2005). Public speaking: An Bonin, E.N. (2007). How context influences knowledge audience-centered approach (6th edition). Allyn use in public health units (Master’s thesis, and Bacon Publishers. University Waterloo). http:// Bonin, E.N. (2007). of How context Retrieved influencesfrom knowledge uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/bitstream/10012/3465/1/ use in public health units (Master’s thesis, Bonin_MSc_Thesis.pdf University of Waterloo). Retrieved from http:// Cook, S. uwspace.uwaterloo.ca/bitstream/10012/3465/1/ (2013). Assessing the credibility of a source. Retrieved from http://goldenageofgaia.com/ Bonin_MSc_Thesis.pdf disclosure/channels-and-sources/credibilityCook, S. (2013). Assessing the credibility of a source. analysis/ Retrieved from http://goldenageofgaia.com/ Cornell University Library (2010). Critically analyzing disclosure/channels-and-sources/credibilityinformation sources. Retrieved from http:// analysis/ olinuris.library.cornell.edu/ref/research/skill26. Cornell University Library (2010). Critically analyzing htm information sources. Retrieved from http:// Desberg, P., & Fisher, F. (1998). Determining the credibility olinuris.library.cornell.edu/ref/research/skill26. of htmsources. Retrieved from http://www.abacon. com/twt/cred.html Desberg, P., & Fisher, F. (1998). Determining the credibility of sources. Retrieved from http://www.abacon. com/twt/cred.html

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Gilbert, D.T., Fiske, S.T., Lindzey, G. (1998). The Handbook of Social Psychology. Oxford University Press. Joshi, K.D., Sarker, S., & Sarker, S. (2004). Knowledge transfer among face-to-face information systems development team members: Examining the role of knowledge, source, and relational context. In Proceedings of the 37th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSSâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;04). Track 8: 80248a. Ko, D.G., Kirch, L.J., & King, W.R. (2005). Antecedents of Knowledge transfer from Consultants to Clients in Enterprise System Implementations. Management Information System Quarterly, 29(1), 59-85. National Center for the Dissemination of Disability Research (1996). A review of the literature on dissemination and knowledge utilization. Austin: Southwest Educational Development Laboratory. Retrieved from http://www. researchutilization.org/matrix/resources/dedp/ Southwest Educational Development Laboratory (2008). A review of the literature on dissemination and knowledge utilization. Retrieved from http:// www.researchutilization.org/matrix/resources/ dedp/ The Trustees of Columbia University in the City of New York (2013). Evaluating the credibility of your sources. Retrieved from https://www.college. columbia.edu/academics/integrity/credibility

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Confirming a strong disconnection between academe and the health care institutions in terms of quantity and content of research

Edsel P. Inocian Graduate School University of the Visayas edselinocian@gmail.com Date submitted: January 5, 2014

Date accepted: June 30, 2014

ABSTRACT As there is is aa disparity disparityin increation creationofofresearch researchininthe theacademe academeand and utilization research utilization ofof research knowledge, the necessity to to ascertain ascertain the the phenomenon phenomenonisiswarranted warrantedas asthe theprofessional professional practice is being being challenged. challenged.Hence, Hence,this thisdescriptive descriptivequalitative qualitativeresearch researchaims aimsto toconfirm confirm the strong strongdisconnect disconnection that exists between the research health research production in the that exists between the health production in the academe academe and theutilization research by utilization by care the health care in institutions in terms of both and the research the health institutions terms of both quantity and quantity of the researches. I revealed that the of the serve research content ofand thecontent researches. I revealed that the development of development the research agenda as agenda serve as the in foundation crucial in the transfer of knowledge. In addition, the the foundation crucial the transfer of knowledge. In addition, the production of research production of research in the thecare utilization amonginhealth care in the academe varies with the academe utilizationvaries amongwith health professionals the health professionals in The the health care institution. The in variation can described terms of care institution. variation can be described terms of thebequantity andincontent the quantity and of research the academe which canfact be that further explained research from thecontent academe which canfrom be further explained to the students are to the fact researches that students are for producing researches academic purposes to producing purely academic purposespurely only tofor finish a degree without only aiming ffinish a degreeAlso, without forinformation utilization. Also, research information utilized or utilization. mostaiming research theymost utilized come from sourcesthey other than come from sources other thaninwhat the graduatestudents in the academe are producing. what the graduatestudents the academe are producing. Thus, this research primarily Thus, thisthe research confirms the between strong disconnection that existsinbetween the confirms strongprimarily disconnect that exists the health production the higher health production in the education institutions and the research utilization by the education institutions andhigher the research utilization by the health care professionals in the health care institutions. professionals in the health care institutions. Keywords: disconnection between the academe and health care institutions, quantity of research, content of research I. INTRODUCTION Higher Education Institutions Institutions (HEIs) (HEIs) are are producing number of researches across the discipline every year. However, if these were sufficient enough to provide the information needs of the community in order to solve chronic problems, such as asin inthe thehealth healthcare caresystem, system,would were be raised. Hence, importantconsideration consideration in raised. Hence, an an important the analysis of the research utilization of health research outputs by the health care institutions has to do with careful evaluation of the initial and tterminal nodesof ofthe theprocess. process.This Thisisiswhether whetherthe the erminal nodes

producers of of the thehealth healthresearches researches such such as as thethe higher education institutions or any other sources are producing exactly the needs of the intended users in terms of the number and content. Since research is a major function of HEIs, it specifies its own research thrusts. Researchers, research teams, and even research entities gather to motivate educational inventiveness, creative thinking, and thinking imaginative imagination, andandnumerous numerousways ways of addressing, organizing organizing and andfinance financing research research in the in broad the broad area area identified. identified. The Thesignificanceofhigher significance of higher education in this course must not be underrated

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as they are the frontline of new technologies and contribute towards the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s socioeconomic advancement. As Fetalver (2010) asserted that the vanguards of new learningsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; are pursued if given more attention. Institutional scholar policies and agenda are necessary to realize the goals that consist of existence of research agenda patterned on the institutionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vision and mission, philosophy and goals, as well as its research importance and programmes for uplifting and upholding research (Clemena & Acosta, 2007). The institutions of higher education have long built their trifocal mission on teaching, analytical endeavors just like conduct of research, and service (Marston, 2002; Bernstein, Hicks, Borbey & Campbell, 2006). The university, as a knowledge production system where researcher is an integral part of the system covered the knowledge creation and transcription activities (Adewale et al., 2007). Southwest Educational Development Laboratory (SEDL, 2008) emphasized that source of the information must be considered in order to develop the knowledge transfer-based that underlies utilization. Similarly, Trustees of University of Columbia in New York City (2013) argued that the use of sources is a means of backing up the variance made which preludes to the sources of reference needs to be dependable and substantial. As such, the knowledge from research hopes to inform policy to improve the practice of every profession. Hence, health care systems as potential intended users of the research knowledge from the universities aim to improve the practice of the profession. The dilemma connecting the academe and the health care system persisted as many graduate students undertake research just to comply with the requirements as part of the course and it ends there. Mitra (1994) also pointed that there was hardly any research in any other discipline. Only few health care professionals such as in the hospitals engage in research, or are just as passive end users of the research knowledge. Opportunities in research activities that can include both the graduate students and the health

care professionals had not been availed optimally. Consequently, directions and purpose of the researches are less managed. There is a big disparity in creation of research in the academe and utilization of research knowledge in health care system. The aim of the study is to address that gap for the two sectors to define their mission in harmony with the overall aims and principles to improve the quality of life. Hence, the paper confirmed the strong disconnection between the academic research knowledge production and utilization in the healthcare system. II. THE PROBLEM The research confirmed the strong disconnection that exists between the academic health research production of the higher education institutions and the research utilization by the health care institutions in terms of both quantity and content of the researches. III. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK The study adapted the practitioner-oriented model of research utilization by Stetler Model (Stetler, 1994/2001) as its framework. This model was assumed to be utilized by specialists as a systematic and theoretical guide for the relevance of practice in line with research. Originally fostered for nurses use and similar principles could likely apply to other practitioners. It extremely completes and imparts systems to guide in research application stages activity through taking into forethought the theoretical (utilization-focused) features of clinical outcome (Sudsawad, 2007). Wherein, phase I emphasizes on the objective, framework, and sources of research evidence. Phase II concerns on the authentication of findings such as evaluating a systematic review, rating the worth of each evidence source, and determining the scientific importance of the evidence. Phase III concentrates on the four standard used together as a gestalt to decide whether it is necessary to use the authenticated evidence in the practice setting.

Inocian, E. P.

Phase IVinattends on the evidence evidence the practice setting. Phase application IV attends on the evidence process beginningapplication with the process confirmation beginning of with the confirmation of type method of use, type, method, and level use.use, Finally, phase V and level of use. Finally, phase of V the concentrates concentrates on the assessment use, with on the assessment of the use, with two two separate procedures to evaluate theseparate case of procedures tocase evaluate the caseuse” of as“use” “use” and the of “consider agreedand in the case “consider2007). use” as agreed in Phase IV Phase IV of (Sudsawad, (Sudsawad, 2007). In context of the study, it also followed the context of this study, also followed five In phases of the model. Theitacademe is onethe of five many phases of the of model. Theinformation academe is for oneuse of the sources research the the many sources of professionals research information forcare use by health care in health by the health professionals healthofcare utilization. It iscare described in firstinphase the utilization. It potential is described in of first of the model as the source thephase information model as the the graduate potential source of in thethe information wherein students HEIs are wherein the ofgraduate students in the HEIs are the authors the research. When graduate the authors research.HEIs Whenare theproducing graduate students in of thetheadvanced students in the advanced HEIs content are producing sufficient quantity and needed of the sufficient these quantity content of that the research, willand be needed further confirmed research, these willforbedesirability further confirmed will be evaluated of use. which When will be evaluated for thorough desirability of use. to When decision is made after evaluation use decision is made to use and consider use after of thethorough evidence,evaluation implementation and consider of thehealth evidence, takes place use by the careimplementation professionals. takes place by the health careofprofessionals. Finally, implementation process the research Finally, implementation of the research evidence will be formallyprocess evaluated. Thus, when evidence be formally evaluated. Thus, of when all of the will conditions in each of the phases the all of the conditions in each Utilization of the phases the Stetler Model of Research areofmet, Stetlerwill there model be improved of research utilization utilization of the are research met, there will beby knowledge improved the health utilization care professionals of the research in knowledge the health care by the systems. health Hence, care professionals identifying the in the health quantity and care content systems. of research Hence, produced identifying in the quantity and advanced HEIs content and similar of research quantity produced and content in the advanced of researchHEIs utilized and in similar the hospitals quantity from andthe content same of research HEIs may help utilized confirm in the the hospitals proposition from the onsame the HEIs may help confirm the proposition on the disconnection. disconnection. IV. METHODOLOGY IV. METHODOLOGY The study used descriptive-qualitative research The design study used on gathering descriptive information qualitative to researchthe design to gather information confirm confirm disconnection between thetoacademic the disconnect between the academic research research production and utilization in the health production utilization in the health care care systemand in terms of the quantity and system in terms ofIt the quantity and content content of research. described the development research.agenda. It described the development of of research Face-to-face interviews were research agenda. Face15 to key face informants interviews were conducted with the who conductedacademic with the key informants that included and15hospital administrators

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familiar the research agenda development in includedwith academic and hospital administrators familiar the institutions. with the They research were agenda selected development purposively in thethe institutions. They were selected purposively in two (2) College of Nursing HEIs and two in the two (2) of The Nursing and two (2) hospitals in College Cebu City. HEIsHEIs and hospitals (2) hospitals in and Cebuprivate City. The HEIs andGenerally, hospitals included public institutions. included public and private Generally broad questions were askedinstitutions. on their experiences, broadthe questions were asked on their experiences with research agenda development. Probing with the research agenda Probing questions were asked such development. as to provide concrete questions and wereparticular asked such as to provide concrete examples situations related to the examples and particular situations relatedrelated to the research thrusts. Specifically, it asked research thrusts. questions such as: Specifically, it asked related questions such there as: (a) Were any stakeholders in the (a) steering Were there any stakeholders in the committee involved in steeringprocess committee in the initial of the involved research agenda initial process and of thewho research development were agenda these development ?; and who were these stakeholders stakeholders; (b) Were there any frameworks that were (b) Were there any frameworks used for the research agenda ?;that and were used for agenda; and of the (c) What arethe theresearch final research agenda (c) What are and the final research agenda of the academe the hospitals? academedocument and the hospitals? In addition, analysis for the final In addition, analysis fortothe final research agenda document was also undertaken record research agenda wastoalso undertaken to record the research agenda ascertain how they were the research aligned with agenda each other. to ascertain Finally, the howdata theywere are aligned and coded with analyzed each other. qualitatively. Finally, the Interviews data were codedtranscribed and analyzed qualitatively. Interviews were and analyzed using the constant were transcribed and analyzed using the constant comparison method. comparison method. V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Development of research agenda of the academe. The development of the research agenda is a critical process. As described by Reedy and Murty (2009), crafting a research agenda should be a major aim for all graduate students irrespective of conceptual interests, methodological preferences, or or career careerobjectives. objective. It can help orient themselves on both short- and long-term objectives, guide selection of classes, help choose which theoretical conferences engage in, and steer them in recruiting mentors and research collaborators. I revealed that in a particular College of Nursing, the research agenda was a product of the consultations with the various stakeholders of the school.

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UV Journal of Research As mentioned by one informant “P”: stakeholders included the the “The stakeholders administrators, faculty, alumni, administrators, faculty, students, alumni, representatives representatives fromfrom government government agencies agencies and other and beneficiaries. other beneficiaries. They They were were encouraged encouraged to participate to participate in the making in the of making of the research agenda”. the research agenda.”

In addition, another key informant ”C” in the same college uttered that: “The stakeholders’ stakeholders’ participation in the formulation of research agenda included the research coordinator of the College of Nursing together with the selected faculty members and student nurses brainstorming for feasible research thrusts and the outputs were presented to the faculty members. Subsequently, these these were were presented to Subsequently, the University Research Council (URC) and the Board of Regents for further perusal.” perusal”. However, the participation and involvement of the stakeholders do not guarantee full success. Hence, key informant “Q” argued: “Although, the agenda is a “Although, theresearch research agenda product of the stakeholders’ consultation, it is a product of the stakeholders’ seems not effective because not someeffective heads of consultation, it seems the agencies willheads just send because some of their the secretaries agencies or any representative is not even will just send their who secretaries or part any of the policy making or somebody who representative who is not even partcan of direct the implementation of the initiatives. the policy making or somebody who Consequently, what was discussed of during can direct the implementation the the consultation will not be echoed or initiatives. Consequently, what was if when echoed do not guarantee the discussed during the consultation will approval.” not be echoed or if when echoed do not guarantee the approval”. Moreover, in the other colleges, the research agenda were not placed and no Moreover, inyet thein other college, theinvolvement research of the stakeholders noted. by key agenda is not yet in was placed and As no revealed involvement informant “E”: of the stakeholders was noted. As revealed by key

“The college has not yet developed informant “E”: its own research agenda, but we intend to include the community other “The college has not yet and developed stakeholders to agenda, participate the its own research but weinintend development...” to include the community and other stakeholders to participate in the The development...” results indicated that not all institutions have developed their own research The results indicated all institutions agenda. Consistent with that the not views of Adewale have Esther developed theirdue ownto research agenda. and (2012) the absence of Consistent with the views of Adewale and Esther participation of the primary stakeholders they (2012) to the absence of participation of became due deterred, culminating in their lackthe primary stakeholders they became deterred, lustre approach towards application of the culminating in their lack-lustrethe approach orchestrated plan. Consequently, resultant application of the orchestrated plan. towards lack of buy-in by the affected stakeholders Consequently, the resultant lack of buy-in by laid credence to the deficiency of the process the affected stakeholders laid credence resulting to low performance on a number to of the deficiency of the resulting to low indicators. Hence, it isprocess necessary to understand performance a number of developed indicators.and Hence, if there is any,on how it is being the it is necessary to understand if there is any, future directions wherein frameworks canhow be it is being developed and the future directions very helpful. wherein frameworks be very helpful. (2013) Waligo, Clarke canand Hawkins Waligo, Clarke and Hawkins (2013) developed ‘multi-stakeholder involvement developed ‘multi-stakeholder involvement management’ (MSIM) structure that consisted management’ (MSIM) structure which consisted of three designed levels that included of three designed levels that attraction, attraction, integration andincluded management of integration and management of stakeholder stakeholder involvement. Under the three involvement. Under the namely: three levels were six levels were six stages scene-setting; stages namely: scene-setting, acknowledgement acknowledgement of stakeholder involvement of stakeholder involvement capacity,supervision; stakeholder capacity; stakeholder relationship relationship supervision, and pursuit of and pursuit of achievable objectives,;affecting achievable objectives, affecting implementation implementation capacity; and observing capacity andinvolvement. observing stakeholder involvement stakeholder These were reinforced. These reinforced notion by the predominant notion by thewere predominant of ‘hand-holding’ of ‘hand-holding’ and key actions that enhance and key actions that enhance stakeholder stakeholder in sustainable involvement involvement in sustainable tourism as tourism in their as in their case. In like manner, recognized that that case. In like manner, it isit isrecognized ineffectual stakeholder ineffectual stakeholder participation participation is is aa major major hindrance in the promotion and sustainability of hindrance in the promotion and sustainability any research translation activity. of any research translation activity. For of For example, example, in in one one college, college, because because of the absence absence of of the the research research agenda, agenda, the the topics topics the greatly deal on the same area. In addition, as the greatly deal on the same area. In addition, as students are given the opportunity to explore the students were given the opportunity the to development of their research topics research based on explore the development of their

Inocian, E. P.

topics based and on academic their personal and readings, academic their personal encounters, encounters, readings, they anddoexisting and existing practices, not have apractices, focus on they did not have a focus on the issues and ideas. the issues and ideas. Consequently, there will also Consequently, will also be duplication of be duplication there of efforts and not all important efforts andarenot all important questions were questions being studied. Thus, information being Thus, care information needs in of the needs studied. of the health professionals health care in theto hospitals will hospitals willprofessionals not be addressed a large extent. not be on-going addressed to a will largenot extent. Lastly, Lastly, efforts be taken as onthe going be takenofas college is collegeefforts is still will at thenot beginning itsthe development still theresearch beginning of its development of its of itsat own agenda. ownHence, research theagenda. variation in the processes of the Hence, the variation the particularly processes development of the research in agenda of agenda in the the development involvement of of the the research stakeholders is particularly the document involvement of the detrimental to in the final to be produced. stakeholders is detrimental final More importantly, the absence oftothethe research document to in be the produced. More between importantly, agenda plays disconnection the the absence the research agenda plays in the academe andof the health care system. disconnection between the After academe and the Final research agenda. the processes health care involved in system. the development of the research Finalinvolving research agenda. After the processes agenda the various stakeholders’ involved in and the development of the research consultation framed on related documents, agenda involving various Subsequently, stakeholders’ the research agendathe is finalized. consultation andwill framed related documents, the document be on disseminated to the the research agenda finalized.efforts Subsequently, stakeholders so thatare on-going will be the will be disseminated to the madedocument in the refinement of the research agenda. In stakeholders so that on-going efforts agenda, will be addition, the development of the research made in the thereferred researchtoagenda. resources or refinement documents of were by the In addition, involved. the development of the research stakeholders agenda, resources or documents were referred to byAsthe stakeholders involved. verbalized by another key informant “P”: As revealed by key informant “P”: “The research agenda was formulated “The research agenda was formulated in consonance with the university in consonance with the university research agenda (Human Development research agenda (Human Development Studies) which was in turn based on Studies) which was in turn based on the government and non- government the government and non- government research thrusts in the regional and research thrusts in the regional and national levels like the National Higher national levels like the National Higher Education Research Agenda (NHERA), Education Research Agenda (NHERA), National Unified Health Research National Unified Health Research Agenda (NUHRA), Department of Health Agenda (NUHRA), Department of Health (DOH), and Department of Science and (DOH), and Department of Science and Technology (DOST)”. Technology (DOST).” As revealed, one College of Nursing has

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identified thrusts in line with the objectives of the Center for Health Studies. As revealed by key informant “C”: “The college college thrusts thrusts include:include: Health Health andEducation Higher Education System, and Higher System, Vulnerable Vulnerable population studies; health population studies; health disparity; disparity;delivery health system; delivery wellness system; health wellness promotion; promotion; climate climate change; change; health health studies; pedagogy and studies; nursingnursing pedagogy and tracer study”. tracer study.” On the other hand, key informant “E” uttered: “Since we we do donot nothave havethe theresearch research “Since agenda of of our agenda our own own developed developed through through consultations with with various various stakeholders, consultations stakeholders, we referred referred to to the the NUHRA NUHRA 2011-2016 2011-2016 we and the NHERA 2 -2009-2018.” and the NHERA 2 -2009-2018”. According to Philippine Philippine National National Health Research System (PNHRS, 2011), NUHRA serves as the country’s model for health research and advancement efforts. The NUHRA 2011-2016 has research concerns concernswhich that categorize categorizeinto intofour four main subjects namely, health technology development, health financing, health service delivery, and socio-environmental health concerns. Scrupulous topics are enumerated for each main research subjects. The creation of the NUHRA 2011-2016 was globally committed. On the other hand, NHERA-2 reiterates the general policies that should guide higher scholar to illustrate approaches and initiates to develop research competency and productivity. As classified priority areas for research and researchrelated programs in the next ten years. It also assimilates the concerns of higher learning sector with the total development goals and purpose of the country, the National Innovation System and the higher learning international society (CHED, 2009). Although, the NUHRA 2011-2016 and NHERA-2 are products of the conference discourse on the changing situations of the higher

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learning in the country and the state of research in the colleges and universities. Base on the research agenda of the school on the NHERA -2 and NUHRA 2011-2016 is are still problematic. still problematic. Hence, key informant “Q” commented: group “Being once part of of the the core group in the development of the 2 agenda (NHERA and NUHRA), it (the present agenda) only banked on the previous agenda because there are very few researches that had been conducted. Consequently, the evaluation of type of the research produced in turn which should supposedly provide valuable informative.” information becomes less informative”. With the the results, results, ititisisindicated indicatedthat that thethe colleges need to develop their own research agenda. Hence, each institution has own specific concerns that can be addressed through research. As supported by Issel, Bekemeier and Kneipp (2012), as the agenda is embraced by funding agencies, researchers, and practice-based partners, a more intensive program of research will create evidence evidence that that can can guide guide populationpopulation ocused practice. focused practice. Moreover, Moreover, the the information information on the research agenda should be disseminated effectively. Finally, research agenda is a “living document” that must be appraised and modified as research is conducted and new priorities are recognized. be revised everyevery three years The documents documentsmust must be revised three to address years to address the recent the recent needs needs and demands and demands of the school of the school environment environment and the andcivil the society civil society and revision and revision or additions or additions can be done can be earlier done when earlier the URC deems when the URC it necessary deems it to necessary make such. to make The college such. mustcollege The refine it must through refineanitannual through oran semi-annual annual or assembling to semi-annual assembling revisit the to revisit agendathe and agenda plan and for repetition plan for repetition of promising of promising studiesstudies, and annexation annexing of additional additional areas areas of research, of research/removal eradicating of others and centering core groups core of the groups stakeholders. of the stakeholders. AsagreedbyRobertWoodJohnsonFoundation As agreed by Robert Wood Johnson by the Center Foundation byfor theDisease CenterControl for Disease and Control Prevention, and Consortium Consortium Prevention, from Altarum from Institute, Altarum Institute, Systems

Research and National Coordinating Center for SystemsResearchandNationalCoordinatingCenter Public Health Services, for Public Health Services,the theoutcome outcome research research agenda arrange a foundation foundation for organizing the public health scientific endeavour endeavour around the current, high-priority ambiguities ambiguities identified by broad range of public health stakeholders. stakeholders. They regular revises revises to this agenda is also added that regular vital in achieving achieving and constant upgrading upgrading in both science and public health health system. system. Since the absence of research research agenda can hinder the promotion promotion of evidence-based evidence-based practice practice as it failed to bring the the practice practice and the the research research communities together. I confirmed the claim that there is a disconnection between between the academic academic research production in the higher health research production in the higher education education institutions and the research utilization institutions and the research utilization by the by the health professionals health care health care care professionals in in thethehealth institutions in terms of both quantity and content content researches. of the researches. VI.CONCLUSIONS VI.CONCLUSIONS The production of research in the academe varies with the utilization among health care professionals in the health care institution. The variation can be described in terms of the quantity which and content content of ofresearch researchfrom fromthe theacademe academe that can be further explained to the fact that students are producing researches purely for academic purposes only to finish the degree without aiming for utilization. Hence, most research information they utilized come from sources other than students in in the academe are what the graduategraduate-students producing. In addition, the development of the research agenda served as the foundation crucial in the transfer of knowledge. As the academe has its own system of developing its research agenda, effective consultation with the stakeholders becomes necessary. As there are various stages in the knowledge transfer, the initial knowledge production must be in consonance with the research thrusts of the academe developed after the effective consultation with the stakeholders. Hence, no definite involvement and participation of the various stakeholders in the development

Inocian, E. P.

of the research thrusts can result to failure of the academe addressing the current and relevant needs of the hospitals. Thus, disconnection starts at the production level. Therefore, a strong a strong disconnect disconnection exists between exists the healththe production in the higher education between health production in the higher institutions and the research by the education institutions andutilization the research health care the healthincare utilization by professionals the health careinprofessionals the institutions in terms of both quantity and content health care institutions in terms of both quantity of the researches. and content of the researches. originality index: similarity index: paper id:

92 % 8%

Grammarly:

checked

468103092

REFERENCES Adewale, A.R., & Esther, M.M. (2012). The relationship between stakeholders’ involvement in strategic planning and organisation’s performance: A study of the University of Venda. International Business & Economics Research Journal, 11 (11):1175-1190. Bernstein, A., Hicks, A., Borbey, P., & Campbell, T. (2006). A framework to measure the impacts of investments in health research. Canada: Canadian Institutes of Health Research. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/10/42/37450246. pdf Clemena, R.S., & Acosta, S.A. (2007). Developing research culture in Philippine higher education institutions: Perspectives of university faculty. Regional Seminar on Competition, Cooperation and Change in the Academic Profession: Shaping Higher Education’s Contribution to Knowledge and Research. Retrieved from http://unesdoc. unesco.org/images/0015/001578/157869e.pdf Commission on Higher Education (2009). National Higher Education Research Agenda- 2. Commission on Higher Education. Consortium from Altarum Institute, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, National Coordinating Center for Public Health Services and Systems Research (2012). A national research agenda for public health services and systems. American Journal of Preventive Medicin, 42(5-1):S72-78. Fetalver, M. (2010). Research culture in higher education institutions in the philippines: predictors of research capability, output, utilization, and

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dissemination as components of research culture in heis. LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. Issel, L.M., Bekemeier, B., & Kneipp, S. (2012). A public health nursing research agenda. Public Health Nursing, 29(4): 330-342. Marston, R. (2002). Addressing the university’s tripartite mission through an early childhood movement Program. The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 73. Mitra, C.R. (1994). Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Retrieved from http://unesdoc. unesco.org/images/ 0009/000978/097872eo.pdf Newton, M.S., Estabrooks, C.A., Norton, P., Birdsell, J.M., Adewale, A.J., & Thornley, R. (2007). Health researchers in Alberta: An exploratory comparison of defining characteristics and knowledge translation activities. Implementation Science, 2(1), 1-6. doi:10.1186/1748-5908-2-1. Philippine National Health Research System (2011). National Unified Health Research Agenda 20112016. Retrieved from www.pchrd.dost.gov. ph/ index.php/2012-05-23-07-47-54 Reedy, J., & Murty, M. (2009). Creating a research agenda. Retrieved from http://www.insidehighered. com/advice/mentor/reedy#ixzz2eNXou6TN Inside Higher Ed Southwest Educational Development Laboratory (2008). A review of the literature on dissemination and knowledge utilization. Retrieved from http:// www.researchutilization.org/matrix/resources/ dedp/ Stetler, C. (1994). Refinement of the Stetler/Marram model for application of research findings to practice. Nursing Outlook, 42(1), 15–25. Stetler, C.B. (2001). Updating the Stetler model of research utilization to facilitate evidence-based practice. Nursing Outlook, 49(1), 272–278. Sudsawad, P. (2007). Knowledge translation: Introduction to models, strategies, and measures. Austin, TX: Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, National Center for the Dissemination of Disability Research. Retrieved from http://www. ktdrr.org/ktlibrary/articles_pubs/ktmodels/ Trustees of Columbia University in the City of New York (2013). Evaluating the credibility of your sources. Retrieved from https://www.college. columbia.edu /academics/integrity/credibility Waligo, V.M., Clarke, J., & Hawkins, R. (2013). Implementing sustainable tourism: A multistakeholder involvement management framework. Tourism Management, 36: 342-353.

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Disconnection confounded at various stages of knowledge transfer from the academe to the hospital Edsel P. Inocian Graduate School University of the Visayas edselinocian@gmail.com Date submitted: January 5, 2014

Date accepted: June 30, 2014

ABSTRACT There is aa recognized recognized gap gap between between the the knowledge knowledge produced produced in in the the academe academe and and practice in the health care institutions. An understanding on the elements that practice in contribute contributedtotothe thedisconnection disconnectionconfounded confoundedatatvarious various stages stages of knowledge transfer helps address the thephenomenon. phenomenon. Hence, Hence,this thisqualitative qualitativeresearch researchsought seeks to confirm confirm the disconnection confounded at various stages of knowledge transfer from the academe to the end-users. that thethe success is linked linked end- users.ItItreveals revealed that successininthe thetransfer transfer of of knowledge knowledge is to the policy and organizational environment support, dissemination and utilization mechanisms and dynamic interaction between between the Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) and the the hospitals. hospitals. Thus, Thus,this thisresearch researchprimarily primarilyconfirmed confirms the disconnection confounded at various stages of knowledge transfer from the academe to the endusers are due due to: to: (1) (a) dysfunctional dysfunctional policy policy and and organizational organizational environment environment on at both ends; (b) (2)ineffective ineffectivedissemination disseminationand and utilization mechanisms; andabsence (3) absence utilization mechanisms; and (c) of the of the dynamic interaction between the be users ofofresearch dynamic interaction between the wouldusers researchand andthe theacademic academic health researchers. researchersâ&#x20AC;?. Keywords: academe, knowledge transfer, dysfunctional policy, academe,health healthcare careinstitutions, institutions, knowledge transfer, dysfunctional policy, organizational dissemination, utilization, dynamic interaction organizationalenvironment, environment, dissemination, utilization, dynamic interaction I. INTRODUCTION The from The poor poor translation translation ofof knowledge knowledge from the source to the end users is evident in many settings. Between the academe and the health care institutions, there is a recognized disconnection between betweenknowledge knowledge produced produced and and practices in the hospitals. practices in the hospitals. Knowledge Knowledge translation translation (KT), as aconcept, multiplex concept, requires (KT), as a multiplex requires a thorough acognizance thorough ofcognizance of its mechanisms, its mechanisms, methods, and methods, and measurements. It also measurements. It also includes the includes factors the factors influencing it at the and individual and influencing it at the individual contextual contextual levels. This also look into how both levels. This also looks look into how both factors factors with each other (Sudsawad, interact interact with each other.(Sudsawad, 2007). In 2007). In any neglecting any of it the processes, it neglecting of the processes, seemed unlikely

that the expected the research will be seemed unlikely benefits that the ofexpected benefits of realized. These factors may include policies, the research will be realized. These the factors may dissemination strategies and interaction between include the policies, dissemination strategies, the academe and between the healththe careacademe system. However, and interaction and the a primary the unequal dissemination health careconcern system. isHowever, a primary concern of the research efforts and fundsofdirected is unequal dissemination researchtowards efforts the health issues oftowards the populace. Such that, and funds directed the health issues of there is an imbalance in promoting the best the populace. Such that, there is an imbalance in efforts at ushering the health issues. promoting the bestresearch efforts attoushering research (Delisle, Roberts, Munro, Jones &Roberts, Gyorkos,Munro, 2005). to the health issues. (Delisle, Achieving research and Achieving innovationresearch excellence Jones & Gyorkos, 2005). and in HEIs require breaking existingbreaking barriers innovation excellence in down HEIs require within existing and outside the institutions building down barriers within andwhile outside the a collaborative entrepreneurial culture institutions whileand building a collaborative and

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entrepreneurial culture (Olupot & Maharaj, 2010). International policy and research attention on how to reduce the evidence-practice and policy gap are increasing (Grimshaw et al., 2012). However, policies in the academe and hospital are not one in exhausting the potential use of research outputs. As pointed out by Cummings, Hutchinson, Scott, Norton, and Estabrooks (2010), research utilization investigators had called for more focused examination of the influence of context on research utilization behaviors. Likewise, Understanding-User-Context Framework for knowledge translation (Jacobson et al., 2003) also considered the domain of the user group on accepting numerous aspect of user group, such as the groupâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s operational context, morphology, decision-making practices, entree to data sources, approaches towards research and researchers, and experiences with knowledge translation. Furthermore, ensuring that academic research should be available that can be utilized in supporting decision making and eventually advanced the value and method on providing healthcare services. However, Wilson, Petticrew, Calnan, and Nazareth (2010), revealed that what constitutes effective dissemination remained unclear. Thus, researchers required a vast and vibrant supervision in planning, resourcing and facilitating dissemination activities. Finally, the quality of the interactive processes between the stakeholders of the academe and the health care system helps improve the health care practice. Hence, it affects knowledge exchange critical in the assimilation of the new knowledge in advancing applicable practices in building a broader understandable context. Undeniably, there are positive effects that research has already had in the area of health care and the advantages that can continue if research is continued in the industry. Although hospital evidence-based and feasible interventions are abundant recently, like treating pain from childhood vaccine injections, but still data show that more are not gaining this knowledge (Taddio et al., 2013). Brake (2005)

asserted that certain gap is present concerning theoretical knowledge and its practices. As agreed by Tomme-Bonde et al. (2013) that several attempts were done by Ministry of Health and Steering Committee to enhance and apply a collaborative, evidence-informed policy intervention, numerous obstacles were encountered in realization of the vision for core public health function operations, in early stages. As the health care system is confronted with various challenges and equally important opportunities as it sets reforms, it must recognize that research plays significant role in approaching the various challenges and optimizing the opportunities for global development in health care. Apparently, there is a recognized gap in terms of the production of health research and utilization between the academe and the health care system, respectively. An understanding on the disconnection that starts at the production level and confounded at various stages of knowledge transfer from the academe to the end-users (hospitals) helps address the phenomenon. Moreover, determining the factors affecting the disconnection such as dysfunctional policy and organizational environment at bothends, ineffective dissemination and utilization mechanisms, and absence of the dynamic interaction between users of research and academic health researchers also provide avenue for possible recommendations for effective knowledge translation strategies. Hence, this paper sought to confirm the disconnection starts at the production level and factors that confounded the disconnection at various stages of knowledge transfer from the academe to the end-users. II. THE PROBLEM The research aims to confirm the disconnection confounded at various stages of knowledge transfer from the academe to the end-users (hospitals) due to: (1) dysfunctional policy and organizational environment at both ends; (2) ineffective dissemination and utilization

Inocian, E. P.

mechanisms; and (3) absence of the dynamic interaction between would-be users of research and academic health researchers. III. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK The study adapts the Canadian Institute of Health Research (CIHR) model (Sudsawad, 2007) of knowledge translation (KT) and the Research Utilization by Stetler Model (Stetler, 1994/2001) as frameworks in understanding and validating the phenomenon. CIHR model provides a universal frame of the holistic KT which inculcated resource information (production and application cycle). CIHR presented six opportunities within the research cycle at which interactions, communications, and partnerships which will help facilitate KT. These opportunities are the following: (KT1) defining research questions and methodologies; (KT2) conducting research; (KT3) publishing research findings in plain language and accessible format; (KT4) placing research findings in the context of other knowledge and socio-cultural norms; (KT5) making decisions and taking action informed by research findings; and (KT6) influencing subsequent rounds of research based on the impacts of knowledge use. On the other hand, Stetler Model of Research Utilization is adopted by practitioners as a procedural and conceptual guide for the application of research in practice. It is highly comprehensive and provides procedures to help guide practitioners in all steps in research process while considering the practical (utilization-focused) aspects of clinical decisions (Sudsawad, 2007). In this context, it argues that at the production level of the research knowledge by the HEIs has significant impact on the utilization of health care professionals. Hence, alignment of the research outputs in the academe with their research thrusts and responsiveness with the needs of the health care professionals and administrators in the hospitals result to effective utilization. Such that, if aspects such as the development of the research thrusts and the development of the

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research of the graduate students were given utmost consideration. As the determinants of the disconnection of the knowledge transfer are given emphasis, effective translation will result. For example, policies and the organizational environment supporting research activities in the academe and hospital are necessary for effective implementation of the academic research knowledge. Meanwhile, research dissemination strategies implemented by the academe when appropriate, detailed to what the end users want to see and the quantity of information they can assimilate achieve effective research utilization. In addition, research utilization mechanisms in the hospital from the confirmation of the findings, its desirability for use, the actual use and the actual implementation process and subsequent evaluation when considered aids in simplifying safety and operative research findings (Stetler, 1994/2001). Finally, dynamic interaction between the academe and the hospitals that focused on their relationships if they have much trust and rapport, has history of working together with the desirable quantity and quality of contact lead to effective knowledge translation. IV. METHODOLOGY This study uses qualitative research design to gather information related to confirm the influential elements of the disconnection at various stages of the knowledge transfer from the academe to the end-users at both ends. The elements included the policy, organizational environment, dissemination strategies, utilization mechanisms and dynamic interaction. It evaluated the influential elements. Oneâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;on- one interview was facilitated to the fifteen key informants who were included the academic and hospital administrators familiar with the research undertakings in the institutions. They were selected purposively in the two (2) College of Nursing Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) and two (2) hospitals in Cebu City. The HEIs and hospitals included public and private institutions.

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their Generally, broad broad questions questionswere wereasked askedonon their experiences with the elements influencing the disconnection confounded at various stages of knowledge transfer from the academe to the end- users (hospitals). (hospitals). Probing Probing questions were end-users asked such as to provide concrete examples and particular situations related to the research elements. Specifically, Specifically, itit asked related questions such as: 1. Were there any policies supporting research knowledge transfer in your institution and what are these policies, if there are any?; is any; 2. How supportive is the institution with regard regards to knowledge transfer and what are the kind of support extended?; extended; 3. How are research dissemination strategies implemented by the academe?; academe; 4. What are the existing research utilization mechanisms in the hospital;?;and and 5. How dynamic is the interaction between the academe and the hospitals.? Finally, the gathered information was transliterated and scrutinized using the constant comparison method. V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The disconnection confounded at various stages of knowledge transfer is argued to be attributed to the policy, organizational environment, dissemination strategies, utilization mechanisms and dynamic interaction. Hence, this section presents narrative support provided by the academic and hospital administrators for each of the elements that contributed to the disconnection between the academe and the health care institutions in the knowledge transfer. Policy. Policy Policy served servesas as foundation foundation for the the for accomplishment accomplishment of the of the mission mission of any of organizations. any organizations. However, However, policies policiesseemed seem dysfunctional. Hence, Hence, these these were are not not wellwell documented and andinstitutionalized. institutionalized.AsFirstly, mentioned the by the key informant key informant “A” in“A”the in the academe academementioned that: that:

“From the graduate students, after they do their defense and comply with all the thesis thesis and and dissertation dissertationrequirements,. requirement,. Activities related related to to knowledge knowledge transfer are notyetyetinstitutionalized institutionalized or or required is not to publish their papers. It is still in the pipeline…” Secondly, another key informant “G” academe from the Another key informant “G” from the academe revealed: revealed: “Policies directly related to knowledge transfer are not clearly articulated, but we have policies that would somehow relate to them….” it….” Thirdly, another key informant “H” from the hospital verbalized that: “Policies related to the transfer of knowledge from the academe to the hospital are not yet developed. The ones ones who whomade made policies the the policies are are administratorswho whoseldom seldom have the the administrators encounters with the students who produce the research outputs.” outputs” The results indicated thatthere thereare are no no explicit indicate that policies guiding the students in the knowledge transfer in the two HEIs to the hospitals. Although, there was the presence of the university research council which is is aa policypolicy-making making body for research development activities, programs and projects, this had not clearly described the policies related to the knowledge transfer. The absence of the written written policy policy or ordocuments document that directly reflects the knowledge transfer makes them dysfunctional. Since there was no specific policy about knowledge transfer towards research of academic heath in the healthcare institutions, health care professionals will have no guide employee in the participation in the use of research knowledge, identification of a violation policy, guidelines

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indicating how and when be when employees employees will will be allowed to participate and determined how the use of research knowledge will be structured with regards to on-going systems. In consonance to Crona Crona and andParker Parker(2011), (2011),policy policy makers who makers having have connection to researchers are one the strongstrong connection to researchers were the ones utilizeresearch. researches more. Moreover, more who utilizing Moreover, research research adaptation arelikely more embraced likely embraced by adaptation were more by other other makers whogreatly are greatly influenced by. policypolicy makers who are influence by.Thus, Thus, the scenarios contributedthe the disconnection the scenarios contributed between the academe and the hospital in the knowledge transfer. transfer. Finally, the results indicated that when the policies that focusedon the knowledge transfer are effectively functioning, academic health research will reach the intended users in the health care institutions. On the other hand, dysfunctional policies prevent the research information from reaching the health care professionals. Thus, the findings affirm that the disconnection confounded at every stages of the knowledge transfer from the academe to the end users can be attributed to the effectiveness of the policies Dissemination strategies. There are variety of ways of the systematic distribution of the research information or knowledge from the academe to the potential users or beneficiaries in the health care institutions. As revealed, there were identified strategies such as research congress or conference and publication in journals. Motivations could be academic in nature directed by the organization or through personal desire to the target audience interested in the findings. The present findings supported Pellechia (1999), conference presentations and journal publications are traditional means of sharing research findings with other professionals. As revealed by key informant “E”: “Thestudents’ outputwillbepresented in the annual research conference after their 2 semesters of being enrolled in Nursing Research subject…”

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In addition, publication in research journals of the institution was revealed to be one of the dissemination activities undertaken. Published research results can contribute to the knowledge, theory and practice of a specific field. As mentioned by another key informant “M”: “The students’ researches are published in our journal which is released annually. This is an area where we can showcase the research outputs of our students.” In congruence to Saracho (2013), research research publication is very vital in academic requirements. is quite quite difficult difficult,, However, doing such paper is especially the publishing process. From the strong support of Research Information Network and Joint Information Systems Committee (2009), published in all forms researcher’s output were is published in all forms of of publications web-based tools for publications and and eveneven web-based tools for social social networking. However, be networking. However, there there seemsseems to betoless less dissemination activities undertaken dissemination activities undertaken whichwhich only only included included the the twotwo types types ofofactivities—research activities- research conference and publication. Meanwhile, whether the activities really achieved their objectives were not assessed. In addition, it is notable that the administration is still devising dissemination activities to deliver the research information to reach the intended users. With the dissemination strategies implemented by the academe, there is notably lesser avenue for the information to reach the intended users in the hospitals. Consequently, Consequently, there will be less utilization. Finally, proactive and reactive Finally, proactive andinvolvement reactive and partakingand of the health of care in involvement partaking thespecialist health care the dissemination channels are less notable. As specialist in the dissemination channels were less mentioned key informant notable. As by mentioned by key“C”: informant “C”: “We do not usually participate in conferences initiated by the schools…the only times where we could join them is if we are invited to judge the contests…or unless, our staff is enrolled in their school.” school”.

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Thus, the findings the findings affirm affirm that that the dissemination strategies have impact in the knowledge transfer. transfer. Hence, Hence, once as there there are are more dissemination strategies that are varied ranging from printed evidence, electronic media and person contact implemented implemented by by the the academe and participated by the end users, utilization will be high. In addition, the more favorable are the characteristics of of dissemination disseminationstrategies strategiesare are, e, the higher utilization of the academic research utilization will result. result. On the other hand, the lesser the number and the lesser quality of the dissemination strategies, the disconnection at the various stages of the knowledge transfer is increased. Organizational environment. With the increasing interest interest on on the the evidenceevidence-based based practice in health, the hospital environment must be greatly greatlyconsidered. considered. Hence, Hence, the usethe of academic use of health research academic health inresearch the practice in hospital in the hospital practice improves the health care practice. Organizational improvesthehealthcaredelivery. environment support may include hospitals’ defined needs, need, time, resources resources and and personnels. personnel. However, minimal However, minimal support support was was gained gained in in many many of of these aspects. these aspects. needs that drivethe the In terms of the defined need that drives organization to consider implementing research knowledge from the source must be clearly defined. Hence, the organization will be more likely ready to undertake initiative when it has objective information to support the need for improving specific areas [Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), 2013]. However, this was not clearly documented in the hospital. As key informant “H” mentioned: “In the hospital, there are needs to improve or sustain the practice but we have not studied them specifically. We have regular meetings with the executive committee but do not tackle much on how research findings from the students can contribute to solve those problems…“

Consequently, goals for the use of research Consequently, goals for the use ofInresearch findings were not also clearly defined. addition,were findings strategic not also planclearly was not defined. created Inin addition, relation toplan strategic the was use of not thecreated initiative. in relation According to to the Citizen use of the Services initiative. and According Innovativeto Technologies Citizen Services of General and Innovative ServicesTechnologies Administration’s of General Office (2011), Services strategic plan for Office Administration’s the initiative (2011),identifies strategicthe plan for resources the initiative needed identifies and the theappropriate resources needed metricsand to success. the appropriate metrics to success. As further furtherverbalized verbalized by another by another key key informant “S”: “In here, there is no plan or program in initiating the use of research information from the academe…” Furthermore, the adequacy of the support such as financial resources, time, staff support and capacity of the health care institution facilitate the adoption of the innovation in the current practices. However, minimal evidence gathered’ gathered availability in the hospital which can enhance the research knowledge from the academe. As revealed by key informant “N”: “I believe believe that that there thereis isa very little support in terms of the staff and other needed resources for research to be utilized resources for research to be here in the is an additional utilized herehospital. in the Ithospital…it is an expense staff are additionaland expense and busy staff with are their busy jobs.… no training or nobody is trained with their jobs…no training or nobodyon is that aspect…” trained on that aspect…” As supported by Ndinguri, Prieto and Machtmes (2012), human capital was a strategic factor in production (Son, 2010). It represented the cognitive competencies, skills, relational behavior and knowledge of individuals that enhance productive output (Shuller, 2000) that eventually contributed to organization’s productive performance (Shuller, 2000; Son, 2010). Thus, this resource is necessary in the effective knowledge translation in the health care system. However, Alvaro et al. (2010) posited that conservation of resources theory contributed in

Inocian, E. P.

facilitating the facilitating useuse of of research research role, role,research researchuse use conflict and possible possible approaches approaches to facilitate facilitate of research. Resources usage of Resources may may account account for the observed inconsistencies in research research uptake health professions. professions. across health As the Center Center for for Health Health Dissemination Dissemination and Implementation Research Research (2013) (2013) asserted that Implementation that staffing or financial all departments (physical, (physical, staffing financial supports) are obliged obliged to carry out the supports) the outcomeoutcomebased intervention. intervention. Wherein, sufficient resources resources response specifies specifies that the study defines the physical, staffing, staffing, or financial physical, financial supports supports is essential essential and proves that that availability availability of resources resources are truly occurred. Hence, Hence, it is implied that health care occurred. system should should effectively effectivelyplan plan in the endowment system endowment of monetary monetary fund requirements requirements for the activity, activity, appropriate scheduling, scheduling, creation creation ofof supportive appropriate supportive and facilitating facilitating infrastructures infrastructures and sufficient sufficient workload or capacity workload capacity as these are critical for the implementation of the implementation the knowledge knowledge translation translation activities. Thus, administrative activities. administrative resources are are essential to toresearch researchused use within health systems. systems. essential within health Furthermore, Landry, Landry, Amara, Amara and Lamari Furthermore, (2001) emphasized that the sources of funding the use use ofofknowledge knowledgeasasit it is also influenced the is also true truethis in present this present In addition, the in study. study. In addition, the present present also findings also lend support the view findings lend support to the view oftoCummings, of Cummings, Hutchinson, Norton and Hutchinson, Scott, Norton andScott, Estabrooks (2010) Estabrooks (2010)contexts that more positive contexts that more positive were associated with were associated higher of research higher reports ofwith research usereports in practice. These use in practice. These had effects for outcomes had effects foroutcomes administrative endeavors administrative endeavors to facilitate evidenceto facilitate evidence-informed practice and informed practice and of maximize the qualitythe of maximize the quality care. Importantly, care. Importantly, the outcomescan also be utilized outcomes can also be utilized in guiding the in guiding theofadvancement in advancement interventionsof ininterventions modifying the modifying the of characteristics administrative characteristics administrativeofcontext that are context thatinaremodeling persuasive in modeling research persuasive research use behavior. use behavior. Similarly, recognizing characteristics Similarly, recognizing characteristics of the of the innovation, organization, environment, innovation, organization, environment, and and the the individual were alliedtoto research research utilization individual were allied utilization & Barnsley, Barnsley,2001). 2001). (Dobbins, Cockerill Cockerill & Consequently, the the results results indicated that the Consequently, hospital environment environment is not yet yet ready ready to utilize utilize information from from the the academe. academe. Thus, research information the findings indicated that the poor quality quality of of

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the theorganizational organizationalenvironment environment support supportlead leadstoto poor utilization a poor utilizationofofthe theacademic academic health health research research in inthe thehealth healthcare caresystem. system.Hence, Hence,this this affirms affirms that that the environmenthas hasa significant theorganizational organizational environment indirect theknowledge knowledge transfer. indirect influence influence on the transfer. For Forexample, example, if there clearly defined if there waswas clearly defined need, need, time, time, resources and personnel ascertained, resources and personnel ascertained, the lowerthe is lower is the tendency for disconnection the link disconnection the tendency for the link between between the academic research utilization the academic healthhealth research utilization by the by the health professionals in hospitals. the hospitals. health carecare professionals in the On In the disconnectionisisincreased increased thecontrary, contrary,the the disconnection if if otherwise. Hence,the thefindings findingsaffirmed affirmed otherwise. Hence, thatthat the the disconnection confounded at every disconnection confounded at every stages stages of the ofknowledge the knowledge transfer from the academe to transfer from the academe to the end the users end is also users dueistoalso the organizational due to the organizational environment. environment. Utilization mechanisms. There are hundreds Utilization hundreds of billions spentmechanisms.There on research in theisworldwide. of billionsthere However, spent is relatively on research littleinspent the on worldwide. how best However, is relatively spent on how best to ensurethere that the lessons little learned from research to ensure that practice. the lessons learned fromhealthcare research are put into Consequently, are put failed into practice. Consequently, healthcare systems to guarantee the effectiveness and systems failed to guarantee the effectiveness profitable programs and services that they and will profitable programs and services that they will gain. gain.Mechanisms must be directed towards Mechanisms must be directed towards phases phases of data application that include awareness, of data application that includes awareness, reception, cognition, discussion, reference, effort, reception,implementation cognition, discussion, reference, effort, adoption, and impact.However,the adoption, implementation and was impact. However, I researchers revealed that there no mechanism revealed that no mechanism developed developed forthere the was health care professionals to for thethe health careresearch professionals to utilize the utilize academic information in every academic stage of theresearch ladder ofinformation utilization. in every stage of the ladder of utilization. Specifically, health care professionals and their Specifically, health carenoprofessionals and organization seemed to have effort of learning their organization have noRetrieving effort of about the academicseemed health to research. the academic research. alearning copy orabout accessing personallyhealth or through the Retrieving was a copy personally or institution also or notaccessing evident. As revealed by through the institution was also not evident. As key informant “E: revealed by key informant “E: “Although majority of the health professionals are aware of the existence of the academic health research, only very few had copy of the academe’s health research or know how to access these health researches”. researches.”

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In addition, reading or planning to read academic research information is not demonstrated. Consequently, measures of modifying frames of reference, information influences action/adoption of information, influencing outcomes and results or effort to favor information, adopted information to become a practice and tangible benefits of information assessed were not notable. As key informant “M” added: “We do not have identified and concrete means to utilize the research information from the schools. If ever we received research results, it is only very rare and it is only the initiative of those who have the interests on particular research findings to get a copy of it...” Meanwhile, key informant “H” added that: “The administration in the organizational level seems to have no desire of utilizing research information from the schools as if they do not care. As a result, there has been no effort that directs towards utilizing research findings particularly basing on the different stages mentioned...” The findings of the study are supported by Beyea & Nicoll (1997) who noted that research application starts with passion in reading research papers. They suggested that research application in clinical practice settings, health care professionals such as nurses getting familiar and start reading research articles. Hence, some are overwhelmed by research, and others do not have time reading research reports. Lastly, reading research papers and utilizing research in clinical practice are very vital for all health care professionals such as the peri-operative nurses. Moreover, the results agree with McKibbon (2005) that adaptation of research into practice and policy failed to realize. As an outcome of

these evidence-practice and policy gaps, patients fail to optimally benefit the developments of healthcare practices and the worse scenario they are exposed to gratuitous threats of iatrogenic harms, and healthcare personnel are exposed to preventable expenditure causing a momentous opportunity costs. Primarily, multi-tasking factor was indicated to affect the utilization of the health care professionals in the hospital. Hence, the health care professionals are focused to deliver quality health care services. However, use of this type of research information was less appreciated by the health care professionals. In addition, it is affirmed by the study of Fetalver (2010) that for a mechanism to monitor and evaluate research utilization. Likewise, in consonance to Estabrooks et al. (2007), a significant variation in research utilization among health care professionals could be expounded primarily by differences in individual characteristics, with specialty- and organizational-level factors contributing relatively little by comparison. Thus, the findings indicated that absence of effective utilization mechanisms which may be individual or organizational in nature influences the knowledge transfer. The absence of which negatively influences every stage of the knowledge utilization from the stage of awareness, reception, cognition, discussion, reference, effort, adoption, implementation and impact, respectively. Hence, the findings affirmed that the disconnection confounded at every stage of the knowledge transfer from the academe to the end users is also due to the ineffective utilization mechanisms. Dynamic interaction. Interaction between the source of the information and the potential users is necessary for an effective knowledge transfer. Hence, on-going interaction between researchers and practitioners was identified as critical to knowledge being used in practice (Oborn, Barrett & Racko, 2010). In this study, the researcher revealed that between the source of the research knowledge and the potential end- users was notably less dynamic. Accordingly, dynamic interactions between the source and

Inocian, E. P.

the users may involve mutual engagement, involvement with change and ongoing contact. Specifically, minimal mutual engagement is evident as the academe and the hospital enabled few irregular interactions among their members. As mentioned by key informant “G”: “The authors of the researches rarely have encounters with those who can actually use the research information produce or if and when they have encounters rarely mentioned about research findings which also seems to be irregular.” In addition, there is less support extended on the interactions, less involvement in the implementation of activities and in the dissemination of the follow-up activities. Another key informant “B” added that: “It is only our personal effort to include ourselves in the activities where we could interact with them in the academe but not much with research…. it only happens if we continue or pursue graduate education...” Meanwhile, in terms of the involvement with change, the academe and the hospital have minimal direct participation in the dissemination of research findings and in initiating the push for change. This was mentioned by key informant “E” who stated that: “The schools just do what they are supposed to do such as the research conference to inform us of the findings and we can only participate if we are called upon or to act as external panel…”

169 165 is difficult because innovations start from the society (group) who will determine whether to implement it and they (health care professionals) only act as mere followers…”

Finally, ongoing contact seems inadequate as the interaction with the initiators of change internal and external to the organization in terms of knowledge transfer was less. Mitton et al. (2009) identified that interactively engaging key leaders or champions is an important factor for successful Knowledge-Transfer and Exchange (KTE). As verbalized by another informant: “The interactions should be brokered or mediated by somebody in authority so that flows ofinformationwillbe facilitated. However, this seldom happens as this is not the priority of many professionals.” Keown,VanEerd, andIrvin(2008),arguedthat the potential benefits of including stakeholders in the process of a systematic review include increased relevance, clarity, and awareness of systematic review findings. However, the present results indicate that the fewer are the interactions undertaken between the academe and health care institutions, the lesser is the chance for the knowledge transfer. On the other hand, the more interactions that occur between the members of the two sectors, the greater is the chance of knowledge transfer. In addition, the quality of interactions must be emphasized. Hence, better quality interactions leads to a higher tendency for the knowledge transfer. Thus, the findings affirm that non-dynamic interactions contribute to the disconnection confounded at every stage of the knowledge transfer from the academe to the end-users.

Another respondent added that: “Change resulting from the research

VI. CONCLUSIONS The success in the transfer of knowledge is linked to the policy, organizational environment

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support, and utilizationenvironment mechanisms linked todissemination the policy, organizational and dynamicdissemination interaction between academe support, and theutilization mechanisms and the healthand institutions. dynamicHence, interaction as thebetween quality thethe of academe policy that and the supports health the institutions. various Hence, stages as the of the knowledge quality of transfer the policy increases, that supports the higher the various is the tendency stages to of continue the knowledge to the succeeding transfer increases, stages. Similarly, the higher theis better the tendency the organizational to continue eto the nvironment succeedingthat stages. supports Similarly, the the knowledge better the organizational transfer the more environment the knowledge thattransfer supports is the knowledge the more facilitated. The transfer more extensive is the theknowledge support, transfer is facilitated. extensive is the the greater the chanceThe thatmore research information support, the greater Also, the chance will be transferred. successthat in research information willwould be transferred. success dissemination likely leadAlso, to the use in of research dissemination would likely lead to the information when utilization mechanisms are use of information whendetailed, utilization mechanisms carefully planned and requiring time are support carefullyfrom planned and todetailed, requiring and the start the end. Finally, timemore the and dynamic support the from interactions the start are, to the in terms end. of the quantity quality, thethe more research Finally, the moreand dynamic are interactions in terms of the information willquantity reach the and highest quality, the levelmore of research the knowledge information transfer. will reach Therefore, the highest this study level of the knowledge confirmed that thetransfer. disconnection Therefore, starts thisatstudy the confirmed that production level and the confounded disconnection at various starts at stages the production of knowledge level transfer and confounded from the at academe various stages to the of knowledge end-users (hospitals) transfer due fromto: the(1) academe dysfunctional to the end- users policy and (hospitals) organizational due environment to: (a) dysfunctional at both policy(2) ends; and ineffective organizational dissemination environment and utilization at both ends; (b) ineffective mechanisms; and (3) dissemination absence ofand theutilization dynamic mechanisms; interaction between and (c) theabsence users of research of the dynamic and the interactionhealth academic between researchers. the would- be users of research and the academic health researchers”. originality index: similarity index: paper id:

93 % 7% 467696326

Grammarly:

checked

REFERENCES Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (2013). Organizational readiness assessment checklist. Retrieved from http://teamstepps.ahrq.gov/readiness/ Bonin, Elissa Nicole (2007). How context influences knowledge use in public health units (Master’s thesis,

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Estabrooks, C.A., Midodzi, W.K., Cummings, G.G., & Wallin, L. (2007). Predicting research use in nursing organizations: A multilevel analysis. Journal of Nursing Research, 56(4Suppl), S7-23. Fetalver, M.J. Jr. (2010). Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research, 6(2), 336348. Grimshaw, J.M., Eccels, M.P., Lavis, J.N., Hill, S.J., & Squires, J.E. (2012). Knowledge translation of research findings. Implementation Science, 7(1), 1-17. doi:10.1186/1748-5908-7-50. Jacobson, N., Butterill, D., & Goering, P. (2003). Development of a framework for knowledge translation: Understanding user context. Journal of Health Services Research & Policy, 8(1), 94â&#x20AC;&#x201C;99. Keown, K., Van Eerd, D., & Irvin, E. (2008). Stakeholder engagement opportunities in systematic reviews: Knowledge transfer for policy and practice. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 28(2), 67-72 Landry, R., Amara, N., & Lamari, M. (2001). Utilization of Social Science Research Knowledge in Canada. Research Policy, 30(2), 333â&#x20AC;&#x201C;349. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0048-7333 (00)00081-0 McKibbon, K.A., Lokker, C., Wilczynski, N.L., Ciliska, D., Dobbins, M., Davis, D.A., Haynes, R.B., & Straus, S.E. (2006). A cross-sectional study of the number and frequency of terms used to refer to knowledge translation in a body of health literature in a Tower of Babel? Implementation Science, 12;5:16. doi:10.1186/1748-5908-5-16. Miton, C., Adair, C.E., McKenzie, E., Patten, S., Waye-Perry, B., & Smith, N. (2009). Designing a knowledge transfer and exchange strategy for the Alberta Depression Initiative:

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human capital: the search for appropriate technomethodology. Policy Studies, 21(1), 25-35. doi:10.1080/014428700113991 Son, H.H. (2010). Human capital development. (ADB Economics Working Paper, No. 225). Retrieved from http://www.adb. org/documents/working-papers/2010/ economics-wp225.pdf Stetler, C. (1994). Refinement of the Stetler/ Marram model for application of research findings to practice. Nursing Outlook, 42(1), 15â&#x20AC;&#x201C;25. Stetler, C. B. (2001). Updating the Stetler model of research utilization to facilitate evidence-based practice. Nursing Outlook, 49(1), 272â&#x20AC;&#x201C;278. Sudsawad, P. (2007). Knowledge translation: Introduction to models, strategies, and measures. Austin, TX: Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, National Center for the Dissemination of Disability Research. Taddio, A., Shah, V., Leung, E., Wang, J., Parikh, C., Smart, S., Hetherington, R., Ipp, M., Riddell, R. P., Sgro, M. Jovicic, A., & Franck, L. (2013). Knowledge translation of the HELPinKIDS clinical practice guideline for managing childhood vaccination pain: usability and knowledge uptake of educational materials directed to new parents. BioMedicalCentral Pediatric,13:23. doi:10.1186/1471-2431-13-23. Tomm-Bonde, L., Schreiber, R.S., Allan, D.E., MacDonald, M., Pauly, B., et al. (2013). Fading vision: knowledge translation in the implementation of a public health policy intervention. Implement Science, 8(1):59. Wilson, P.M., Petticrew, M., Calnan, M.W., & Nazareth, I. (2010). Does dissemination extend beyond publication: a survey of a cross section of public funded research in the UK. Implement Science,

5:61. doi: 10.1186/1748-5908-5-61. Yale Center for Clinical Investigation (2007). Beyond scientific publication: Strategies for disseminating research findings. Retrieved from http://www.yale.edu/ bioethics/contribute_documents/ CARE_Dissemination_Strategies_ FINAL_eversion.pdf

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Working Capital Management of small and medium enterprises in Cebu Dutchque Van E. Dato-on Ruby P. Monto Neresita M. Calaylay Genard B. Villanueva Jam Kathleen F. Velez Earl Nathaniel O. Temanel College of Business Administration University of the Visayas dutchquevan@gmail.com Date submitted:

January 5, 2014

Date accepted: June 30, 2014

ABSTRACT Thispaper paperaims aimsto toassess the necessity to have an The anefficient efficientworking workingcapital capitalmanagement management SMEs.and In reality, SMEs practically onpractically its cash receipts together within Small Medium Enterprises. In focus reality,only SMEs focus only on its with cash its bank together account position. Majority of SMEs lack an established standard credit policy, receipts with its bank account position. Majority of SMEs lack an established many of itcredit also have a least working and financial position. capital It was standard policy. Manyconcern of themfor also have capital least concern for working revealed that position. various components in working capitalcomponents management like cashcapital flow and financial It was revealed that various in working and accounts like receivable management, accounts payable and inventory management management cash flow and accounts receivable management, accounts payable greatly affect the liquidity and profitability ofliquidity SMEs. Due the mismanagement of its and inventory management greatly affect the andtoprofitability of SMEs. Due to working capital, someofSMEs strugglecapital, in order to survive in the industry. is advisable the mismanagement its working some SMEs struggle in orderIt to survive in for industry. SMEs to Itgive credit on working management conducting and the is advisable forits SMEs to givecapital credit on its working by capital management implementing customary credit policy to ensure better internal control and financial by conducting aand implementing a customary credit policy to ensure better internal control system. Hence, the significance of working of capital management promotes and financial control system. Hence, the significance working capital management stable, liquid and liquid profitable SMEs. promotes stable, and profitable SMEs. Keywords: WorkingCapital CapitalManagement, Management, SMEs, profitability, liquidity, financial management Keywords: Working SMEs, profitability, liquidity, financial practice management practice I. INTRODUCTION Business always exist existsin in every nation. every nation. This This mainly what kindofofbusiness business an an variesvaries mainly on on what kind organization forms. form. People practically practically undergo undergo small business that leads to medium enterprise since starting it requires SME (Small onlyand a Medium small amount Enterprise) of investment requires only to start a small withamount the so called of SMEs investment. (Small and SMEs The Medium act Enterprises). as agents andThe as aSMEs drawing act as force an agent of economic and a drawing growth force and of development economic growth of a and development country. They haveofaavital nation. roleThey in the have citya for vital it role in the provide businessess city for it and giveswelfare businessopportunities and welfare

in the community. Hence, the Hence, study this is study about opportunities in the community. is about determining determining how smallhow and medium small and enterprises medium enterprises in Cebu manage itscapital. working capital. in Cebu manage their working Cebu is just a small island of the the Philippines. the Cebu accounts for more than 5 percent % of theoftotal total population and more than percent of population and more than 10 % 10 of the exports the exportsof regardless of its It also has regardless its size. It also hassize,. catered over one catered tourists. over oneCebu’s millionhuge tourists. Cebu’smeans huge million population population means that it maintainofa SMEs good that it could maintain a could good number number of2010). SMEsA(Fajardo, A of manager for (Fajardo, manager2010). for SME Dell Global SME of Dell Global BV said that not less than 80 BVsaid that no less than 80 % of Cebu’senterprises

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belong to the SMEs. Papa (2010) mentioned Cebu Business Club (CBC) President Dondi Joseph who said that majority of Cebuano businesses are family-owned. Food processing, furniture making, apparels, GTFAs (gift, toys and fashion accessories), house wares and metalworking are the five main SMEs in Cebu. GTFAs, furnitures and house wares were advertised as Cebu’s export champions because of their superior export potential, strong backward connections and systems through subcontracting (Losorata, 2013). SMEs are a part of the innovating culture of enterpreneurship that introduces job opportunities. Most firms, industries and government aim for profit maximization. Small and Medium Enterprises are exactly known globally as major contributors. They deliver to the economic growth and development, continuous introduction of modern technology, and the creation of generations of potential entrepreneurs. All these contribute to the development of both national and international businesses (Ching & Chang, 2005). Moreover, the development of SMEs can accelerate the achievement of a bigger economic objective, including alleviating the poverty problem of a country (Cook & Nixon, 2000). The Philippine government has initiated the promotion of SMEs as a primary strategy in achieving a sustained economic progress. Even with these programs, Rodriguez, Senior Program Specialist of the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) in 2010 said that they are still insufficient. He said that even though there are a lot of SME development related programs, they are not effective; with no clear results after their execution. A survey organized by the German Development Institute estimated that only one to two percent of SMEs in the Philippines are able to advance, while the rest stay stagnant (Dagooc, 2013). The reason why the small and medium enterprises do not progress or worse fail, is not only brought about by the inconsistency and

ineffectiveness of the government programs. There are also other factors to consider. One of the factors is filing up with poor management (Mason, 2013). The shortage of management talent, rampant in most developing countries, has significan effect on SME’s (Grablowsky, 2000). The lack of good management skills can delimit the SME’s potential management improvement on its operational funds (Mason, 2013). The status of company’s working capital depends on the difference between current assets and current liabilities The WCM is one of the most vital sides of the whole financial management methods of any business. The success and failure of a business depend on the efficiency and effectiveness of its working capital management (Mensah, 2004). In assessment of their sizes and complication of their management, most SMEs miss to keep exact archives of financial activities which affect their working capital. These are deficient capital, flow of management, and control of inventory. The lack of accurate business accounts makes most SMEs become essentially hindered in supervising their working capital soundly. Most SME inadequately understood the significance of working capital management. Many SMEs are obliged to terminate their businesses due to failure in meeting their short term debts and obligations. The problem is not on their lack of resources, but on how they administer their working capital. To advance truthful understanding in business world, conducting an examination regarding management practices of SMEs is very essential in dealing with its working capital. Most SMEs face a lot of hindrances to growth which include accession to finances, skills, technologies and markets. Examining these may address the gaps through effective strategies and policies that will make the business more progressive and active in the market place. In this case, it provides opportunities to the people who are unemployed. Likewise, SMEs would develop their confidence in the world of business where

Dato-on, D. V. E., Monto, R. P., Calaylay, N. M., Villanueva, G. B., Velez, J. K. F. and Temanel, E. N. O.

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they meet different competitive companies. competitive companies. II. CONCEPTUAL CONCEPTUAL FRAMEwORK FRAMEWORK It is anticipated that the outcome outcome will will be be This study The study isis anchored anchored on on the the theory theory of helpful not only to small-scale in Cebu particularly not only tobusiness small scale Pieterson Pieterson (2012), (2012), which that stated enumerates that the the major but also in to Cebu all SMEs all over nation. Thetheproblems business but also to allthe SMEs all over problems of SMEs SMEs nowadays are: are: inadequate study would also guide owners and managers of nation. This study would also guide owners andcash cashreserves; reserves,poor poor inventory inventory management; management, the business and execute on failure toto managers of to themake business to makeprograms and execute adequately adequately anticipate anticipate cash flow; cashabsence flow, how to efficiently manage the working capital. programs on how to efficiently manage the absence of proper of proper accounting accounting records; and records lack ofand financial lack Decisive methodDecisive management efficientlyof financial working capital. methodscan management management management skills. Efficient skills. andIteffective is stated working that enhance their working capital management . The can efficiently enhance their WCM. This study through capital management efficient andwill effective lead to the working achievement capital article aims to to deliver a valuable forfor ofmanagement also yearned deliver valuableinformation information profitability and willliquidity lead to ofthe theachievement enterprise. of scheming strategies to to impact impact the thesteady steadygrowth growth profitability Different andnations liquidityundergo of the enterprise. various ways of small-scale enterprise. enterprise. The The information would of conducting Different nations WCM undergo in SMEs.various SMEs ways can be of also support officials of the Small and Medium Small and Medium conducting characterized working as a firm capital thatmanagement made up mostly (WCM) of Enterprise Development Development Council Council(SMEDC) (SMEDC)in inin SMEs. small and Firstly, medium SMEs enterprises. can be characterized It can be operated as a framing and and articulizing articulizingSME SMEdevelopment developmentfirm bythat the owner made as upa manager mostly ofand small the area and ismedium mainly guidelines and procedures areare responsive to enterprises. procedures that which responsive local when It it comes can be to operated its operation. by theDiversifying owner as a the entrepreneurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s confined needs. The evidence to the entrepreneurâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s confined needs. Such manager. the And nature also,ofthe SMEs area may is mainly contribute local when to the it and data and may data be useful to useful non-governmental management of its working fact, when evidence may be to non- comes to its operation. To go capital. further, In diversifying organizations who play anwho important role in the governmental organizations plays a vigorous it comes nature to the of process SMEs or may means contribute of organizing to the the improving small-scale entrepreneurial skills and management role in improving small-scale entrepreneurial firm it is oneofofitsthe working aspect for capital. the success In fact, of when the development in Cebu andinthe whole skills and development Cebu andcountry. the whole itbusiness. comes to the process or means of organizing the firm it is one of the aspect for the success of the country. business. Figure 1. Schematic diagram of Working Capital Management of SMEs

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The firms task to manage working capital is estimated to be difficult. Since, it varies mainly to its nature such as the size of the firms, firms’ policies, level of its production and the availability of resources. The efficiency of working capital management is needed mainly in SMEs rather than in larger enterprises (Peel & Wilson, 2003). This signifies that an efficient running of the business’ working capital is not only imperative for the firm’s survival–it is the lifeblood of its existence. It is important to have a profound knowledge of the functions of WCM in SMEs regardless of its existence to be able to promote a developed business industries. One of the hindrances in the growth of SMEs is inadequate cash reserves which can cause failure. It is important to give attention with this because it has something to do with the meeting of the immediate obligations and continuous trading. Insufficient cash reserves will be difficult for SMEs to directly catch up with their obligations. This may be a result in failing to maintain sufficient liquidity (Diacogiannis, 2004). It is important for the business to generate sufficient cash by having adequate working capital decisions and accounting information to be able to face immediate obligations on time (Barrow, 2001). Poor inventory management is another problem which makes the business fail to sustain. With poor inventory management, its production would be slow because they never adopt rules or policy to give attention to its resources, equipments, facilities and raw materials. Moreover, this problem will increase the risk of having late payments and defaulting debtors which may affect the growth of SMEs (Atrill, 2006). Working capital policies helps the SMEs overcome this problem by implementing inventory policies in their business. Inventory policies helps to manage when purchasing raw materials and drop shipping just in time (Bragg, 2011). Most SMEs internal problems were

identified as cash flow management and stock control (Dogde, 2004). SME’s stock management also gets benefits from standardized systems and techniques that help improve their stock levels. However, one third of SMEs depends on the old-style methods of controlling stocks and most did not apply innovative practices (Chittenden & Michaelis, 2008). In this case, SMEs need to be more careful in preparing and monitoring the cash flows in the long run so that they will not fail in adequately anticipating cash flow (Atrill, 2006). Absence of proper accounting records is another issue faced by SMEs. Most SMEs do not keep their accounting records during operations. That is why SMEs face a problem in differentiating clearly between working capital and profits. For this instance, working capital management focuses on maintaining the high range of net capital that gets the most out of the profit of the business (Shane, 2000). Lastly, is the lack of financial management skill. Most of SMEs find it hard because it involves managing the stock of the business. Financial management is primarily concerned on the upkeep and conception of economic value. It gives SMEs an idea on how to make proper decision making which maintains their financial stability. SMEs need to be skillful so that they will know how or when to deal financial decisions such as introducing new product, issuing stocks or bonds, extending credit to customer and maintaining cash (Kehinde & Abiola, 2005). Moreover, SMEs would be aware of the cost involved and they can formulate an effective WCM system in having a well-planned financial management and decisions (Atrill, 2006). Through brief identification of the firms problems we may be able to manage our working capital management effectively and accurately. In the life of SMEs, working capital management is of upmost important tool that leads them to react quickly to the changes in

Dato-on, D. V. E., Monto, R. P., Calaylay, N. M., Villanueva, G. B., Velez, J. K. F. and Temanel, E. N. O.

the market place, such as an advantage of gaining a competitive firm (Appuhams, 2008). Accordingly, the administration of optimizing the curent assets and current liabilities is part of WCM. There is a relationship between the enterprise short-term assets and liabilities. The goal of working capital management is firmsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; current assets and liabilities in a way to uphold reasonable level of WCM in the business (Khan & Jain, 2007). Another goal of WCM is to encourage firmsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; continuous processes and adequate cash flow to satisfy the growing shortterm liabilities and inward operational expenses. It is helpful also to recognize the regulations, alteration and control of the equilibrium of current assets (Osisioma, 2007). Coherently, the goal is not only to view the business as a profitable one. The significance upon establishing a business like SMEs is to maintain its profitability and focus on its liquidity to avoid illiquidity and insolvency. Engagement in the various variables of WCM may lead to the identification of the importance of WCM in SMEs. Providing an organized and manageable WCM sustain the gaps of SMEs in the competitive world of business. In spite of all the risk, the SMEs confront these businesses are widely introduced and practiced. To give more emphasis, there must be a connection between liquidity and profitability since profitability differs inversely with liquidity. Moreover, profitability is directly proportional with risk. Risk and return goes hand in hand, the greater the risk the greater its return. Proper management of working capital needs to be implemented to be able to handle risk that SMEs might encounter in the future. After all, countless of businesses can sustain to lose money from time to time, but no business can hold to run out of cash (Meritt & Media, n.d.). So, if you are unable to have cash you might suffer lack of supplies to operate the business or pay the bills that lead to the end of business. That is why WCM greatly affects

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the stability of SMEs in business industries. Therefore, the effects of WCM reflect on the life span of the SMEs. II. OBJECTIVES Generally, the objective of the study is to evaluate the working capital management practices of the SMEs in Cebu. Specifically, the study wanted to: examine the working capital management and strategies of the SMEs with respect to their cash management; accounts receivable management, inventory management and accounts payable management; and find out the bookkeeping practices of SMEs, and the short-term source of funds of SMEs. III. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHOD The study is quantitative. It has three important aspects; the idea of the problem; the gathering of data; and the output of the study. The conceptualization stage was based on some assumptions that revolve on effect of the working capital management of SMEs. The gathering comes next that relates to the tools result. At the end, we may be able to determine the result as well as to formulate an output of the study by tabulating the information being gathered. The self-made tools used by the researchers for the study were the questionnaires designed by the authors to collect data needed to address how SMEs manage their working capital in managing their business in Cebu City. It underwent a test of reliability and validity by the research adviser and industry partners to ensure cohesiveness of gathered data. The questionnaires have three variables: (a) the system of debt payments; (b) the working capital management that will motivate SMEs; and (c) the use of short-term sources of funds which comprise an indicator that contains relevant questions regarding how WCM in sales places a vital role to the industry and economic growth.

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The respondents of theinstudy those short-term sources of funds whichinclude it comprises people who are knowledgeable to an indicator thatparticularly contains relevant questions the operations and in manning of the business, regarding how WCM sales place a vital role to specifically, the economic owner orgrowth. managers of SMEs the industry and in order for the researchers to arrive atofa very Respondents. The respondents this realistic conclusion. study include those people who are particularly The study towas conductedand within Cebu knowledgeable the operations manning of province particularly the city where the business, specifically, in the owner or managers SMEs congested. These are toSMEs of SMEsare in order for the researchers arrivewho at a practically allowed us to conduct survey in very realistic conclusion. theirLocation. establishment. This study was conducted within study particularly exercises inthethe convenience CebuThe province city where sampling method of research. This method SMEs are congested. These are SMEs who is likewise allowed known us as to survey research. this practically conduct survey On in their method, only the questionnaires are used establishment. in gathering neededstudy data since they the are Methods.the This exercises the easiest and most applicable technique convenience sampling method of research. This under given situation. In the research. study, 200 methodthe is likewise known as survey On questionnaires were distributed only those this method, only the questionnaires aretoused in SMEs within Cebu data area since that ithad managers gathering thethe needed is the easiest or who had the luxury ofunder time the to fill out andowners most applicable technique given the questionnaires. situation. In the study, 200 questionnaires were distributed only to those SMEs within the Cebu IV. DISCUSSIONS areaRESULTS that had AND managers or owners who had the The proponents were able to gather data luxury of time to fill in the questionnaires. regarding the nature of SMEs in the market industry. Specifically, 200 respondents from Results and Discussions different places in Cebu province The proponents were able to favors gathermostly data in sole proprietorship 142 in(71 in regarding the nature of SMEs the %), market partnership 53 (26.5 %) and corporation industry. Specifically, 200 respondents from5 (2.5 %). When to the type of business, different places it incomes Cebu province favors mostly in food eatery is most142 likely used. In relation53 to sole proprietorship (71%), in partnership its location result shows that When 153 (76.5 %) (26.5%) andthe corporation 5 (2.5%). it comes SMEs are located infood Cebu City,is21 (10.5 %) toofthe type of business, eatery most likely in Mandaue City, to 22its (11 %) in LapuLapushows City, used. In relation location the result and (2 %) in Talisay City. that 4153 (76.5%) of SMEs are located in Cebu City, 21 (10.5%) in Mandaue City 22 (11%) in LapuWorking Lapu City Capital and 4 (2%) in Talisay City. The firmâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s working capital is made up of its current assets and current liabilities. The working Capital current assets all assets that up theoffirm The firmâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s comprise working capital is made its expects to convert into cash within the coming current assets and current liabilities. The current year. current liabilities assetsWhile comprise all assets that thecompromise firm expects all to liabilities that thewithin firm must meet oryear. pay While within convert into cash the coming

the coming year. compromise Working capital management current liabilities all liabilities that can be must divided sections: (a) year. the the firm meetinto or payfour within the coming cash management; (b) accounts receivable Working capital management can be divided into management; management; and four sections; (c) the inventory cash management, accounts (d) accounts payable management. receivable management, inventory management and accounts payable management. Section A: Cash Management Table 1.1. Initial sources of funds Source

Frequency

Percentage

Self-financing

155

77.5

By borrowing from Bank

By borrowing from colleagues

8.5

Purchasing on credit

Others

Total

200

100

The businesses are said to be ready in setting its business operations if itin invests Theup businesses are said to be ready setting through self-financing 2012). selfThe up its business operations(Pieterson, if it invest through financing study proved (Pieterson, that 1552012). (77.5 %) Theinvest studyvia proved selfthat 155(77.5%) financing which means invest most via self-financing of SMEs are which ready means in attaining most of their SMEs goals are in ready setting in attaining up business their goals in setting operations. Theup business rest were operations. financed The by rest were from borrowing financed bank by 22 (11 borrowing %), borrowing from bank from 22(11%), 17 colleague borrowing (8.5 %) and from purchasing colleagueon17(8.5%) credit 4 and%). (2 purchasing Out of 200 on respondents, credit 4(2%).2 Out (1 of 200 respondents, %) used lending 2(1%) in uses setting lending up their in setting business up their business which is one of which the isfactors one ofwhy the factors some SMEs why some SMEs ceased their business. ceased their Lending business. is not advisable Lending in is not advisable setting up business in setting operation up business because operation of the because time granted of theto time thegranted debtors. toUnlike the debtors. to theUnlike bank to the nd bank colleagues and colleagues which they which can they extend can extend their period of time on the they their period of depending time depending oncontract the contract have. Pieterson (2011) SMEs to useSMEs selfthey have. Thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s why advised Pieterson advised financing in self-financing setting up business operation so better to use in setting up business that there so willthat be no difficulties in running their operation there will be no difficulties in business. running their business.

Dato-on, D. V. E., Monto, R. P., Calaylay, N. M., Villanueva, G. B., Velez, J. K. F. and Temanel, E. N. O.

Table 1.2. Cash Budget Answer

Frequency

Percentage

Yes

140

Total

200

100

Preparation Preparation of of cash cash budget budget is is very very important important in the life of SMEs. Out of 200 respondents, in the life of SMEs. Out of 200 respondents, there there are 140 not prepare prepare cash cash budget are 140 (70%) (70 %)who whodoes did not budget and only only 60 60 (30 (30%) budget. and %) who who prepared prepared cash cash budget. The preparation of cash budget will help SMEs The preparation of cash budget will help SMEs to plan influxes and discharges of cash. It is used plan influxes and discharges of cash. It is used to to approximate short-termcash cash requirements approximate itsitsshort-term requirements particularly in particularly in planning planning for for surplus surplus cash cash and and for for cash shortage (Gitman, 2011).The study shows cash shortage (Gitman, 2011).The study shows that SMEs were were not not aware aware of the importance importance of of that SMEs of the preparation of of cash cash budget. budget. SMEs SMEs are are advised advised to preparation to prepare aa cash cash budget budget so so that that they they will will be prepare be guided guided in their cash cash rather rather than in handling handling their than continuing continuing operation without any awareness operation without any awareness to to their theircash. cash. The study study also also prevails prevailsthat that47 47(78.33%) The (78.33 %) of of the enterprises enterprises did do not budget. the not spend spend within within their their budget. It means that SMEs do not follow the prepared cash cash budget. budget. As As aa result, result, SMEs SMEs were were encouraged encouraged to to prepare cash cash budget budget and and spend spend within within the the budget budget prepare so that that the the flow flow of of cash cash will will be be handled handled properly. properly. so Table 1.3. Methods of managing cash generated on a daily basis Methods

Frequency

Percentage

Placed inside the office vault

118

Deposit in the bank

31.5

Others

9.5

Total

200

100

The above table tableshows showsthat that118(59%) 118 (59 of %)the of The above the SMEs place their cash inside their office vault. SMEs place their cash inside their office vault. This method isisadvisable advisablebecause becausethey theyhave have This method setset time their time on on when when they they should should spend spend or or deposit deposit their

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proceeds (Pieterson, (Pieterson,2012). 2012).However, However,63 63(31.5%) proceeds (31.5 %) choose to deposit their generated profits in chooses to deposit their generated the bank to ensure the safety of their money. money. These methods were not applicable by other investor because investors becausebanks banks are are not not in in service every day and it follows holidays. Investor Investorssays say that when they do depositing every day, there will be mismanagement of cash because the procedure they prepared will not be followed. As a result, to to choose in the study study proved provedthat thatSMEs SMEsprepared prepared choose placing their proceeds inside the vault first before in placing their proceeds inside the vault first having or acting wise decision-making. before having oraacting a wise decision-making. Table 1.4. Techniques by which surplus cash is invested by entrepreneurs Methods

Frequency

Percentage

Bank deposit

156

In long-term deposit Debt or equity securities

Others

Total

200

100

The surplus cash that is whichSMEs SMEsgenerate generated advisably be deposited in in bank will be advisable to deposit bank (Pieterson, 2012). The study proved that that out outof of200 200investors, investors, 156 (78 %) of them are prepared to deposit 156(78%) prepared to deposit their surplus cash their surplus in is bank. that in bank. The cash reason thatTheir they reason want toismeet they to meet their immediate obligations their want immediate obligation or the unexpected or the unexpected expenses and unforeseen expenses and unforeseen opportunities of their opportunities of their business operation. Thus, business operation. Thus, the result is highly tavorable highly as toâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;term what deposit stated. whatfavorable stated. Long fhe resultasis to and debt ordeposit Long-term equity and securities debt or that equity generated securities the samegenerated that percentage theofsame 6 will percentage not be applicable of 6 will in SMEsbebecause not applicable thesein two SMEs strategies because required theselarge two capital andrequired strategies SMEs haslarge only capital short-term and funds. SMEs Also, have they were only short-term more on funds. expenditure Also, they and were progression more on for their business expenditure and progression operationsfor and their if they business will engage in those operations and ifstrategies, they engage they in those will experience strategies, difficulties they will experience in meeting difficulties their obligations. in meeting As theira result, SMEsAswere obligations. a result, encouraged SMEs were to deposit encouraged their surplus to deposit cash their in the surplus bank before cash inengaging the banktobefore other field particularly engaging to otherin field long-term particularly investment. in a long-term investment.

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Section B: Accounts Receivable Management The accounts receivable management is a critical field of the business because of its impacts on the and profitability. profitability. However, the firmâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s firmâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;sand riskrisk and However, sales on credit are unavoidable in every every business 2012). Nevertheless, 52 present today (Vuorikari, (Vuorikari, 2012). (26%) (26 %) out out of of 200 200 respondents respondents did did not sell their merchandises on credit forthe thereason reasonthat thatthey theydid do not want to take risk. If a supplier needs to place a bigger order from a firm, that supplier may not the sources sources of of funds funds to to pay payfor forit. it That all inorder case. have the That order will go to another company unless will go to another company unless your small your small business extends credit (Peavler, n.d). business extends credit (Peavler, n.d).

respondents they were paid one respondents saidsaid thatthat they were paid in in one month, month, 22 (14.86%) (14.86 %)were werepaid paid in in 21 21 days, days, only 8(5.41%) saidsaid thatthat theythey were paidpaid in in77 days 8 (5.41 %) were and and 14(9.46%) 14 (9.46 %)said saidthat thatthe thedays days or or period period the customers customers pay pay their debt varies. Rahemen (2011) said said that that ifif the firm takes a longer duration in collecting collecting receivables, the profitability of the firm decreases. decreases. He He added that if it takes for customers to to pay pay their their bills bills in in aa lesser lesser time, time, then the more cash cash are are available available to replenish inventory. Hence, the the shorter higher the the period sales of obtained collection which the higher leads the to higher sales obtained profitability which of leads the firm, to higher so theprofitability. shorter the period Theofstandard collectionway of the before receivable granting the credit better.to a customer The standard is checking waytheir before credit granting ratingcredit or having to a customer a formal credit is checking investigation their credit to avoid ratingbad or having debts. a formal Sadly,credit out of investigation 148 entrepreneurs to avoid who bad credited debts. Sadly, their goods, out ofonly 14838entrepreneurs (25.68 %) undertakes who credited formal their credit goods, investigations only 38 (25.68%) before granting undertake credit formal to credittheir investigations customers. Thus, before110 granting (74.32 %) credit never to their undertakes customers. such investigations Thus, 110 because (74.32%) theynever said undertake that it is time suchconsuming. investigations The 38 because SME operators they said that employed it is time credit consuming. investigation The 38 process SME operators to assess employed the credit credit worthiness investigation of their process customers. to assess These the procedures credit worthiness included of conducting their customers. investigations These procedures on customers included past records conducting from other investigations business on firms, customers checkingpast their records past financial from other dealings business with firms, theirchecking industries, their checking past financial their bank dealings references with theirand industries, other measures. checkingWith theirregard bank to references the first and other only measures. With to operators the first procedure 8 (21.05 %) regard of the 38

Table 2.1. Time durations given to the customers to settle their debts Durations

Frequency

Percentage

Fifteen days

39.19

One month

31.08

Twenty-one days

14.86

Seven days

5.41

Others

9.46

Total

148

100

Based theinformation gathered information gathered, Based on the gathered, table 2.1 table shows the 148 interviewers who shows2.1 that of thethat 148ofinterviewers who operated operated their business their business on credit, on credit, 58(39.19%) 58 (39.19 said %)their said their debtors debtors paidpaid them them in in1515 days, days, 46 46(31.08%) (31.08 %)

Table 2.2. Kinds of formal credit investigation methods applied by the SME respondents Yes Procedure

Total

Frequency

Percent

Frequency

Percent

Frequency

Percent

Investigate customers past records from other business firms

21.05

78.95

100

Check customers past financial dealings with the enterprise

92.11

7.89

100

Check customers bank reference

21.05

78.95

100

Other measures

73.68

26.32

100

Dato-on, D. V. E., Monto, R. P., Calaylay, N. M., Villanueva, G. B., Velez, J. K. F. and Temanel, E. N. O.

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procedure only 8 (21.05) of records the 38 from operators checked their customers past other checked their customers business firms. However,past 30 records (78.95 from %) ofother the business firms. However, 30 method (78.95%)of of the operators did not apply this credit operators didOn not this method the of entire credit investigation. theapply second procedure, investigation. On the second procedure the entire 38 (100 %) respondents who undertook formal 38 (100%) respondent formal credit investigation said who that undertake they examined creditcustomer’s investigation said that they examined their their past financial transactions with customer’s past financial transactions with their their industries. On the third procedure 8 (21.05 industries. On the procedure 8 (21.05%)bank said %) said that theythird check their customers that they check customers bank reference reference and 30their (78.95 %) of the respondents and 30 (78.95%) of the respondents said they did said they did not take such measure. Twenty-eight not take%) such Twenty-eight of (73.68 of measure. the operators said that(73.68%) they took the operators said that they take other measures other measures before granting credit to their before granting credit to their anddid 10 customers and 10 (26.32 %) ofcustomers the operators (26.32%) the measures. operators The did not applied other not apply of other analysis suggests measures. The investors analysis suggests thatgood mostcredit SME that most SME did not have investors did not have good credit investigation. investigation. Brook (2011) stated that a good Brook (2011) said that a good credit investigation credit investigation should contain all the three should contain all theabove. three procedure mention procedure mentioned above.

good evidence of customer’s indebtedness. evidence of customer’s indebtedness. They They contain both contain considerable information as both considerable information as a proof a proof of the debt of the customers. usual of the debt of the customers. The usualThe segment segment of invoice a charge invoicedate, includes: date, of a charge includes: customers’ names and customers and suppliers’ addresses, suppliers’ addresses, contact names, contact names, of itemsproducts purchased, description of description items purchased, or either products or services and (Murray, the termn.d). of services, and the term of payment payment (Murray, n.d). Promissory note on the Promissory note on the other hand contains all other handpertaining contains all the indebtedness terms pertaining to the terms to the by the the indebtedness thenote’s issuerpayee, or maker issuer or maker tobythe such to as the note’s payee, suchrate, as the amount,date, interest amount, interest maturity date rate, and maturity date, date and place of issuance, and place of issuance, and issuer’s signature. Fortyissuer’s signature. (27.70%) of the one (27.70 %) of theForty-one respondents only listed respondents, onlydate list and the names of their names of theirhowever debtor, the the amount of debtor, the on date the amount of their debt on a their debt a and notebook to acknowledge that notebook toThis acknowledges that a is debt This debt exists. kind of method notexists. preferable kind of method is not preferable if your business if your business is growing because it can cause is growing because it caniscause errors many errors and there a big many chance that and the there is a big that the notebook will be lost. notebook willchance be lost.

Table 2.3. Evidences to suggest customers’ indebtedness

Table 2.4. Offer cash discount for early payments

Form

Frequency

Percentage

Charge invoice

40.54

Promissory Note

31.76

List on notebook

Total

148

Answer

Frequency

Percentage

Yes

64.19

27.70

35.81

100

Total

148

100

In granting credit to customers, there must be an evidence to advocate their indebtedness. Sixty (40.54 %) out of 148 respondents said that they use charge invoice as an evidence of indebtedness of their customers. Charge invoice is a bill sent by a supplier of a product or service to the purchaser. The invoice launches an obligation on the part of the purchaser to pay, creating an account receivable (Murray, n.d). The 47 (31.76 %) of the operators said that they use promissory note as a proof of indebtedness of their debtor. A promissory note is a financial tool that contains a printed promise by one party to pay another party a definite sum of money either on demand or at a specified future date (Investopedia, n.d.). Charge invoice and promissory note are both good

Cash discount is an incentive that a seller proposes to a buyer in return for paying a bill owed before the scheduled due date. The seller will normally lessen the amount owed by the buyer by a small fraction or a set dollar amount. If used properly, cash discounts would improve the days- sales- outstanding aspect of a business’s cash conversion cycle. Providing a small cash discount would be beneficial for the seller as it would permit him to have contact to the cash sooner. The earlier a seller receives the cash, the earlier he can put the money back into the business to buy more supplies and/or grow the company further (Investopedia, n.d.). However, out of 148 enterprises who said that they sell their

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goods credits 95 (64.19 %) applied cash d t creditsinonly 95 only (64.19%) applied cash discount iscount o their to customers. their customers. Hence, Hence, 53 (35.81%) 53 (35.81 do not %) applied did not apply cash discount. cash discount. The reason The reason why they whydon’t they apply did notcash apply discount cash discount is they think is thatperceiveit that it will would lessen lessen their profit. their profit. Section C: Inventory Management The firm’s firm’s inventory inventory management management isis the most serious component of working capital, since it is the least liquid and consequently tends to be a cash trap. When funds have been spent on inventory convert it inventory the the period of time needed to convert back into cash can be quite long, so it is wise to invest in minimum possible amount of inventory inventory (Bragg, 2010). Part of inventory management is to control stocks in the warehouse. The study shows 136 (68 (68%) %) of the the200 200SMEs SMEsoperators operatorsexperienced experience small pile up of inventories which is quite advantageous for advantageous in the the enterprise. enterprise. This specifies that lesser inventories inventories are arebetter bettergiven givenwhen that the cash is not tied up in its inventories. Nonetheless, 64 (32 (32%) %) of of which which says says they meet large pile up of inventories because this will guarantee that all orders could be occupied occupied quickly, quickly, eliminating eliminating the need for backorders due to stock outs. In this case, an opportunity opportunity cost is high. Therefore, case an careful decision decisionand and control are required to control is required to secure secure a successful operation inventoriesinin the a successful operation of of inventories business. Table 3.1. Keep all inventory records Answer

Frequency

Percentage

Yes

138

Total

200

100

Based on table 3.1, the results revealed on tableof3.1, the results reveal that 138 that Based 138 (69%) respondents disregard the (69 %) of respondents disregard the significance significance of keeping records because they of keeping records because they simply simply misplaced it or not doing anything at all. misplaced it. Practically, 62 (31 %) said they Practically, 62 (31%) said they patiently kept patiently kept records of their inventories for records of their inventories for tracking supplies tracking supplies and safekeeping purposes. and safekeeping purposes. It is advisable to keep It is advisable to itkeep records. It provides records given that provides benefit to the

operation business such as having reliable benefit to of thethe operation of the business such records company able to to the plan,company strategize as havingthe reliable records to andable stay to within budget. On contrary, be plan,its strategize andthe stay within not its keeping records may lead to in tracking budget. On the contrary, notfailure keeping records inventories will lessen the chance of business may lead tothat failure in tracking inventories that to customer’s practicing will lessen thedemands. chance ofConsequently, business to customer’s inventory control mechanism is a technique of demands. Consequently, practicing inventory protecting SMEs in going on over stock or under control mechanism is a technique of protecting stock (Clodfelter, 2003). a matter of factstock 152 SMEs in going on overAsstock or under (76%) of 2003). the entrepreneurs undertook (Clodfelter, As a matter of did fact 152 (76 %) physical counting this method is also known as of the entrepreneurs did undertake physical click sheet. Physical counting or manual control counting this method, otherwise known as click of inventory is not desirable use since it seems sheet. Physical counting ortomanual control of to be tedious, consuming and prone to inventory is nottime desirable to use since it seems human error. While (24%) did and not undertake to be tedious, time48consuming prone to such method instead a software system is used human error. While 48 (24 %) utilized a software even if itsince is costly it contribute an accurate and system it provides a more timely data. As a result appropriate inventory management minimized can minimize wastage of control management wastage of raw raw materials. materials. Table 3.2. Time durations of physical counting undertaken by entrepreneurs Durations

Frequency

Percentage

Daily

48.02

Weekly Monthly Semi-annually Yearly Others Total

20 44 4 8 3 152

13.16 28.95 2.63 5.26 1.97 100

In monitoring inventories inventories,basically physical physical counting is the easiest firm exploited counting is the way. easiestOther way. Other firm uses this kind of tabulation manual tabulating ofdata datafor foritit isis cheaper cheaper than using software. Table 3.2 illustrates that there were respondents respondents attending attending their their inventories by physical physical counting countinginindaily dailybasis basis 7373 (48.02%), (48.02 weekly %), weekly 20 (13.16%), 20 (13.16monthly %), monthly 44 (28.95%), 44 (28.95some %), were semi-annually some were semi-annually 4 (2.63%), 4 (2.63 yearly %), 8yearly (5.26%) 8 and others (5.26 %) and when others the when need arises the need 3 (1.97%). arises 3 While (1.97 the While remaining 8 respondents did not undergo %). the remaining 8 respondents did not inventoryinventory undergo for the reason for the that reason theythat only they ignore did its importance. not recognize itsThe importance. earlier it Early seemstabulation to tabulate of data through through inventories inventories are is better preferred thanbecause longer

Dato-on, D. V. E., Monto, R. P., Calaylay, N. M., Villanueva, G. B., Velez, J. K. F. and Temanel, E. N. O.

period because itfor is significant for thetoenterprise it is necessary the enterprise dispatch o dispatch stocks in the convert these stocksthese in the market to market convertto to cash it inutility cash in order totobelow used in the firmcosts. thus for resulting opportunity opportunity costs is low. Therefore, managing Therefore, managing the inventories provides the inventories provides informationespecially needed information needed by the business by marketing the business especially in marketing in strategy since it can be strategy used to since it can be used as to identify slow-selling identify slow-selling merchandise and allows merchandise and allows business to reduce its business to reduce its price if possible before price if possible before consumer’s demands consumer’s demands completely disappear completely disappear (Clodfelter, 2003). (Clodfelter, 2003). Hence, SMEs are less Hence, aware SMEs of less aware to the significance of to theare significance of inventory management inventory management practices albeit several practices. For those knowledgeable, the ability are knowledgeable enough theirtransactions ability to apply to apply these practices in real are theselimited. practices in real transactions are very very limited. Section D: Accounts Payable Management Section Accounts Payable Management The D:researchers gathered data on how on how the the The SMEsresearchers manage itsgathered accountsdata payable. Since, SMEs manage its accounts external external sources of fundpayable. arisingSince, mainly from sources of fund arising mainly which from include normal normal operations of the business operations of the business that include accounts accounts payable. payable. Table 4.1. Time durations that the debtors settle their obligations to their creditors

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debtor settles their debts to their creditors. To debtor settles their debts to their creditors. To the creditors if the buyers pay their bills before the creditors if the buyers pay their bills before or within 7 days (24.66 %) or in accordance to or within 7 days (24.66%) or in accordance to its its credit terms that is likely favorable to the credit terms it is likely favorable to the creditors creditors side. Whereas for the debtors, the side. Whereas to the debtors the longer it takes longer it takes for the buyers to pay its obligations for the buyers to pay its obligations 14 days 14 days (29.45 %) is satisfactory since their cash (29.45%) is satisfactory for the buyers since can be temporarily utilized as a source of funds in their cash can be temporarily use as a source of operatingthefirm. Asidefromtheaforementioned funds in operating the firm. Aside from that the data, they do not only shows its earlier payments aforementioned data above does not only shows but also its longer period: like 15 days (8.90 %), its earlier payments but also its longer period just 21 days (10.96 %) 1 year (2.74 %). Moreover, it like 15 days (8.90%), 21 days (10.96%) until it is not advisable to settle debts for a longer period reach for probably 1 year (2.74%). Moreover, it is since the necessary payments to suppliers is only not advisable to settle debts for a lengthier period one month. This may result to misunderstanding of time since mostly the necessary payments between supplier and the clients unless there to suppliers is only one month this may result was negotiation. Thus, stretching the accounts to misunderstanding between supplier and the payable is a strategy used by a firm to delay the clients unless they negotiate to their creditors. payments of its obligations without necessarily Thus, stretching the accounts payable is a strategy changing its credit reputation. This strategy used by a firm wherein it delays the payments of reduces the cost of giving up cash discounts its obligations without necessarily changing its (Laman, 2008). credit reputation. This strategy reduces the cost of giving up cash discounts (Laman, 2008). Table 4.2. Negotiate with their creditors to extend credit terms

Durations

Frequency

Percentage

7 days

24.66

14 days

29.45

Answers

Frequency

Percentage

15 days

8.90

Yes

132

21 days

10.96

1 month

17.81

1 year

2.74

Total

200

100

Others

5.48

Total

146

100

Based on the collected information, it shows that SMEs transact business with the use of credit. Interestingly, 146 (73 %) of respondents exploited purchasing goods on credit rather than 54 (27 %) purchasing goods in cash because they can use cash on hand in their short term transactions like employees salary and other expenses for the business to operate daily. Table 4.1 shows period of payments that a

As far as4.2 Table the surveys illustrates resultthat table132 4.2 illustrates (66 %) that 132 (66%)negotiate entrepreneurs with entrepreneurs with negotiate their creditors (favorable to the debtors) compared to 68 (34 %) remaining (not be able to negotiate with their creditors in extending their credit period). It should be advisable to negotiate with creditors because it is really helpful in extending credit terms. Critically maintained credit lines (late payments) may result in the company being a ‘blacklisted’ by credit bureaus making it more problematic or expensive to

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secure financing in the future (Investopedia, (Investopedia, n.d.). Superior supplier supplier relationships relationshipsprovide providea win-win a win-winsituation situationforforthe thecompany companyasaswell well as the supplier. supplier. Suppliers will bring in good deals for the company and will advocate excellent and high quality products to the company. company.Therefore, Therefore, good supplier or company relationships mean increased company efficiency so it must be cultivated. Table 4.3. Use short-term funds for long-term investments Answers

Frequency

Percentage

Yes

108

Total

200

100

Short-term financing is a foundation of Short-term financing is a foundation ‘quick’ liquidity for the business, in particularof ‘quick’ liquidity forhave the business, SMEs, who do not large poolinofparticular standby SMEs, who do not have large pool of funds for emergency uses (Laman, 2008).standby Hence, short-term finance provides almost instant funds for emergency uses (Laman, 2008). funds to short-term such challenging situations thatalmost could Hence, finance provides otherwise impact the continual concern of SMEs. instant funds to such challenging situations Table could 4.3 shows that out impact of 200 respondents the that otherwise the continual 108 (54%) entrepreneurs compared to 92 (46%) concern of SMEs. Table 4.3 shows that out of uses short-term funds of the business for long200 respondents the 108 (54 %) entrepreneurs term investments. Since when there is a decrease compared to 92 (46 %) uses short-term funds in cash it reduces firm’s capability to acquire of the business for long-term investments. its financial obligations, more risk. That is why Decrease in cash reduces the firm’s capability to entrepreneurs also take risks in investing their acquire its financial obligations with more risk. funds in long-term investment since when the Entrepreneurs in investing their time comes thatalso thetake firm risks may face difficulties in funds in a long-term investment. This provides their business they can get funds to be able to use them funds utilize for their obligations in in paying theirtoobligations. times of difficulties in business. Bookkeeping Bookkeeping is very important in the Bookkeeping operation of business it is the process of Bookkeeping is because very important in the recording of all financial transactions a business operation of business because it is the process of organization recording all made. financialTransaction transactionsincludes made. purchases, sales, receipts and payment by an Transaction includes purchases, sales, receipts individual or organization. The bookkeeper who performed the recording is responsible for ensuring day book. The daybooks consist of

and payments byreceipts an individual or organization. purchases, sales, and payments. The bookkeeper who performed the recording Table 5.1. Recordfor all ensuring cash transaction is responsible daybooks. It consists ofAnswer purchases, sales, receipts and payments. Frequency Percentage Yes

28.5

No 143 Table 5.1. Record all cash transaction Total 200 Answer

Frequency

71.5 100 Percentage

The table shows if the SME’s record the cash Yes 57 business. Results 28.5 transactions of their shows that No 57 respondentsrecord 143 only their cash71.5 transactions through don’t Total bookkeeping 200 and 143 respondents 100 record the cash transactions of their business at all. Majority of the respondents answered “No” Results that 57 respondents because they show said they areonly not knowledgeable on proper recording of cashtransactions transactions and also record their cash through most of the 143 that don’tdid record bookkeeping andrespondents 143 respondents not cash transactions are businesses which do not record the cash transactions of their business. require of account. In the other hand the 57 Majoritybooks of the respondents answered “No” respondents that are able to record transactions because they said they are not knowledgeable are much favored to record cash transactions transactions on proper recording of cash because it is required in their state or field of and they are not required to have books of business. account. On the other hand, those that are Of the 200 respondents, the analysis in this able to record transactions do it because they table portrays further that 28.5% are businesses are that required. requires recording of cash transactions and This would probably indicate that these 71.5% does not require it in their line of business. most SMEsthat don’t enough to This meant therehave businesses thatability are earning expand the business or even hire personnel only enough for the business to survive. This to record Onlywefew the indicates thattransactions. most of the SME’s havehave surveyed don’t have enough to expand the business capability to hireability personnel to record and or even hire personnel to record transactions. keep cash transactions. Thus, the analysis implied that majority of the respondents earn only enough while a few of Table 5.2. Keep and the to required books of these SME’s have themaintain capability hire personnel accounts to record and keep cash transactions. Answer Frequency Percentage Table 5.2. Keep and maintain the required books of Yes 63 68.5 accounts No 137 31.5 Answer Frequency Percentage Total 200 100 Yes

68.5

137

31.5

Total

200

100

Dato-on, D. V. E., Monto, R. P., Calaylay, N. M., Villanueva, G. B., Velez, J. K. F. and Temanel, E. N. O.

The tableshow Results 5.2 further that 68.5 presents % of onrespondents whether the business keep and maintain the required books of does not keep or maintain books of account account. Results show 68.5% respondents their business, whilethat 31.5 % ofofrespondents does not keep or maintain books of account answered “Yes”. The results still imply on the of their business, while 31.5% of respondents status of business earning and capability answered The results stillthe implies on how of hiring “Yes”. someone to keep businesses’ much does the business earn or it is capable on records. Tracking its earnings, profit or loss, hiring someone to keep the businesses’ records. recording its business data, and keeping the As to how will the business know if it is earning financial records of the organization are profit or loss, recording its business data and just as important earning The 137 keeping the financialtorecords of profit. the organization respondents that do not keep and maintain its is just as important to earning profit. The 137 books of account cannot confidently say that respondents that do not keep and maintain its their is earning for there no booksbusiness of account cannot profit confidently say isthat data support. On the other hand, their to business is earning profit for thethe business can’trespondents support it andwho they did have record no written or data 63 kept and basis. On the its otherbooks hand the respondents maintained of 63 account have that the do record keep and maintain its books of account privilege on making the right decisions on the have the privilege on making the right decisions business. on the business. Table 5.3. Methods use on keeping and maintaining books of account Answer

Frequency

Percentage

Computerized (MS Excel)

74.6

Manual/Tradition

25.4

Total

100

Results that on outwhat of the 63 (31.5 The tablerevealed 5.3 presents method on %) respondents who answered onlydoes 16 keeping the businesses’ books of“Yes”, account respondents saidResults they still use manual the business use. implies thatthe out of the or way or method of keeping“Yes” the 63 traditional (31.5%) respondents that answered businesses’ books of account while 47 out 63 there are only 16 respondents that said theyofstill respondents are or now practicingway the computerized use the manual traditional or method of (MS office method of of keeping keeping the Excel) businesses’ books accountbooks while of account. 47 out of 63 respondents are now practicing further indicates thatExcel) theremethod are some the This computerized (MS office of businesses (25.4 %) that are not yet capable keeping books of account. or have comeindicates up with that the there technology that This not further are some most companies arethat using keeping books or of businesses (25.4%) areonnot yet capable account today.upAlthough are programs haven’t come with the there technology that most companies are using on keeping books of account today. Although there are programs that have

185

that been developed meetofthe needs of beenhave developed to meet theto needs companies companies who aretime having a hard keeping who’s having a hard keeping andtime maintaining and maintaining its books of account. its books of account. However, it addsHowever, another it adds cost for company. It that is more cost for another the company. It isthe more favorable the business would computerized for favorable that use thethebusiness wouldmethod use the this has been proven to be the most effective and computerized method for this has been proven reliable Nevertheless to be asystem. more effective and majority reliable (74.6%) system. has adopted with the new andadopted should Nevertheless, majority (74.6system %) have expect efficient resultsand on keeping their records. with the new system should expect efficient results on keeping their records. Table 5.4. Academic qualifications of accounting personnel Table 5.4. Academic qualifications of accounting personnel Qualification Frequency Percentage Accounting graduate Qualification

27 Frequency

42.8 Percentage

CPA Accounting graduate

18 27

28.6 42.8

CPA Degree in Business Administration (e.g Bookkeeper) Degree in Business Administration (e.g TotalBookkeeper)

18 18

28.6 28.6

18 63

28.6 100

Total

100

Table 5.4 shows on what are the academic qualification do the business require to the Resultswho show thattheir out records. of 63 respondents personnel keeps This is still who did keep books of account; (42.8 %) linked on Question 1&2 on the 27 Bookkeeping businesses hired accounting graduates, 18 section. Results show that out of 63 respondents (28.6 %) businesses hired CPAs and 18 (28.6 %) that do keep books of account; 27 (42.8%) establishments hired business graduates, administration businesses hired accounting 18 graduates. (28.6%) businesses hired CPAs and also that thesehired businesses do 18 Analysis (28.6%) implies establishments business need personnels that are knowledgeable and administration graduates as their qualifications have the capabilities to be ofreliable onaccount. keeping on dealing with the keeping books of theirAnalysis books. Itimplies is highlythat favored that business these businesses can do function effectively with this kind of practice for need personnel that are knowledgeable and has they are able to forecast and lookon back on previous the capabilities to be reliable keeping their transactions. Majority of the respondents though books. Well, it his highly favored that business can (42.8 %)effectively prefer more on kind hiring accounting function with this of practice for graduates which we think can pay less salary they are able to forecast and look back on previous than a CPA but still canofdeliver. While CPA though and BA transactions. Majority the respondents graduates have anmore equal on result of 28.6 % each, (42.8%) prefer hiring accounting this implies that there are still businesses that graduates which we think they can pay less salary than a CPA but still can be competitive on their field of work. While CPA and BA graduates have

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favor this kind of qualifications, since it is much cheaper. Short-term sources of funds Short-term sources of funds are the money desired for fiscal activities carried out for less than one year. These funds are normally used for day to day operations such as stocks ordering, advertisement expenses and payment of wages. Table 6.1. Short-term source of funds Source

Frequency

Percentage

Self-financing

120

Bank

22.5

Colleagues

Lending

6.5

Suppliers

Total

200

100

There are 18 respondents who identified sources of short-term funds the business can get or borrow from, but there are only 5 sources that stood out. Forty- five respondents borrowed it from the bank, 18 from their colleagues, 13 borrow from lending firms, 4 from its supplier, and 120 from self-financing. When the business is able to self-financially support its immediate funds it just shows the efficiency of the business on using its earnings and current assets. This does not necessarily mean that others cannot support its short-term funds by their own. It all depends on how the SMEs handle their on hand cash and current liabilities. Table 6.2. The kind of financing the entrepreneur is it favorable Answer

Frequency

Percentage

Yes

180

9.5

Others

0.5

Total

200

100

Results revealed that 180 (90 %) respondents saidthatthekindoffinancingtheyfollowis favorable to their business while 19 (9.5 %) respondents said it is not and 1 (0.5 %) said it all depends. There are many advantages and disadvantages on different kinds of financing but it really all depends on what line of business you are in and the financing culture involved. There is a need to determine or forecast the short-term funds. This is necessary to operate with flexibility when the time comes that financial resources are needed. Self-financing is truly favorable because this does not apply interest on the money the business uses. Unlike in banks, lending firms and other sources they apply interest and maturity date to be followed. V. CONCLUSION Reliable working capital management practices can boost profitability of the SMEs. Entrepreneur must ensure that they utilize adequate WMC since a working capital may affect the operation of SMEs which deter them from its capability to compete effectively. It was affirmed that there is meager liquidity in small business due to excess current liabilities from current assets that lead to shortage of fund. Small firms become insolvent since it is hard for them to gain access to financial assistance from financial institutions. Financial institutions usually ask for requirements which small firms cannot provide. SMEs have weak financial position due to its dependence from credit facility to finance their operation. Approximately, credit facility at times comes from accounts payable. However, it revealed also that an insufficient record keeping system lessen the ability of the firm to control and assess the proper flow of its working capital. The SMEs also have deficient resources to manage their receivables and no credible credit policy for their enterprises. VI. RECOMMENDATION On the basis of the findings and conclusion of the study, the following recommendations are spelled out to address the concerns for the development purposes of the working capital

Dato-on, D. V. E., Monto, R. P., Calaylay, N. M., Villanueva, G. B., Velez, J. K. F. and Temanel, E. N. O.

management of SMEs: Place inside the office vault the cash generated on daily basis. SMEs must place its surplus cash inside the office vault to ensure the safety of its money before having or acting a wise decision-making. Prepare a cash budget quarterly or annually. Managers or owners must prepare a cash budget to determine their future ability to pay debts as well as expenses. This will also show how cash flows in and out of their business operation and can be used in planning their short- term credit needs. Formulate an effective credit policy. In crafting credit policy criteria this should include: credit period, cash discounts, credit standards, and collection procedures offered. • The length of the credit period should not be too long and not too short. Customers normally prefer longer credit periods, so augmenting the period will arouse sales. However, long credit periods extends the cash conversion cycle, hence ties up more capital in receivables, and that is costly. Also, the longer a receivable is outstanding, the higher the probability that the customer will default and the account results as a bad debt. • The cash discount that the firm offers for paying early should not be too large. Offering discounts has two benefits: first, the discount amounts to a price reduction and lower prices stimulate sales, and second, discounts will cause some customers to pay earlier than they otherwise would, which will shorten the cash conversion cycle. However, discounts mean lower prices, hence lower revenues unless the quantity sold increases by enough to offset the price reduction. The benefits and costs of discounts must be balanced if a rational decision about them is to be made. • In formulating a credit standard the firm should look at the five C’s of credit: character, capacity, capital, conditions and collateral.

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• In the collection policy of the firm’s past due account there should be a balance between toughness and laxity. Firmness should be present, but excessive pressure can also lead good customers to take their business elsewhere. Attend to seminars and trainings. Owners or managers of SMEs should avail themselves with the various training programs organized by government and other bodies like Small and Medium Enterprise Development Council (SMEDC) to refine their knowledge in financial management and other related topics in management. This will help advance their trading activities. Implementation of technology based inventory control practices. Encourage the entrepreneurs to adopt technology in conducting inventories like computer system. The relevance of modern information technology management could be very effective in improving the inventory activities while avoiding the risks of mismanagement in inventories. Create a re-order policy. Creation of re- order policy for the institutions will stretch the capacity to appeal supply of modest and high quality stocks. An institution of such policy paves the way for businesses to classify and recognize the best sellers of their wanted stocks in the market at peculiar seasons. Assist entrepreneurs to negotiate with their creditors. A trusted debtor means a lot to the creditors. An on time payments of liabilities and negotiating credit terms is advisable to have a healthy relationship between debtors and creditors. Record cash transactions and keep books of account. A well maintained bookkeeping system will enable the business for balanced budgeting or financial planning as a means of working to quantify the company’s vision, mission, goals and objectives. Proper bookkeeping will provide the owners or managers to formulate the rights objectives and strategies to achieve the company’s goals. Convert to the computerized (MS Office Excel) method of keeping books of account. This

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method removes many of the paper “books” that are used to record the financial transactions of an entity. Instead, relational database takes place, but still typically enforce the double entry bookkeeping system when you are still practicing the manual or traditional way of keeping the books of account as this has been proven to be the most effective and reliable system. Properly managing the business’ short-term of funds. The business should be able to somehow self-finance itself. This will imply that the business has the ability of being independent when it comes to day-to-day expenses. This could also indicate that the business is earning and capable to survive. However, there are still some remedies and other sources of short-term funds that the business can borrow from. It all depends on how well you manage your short-term finances. Originality Index: Similarity Index: Paper ID: Grammarly:

89 % 11 % 467667128 Checked

REFERENCES Aldaba, R.M. (2011). SMEs access to finance: Philippines. Harvie, C: S. Oum Appuhams, E. (2008). Why businesses fail. Journal ofBusiness Strategy, 4(9), 15-21. Atrill, P. (2006). Financial management for decision makers (4th ed.). England, UK: Prentice Hall. Barrow, C. (2001). The complete small business guide: A source for new and small business (New ed.). London, UK: Wiley Publishing. Block, B.S., & Hirt, G.A. (2000). Foundation of Financial Management (6th ed). New York, USA: MC Graw Hill Publishing Company Limited. Bragg, R. (2011). International financial management (6th ed.). New York, USA: McGraw-Hill Companies. Bragg, S.M. (2010). Treasury management: The practitioner’s guide. Hoboken, NJ, U.S.A., John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Ch’ng, H.K., & Chang, Z.Y. (2005). Finance and Performance of Small manufacturing firms in Singapore. International Small Business Journal, 4(5), 25-35.

Chittenden, F., Pontziouris, P., & Michaelis, N. (2008). Financial management and working capital practices in UK SMEs. Manchester Business School. Clodfelter, R. (2003). Retail buying from basics to fashion (2nd ed). USA: Fairchild Books. Cook. P., & Nixon, F. (2000). Finance and small and medium-sized enterprise development. England, UK: Prentice Hall Europe. Dagooc, E. (2013, November 9). Lack of support programs dampens growth of SMEs. The Freeman, p.14. Diacogiannis, G. (2004). Financial management: A modeling approach using spreadsheets. McGraw-Hall. Dodge, J. (2004). Individualism, collectivism, and entrepreneurship: A framework for international comparative research. Journal of Business Venturing, 2(4), 367-384. Fajardo, F. (2010, November 26). Cebu’s small and medium enterprises. Cebu Daily. Retrieved from December 20, 2013, from http:// globalnation. inquirer.net/cebudailynews/ opinion/ view/20101126-305438/Cebus-smallandmedium-enterprises.html Gitman, L. (2011). Principles of managerial finance (13thed.). New York, USA: Pearson Education. Grablowsky, B.J. (2000). Mismanagement of accounts receivable by small business. Journal of Small Business Management, 4(12), 23-28. Investopedia (n.d.) Promissory note. Retrieved from February 15, 2014, from http://www. investopedia.com/ terms/p/promissorynote.asp Kehinde, J., & Abiola, J. (2005). Financial management and strategy. Manhattan, USA: Prentices Hall Inc. Khan, M.Y., & Jain, P.J. (2007). Financial management: Tax, problems and cases (5th ed.). New York, USA: MC Graw Hill Publishing Company Limited. Laman, R.M. (2008). Financial system, market and management. Manila, PH: GC Enterprises & Co. Inc. Losarata, J. (2013, May 30). Group gives 27 SMEs in Cebu business achievement awards. Sun Star, p. 5 Mason, M. (2013). What causes small businesses to fail. Retrieved from December 20, 2013, from http:// www.moyak.com/papers/small-business-failure. html Mensah, S. (2004, March, 15-16). A Review of SME Financing Schemes in Ghana. Paper presented at the UNIDO Regional Workshop of Financing SMEs , Accra, Ghana.

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Meyer, B.W. (2002). Formation, Growth and Survival : Small Firm Dynamics in the U.S. Economy. Small Business Economic, 1(8), 65-74. Murray, J. (n.d.) Invoice. Retrieved from February 15, 2014, from http://biztaxlaw.about.com/od/ glossaryi/g/invoicedef.htm Osisioma, B. (2007). Impart of structural adjustment on small- scale enterprise in Ghana. International Small Business Journal, 2(5), 60-150. Peavler, R. (n.d.) Managing credit and accounts receivable.Retrieved from February 15, 2014, from http://bizfinance.about.com/od/AccountsReceivable/a/Managing-Credit-And-AccountsReceivable.htm Peel, M.J., & Wilson, N. (2003). Working capital and financial management practices in the small firm sector. International Small Business Journal, 11(12), 38-128. Raheman, A. (2011). Sector-wise performance of working capital management measures and profitability using ratio analysis. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 3(8), 60-223. Shane, S. (2000). Cultural influences on national rates of innovation. Journal of Business Venturing, 8(10), 59-73. Small and medium enterprises development council (2003). The Philippines SME development strategy. Makati City: Local Government Unit. Voukari, M. (2012).Optimizing working capital management from processes perspective. (Degree Program in International Business Management, Saimaa University of Applied Sciences, 2012). Retrieved fromhttp://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/ handle/10024/53103/Vuorikari_Maija.pdf

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Evaluation on compensation packages of employees in the tourism sector Mary Ann G. Landero Perla A.Villarmente Mary Grace O. Gulle Janally L.Tangaro College of Business Administration University of the Visayas mgl_1122@yahoo.com Date submitted: June 10, 2014

Date accepted: June 30, 2014

ABSTRACT The retention of the employees depends on the quality of the employees’ compensation. However, there are factors affecting the retention of the employees such as the culture of the company and especially the labor relation between the employees and the employers and the compensation package as well. The motivation of employee can be determined by their performance through giving recognition and any other form like benefits and incentives or insurances. The method we used in this study is quantitative, because it involves the collection of numerical data in order to explain, predict and control the current event, condition or situation. This study was conducted within the tourism sector in Cebu City. The study being conducted reveals that employees were just contented of their compensation package though it’s just limited according to their existence. Such as the culture of the company and especially the labor relation between the employees and employers as well. The motive in the tourism sector has cheaper and less benefits. This study aims to further explain the compensation packages offered in the tourism sector and some issues related to compensation packages. We, the researchers would like to provide, through this study about the information of the compensation packages that would lead to realization of their own stand in terms about compensation packages in tourism sector. This study is very important and can help to the tourism graduates. This would help them analyze the benefit package when entering into the world of tourism sector. Keywords: tourism sector, benefits, compensation, employees, workforce, packages, tourism industry, motivation, compensation strategy I. INTRODUCTION Philippine is an archipelago archipelago which comprises beautiful and bountiful sceneries and that is why many tourists were being attracted to explore the beauty of our country. The very famous “It’s more fun in the Philippines” is definitely true being witnessed by foreigners

and local individuals. individuals. Attracting Attracting tourists tourists isis basically the same as attracting businessmen to invest into a company. It is very important to have competent and talented employees in the industry. Finding a job is is never never been been easy easybut but it it’sall is allabout aboutdetermination determination and and perseverance of an individual to to get getthe thejob. job.Employees Employeeswork workfor for

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a stable job and a good salary at the same time. In the tourism sector or any other industry, a better compensation benefits are utilized to fascinate and retain competent employees and also to raise companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s worth. Since tourism has become widely existing in the country, we, the researchers we are given enough motivation to find out and evaluate the compensation packages of employees in the tourism sector. As stated by Heathfield (n.d.), compensation is the amount of either monetary or non-monetary payment from an employer to his employees as a reward for a job well done or for a work done as required by the management. Every individual who works for the company is definitely working for money and a good compensation. In order to make employees stay for a long period of time, an employer must offer an attractive benefit package so that employees can certainly be assured that his service to the company is being paid right. An employer must know the necessary benefits given to employees and must be able to communicate with their employees to hear their voices. In line with this, it is good to both parties to have a connection for the benefit of the industry. Otherwise, employers may unable to control the situation of the company when things get worst. According to Johnson (n.d.), that a good compensation package must be offered in the organization to motivate employees for an increased productivity and good behavior as well. No employee will probably be staying longer in a company wherein they would benefit less. On the other hand, it is not just all about monetary packages and other rewards but also the respect from the people in the organization. However, when the management offers less than what the employee is expecting, employees would be discouraged and be turned down. It is very important that employees feel that they are being valued. Scowsill (2013), says that one of the largest and the rapidly growing industry is the travel and tourism industry. Indeed, tourism industry

is widely known than those notable industries. Tourism greatly helps for the economic growth of a certain country especially third world countries like the Philippines. Tourism is a major contributor of the Philippine economy. Creaco and Querini (2003) also said that tourism is addressed as an instrument for a development because it vitalizes new economic development. In many countries, tourism plays a big role to their economy. The status of the performance of tourism industry should be equally high as to how tourism professionals be treated, be given benefits and the like. Tourismemployees and tourism professionals are called the workforce of the tourism industry. According to Gupta (2013), that workforce is like an intellectual property in terms of skills and money. In other companies, employees are treated as costs because the company pays them that constituted with salaries and wages not to mention the benefit packages. Workforce is not a cost but rather an asset. Employees are assets to the company. They are the one who give service and do the production process and all. Without the workforce there is no output. However, Johnson (n.d.) said that there are perceptions that there is a high turnover but unfortunately a cheaper salary and poor benefits in the tourism sector. In line with this, employers must think of a compensation package for the benefit of the employees. A member of the organization wants to feel that they are being paid fairly for the job they performed (Gupta, 2013). As an employer, determining what benefits to give to the employees is very necessary. Moreover, benefits help you inform the employees that you value them. As stated by Pratt (2011), adoption to management standards for labor performance strengthened internal management to protect workers. This factor is very important to the industry because the needed standards are being coped up and embraced by the company. There are no bias decisions and everythingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

Landero, M. A. G., Villarmente, P. A., Gulle, M. G. O. and Tangaro, J. L.

comes quality including the everything’s labor force. There with are bias everything’s are no no bias decisions decisions and comes It is definitely with quality goodincluding to have standards the labor inforce. the It’s definitely industry so that good the to employees have standards will come in out the industry with standards so that that the employees make them willcompetent. come out with standards Indeed, it is another that way make of them makingcompetent. the labor Indeed, itstronger. relation is another way of making the labor relation Addressing stronger.the gaps will result to a harmonious Addressing relationship the gaps will between result tothe a harmonious andrelationship management the employee. This between will lead the management to a better and working the employee. environment This for will both lead o a better ttparties. It will working improveenvironment the labor relation for both as parties. well as the It will compensation improve thepackage labor relation to be offered. and as wella as As return, the compensation employee willpackage be motivated to be offered. in the As a return,This workplace. andwill employee definitelywillbe bea motivated beginning in the of the awareness workplace. ofThis every willemployee. definitely Itbewilla beginning ofproblems eradicate the awareness in the of every organization employee. It will eradicate especially when problems it comesintothecompensation organization especiallyin when packages the tourism it comes sector.to compensation packages This in study the tourism aims tosector. further explain the compensation This studypackages aims tooffered further in the explain tourism the compensation sector and some packages issues related offeredtoincompensation the tourism sector andThis packages. somestudy issueshave related different to compensation issues that packages. share either This negative study have or positive differentbackground. issues that or positive share’s In ordereither to provide negative much help, background. this study In order would liketo toprovide give enlightenment much help, to thisthe study facts would like stated above. to give We, enlightenment the researchers to thewould facts stated like to above. provide, We, through the this researchers study about would the this study like to provide, information of the through compensation packages about that the information would lead to of realization the compensation of their packages own standthat in terms in stand tourism would about lead tocompensation realization ofpackages their own in ttsector. This study is very important help erms about compensation packagesand in can tourism to the tourism graduates. This would help sector. This study is very important and canthem help o the tourism ttanalyze the benefit graduates. package Thiswhen would entering help them the analyzeofthe world tourism benefitsector. package Thiswhen serves entering as a guide into the world and a tool on of tourism how to deal sector. the This following servesissues. as a guidewould This and a help tool the howemployees to deal ontothe realize following their issues.inThis value the would company. help the employees to realize theirIssues value in about the company. employees who do not care anything Issueselse about but employees their salarywho would don’t actually care anything give actionelse andbut would their getsalary rid of unawareness would actually of givecompensation the action and to get packages rid of which unawareness they deserve of the compensation to receive. Thispackages would serve which tothey employers deserve as to agetbig andchallenge received.because This would theyserve are the to employers one who as a bigthechallenge offers compensation because packages they are the to their one

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employees. study will motivate them more who offers This the compensation packages to their employees. and will push Thisthem studytowill make motivate an attractive them more and and pushed them to package. make anThis attractive and creative compensation would help creative compensation package.their Thisminds wouldabout help the future researchers narrow researchers narrow their mindssector. about the future compensation package in the tourism the compensation in the tourism sector. This may serve aspackage their additional information Thisthe may serve their additional information on study theyasare about to make. This may on thegive studythe theyother are about to make. This may also readers the necessary also give the other readers packages the necessary information about compensation in the information about compensation packages in the tourism industry. tourism industry. II. Conceptual Framework II. CONCEPTUAL This study is FRAMEwORK anchored on the theory System: This Designs study isand anchored Goals (n.d) on the thattheory says, System: Designssystem and Goals (n.d) that says that compensation is composed of three compensation system is composed of three variables: (1) the compensation strategy; (2) variables; (1) package; the compensation strategy; compensation and (3) the impact(2) of and (3)in the of compensation package; to employees theimpact tourism compensation to employees in the tourism sector. sector.

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Compensation System: Designs and Goals (n.d.), said that there must be a design process to determine the outcomes ad goals of the organizations. In line with this, it is also an ability to attain results for the organizational improvement and progress. Through the use of the compensation system, the result of the process used by the organization lays the success of the organization. It is very important that an organization have options in making plans so that when option A does not turn out well, there you could use another option. It depends on the management how well they are going to plan for the processes to gain a favorable outcome in the long run. Although there are various needs to be addressed in making a progress to compensation system to ensure that the compensation system compliments with the organizational strategy. Motivation is the force that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. It is what causes us to take action, whether to grab a snack to reduce hunger or enroll in college to earn a degree. The forces that lie beneath motivation can be biological, social, emotional or cognitive in nature. The incentive theory suggests that people are motivated to do things because of external rewards. For example, you might be motivated to go to work each day for the monetary reward of being paid. Behavioral learning concepts such as association and reinforcement play an important role in this theory of motivation. The effectiveness of the compensation strategy depends on how an employee is motivated. In fact, a strong and an attractive benefit package is an effective way to make employee be more motivated and responsive throughabetterperformanceintheworkplace. A cheaper compensation package would probably be a reason for the employees to decide to leave and look for a better compensation packages. Management of the organization must also make a benefit man for the employee so that they can be able to retain or attract workers,

and be able to obtain the good labor relations within the organizations. Compensation package also are benefits given by the employer to their employee: Compensation packages; covers wages; insurances; vacation days; guaranteed raises and other perks. It also includes base salary, bonuses, benefits, perks, and on-site amenities. Furthermore, these indicated benefits are very essential to the workforce as a form of motivating employees to work harder in their respective expertise. It is very necessary for the employees to know what the benefits the employer offers to them are. As an employee, the right to know what you ought to have is very significant. Employees can be motivated by proper work environment and through praising or recognition and that by punishment for poor performance produces an unfavorable result (Weihrich & Koontz, 2005). Furthermore, they analyze and determine the causes of workers to act what they do and initiate to make a change to remove obstructions. Theory is much related to the study being conducted since people are being motivated through benefit packages. With this, employees may decide to remain in the industry especially when the offered benefits are attractive. This may attract employees guaranteed that the compensation package is strong. It would maintain the labor relation between the top management and staffs since the employers are planning good compensation packages for the benefit of the lower management. As aforementioned, compensation packages serve as a motivator to employees. According to Heathfield (n.d), that defining a compensation strategy is a crucial activity in either small or large companies. It is important to determine the incentives, how to analyze the market and how to handle cancer promotion. It is also very significant that the compensation strategy is competitive so that it attracts and retains talented workers. Competitive in a

Landero, M. A. G., Villarmente, P. A., Gulle, M. G. O. and Tangaro, J. L.

way that the incentives being offered in your company is not present in any other companies. It must also be structured or systematic to make sure that the employeesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; time and effort is not wasted since it achieves the goal of the organization. According to Frye (2004), a compensation plan should be an incentive for the employee to fulfill companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s goals. It should also benefit the employer. The employees should be aware of this compensation plan in order to meet their goals in the company. Our compensation plans cover a wide array of options, governing everything from base salaries to employee incentives and pay-for-performance plans. We can work with your organization in order to determine which plan is best suited to your specific work climate and culture. These plans may include skill-based pay, individual performance-based pay, or group performance-based pay. We can help you formulate a compensation plan that encourages employees to deliver outstanding performances in the workplace every day, even beyond what is outlined in their prospective job descriptions. According to Diamante (2007), says that, mandatory benefits provide economic security for employees and their dependents that have ceased working because of retirement, unemployment, disability, poor health, or other factors. Because of benefits, an employee motivates to work in the company especially when they are contented of the benefits they received. Employees also receive a fringe benefit that is nonwage payment or benefit granted to employees by employers. Examples include pension plans, profit-sharing programs, vacation pay, company-paid life, health, and unemployment insurance. According to Prasetya Arik and Kato (July, 2011), the effect of financial and non- financial compensation to the employee performance, bonus and commission plans are common sales incentive. Compensation approaches attract, motivate and retain salespeople.

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Compensation practices are positively related with retaining and enhancing the skilled employees that are considered assets of an organization. Compensation must be attractive and competitive to attract and retain skilled employees. Other than monetary benefits, involved in the compensation package are incentives like creative houses, rewards, promotion, a flexible work environment and good communication within the organization. These items are motivators of the employees to work harder, to remain loyal to the organization, and to have good relationship to the co-workers and superiors. These compensation packages play a big role in the success of the organization. According to Weihrich, Cannice, and Koontz (2010), that human motives are based on needs such as physiological needs selfesteem, status, affiliation with others, love and accomplishment. Motivation moves us to action or pushes us forward to do so intentionally. A person can be highly motivated knowing that what he does definitely has a reward. The same as employees, they work for salary and other form of rewards. Workforce in the organization will be more motivated if the management offers an attractive and competitive benefit package. In fact, performances could produce a negative result (Weihrich and Koontz, 2005).Thus, it is very clear that the compensation packages are the main motivator of the employees. III. OBJECTIVES Generally, the proposed study aims to seek answers concerning the compensation system in the tourism sector. Specifically, the study aims to evaluate the compensation strategy in the tourism industry; the structure of the compensation packages; and lastly, the impact of compensation packages in the tourism sector. IV. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHOD This presents the method of researcher used, the respondents of the study, the location of the sources of data, the data collection, and

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the tools used for used datafor collection. data collection. Research Design. In accomplishing thisDesign. study, the researchers used Research In accomplishing this the descriptive study, the researchers quantitativeused research the descriptive method because quantitative it involves researchthe method collection because of it numerical involves data the collection in order of tonumerical explain, predict data in order and control to explain, the current predict and event, control condition the current or situation. event, condition This is descriptive or situation. statistics This is based descriptive method statistics particularly based statistics method particularly to analyze the statistics data. to analyze the data. Respondents. Respondents. To arrive So aswith to reasonable arrive at results having reasonable in conducting results this study, in conducting we needthis the study, aid of the we need the aidrespondents. of the respondents. The tourism The criteria tourism of criteria participants of participants or employeesorareemployees the respondents are the of respondents of this study. They are necessary this study. They are necessary in determining the in determining benefits being offered the benefits by the being company. offered Tourism by the company. employees can Tourism directly respond employees to the can issue directly respond to the concerning theissue compensation concerning the packages compensation in the tourism respondents packagessector. in the The tourism sector. will be selected through conveniencewill sampling. The respondents be selected Purposive through convenience sampling technique sampling. is a non-profitability Purposive sampling technique where subjects are selected because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher. Locale. The study will be conducted within the tourism sectors of Cebu City. We will choose some of the tourism sector within Cebu City who will allow us to conduct a survey. Tools. The instrument that will be used in the study is a self completion questionnaire that was developed by the researchers. The preparation of the questionnaire will be monitored carefully by our adviser and Professor. The questionnaires will be based on the variables of the evaluation on compensation packages of employees in the tourism sector. Data will be retrieved right after securing an approval to conduct the survey. V. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Based on our survey that we have gathered, these are the results of the different issues concerning the compensation system that include compensation strategy; the structure of the compensation package given by the company; as well as the impact of compensation to employees in the tourism sector.

tourism Compensation Strategy. Compensation sector. strategy refers to a very important strategy in Compensation Strategy. Compensation strategyresource human refers tomanagement a very important whichstrategy influences in human the costs resource of an management institution.which Compensation influences the costsofinclude strategies an institution. wages Compensationstrategies paid to the employee include as well wages as benefits paid to the the employee employee asreceives well as benefits for working the employee at the receives company. for working This includes at the company. This includes compensation plan, bonus compensation plan and plan, the yearly bonus plan and the increase of compensation. yearly increase of compensation. Table1. The strategy representing its itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;sdesignated designated description Description

Frequency

Yes

Frequency

Compensation Plan

200

100%

186

93%

38%

124

62%

Bonus Plan Yearly increase of compensation

There are 200 respondents from the tourism sector which the data will be collected, gathered and evaluated by the researchers. Out of the 200 respondents 100 % of them answered that they have a compensation plan. This indicates that in every company, all of them had a compensation plan. This would mean that the employees are aware of the compensation package which is offered by the company or the management. This compensation plan may lead the employees to stay in the company depending on the level of their compensation plan. It could be that their compensation plan is cheap or an attractive one. If the compensation plan is attractive, there is a possibility that the employees will remain and the impact for this in to the company is that, it reduces their cost in hiring or recruiting. Out of the 200 respondents 193 of them confirmed that the company they are working had a bonus plan. However, there are 7 % of them answered that they do not received a bonus. This would mean that mostly but not all are being aware of the bonus plan offered by the management or by the company. These

Landero, M. A. G., Villarmente, P. A., Gulle, M. G. O. and Tangaro, J. L.

93 % company. employees received a bonus received package by the These 93% employees a bonus which maypackage encourage which the employees may encourage to as well the employees remain in the to ascompany well remain due in to the some company factor due like o some tthe bonus factor plan. likeThe the bonus more plan. the The advantageous more the advantageous the bonus plan theisbonus the more plan isthethe employees more the employees will stick towill thestick company. to the company. The yearly The increase yearly increase guaranteed guaranteed to employees to employees comprises comprises for only 38 for only % and 38% 62 and % who 62%said whothat saidtheir that their company company does not yearlya increase. This indicates doesgive notthem give a them yearly increase. This indicates that the company that the company does notdoes necessarily not necessarily give to give to employees employees an increase an increase in theirinsalary. salary. This This may due to the performance of the employees in the workplace. This These 62% 62 employees % employees maymay havehave a poor a qualityquality poor of performance of performance that is that why is there whywas there no an increase was no increase in salary, in salary, however, however, thetheother other38% 38 maybe % maybe performing performing well well in in thethe workplace workplace that that is why is why they they were were given given a yearly a yearly increase. increase. Generally, employeesreceivedacompensation Generally, employees received a package and mostly compensation package received and amostly bonus received but not all.a In the case bonus but not of giving all. Inyearly the case increase, of giving moreyearly than half employees increase, more than in thehalf tourism of the sector employees responded in the that theysector tourism were responded not given athat guaranteed they were yearly not increase. given a guaranteed This may dueyearly to some increase. factors that Thisaffect may the performance due to some factors of the thatemployee affect theinperformance the tourism sector of the employee in the tourism sector. Structure The presentation of compensation below shows package. the The presentation structure of compensation below showspackage the structure which of compensation includes, componentspackage of compensation which includes, package, componentsbenefits incentives, of compensation and allowancespackage, given by the incentives,tobenefits company employees. and allowances given by the company to employees. Table 2. Components of Compensation Package Description

Frequency

Percentage

Base Salary

144

72%

Leave Monetization Retirement Plan

164 29

82% 14.5%

Pension Plan

7.5%

The components of the compensation package are base salary, leave conversion, retirement plan and pension plan. Most answered compensation package received by the employees in the tourism sector is the leave

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conversion, seconded by the base salary followed by the retirement plan and then the pension plan. This indicates that the compensation plan of the employees in the tourism sector does not necessarily composed of several components, so this would mean that the offered compensation plan of the company is only limited. Such example is that the company only gives the leave he base conversion alone alone, or thethe base salarysalary aloneand or the vice versa. leave conversion conversionand alone and vice versa. Table 3. The incentives, benefits and insurance received by the employees Description

Frequency

Yes

Frequency

Incentives Receive From the company

144

28%

Benefits Received

180

90%

10%

Group Insurance

150

75%

25%

The employees employees who who received received incentives % and 28 % who does not. consist of 72 72% 28% not Incentives is one o the of the great motivator of the employees including the benefits % of benefits which which comprises comprises 90 90% the employees who confirmed that they received benefits from areare working and fromthe thecompany companythey they working only 10 % of the employees do not receive benefits and only 10% of the employees do not received from the from company. emphasizes majority benefits the This company. This that emphasizes of receive the receive benefitsthetheir company thatthem majority of them benefits their offered. employees received insurance/s companyThe offered. The who employees who received from their company are 175 outare 200 orout simply insurance/s from their company 175 200 75 % of the respondents. This means the or simply 75% of the respondents. Thisthat means remaining 25 % do25% notdo received insurance from that the remaining not received insurance their from company. their company. Generally speaking, mostly of the employees received incentives, incentives,benefits benefitsand andinsurances insurances are given given the company. This indicates a positive by theby company. This indicates a positive result result the company fora having positive for the for company for having positivearesponse response from the employees whom are the keen observers in terms of the compensation packages in the company. The employees serve as critiques and asset of the company since they are the one who make the production or the reason why the

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company operates. For For this reason, the company company must continue must continue to to offer offer an an attractive attractive compensation compensation in order order to to retain retain the the employees. employees. in Table 4. Incentives received by the employees Description

Frequency

Percentage

Gym membership Cash Payroll Pension Plan Gifts Cards Training VIP Parking Travel

4 152 36 16 64 10 2 6

2% 76% 18% 8% 32% 5% 1% 3%

The most incentive received by the employees in the tourism sector is the cash that comprises of 76 % of of the the employees. employees. The The employees employees received 76% received cash followed by the gift certificates which 32 cash followed by the gift certificates which isis 32% % and payroll that is 18 % and so on and so forth and payroll that is 18% and so on and so forth that only comprises with only small percentage. that only comprises with only small percentage. This indicates that the major incentives given by This indicates that the major incentives given by the employees from the tourism sector are the the employeesoffrom sector are The the combination cashthe andtourism gift certificates. combination of cash and gift certificates. The incentives such as travel, VIP parking and free incentives such as travel, and with free vacation maybe only givenVIP to parking employees vacation maybe only given to employees with high position in the company. This indicates that high theemployees company. (see This Graph indicates that of theposition 72 % ofinthe 2) who answered theyemployees received incentives, of the 72%that of the (see Graphmajority 2) who of them isthat receiving cash incentives as amajority way of answered they received incentives, rewarding employees. Generally, out of the of them is the receiving cash incentives as way of incentives mentioned above cash incentives was rewarding the employees. Generally, out of the given to the employees. incentives mentioned above cash incentives was given to the employees. Table 5. Benefits given by the company Description

Frequency

Percentage

Hotel Board and Lodging Take home Vehicle Sick leave Profit Sharing Tuition Reimbursement Social Security Housing

8 2 130 6 4 94 --

4% 1% 65% 3% 2% 47% 0%

Aside from the incentives they received, received, they also also receive receivebenefits benefitsfrom fromtheir theircompany. company. see insick table above, sick leave has As what tablewe 5 can shows, leave has the largest

percentage which composed 129 employees the largest percentage which ofcomposed of 129 out of the 190 employees who agreed that they employees out of the 190 employees who agreed received from the company. Next in line that theybenefits received benefits from the company. was social comprises 47 % of Next the in line wassecurity the socialthat security that comprises the This indicates that that though the 47%employees. of the employees. This indicates though employees received benefits however it is limited. the employees received benefits however it is The more benefits employees are receiving limited. The more the benefits the employees are the eager the the eager employees to work. to It is likewise receiving the employees work. It is an advantage for the for employees to work with likewise an advantage the employees to work benefits for their return of their investment as a with benefits for their return of their investment form of performance. as a form of performance. The hotel board and lodging only comprises 4 %,take-home take-home vehicle vehicle for for 1 %, profit profit sharing 4%, 1%, is only 33% % which which indicates indicates that that few employees are only with such benefits. This may be given totoemployees employees with with higher higher ranks ranks in the tourism sector. This indicates that when an employee is not yet at the higher rank the employee only receives limited benefits from their employers. Table 6. Allowances received by the company Description

Frequency

Percentage

Home Leave Allowance

12%

Educational Allowance

Relocation Allowance

104

52%

Spouse Assistance

In terms of allowances allowances received received by by the the employees in the tourism sector, mostly of the employees received a relocation allowance which 52% comprises of 52 % of of the the employees. employees. The other allowances such as home leave allowance for 12%, only 12 %, housing housing allowance is 33% % and spouse assistance is 11%. This indicates that %. This indicates that when an employee will be reassigned in another place or branch of their company or any circumstances, the company is capable in giving a relocation allowance. This Thisisis a method in order give a method in order to giveto option option for the employee choosetowhether to for the employee to choosetowhether accept the accept the other job or thearound. other This way isaround. job or the way becauseThis the is because the advantage the isjob advantage of accepting theofjobaccepting is that there a is that there is a relocation allowance. Though relocation allowance. Though some allowances somenot allowances notlevel of theofsame of the are of the are same the level relocation relocation allowance, will be considered as allowance, these willthese be considered as limited limited only towho those who and qualify competent only to those qualify are and competent.

Landero, M. A. G., Villarmente, P. A., Gulle, M. G. O. and Tangaro, J. L.

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tourismofsector. the system payment in the tourism sector.

Table 7. Insurances offered by the company Description

Frequency

Percentage

Vision

10%

Medical

40%

Dental

10%

Life Insurance Disability

156 16

78% 8%

The company also offered also a group group oneof of life insurance that insurance; one thisthis is lifeisinsurance that consist consist 200employees employeesreceived. received. For 156156 out out of of 200 the medical insurance 40 % received, received, 10% 10 % for 40% the vision, 10 % for the dental, % for for the 10% dental and 88% disability. This indicates that the majority of the employees received a life insurance and only some of the employees received exclusively the vision, dental and the disability insurance. These insurances offered in the tourism sector are an indicator for the employees that they are secured. The insurance is an important aspect in the compensation package for the employees since these may add to their motivation in working into the company. Table 8: Compensation payment system Description

Frequency

Percentage

Fixed Pay System

194

97%

Variable Pay System Balance-Debt Method

158 12

79% 6%

AA Attribution

There are different differentpayment paymentsystem systemused usedinin the company, these these are fixed pay system, variable pay system and the balanced debt system. Fixed pay system is one of the compensation payment systems that get the highest percentage which 97%. is 97 %. The The fixed fixed pay pay system system is is the salary an employee gets on the monthly basis that is why thereâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s no wonder that the fixed pay salary system thereisnowonderthatthefixedpaysalarysystem hand, thethe percentage on the is higher. higher.On Onthe theother other hand, percentage on variable pay system hits 79% next to the fixed pay the variable pay system hits 79 % next to the salary.pay Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ssalary. because the variable is in apay form fixed It is because thepay variable is of incentives based on givenon information in a form of and incentives andthe based the given of the employees in the tourism sector who information of the employees in the72% tourism agreed that their company has an incentive plan. sector 72 % who agreed that their company has Thisincentive indicatesplan. that fixed and thethat variables an This pay indicates fixed pay is a combination used system of payment and the variables payinisthe a combination used in

Table 9. Average bonus rate Description

Frequency

Percentage

P 15,000-Above

P 15,001-P 20,000 P 10,001-P 15,000 0-P 10,000

31 52 107

15.5% 26% 53.5%

The employees confirmed that their company has a bonus plan % who plan (see (see table table 1). 1). These These 93 93% agreed that there is a bonus plan, there consists 54% 54 %who who received received less less than than P10, P10, 000.00 in the orm of fform of cash. cash. There There are are 52 employees out of the 200 respondents respondentswho whoreceived receivedmore more than than P10, P10, 000.00 cash but not more than P15, 000.00 and only 31 employees out of 200 received a bonus which is more than P15, 000.00. By looking at the figures above, the bonuses received by the employees are cheaper. This indicates that the tourism sectors offer only low bonuses except may be to those exceptionally deserving for the designed bonus. Generally, the bonus received by the employee is a cost of the company but happiness for the workforce. Giving importance to the employees is like making them feel that they are worth keeping. It serves a reward for them annually and recognition as well. The higher the bonus the more motivated the employees are. Impact of compensation to employees. This presentation presentation shows the impact of shows the impact of impact compensation to toananemployee of compensation employee that that includes awareness of compensation package, satisfaction of compensation and the attractiveness of compensation of the company. company. Table10. Awareness, satisfaction and attractiveness of the compensation. Description

Frequency

Yes

Frequency

Awareness of compensation package

194

97%

Satisfaction of compensation

178

89%

11%

Attractiveness of the company

144

72%

28%

compensation benefits are actually satisfied. actually satisfied. There might be reasons why the employees stay in The employees who rate the compensation the company. One of the reasons why employees package as an attractive % stay in their works t the tourism sectors maybe attractive one one comprises comprises of of 72 72% that actually means that these are the people their attachment to their job and their dedication who would stay in the company since they are and passion. 200 202 satisfied with what they received. However, UV Journal theseof Research The sense of belongingness in the company 28 % who who said said that that the the compensation packages may trigger the decision of an employee to 28% they receive are not attractive but actually cheap. rather stay in the company. There are situation service 12. Years of Service These are the one who are not satisfied of what Table sometimes that an employee may consider such they received and at the end will resign due to as theyDescription feel that they Frequency are fully secured in the Percentage cheaper compensation package. These are the company the compensation package. 0-3disregarding years 40 20% people who feel that their performance does not There are 3-5also years internal factors 30 why people 15%remain 6-8 years 130 65% break even on the compensation package they in the company. received. In terms of service, the employees lasted for 6-8 years as for the majority of the employees. In Table 11. Rate of the compensation package the current level of the compensation package, the Description Frequency Percentage employees seem to choose to stay in the company.. Excellence --There might be reasons why the employees stay in Very Good 44 22% the company. One of the reasons why employees Good 129 64.5% stay in their works in the tourism sectors maybe Fair 13 6.5% employees who saydedication that they theirThe attachment job and their majority to of their Poor 12 6% and motivated are passion. are 138 out of 200 employees. On The employees rate their compensation the other hand, only 27 27 employees that The othersense hand, of only belongingness employees inconfirmed theconfirmed company benefits as good wherein there are 129 out of that they are highly motivated and may they trigger arethe highly decision motivated of 27 an employees and employee also are 27 to 200 of employees who confirmed. There are employees not motivated. From the graphs and are tables above, rather stay are in the notcompany. motivated. There From thesituation graphs 44 employees who say itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s very good and 12 and the researchers thatmay theconcluded compensation sometimes tables above, that concluded anthe employee researchers consider such that employees for fair and lastly, 12 employees says the packages of that the employees arethe not employees attractive as they compensation feel they packages are fully of secured in the it poor. This indicates that those employees who are although some employees say they are being company not attractive disregarding although the compensation some employees package. say say they are satisfied with their compensation they motivated andinternal satisfiedfactors but those figures There are arebeing also motivated andseeing satisfied why people butremain seeing package for about 78% (see table 3) only rate their those above, their testimonies doestestimonies not reallydo justify figures above, their not in the company. compensation as good. Therefore, the employees really to what theywhat said. they If ansaid. expert will be going justify If an expert goes to Table 13. Rate of motivation are just satisfied to what they are receiving and examine these results, probably the same would these results, probably the same will not trying to evaluate their compensation. A come out Description into her/his mouth. Frequency Percentage truly satisfied employee would actually rate their High-motivated 27 13.5% compensation package as very good or excellent. Motivated 138 69% Not motivated

The employees rate their compensation benefits as good wherein there are 129 out of 200 of employees who confirmed. There are 44 employees who say it is very good and 12 employees for fair and lastly, 12 employees says it is poor. This indicates that those employees who say they are satisfied with their compensation package for about 78 % (see table 3) onlyrate their compensation as good. Therefore, the employees are just satisfied to what they are receiving and not trying to evaluate their compensation. A truly satisfied employee would actually rate their compensation package as very good or excellent.

13.5%

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Landero, M. A. G., Villarmente, P. A., Gulle, M. G. O. and Tangaro, J. L.

VI. CONCLUSION The compensation package of employees in the tourism sector is just limited based on the beinggathered gatheredand and interpreted. information being interpreted. The The majority of the employee was given benefits majority of the employees was given benefits and and incentives butjust is just limited according to incentives but are limited according to their their position the number yearsexistence of their position and theand number of years of their existence in the company. Theof number of service in the company. The number years in of the employees does not really compliment of the compensation package they received. The employees focus more on the service they provide to the clients or to the organization. Therefore the compensation package given by the employees in the tourism sector is not attractive and competent as other sectors are offering. Although the employees are satisfied with their compensation package due to the fact that the benefits given are just limited, it can be defined that the character of the employees are just being contented on what they will received or in a state of mediocrity. bythe theemployees employees The benefits given by areare an an advantage for them in a advantage for them to staytoforstay longfor in along company. company. On hand, the other hand, theonly employees On the other the employees received onlyinreceived in terms of of benefits. In case less terms ofless benefits. In case incentives, the of incentives, the tourism employees in received the tourism employees in the sector only sector only only less as from the company less from thereceived company as well incentives. It can andinferred as well that as incentives. canbeing be inferred that be employeesItare considerate employees arepackaged being considerate of employee’s the benefit of the benefit received. The packaged received. The employee’s awareness awareness of their compensation package is an of their compensation package an important important factor to consider as anisemployee. The factor to the consider as an employee. The fact that fact that satisfaction rates of the employees the satisfaction rates of theunderstand employees what are high, are high, the employees the the employeesofunderstand what thepackage components components the compensation are. of the compensation package These benefit These benefit package surelyare. determines the package surely determine the employees’ employees’ performance. performance. The management offers benefits, incentives management benefits, incentives and The insurances to the offers employees in the tourism and insurance to the in the tourism sector. These are usedemployees by the management to sector. employees These are to used theinmanagement to entice stayby long the company. entice employees stayserve long as in athe company. As a matter of fact,tothese motivation of As aemployees matter of fact, these serve of the to perform wellasina motivation the company. the employee employeescan to perform in the company. An never bewell motivated of the An employee can never be motivated of the poor compensation package. Like in universities poorstate compensation Like in universitiesa and colleges orpackage. in any other institutions, and state colleges or motivated in any other institutions, a student will never be to go to school if

the environment doesbenot compliment satisfy student would never motivated to goor to school their expectations does of the student. The impact of if the environment not compliment or satisfy theircompensation the expectations package of the student. in the tourism The impact sector of thea compensation is factor that canpackage motivate in an theemployee tourism sector for a is a factor that can motivate an employee for a better performance. better performance. originality index: similarity index:

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paper id:

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REFERENCES Compensation systems: Designs and goals. (n.d.). Retrived January 12, 2014 from http://hrcouncil.ca/hrtoolkit/compensation-systems.cfm Creaco, S., & Querini, G. (2003). The role of tourism in sustainable economic development. Retrieved December 29, 2013 from http://ideas. repec.org/p/wiw/wiwrsa/ersa03p84.html Diamante, M., & Tan, G. (2007). Human resource management: Local and global perspectives. C&E Publication. Frye M.B. (2004). Equity-based compensation for employees: Firm performance and determinants. The Journal of Financial Research, 27(1), 3154. Gupta, N. (2013). A study of employee retention with special reference to Indian Tourism Industry. Retrieved January 3, 2014 from http://www. euacademic.org/UploadArticle/67.pdf Heathfield, S. (n.d.). Compensation. Retrieved December 28, 2013 from http://humanresources.about. com/od/glossaryc/g/compensation.htm Johnson, A. (n.d.). Offer employee benefits to stay competitive in the labour market. Retrieved January 4, 2014 from https://www.go2hr. ca/articles/offer-employee-benefits-staycompetitive-labour-market Koontz, H., & Weihrich, H. (2005). Management: An international Perspective. New Delhi: McGrawHill Education. Prasetya A., & Kato .M. (July 2011). The effect of financial and non- financial compensation to the employee performance. The 2nd International Research Symposium in Service Management. Yogyakarta, INDONESIA.

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Pratt, L. (2011). Tourism: Investing in energy and resource efficiency. Retrieved January 2, 2014 from http://chrismagero.wordpress.com/2011/12/21/ tourism-investing-in-energy-and-resourceefficiency/ Scowsill, D. (2013). WTTC: Travel & tourism industry must grasp the mantle of leadership in order to influence. Retrieved December 30, 2013 from http://www.eturbonews.com/34222/wttc-traveltourism-industry-must-grasp-mantle-leadershiporderVillanueva, E. (2010). Compensation and benefit. (2013). Retrieved December 28, 2013 from http://cthrc. ca/en/labour_market_information/compensation Wages and salaries (n.d.). Retrieved December 26, 2013 from http://hr.columbia.edu/policies/hr-manual/ wages-and-salaries Weihrich, H., & Koontz H. (2010). Management: A global, innovative and entrepreneurial perspective. New Delhi: McGraw Hill Education Private Limited/ SDR Printers.

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Quality of service and its effect on stakeholderâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s relationships in the Office of the Security and Safety Group of X University Queen Queen Heneylour Heneylour S. Relatorres Donald Donald B. Narra Leah Leah G. Villalon College of Criminal Justice Education University of the Visayas drelattores@gmail.com Date Submitted: March 21, 2014

Date of acceptance: June 30, 2014

Through the years, the functions of the office of Security and Safety Group have evolved from the position of a general security and safety measures to protect the University community from physical harm, damage, theft and exposure to nuisance, possible immoral and illegal activities, and associations. For having huge responsibilities for exercising the general security in the University to ensure that its functions are within the scope of the general rules and regulations. The demand is a strategic and ethical management that aims to improve the efficiency in the day-toâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;day operations of the Security and Safety office which is quite a difficult task for the personnel. The study used descriptive method which is designed and enabled the researches to describe or present the picture of phenomena under investigation. Descriptive research focuses on individual subjects and goes into great depth and detail in describing them that contains knowledge about past or present activities of producing or using a service but does not much help for modifying it to correspond better to latest requirement. The findings of the study show that the SSG office of the University of the Visayas should restore a structural organization and functions based on the proposal for improvement and should align with the philosophy and mission of the institution. All the personnel should be oriented about them extensively and sincerely. Keywords: damages, nuisance, physical harm, safety, theft I. INTRODUCTION The quality of service is quite playing a vital role in the development of organization. The development depends to some extent on the efficiency and effectiveness of work and training of the employees. Most employees of organization are comfortable of performing their job without following a documented

procedure or instruction. They find it easier to work without filing forms, making records or preparing reports. This might be an easy way of working, but does it really benefit them? Does this short-term convenience improve efficiency, reduce operating costs, or increase long-term benefits? Through the years, the functions of the

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office of Security and Safety Group have evolved from the position of a general security and safety measures to protect the University community from physical harm, damage, theft and exposure to nuisance, possible immoral and illegal activities, and associations. For having the huge responsibilities for exercising the general security in the University to ensure that its functions are within the scope of the general rules and regulations. In the pursuit of its functions, the office of Security and Safety Group intend to strictly (1) implement the University policies on wearing of school uniform and ID to ensure at least 90 % of the students comply with the requirements; (2) ensure the presence of at least 90 to 100 % SSG personnel rendering 8 hours of daily duty and leave the post only when there is a substitute any from the SSG personnel; (3) resolve at least 80 % of the incidents that happened inside the campus which are promptly reported; (4) apply supervisory authority through the Chief Security Officer directing to its uniform and civilian members of the group to implement the safety and security within the premises; (5) help preserve and maintain peace and order of the school and in protection of students, faculty, staff, administrative officials including the physical plant and property of the institution; (6) evaluate, review and monitor regularly the security, safety and emergency response unit to ensure continual efficacy, thus, regular emergency drills are conducted; and (7) keep the University sheltered with protection at all times, as the basic mandate among all. II. THEORETICAL FRAMWORK The evolution of the function of the office of Security and Safety Group has created so much impact insofar as requirements and expectation of the office of Security and Safety Group today are concerned. It is now regarded as responsible for securing, updating and maintaining the peacefulness of the University. Expectations of the students, faculty, staff, administrative

officials and other clientele are rapidly increasing that the office of Security and Safety has to stretch its limits to provide them with the best service possible in support of the missionvision of the institution. In order to attain this vision, Security and Safety Group should be able to provide a safe workplace in order to minimize if not prevent the occurrence of accident in its facilities which could be a cause of many losses and could undermine the safety, reliability, and quality of its service. To attain the goal of preventing incidents by keeping a safe working environment, Security and Safety Group started implementing industrial safety R.A. 5487 or Private Security Agency law which regulates the organization, operation business and activities of private detective, watchman or security guard agencies in the Philippines, states that Security Education is very important. The exposure and teaching of the employees on security and is relevance to their work is highly-recommended. Plant security is everyoneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s concern, and to be effective, employees cooperation and participation are required. That in its facilitated in the early 1960â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s known as UV police. When Security and Safety Group started its formal safety program, the guidelines in implementing the safety program were just continued in circulars. These circulars were issued in a hodgepodge manner, i.e. these were issued only when the need arises. Each of these circulars was for a specific act only. In view of the forgoing, the primary objectives of a Security and Safety Group program, is attaining and maintaining a safe work place. A safe workplace does contribute a lot in the reduction of the number of accidents. The number accidents and the corresponding losses reflect the level of safety of the institution. The safety program should be comprehensive enough to preclude the unsafe acts and safe act conditions in the institution. Determining how comprehensive and how adequate

Relat orr es, Q. H . S., Narra, D. and V illalon, L.

safety program poses a challenge both to the management and the employee. According to the management Peter Drucker (2005), the basic task of management is two folds:(a) marketing and (b) innovation. It means that through a quality service approach to management clearly stresses client satisfaction, employee involvement and innovation. In this approach, all employees contribute to the management and quality of their own output and, thus the success of the organization. Strong growing evidence suggests that a quality approach to management can yield dramatic results. For having a huge responsibility of implementing the general security of the university. This demands a strategic and ethical management that aims to improve the efficiency in the day-to-day operations of the Security and Safety office which is quite a difficult task for the personnel. In addition to the difficult task which constitutes in efficiency of services, there

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are behavioral constraints, which according to David Nadler and Edward Lawler (2001), behavior is determined by a combination of factors in the individual and in the environment that individual decides between alternative that will lead to a desired outcome. For this reason, organization must need to employ development strategies on how to actuate personnel behavior for better services. It is our true hope that if this study supports the significant interplay of the work values and services committed, then it is the intention to come with an innovative program to the administration for appropriate implementation. The office of Security and Safety Group should strive to actuate an environment that promotes harmony and peace. They should seek to deliver quality service that is courteous, efficacious, and prompt. We are concerned for the development intervention to strengthen the service commitment of the office of University of the Visayas Security and Safety Group.

Figure 1. The schematic diagram

Functions of the office of the SSG Knowledge about past or present activities Implementation of NO ID NO ENTRY POLICY Resolution of Incident Responsibilities during disaster/emergencies Professional standard of the office of the SSG

The competing values framework of Robert Quinn and Rohr Baugh Dimensions in quality service Models of organizational management

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The most complex element of a value resides within the quality component for a company. Thus, quality is merely what it is that makes a product or service “worse”. Definitely, clienteles are attentive to literal qualities of the product or service but they are also interested on how that product will be delivered. The point is that satisfaction is not only about focusing largely on product element but also includes those issues that are influenced by a company’s channel system (Reidenbach & Goeke, 2005). Satisfaction could also be viewed as the clientele’s feeling about the value which is communicated to the clientele then should cover what should be delivered to its clientele. In this way, clientele satisfaction tells an organization how well clienteles feel that anticipated values. These are driven by quality spectacles and therefore drive satisfaction in return are communicated through advertisement. According to Dodds (2003), consistent quality services given to the clienteles are the total experience of what clienteles receives for what they pay, thus considered as the value equation. To satisfy clients immediately with regard to documents needed, these are promising practices for administrative such as, creating and enhancing data based on students via web-based system to track aid types, introduce a continues enrollment policies, which serve as the students to stay on track and work collaboratively with their mentors toward their final goal of completely the degree (Council of Graduates, 2008). Miles and Snow (1972) and Bryson (1988) advocated that certain leaders should opt for an incremental process of change because the leaders responded only when needs and opportunities became clear and unequivocal. The final version reflects extensive consultation with employees. It now reflects the basic principles we all want to follow in delivering quality services. Delivering relevant, responsive, accessible and affordable quality services is

not an easy task given today’s environment of discerning citizens’ fiscal’s restraints and downsizing. However, based on the federal public service international reputation for excellence, the many departmental success to date, and the international reputation for excellence, the many department successes to date, and the enthusiasm with which public service employees are working to improve the delivery of services. This overview to the quality services series of guides establishes a context for adopting a quality service approach in management. Building on departmental successes to data, these guides will provide, where available examples, references and best practices. We plan to add other guides to the quality services series, which you can use as tools to plan for action. In fact, we are currently working in two additional guides: (a) a guide to quality services in a regulatory environment; and (b) a guide to identify and interact with the many client groups serve by the public sector. Design is what Simon (1969), and Nadler and Hibino (1990) contended in the process of responding to a problem. It tends to be narrow rather than comprehensive; it does not negate the assessment and reformation of criteria to determine program effectiveness in planning. Quality service organizations instead ask their clients while managing their expectations; supporting active employee involvement in meeting those needs; improving employee innovations and processes continuously; cultivating a “people first” environment where teamwork is valued; accepting the risk associated with innovations; support a continuous learning environment; and providing visible leadership for employees which is crucial to the success of any quality services initiative. Leaders in quality service organizations ensure that clients’ needs and expectations are identified and managed, and they measure how

Relat orr es, Q. H . S., Narra, D. and V illalon, L.

employeesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; suggestions geared improvements. Leaders create a quality services culture by ensuring that system needs to meet departmental or government wide policies are in place; that these systems reflect the goals and values of quality improvement; that appropriate feedback mechanisms such as those that encourage upward feedback, and improvement suggestions are in place; and that appropriate accountability measure such as effective performance agreement and appraisals are used. This focus on internal structure is crucial, as the organizations are able to provide quality services to external clients which depend on the quality of the organizations internal services delivering structure. Owen (1995) also said that quality requires a trained workface, and the assessment and meeting of their training needs are vital for success. Personnel of human resource is responsible for implementing and delivering a positive training policy that aims to develop the employees for the operation and growth of the business. In most organization, process operations are controlled by people who have been specifically trained to undertake the works. These may not need written instruction in such cases. Training may eliminate the need for written instructions, but the manner in which competence of personnel is established must still be defined (Hodgskinson, 1997). According to Sack (1997), long detailed work instructions, data sheets, equipment operating instructions, checklists, process records, lots and cost of paper works are not a requirement. Responsibility for quality starts at the top. The executives of the organization have to take or board the responsibility for quality. To make it happen they have to define their policy, be committed to it and be involved in making it happen. Top management has to show all employees that they take quality

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seriously. For this to happen, it is vital that communication is efficient, in placed and seen to be operating, and that management shows they place quality first. It is no good just talking about it, it is necessary to show that you mean it, are committed to it and are involved in achieving it. Agreeing and describing a clear chain of concerned have, for many companies, been one of the most significant benefits of ISO 9000 (Patterson, 1995). It frequently leads to more efficient use of existing resources and provides an opportunity to measure the real effectiveness of management. Anyone entering the Security and Safety Group office for the first time gains an immediate impression of the general atmosphere, culture, or ethos in which SSG personnel and staff work. Simon (2002) pointed out that the sense of atmosphere, or psychosocial context, cannot be separated from the physical environmentâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;building, classrooms, shops, laboratories, studios, offices, grounds, and so on. The initial impression gained will undergo considerable modification as the supervisor observes the school in operation and as subsequent visits are made. The supervisor will discern both the formed and informal organization arrangement and interaction, and may begin to find specific patterns of behavior, interaction, and evidence. Moreover, the school cannot be understood apart from the community and the wide culture in which in functions. In receiving the research on quality service, Anderson (2003) noted the many gaps and the nuclear evidence concerning the interaction of variables to create positive clientele outcomes. Nevertheless, she concluded on a positive note that despite the often confusing array of findings and methods in the research for quality services, the picture that emerges is beginning to take on destruct features. Certain characteristics of life are recurring in the research in association with both climate and outcomes. Alexander (1985) had pointed out; the trouble of implementing planned

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change arises one a combination of these point out; the from trouble ofor implementing planned change arises from one or a combination of these problems: problems: “…inadequate leadership, failing o see major problems hat can block or delay action, poor condition of implementation activities, lack of skill in individuals who carry out the implementation, lack of logistical support, and lack of political will to accept and initiate change.” In order for this to happen, the perception and interpretation of management must jibe with the thinking (Hollnsteiner, as Hollnsteiner1993) (1993) said: says: “Before people can change, hey must first be able to think about it within their own minds and then be able to talk about it with others, this is the time when management must start the reorientation process.” To be realistic, realistic, itit should should undergo undergo certain stages ones perceived performance gaps have have been identified. The transforms, i. e., the planned change method, the solutions, and consequences are immediately identified. Strategies, policies, and plans describe the distinct planned change effort that is undertaken undertaken at at the the SSG SSG office. office. AsAsa aresult resultofofthis, this,the thestrategy strategyisisdepicted depicted as as the key idea (Ansoff, 1994) 1994)that that captures captures the activities of planned change in a comprehensive manner manner.. It emerges from a stream of choices made by emerges from a stream of choices made key key people in the SSG SSG office andand supported by by people in the office supported Academic and by Academic andAdministrative Administrative division divisionsof of the University.Theory University. Theory of service means knowledge of what is permanent and normal in producing a service, traditionally, this knowledge has been accumulated in tacit form in the professional skills of the people involved in the act but today today more and more of it is being documented in writing by researchers. II. The Study The main aim of the study was to determine

the quality of service and its effect on stakeholder relationship in the office of Security and Safety Group, University of the Visayas. More specifically the following sub-problems are raised: 1. What isis the the profile profile of of the the personnel of 1. What Securityand andSafety SafetyGroup? Group?; Security 2. What is is the quality of service offered 2. What offered by the office of Security and Safety Group?; the office of Security and Safety Group? 3. What extent extentdoes doesthe theoffice office of of Security 3. What andSafety SafetyGroup, Group,University Universityof of the the Visayas Visayas and maintainsharmonious harmoniousrelationships? relationships?; maintains 4. What are are problems the problems encountered in 4. What encountered in the the office of Security andsafety SafetyGroup Group in office of Security and connection with with the the performance performance of the connection aforementioned services services and and with the aforementioned corresponding extent of service?; corresponding extent of service? and 5. designed based based on on 5. What What proposal may be designed thefindings findingsof ofthe thestudy? study? the III. Methods The studyisuses the used descriptive method This study primarily the descriptive of research which which designed andand enabled method of research designs enable the researchers describeororpresent present picture researches totodescribe the the picture of a of phenomena investigation. Descriptive phenomenon or under phenomena under investigation”. research focuses on individual and goes Descriptive research focusessubjects on individual into greatand depth describing them subjects goesand intodetail great indept and detail in that contains knowledge aboutknowledge past or present describing them that contains about activities of producing or using a serviceorbut doesa past or present activities of producing using not much for much modifying it to correspond service but help does not help for modifying it to better to latest requirement. correspond better to latest requirement. Quality thereby thereby isis a a clienteleclientele-preferred preferred performance and functions which are also dependable and as Yang and reliable. reliable.Quality Quality as (2000) Yang noted, onlyisaonly parta of never less, it (2000) is noted, partvalue of value never less, is it isa asubjective subjectiveterm termthat that has has a physiological component ..Overall Overall clientele opinion of a quality of a particular product or service is called the perceived perceived quality quality which is regarded as a better indicator of of clientele clientele values. values.Perceive Perceived quality quality is is foundationofoftheir their satisfaction satisfaction; hence hence, poor thethefoundation quality equates to dissatisfaction. The descriptive theory was substantiated by the documentary analysis method because existing records were

Relat orr es, Q. H . S., Narra, D. and V illalon, L.

perused to identify the enrich the respondents, respondents, to to enrich the study and help in the analysis of data. The questionnaire was used as an instrument of data collection. Environment. We Weconducted conductedthethe study study in the in theoffice office of Security of Security andand Safety Safety Group, Group, University University of the Visayas ,Cebu City. of the Visayas ,Cebu City. The University of the Visayas Visayas was the first school to be held as first university in Cebu. In the early 1960’s they facilitated what we called UV police. When Security and Safety Group started its formal program, the guidelines in implementing the safety program were just continued in circulars. These circulars were issued in a hodgepodge manner, i.e. these were issued only when where the the need need arises. arises. The The determination of quality of service and its effect on stakeholder’s relationship will be documented in the area. Sample/Participants. We approached potentials respondents through the help of the dean and head head of of Security Security and and Safety Group. The respondents were: (1) students ;( 2) Faculty faculty; and (3) Administrators administrators in the University of the Visayas. Table 1. 1. Respondents Respondents of of the the Study study Frequency (F)

Percentage (%)

Students

70 %

Faculty

20 %

Administrators

10 %

100

100 %

Respondents

Total

Instrument. wasused used as Instrument. The The questionaire questioner was as an an instrument data collectionThe andquestionnaire contains four instrument of of data collection. parts: contains four parts. Part the Part 1 1 contains contains questions questions regarding regarding the profile of the personnel of the Security and Safety profile of the personnel of the Security and Safety GroupUniversity GroupUniversity of of the the Visayas; Visayas. Part 2 contains Part 2 contains questions questions regarding regarding the the assessment of the quality of services assessment of the quality of services delivered delivered within Group, within the the office office of of Security Security and and Safety Safety Group, University of the Visayas. Each question of this part University of the Visayas. Each question of this part is is followed followed by by aa number number of of responses responses corresponding corresponding

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to each numeric scales withwith the the eachresponse responseareare numeric scales following qualitative equivalents: equivalents. 55 ––Excellent that from 81 81% % to to Excellent(E) (E)means means that from 100 % the the service service; 100% 44 –– Very % to Very Good Good (VG) (VG) means meansthat thatfrom from61 61% 80 % the the service service of of the the office of Security 80% and and Safety Group meet your expectation in in half half of of the the cases; cases. 33 -- Good % to to 60 % Good (G) (G) means means that that from from 41 41% 60% the the services services of the the office office of of Security Security and and Safety Safety Group Group meet meet your your expectation expectation in half cases; half of the cases. 22 – Fair (F) means means that that from % to % from 21 21% to 40 40% the the services services of the office of Security and Safety Safety Group meet your expectations in a few few cases; cases. and 1Poor(P) (P)means meansthat thatfrom from1% 1% to 20the % 1- Poor to 20% the services officeofofSecurity Security and services of of thethe office Safety not; in anyway, meetmeet your SafetyGroup Groupdodo not; in anyway, expectations. your expectations . Part 3 contains questions regarding the assessment on the stakeholder’s relationship within the office of Security Security and and Safety Safety Group, Group,University University of the Visayas; the questions in this part are followed by aa numbers to each item numbersofofitems. items.Corresponding Corresponding to each is numeric scale with item is numeric scale withthe thefollowing following qualitative equipments: equipments. 55 –– Very Very Great GreatExtent Extent(VGE) (VGE)means meansthat that from % to 100 % the the harmonious from 81 81% 100% relationship relationship of of the office of Security and Safety Safety Group meet your expectations in all all cases; cases. 44 – Great Extent Extent(GE) (GE)means meansthat thatfrom from61% 61 % to to 80 the % the harmonious relationship of 80% harmonious relationship of the the office of Security and Safety Group office of Security and Safety Group meet meet your expectations the majority of your expectations in the in majority of cases. cases; 3 – Moderate Extent (ME) means that from 3 – Moderate Extent (ME) meansrelationship that from 41% to 60% the harmonious 41 % to 60 % the harmonious relationship of the office of Security and Safety Group of theyour officeexpectations of Security in and Safety Group meet a few cases. meetExtents your expectations a few cases; 2 – Less (LE) means in that from 21% to 2 – Less (LE) meansrelationship that from 21of%the to 40%Extents the harmonious 40 % the harmonious relationship of the office of Security and Safety Group meet office of Security and Group meet your expectations in a Safety few cases. a fewthe cases; and 1 – your Neverexpectations (N) meansinthat harmonious

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1 – Never (N) means that the harmonious relationship of the office of Security and Safely Group does not; in anyway, meet your expectations. Part 4 contains questions regarding the problems encountered in the office of Security and Safety Group in connection with the performance of the services and their corresponding extent of seriousness. Each question in this part is followed by a number of items. Corresponding to each item is numeric scale with the following qualitative equivalents: 5 – Very serious means that from 81 % to 100 % the problems encountered affect in all cases the clienteles; 4 – Serious means that from 61 % to 80 % the problems encountered affect in the majority of cases theclienteles; 3 – Moderately serious means that from 41 % to 60 % the problems encountered affect in half of the cases of clienteles; 2 – Less serious means that from 21 % to 40 % the problems affect in half of the cases in the clienteles of Security and Safety Group; and 1 – Not serious means that from 1 % to 20 % the problems encountered do not affect the clienteles of the office of Security and Safety Group. Part 5 contains a final question for the innovations which may be introduced in the office of Security and Safety Group. In the formulation process, the researchers used the 2007 Quality

Policy/ Objective and Procedures manual of regulation by Quality Management Review of University of the Visayas as the primarily source of information Data Analysis. We collected the accomplished questionnaires and we processed the following: simple percentage was utilized to treat the gathered data regarding on the quality of services; clientele relationships of the Security and Safety Group office and the problems encountered in the performance of the functions and responsibilities of the SSG office; ranking was used to determine the relative positions of the values recommendations of the respondents based on priority; weighted mean was resorted to in order to make an appraisal of the degree to which the problems adversely affect the operations of the Security and Safety Group office in all cases; and the study of five-point scale to assess the quality of services delivered by the offices of SSG. Procedure. We utilized convenience sampling in the determination of the respondents of the study. The respondents were the students, faculty and the administrators. They were selected according in their availability to visit the office of Security and Safety Group, on the other hand, the universal sampling was utilized in the case of the administrators. The researchers personally asked for the approval of the administrator and university chief security officer through a letter duly endorsed by the researchers with the notification by the dean of College of Criminal Justice Education.

Fig 2. Conceptual paradigm Inputs • Profile of the personnel • The quality of services offered by the office of SSG • The clientele relationship in the office of SSG • Problems encountered by the personnel of the office of SSG

Process • Data gathering (survey questionnaire) tabulation, analysis; • and Interpretation of gathered data

FEEDBACK

Output • Proposed measures to Enhance the Services of the Security and Safety Group office

Relat orr es, Q. H . S., Narra, D. and V illalon, L.

After the required authorization was secured, we presented the questionnaires to some faculty and students of the University of the Visayas. We requested some personnel of the office of Security and Safety Group to do the distribution and retrieval of the questionnaire. The moment all the measuring data were already in the possession, we proceeded to statistically describe, collect, treat, analyze and interpret the result of the light of the rationale of the study. The researchers exerted every possible effort to produce an objective and logical narrative grounded on the finding of the statement. The weights assigned to the scale were taken into account. The weighted mean of each item was determined. IV. RESULTS AND FINDINGS It was deemed profitable to look into the profile of the personnel of the SSG office, University of the Visayas in order to have supplementary facts crucial to the in-depth analysis of the information provided by the respondents of the study. The study of Drucker (1909/ 2005) attested the basic task of the management has two folds: (a) marketing and (b) innovation. This point of view indicates that the profiles of the personnel and staff have some influence on the services rendered to the clienteles. We found out that majority of the personnel in the Security and Safety Group is currently connected in the Bachelor of Law. These personnel who are government employees from the different law enforcement agency rendered service in the SSG in exchange to their scholarship privilege. The foregoing data bear out the incontestable fact, that is, that the uniform personnel who belong at the Security and Safety Group at the University of the Visayas are endowed in high educational attainment. Based on data, the most common preparatory degree of the personnel during the years 2007-2010 is preferably Bachelor of Laws because most of the uniform personnel are a member of Philippine National Police (PNP) and through there schooling

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it will soar up their position. This however, being interpreted based on their program covers varied subject of concentration. Each of these subjects of concentration requires a varying nature and level of educational qualifications. Taking anchor on this it can be said that how organization help their people achieve excellence, recruitment, planning, involvement, continuous learning, innovation empowerment, feedback, recognitions and rewards are key aspects of an environment that help employees reach their full potential. What determines the educational qualifications of the personnel in terms of academic preparations are not their highest educational attainment prior to their entry but the harmonization of their performance as member of the organization to their specific areas of concentration. But Owen (1995) also said that quality requires a trained workface, and the assessment and meeting of their training needs are vital for success. Personnel of human resource are responsible for implementing and delivering a positive training policy that aims to develop the employees for the operation and growth of the business. Civilian personnel play an important role in the office of Security and Safety Group. In fact, civilian personnel roles do not end in the school but extend beyond to outside school activities. Students, faculty, and administrators’ relationships with SSG personnel are essential to successfully completing the harmonious relationship with each other. No one will argue that the desire and quest for civilian SSG personnel in attaining better services. They suffered sleepless nights and days. But, fueled and driven by their motivation to advance and grow individually and professionally, the SSG personnel stood undaunted. As expected, they did all that needs to be done. These SSG personnel gave whatever it takes. This “go for it” other known as “risk”attitude of SSG personnel ensured and secured for them their better services. SSG civilian personnel of the University of the Visayas are expected to maintain a grade of 2.5 or higher. As part of the schools commitment to quality education, the academic

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performance of the SSG personnel is evaluated periodically with their performance on services as member of Security and Safety Group. Based on data, the most common preparatory courses of civilian personnel are criminology and maritime students who show influencing factor in pursuing further education. This was being related based on their job description to their upcoming field of work. The office of Security and Safety Group emphasizing the service that related within the field of criminology, other factors that influenced the students into pursuing education are “family desire”, scholarship grants and other factors that enlighten the personnel to continue in their services and the satisfaction in return are communicated through advertisement. According to Dodds (2003), consistent quality services that the service provides given to the clienteles are the total experience of what clienteles receives for what they pay, thus considered as the value equation. The services and functions of the office designed to support and enhance the quality and integrity of services provided to the office of Security and Safety Group. Thus, Peters (2008) argued that consumer’s perception of the quality of product of service is most important factor in determining its success. Quality as defined by consumer, he argued that price is determining demand for most good and services. The foregoing data bear out the incontestable fact, that is, that the length of experience of uniform personnel of Security and Safety Group, University of the Visayas stand as basis according to the degree year level of personnel that corresponds to the length of experience of services. The findings indicated that the Security and Safety Group, University of the Visayas have both efficient and competent police force in rendering services and tenured who have honed their working skills over the years. It is also noteworthy to emphasize that there are two of the uniform personnel who belonged to the longest length of service and experience in the Security

and Safety Group within the bracket of four years and above. The tenured personnel have been in their work place for quite some time and have known their co-employees already as member of Philippine National Police (PNP). This further indicated that most of the uniform personnel joined as working students and avail the scholarship privileges granted by the University of the Visayas. The length of time and experience does not determine the standard educational qualifications of the personnel but the harmonization of their performance as member of the organization to their specific areas of concentration but (Turner 2008), believed that time is very important to enhance more in occupying services. In sure, perception of quality affects the feelings of satisfaction. Measuring quality and clientele satisfaction are undertaken to better understand how business may better understand and how to enhance clientele’s value. As the study revealed, the personnel of Security and Safety Group of the University of the Visayas have greatly influenced the performance of the SSG personnel, through there tactical trainings and services, personnel would learn and enlighten there mind in the future trainings of services. Security and Safety Group has helped the personnel in preparation with regards to the requirement of quality experiences. The same is true with regards to the matching up of the academic performance of the working students, since they are monitored by the Human Resource Development Management (HRDM), Security and Safety Group personnel would try hard to maintain the required grades to continue availing the privileges granted by the University of the Visayas. Going into the particular of the length of experience, same as those of uniform personnel, Security and Safety Group civilian personnel occupies the length of experience according to the length of degree year level as taken by them. They were serving as working student, rendering eighth hours of duty daily according to their job description. The Security and Safety Group,

Relat orr es, Q. H . S., Narra, D. and V illalon, L.

University of the Visayas greatly influences the performance of the students as future policeman since majority of working student personnel of Security and Safety Group are criminology students. The data from the study which are tabulated in table 5 lean to one interpretation, that is, enhancement for the development of quality services and motivation of personnel to finish their course as Owen (1995) also said that quality requires a trained workface, and the assessment and meeting of their training needs is vital for success. Personnel of human resource are responsible for implementing and delivering a positive training policy that aims to develop the employees for the operation and growth of the business. At a glance on the preceding table, it is deliberately clear that the five functions rendered in the Security and Safety Group got a good assessment. Means to say, there is still much room for improvement especially as regards to the implementations of policies and guidelines that were taken for granted due to constraints in effort, methods, materials and manpower. Clarity of the tasks and procedures at hand pave the way for a better and clear execution of duties and responsibilities essential to the promotion of quality service. The respondents attested that there were situations in which the SSG offices could not accomplished the scheduled date for the releasing of the documents. It is incredibly frustrating for them since they just came here to claim the documents and they are living outside Cebu City. Punctuality of service is demonstrated by the SSG personnel who committed their time to the individual and their transactions, but not in putting any unnecessary pressure on the individual to alter their schedule, can go a long way in the development of a great and prosperous working relationship. The findings indicated that the personnel delineate their personal problems from their work. They see to it that there is continuity and

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harmonious flow of their work in spite of their personal concerns. Punctuality is a universal value in relation to any work place. The Security and Safety Group office must take a reasonable approach with this concept. Respondents claim that punctuality in the services rendered by the SSG office is vital as it shows respect. Punctuality at all times is paramount in any environment. It is you showing that the personnel and staff are responsible, disciplined, professional, well-organized, and above all and most important, respectful to their clienteles. By running late on the transaction, it delays other concerns of the clienteles. It also demonstrates time management and trust. Clientele values employees who understand and possess a willingness to work hard. In addition to working hard, it is also important to value the time of the clienteles. This means learning the most efficient way to complete tasks and to find ways in saving time while completing daily assignments. It is also important to care for the clienteles and complete all requests while maintaining positive attitude. Clienteles are the most important asset. They are the lifeblood of our business and their satisfaction is the ultimate objectives of all we do ( Williams, 2006). Employers value employees they can trust and who exhibit respect to the clienteles. Much of the universal values and virtues that can contribute to the good of the individual and society and affirm our human dignity are derived from the value of respect. The value of respect is very important for the respondents in a way that the employees show appreciation for the worth of their clienteles. The respondents attested that majority of the employees in the Security and Safety Group office show the value of respect and being thoughtful of showing regard for their clienteles since we are all different, some of us come from different culture. There were cases in which the employees disregard this value. Some of the employees could not control their negative behavior by raising their voices when talking

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to the clienteles. One respondent claimed that â&#x20AC;&#x153;it is important for all of us to treat one another respectfully despite our differences, as we all have similar needs and feelings. Adian (2000) cited harmonious clientele relationship includes not only responding to their expectation but also helping and journeying with them, defining the educational goal developing greater effectiveness in services, building a productive organizational unit, creating a climate for growth, and searching for resources that makes the interaction alive and practical. The most striking indicator is explaining the various options available to a particular query. The SSG personnel possessed an enduring attitude that a friendly and accommodating social climate prevails among people in the SSG office. This closely followed by adhering to the standards and expectations of the group to prevent conflict and argument. Findings showed that a smooth interpersonal relationship prevails in the workplace because the personnel have strong bonding and favorable social climate which fosters the spirit of friendliness, acceptance and teamwork. The importance of implementation has sensed an increasing number of Security and Safety Group who feels that not much is being done by administration to fully make the impact of planned change on immediate necessity. Perhaps, as Alexander (1985) had pointed out, the trouble of implementing planned change arises from one or a combination of these problems: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Inadequate leadership; failing to see major problems that can block or delay action; poor condition of implementation activities and lack of skill in individuals who carry out the implementation.â&#x20AC;? The most salient indicator is provision of a prompt service in the clients. In this endeavor, the personnel exercise their promptness in adopting strategies that are clientele -oriented. This is more focused on the innovative working approaches which make the functions more efficient, effective and developed.

The respondents revealed that the personnel of the Security and Safety Group should act on the moment that they requested documents or credential. Being on time or being prompt is important because sometimes preparations are needed. The clients may be on tight schedule, and demonstrate responsibility that builds clients trust. Promptness is an important attribute to possess and practice in many different aspects of personal and professional life. Being prompt in one dealing gives warrant to opportunity and advancement. Prompt action is an effective way to take control of a situation or incident. When a situation is not approached in a prompt manner it can escalate to a point harder control. This would make an unnecessarily larger incident that may require more resources than originally predicted. There are many situations in the SSG office that require a prompt response. As related to the SSG office services, prompt response can be a determining factor of the degree of loss in the time and resources of the clienteles. A prompt response is warranted and expected from the SSG office. The respondents claimed that the personnel have a responsibility to practice and apply this attribute in their delayed transactions. If there are situations in which the change of schedule of schedule delays are inevitable, proper information must be given to the clienteles to save their resources and time. Being ready and punctual promote a strong self image that is projected to other individuals. The same can be said about the opposite. Not doing so can develop a bad reputation of the office. The study stated that efficiency is very vital in dealing with the clienteles. This means producing productive effects. Being efficient means producing results with little wasted effort. It is the ability to carry out actions quickly. However, by so doing these involve achieving worthwhile goals and support the objectives of the SSG office. Majority of the respondents confirmed that efficiency is enhanced when the personnel take time to reevaluate the specified work.

Relat orr es, Q. H . S., Narra, D. and V illalon, L.

Clienteles seek employees who are adaptable and maintain flexibility in completing tasks in an ever changing workplace. Being open to change and improvement provide an opportunity to complete work assignments in a more efficient manner while offering additional benefits to the department, to the clienteles, and to the entire institution. Efficiency is applicable to all organization functions including management or leadership, team building and employee performance, production, innovation, and all internal processes including those in the business office. Efficient personnel in the SSG office response on the request on time. An effective staff has a system in place that enables the SSG office to integrate input with the output in order to insure the least cost is incurred at all times. An efficient staff or process will perform as expected and operate in the short-term. They spend the expected output to produce results. But as Miles and Snow (1992) and Bryson (1988) advocated certain leaders should opt for an incremental process of change because the leader responds only when needs and opportunities become clear and unequivocal. A positive attitude gets work done and motivates others to do the same without dwelling on the challenges that inevitably come up in the work place. It is the enthusiastic employee who creates an environment of good will and who provides a positive role model for others as Hollnsteiner, (1993) said, before people can change, they must first be able to think about it within their own minds and then be able to talk about it with others. The problem of the implementation of “NO ID NO ENTRY” policy starts with the inconsistency of service rendered by the Security and Safety Group personnel as revealed by the respondents, some of the personnel do not know how to approach anyone while implementing the “NO ID NO ENTRY” policy. Some of the respondents revealed that the services rendered by the SSG personnel have preferential treatment in terms

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of the implementation of the policy. In addition to this; the lack of personnel is also the main problem to attain better services. In view of this, Dodd (2003) pointed out that through consistent quality service, the service providers give to the clienteles the total experience of what clienteles receive for what they pay that is true value equation. That satisfaction could also be viewed as the clienteles feeling about the value that they received from a particular product experience. In this way, clienteles satisfaction tells an organization how well clienteles feel that their existing offers are performing relative to the goal. The respondents revealed the following consequences on this problem: inability to handle volume of tasks due to the use of manual procedures; problems of operations recur due to limited logistics; lack of systematic progress evaluation of tasks; unchecked backlogs; complaints of delay recurs; and occasional target setting not monitored regularly. Low productivity is often a problem that is brought about by a host of factors. In connection to the resolution of incident which are promptly reported, constraints may take place when problems already arise and the delayed of report occur. In such cases, problems would no longer solve due to the delayed evolvement of the problem. Going back to the quality, it is defined as the characteristic of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs and a product or service free of deficiencies. Quality thereby is a clientele-preferred performance and functions which are also dependable and reliable. Quality, Yang (2007) noted, is a part of value, not all of value. Nevertheless, it is a subjective term that has a psychological component. For instance, the higher the quality the higher the levels of satisfaction hence poor quality equates to dissatisfaction. The inaccessibility of facilities and equipment, the willingness of the personnel to take immediate action, and the adequacy of personnel are the main problems of the study that may constantly occur resulting to ineffectiveness of services. As the

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presentation may constantly of occur the table resulting shows, toitineffectiveness has been said of services. As the presentation of the tableSecurity shown, that the problems encountered by the it hasSafety been Group said that the problems encountered and personnel in connection to by the Security Safety Group personnel the resolving likeand disasters/emergencies were in connection to the resolving disasters / absolutely occurred because like facilities and emergencieswere was not absolutely occurred because equipment accessible and strategies, facilities and andplans equipment accessible policies, were notare fullynot described by and effort strategies, policies, and plans are not fully the that was undertaken at the Security describe and Safety byGroup. the effort Thus, that Ansoff is undertaken (1994) noted, at the to Security andit should Safety undergo Group. Thus, Ansoff, be realistic, certain stages1994 once note: to be realistic, itgaps should certain perceived performance haveundergo been identified. stages once perceived gaps effort have The transforms, i.e. the performance planned changed been is identified. The at transforms, i.e. the that undertaken the Security andplanned Safety changed effort that is undertaken at the Security Group office. and These Safety Group office. findings of the study show that the These findings of theofstudy show that the SSG office of the University the Visayas should SSG office of the University of the Visayas should restore a structural organization and functions restoreona the structural organization and functions based proposal for improvement should based on for improvement reflect in the theproposal philosophy and mission should of the reflect in the philosophy mission of the institution. All the personneland should be oriented institution. about it extensively All the personnel and sincerely. should be oriented to it extensively and sincerely. V. CONCLUSION V. CONCLUSION On the profile of the personnel of Security the profile theeducational personnel ofqualifications Security and and On Safety Group,ofthe Safety the educational of the of theGroup, uniform personnel qualifications were preferably uniform personnel of Bachelor of Laws,were and preferably Bachelor Bachelor of Science laws, and BS Criminology and Maritime Criminology and Maritime students students for the or the personnel. civilian personnel. On the length of fcivilian On the length of experience experience uniform personnel 3-4 of uniform ofpersonnel quadrant quadrant 3-4 claimed claimed the greatest frequency quadrant the greatest frequency while while quadrant 1-3 1-3 asserted greatest frequencyfor forthe the civilian asserted thethe greatest frequency personnel. thethe SSGSSG On On the thequalityofservicesofferedby quality of services offered by the the implementation of “NO NOID ENTRY” policy, on implementation of ID “NO NO ENTRY” issuanceissuance of vehicle and resolution policy, ofsticker vehiclepasses, sticker passes, and of incident of which are promptly reported, the resolution incident which are promptly respondents a very gooda evaluation reported, the affirmed respondents affirmed very good while on responsibilities during disaster and evaluation while on responsibilities during emergencies respondents the affirmed a good disaster andtheemergencies respondents evaluation. affirmed a good evaluation. On the assessment of the stakeholder relationship of the SSG office, University of the Visayas .On Visayas, on the extent of courtesy, punctuality of service, respect, proper communication, and

promptness, the respondents affirmed a great extent evaluation while moderate extent for the efficiency of services. The problems encountered by the office office of SSG, in connection connection with the performance and and with with the of the the aforementioned aforementioned services services corresponding extent of services.On the issuance the corresponding extent of services. On of vehicle sticker of passes, implementation of ‘NO the issuance vehicle sticker passes, ID NO ENTRY” policy, resolution incidentpolicy, which implementation of “NO ID NOofENTRY” are promptlyofreported and which responsibilities during resolution incident are promptly disasters/and emergencies, the respondents affirmed reported responsibilities during disasters/ that the SSGthe emergencies, were respondents serious in affirmed the problems that the encountered. SSG were serious in the problems encountered. Proposal based Proposal basedon onthe the findings findings All of the constraints mentioned have an impact on the innovations in the SSG office, University of the Visayas –main campus. To achieve the innovations, a well trained, active personnel and programming development are advocated strongly. These are discussed in the succeeding section. 1. Good Good training training must must be introduced to the the personnel personnel; 2. ItIt should be bethe theemployeewho employee who willwill transact transact the the clients clients andand not not he working the working students students; 3. Avoid Avoid people people inside inside the the office office having having no transaction ; transaction 4. Personnel Personnelmust must be professional in a particular particular area. area; Someone should should be be assigned as investigating 5. Someone officer. officer; Morepersonnel personnelfor forbetter betterservices; services. 6. More 7. Someone Someoneshould shouldbe beassigned assigned to to double check the the records records to to avoid erroneous entry of records and records; records; and 8. More equipment forfor better services. More equipment better services. originality index: similarity index: paper id:

90 % 10 % 470236574

Grammarly:

checked

Relat orr es, Q. H . S., Narra, D. and V illalon, L.

REFERENCES Drucker, P. (1986). Theories and practices in management. New York. Mc Graw Hill Book Co. Maeir, D. (1990). Five principles in customer satisfaction. San Francisco: Far West Laboratory for Educational research and Development. Reyes, L.B. (2011). Revised penal code, Philippine. PH: Rex Printing company, Inc. Vallar, L.B. (2010). The quality of service and its effect on stakeholders relationship in the Office of Registrar, University of the Visayas-Main and its campuses: An agenda for innovations. (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. University of the Visayas). Vahid, V. (2011). The level of competence of graduate school students in the Universtiy of the Visayas and the factors affecting them: Basis for academic development program. (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertattion. Unoversity of the Visayas). Dodds, B. (2003). Managing customer value: Essentials of product quality, customer service and price decisions. University Press of America. Reidenbach, R.E., & Goeke, R.W. (2005). Value-driven channel strategy: Extending the lean approach. American Society for Quality. Simon, H.A. (1969). Design as a problem-solving activity. Retrieved from https://www.google.com. ph/?gfe_rd=cr&ei=Q5JPVNmAKIuL8Qe_ uIHgCA&gws_rd=ssl#q=simon+1969 Nadler, G., & Hibino, S. (1990). Creative solution finding. Prima Publishing retrieved from http://www. osaka-gu.ac.jp/php/nakagawa/TRIZ/eTRIZ/ elinksref/eJapanTRIZ-CB/e2ndTRIZSymp06/ eKeynotes06/eHibinoPaper060731.pdf Hodgkinson, G.P. (1997). Human resource management at the crossroads. Retrieved from http:// cluteinstitute.com/ojs/index.php/IBER/article/ viewFile/5375/5460

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Analysis of non-detectable cases of Cyber Crime Law Jonalyn G. Nalzaro Joan S. Marie Oville Queen Heneylour Relatorres College of Criminal Justice Education University of the Visayas nalzaroj@gmail.com Date submitted: April 3, 2014

Date accepted: October 18, 2014

ABSTRACT Cybercrime is emerging and it covers the limelight of todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s generation. The extreme growth of new technologies has always brought solutions that aid human innovations in all aspect. But enabled criminals with complex and sophisticated knowledge to use computers in illegal ways that may result to crimes and human rights violations. The Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 is the first law in the Philippines that defines and penalizes cybercrimes. There are several types of cybercrimes under cybercrime law: (1) illegal access; (2) illegal interception; (3) data interference; (4) system interference; (5) misuse of devices; (6) cyber-squatting; (7) computer-related forgery; (8) computer-related fraud; (9) computer-related identity theft; (10) cybersex; (11) child pornography; (12) libel and the three cases which falls in the accomplices and liabilities of cyber criminals; (13) aiding or abetting in the commission of the crime; (14) attempt in the commission of the cybercrime; and (15) corporate liabilities. That defines the scope of its authority to exercise control within the juridical person either with or without supervision or control in committing such acts. Keywords: cybercrime, cyber crime act , non- detectable cases

I. INTRODUCTION Computers supposedly aid humans for innovations but because of drastic rate of increase of the internets and other related technologies, exercising individual rights to freedom of expression and freedom of speech, these now become an issue of abuse in morality and integrity in a national scope and go only to the nature of legislation a nation should adopt. Human rights are violated and prone to different abuses. It is therefore understandable that people are alarmed and cautious because of such cases. The undeterred prospects of

arrest or prosecuting cybercriminals around the world lurk in the internet as an omnipresent menace to health, trust and emerging threat to nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s security. The Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 is the first law in the Philippines which specifically criminalizes computer crime, which prior to the passage of the law had no strong legal precedent in Philippine jurisprudence. The new Act received mixed reactions from several sectors upon its enactment, particularly with how its provisions could potentially affect freedom of expression, freedom of speech

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and data security in the Philippines. The difficulty on this law lies in properly defining the laws needed to allow for cybercriminals apprehension and prosecution. According to Erwin Alampay (2010) of UP-NCPAG, it is a law that is meant to protect our basic right to privacy, amidst an informational society where our personal information is collected by the state and corporate organizations. What makes this bill different is that it is framed from a rights perspective. It does not say people have new rights because of the internet, but rather, our rights must still be protected when people go online. The aspect that must be considered when we talk about cybercrime is that usually this type of criminal activities goes unpunished. It is highly lucrative and far less risky than any other ordinary crimes. The non-detected acts become a contributing factors on the increased of relative offenses concerning cybercrime. In the current law, some areas are still unclear. Several petitions have been submitted to the Supreme Court questioning the constitutionality of the Act. There are still chances for the prevalence of Cyber Crimes considering the complexity and breadth of the virtual world. With the advent of Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012, the researchers wanted to know what are the cases that are less detectable or cannot be detected by all means. It is also the researchersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; intention to conduct an in-depth analysis of non-detectable cases of Cyber Crime Law. This will serve as key or lifeline of our law enforcement agencies to look and scrutinize deeply, in order to broaden and improve their ability in detecting and apprehending cybercrime criminals.

II. RELATED LITERATURE Currently, there are no existing fixed literatures exploring non-detectable cases of cybercrime. Indeed, the gap between police and computer criminals is widening from time â&#x20AC;&#x201C;totime because of the enormous and advancement of cyber industry. In contrast with traditional security issues, law enforcement does not have enough experience and knowledge in ways to protect computers and networks from these kinds of crime. Thus, most computer crime incidents go undetected. Statistics on computer crime are generally not available. This is due to several reasons, such as reluctance of victims to report incidents, and uncertainty of exact definitions and classifications. Despite the absence of accurate statistics, it is generally agreed that the problem is monumental and is continuing to grow (Peters, 1997). In most cases, local law enforcement agencies do not have the personnel, equipment, and practical knowledge to proactively detect computer crime. The law enforcement community today is required to keep up with the rapidly growing use of high technology. Hence, growth of computer crime requires police officers that are familiar with advanced technology (Sen, 2001). According to Adamski (1998) and Lohr (1997) there are incidents that cybercrime cannot be detected. The incidents that are not detected far exceed those that are detected. In essence, what is reported is thought to be only tip of the iceberg. Table 1 shows the penalized sixteen (16) types of Cybercrimes under Cybercrime Law of 2012 (Republic Act 10715):

Nalzaro, J. G. and Q. H.J.S.M. Nalzaro, J. G.Relatorres, and Oville,

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Table Table 1. 1. Types Typesof ofcybercrime Cybercrime 1. Illegal Illegalaccess access Unauthorized access (without right) a computer system or application. Unauthorized access (without right) to atocomputer system or application. 2. Illegalinterception interception 2. Illegal Unauthorized interception of any non-public transmission computer datato,to,from, from,ororWithin Withinaacomputer computer Unauthorized interception of any non-public transmission ofof computer data within system. system. 3. Data Data interference interference Unauthorized alteration, damaging, deletion or deterioration of computer electronic document, Unauthorized alteration, damaging, deletion or deterioration of computer data,data, electronic document, or or electronic data message, including introduction or transmission of viruses. Authorized action electronic data message, andand including thethe introduction or transmission of viruses. Authorized action cancan also covered provision if the action of the person resulting scope went beyond what agreed. also be be covered by by thisthis provision if the action of the person resulting scope went beyond agreed toisStated in this damages provision. 4. System interference interference 4. System Unauthorized interference or hindering the functioning of a computer or computer by Unauthorized interference withwith or hindering the functioning of a computer or computer networknetwork by inputting, transmitting, damaging, deleting, deteriorating, altering or suppressing computer inputting, transmitting, damaging, deleting, deteriorating, altering or suppressing computer data or data or programs, electronic document, electronic data messages, and includingthe theintroduction introductionorortransmission transmission programs, electronic document, oror electronic data messages, and including of viruses. Authorized action can also be covered by this provision if the action of the person went beyond of viruses. Authorized action can also be covered by this provision if the action of the person went beyond scope agreed to damages resulting stated in this provision. scope agreed to damages resulting Stated in this provision. 5. Misuse of of devices devices 5. Misuse unauthorized possession, production, procurement, importation, distribution, or otherwise TheThe unauthorized use,use, possession, production, sale,sale, procurement, importation, distribution, or Otherwise making available, of devices, computer program designed or adapted for purpose the purpose of committing any making available, of devices, computer program designed or adapted for the of committing any of of the offenses stated in Republic Act 10175. Unauthorized use of computer passwords, access code, or the offenses Stated in Republic Act 10175.Unauthorized use of computer passwords, access code, or similar similar data are by or theany whole part of asystem computer systemofisbeing capable of being accessed with data are priority bypriority the whole partor of any a computer is capable accessed with intent that intent it bepurpose used forofthe purpose of committing any ofunder the offenses under Republic Act 10175. it be usedthat for the committing any of the offenses Republic Act 10175. 6. Cyber-squatting 6. Cyber-squatting Acquisition of domain names the internet infaith bad to faith to profit, mislead, reputation, Acquisition of domain names overover the Internet in bad profit, mislead, destroydestroy Reputation, and and deprivation of others from the registering the same. This includes those existing trademark at the of time deprivation of others from the Registering the same. This Includes those existing trademark at the time of registration, names of persons other than the registrant, and intellectual property acquired with registration, names of persons other than the registrant, and intellectual property acquired with interests in interests it. domain Those who getofdomain names of prominent brandsare and individuals priority in turn it. Those whoinget names prominent brands and individuals priority in turnare is used to damage is used to damage their reputationâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;can be sued under this provision. Note that freedom of expression THEIR Reputation - can be sued under this provision. Note that freedom of expression and infringement on and infringement trademarks or names of person are usually separately. A party can exercise trademarks or nameson of person are usually treated separately. A partytreated can exercise freedom of expression freedom of expression without necessarilyofviolating trademarks of a brand or names of persons. without necessarily violating the trademarks a brandthe or names of persons. 7. Computer-relatedForgery Forgery 7. Computer-related Unauthorized input, alteration, or deletion of computer resulting to inauthentic the intent Unauthorized input, alteration, or deletion of computer datadata resulting to inauthentic datadata withwith the intent that it be considered or acted upon for legal purposes as if it were authentic, regardless whether that it be considered or acted upon for legal purposes as if it were authentic, regardless Whether or notor not data is readable intelligible directly, knowingly using computer data are priority thethe data is readable andand intelligible Directly, or or thethe actact of of knowingly using computer data are priority is is the the purpose perpetuating fraudulent or dishonest design. theproduct productof ofcomputer-related computer-relatedforgery, forgeryfor as defined here,offor the purposea of perpetuating a fraudulent or dishonest design.

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8. Computer-related Computer-relatedFraud Fraud Unauthorized input, alteration, or or deletion of of computer Unauthorized input, alteration, deletion computerdata dataororprogram programororinterference interferencein in the the functioning of of aacomputer causing damage damage with withfraudulent fraudulentintent. intent. computersystem, system, thereby thereby causing 9. Computer-related Identity Computer-related Identity Theft Theft Unauthorized acquisition, use, misuse, transfer, possession,alteration alterationorordeletion deletionof ofidentifiable identifiable information Unauthorized acquisition, use, misuse, transfer, possession, belonging to another, whether natural juridical. belonging to another, Whether natural or or juridical. 10. Cybersex Willful engagement, maintenance, control, or operation, directly or indirectly, of any lascivious exhibition Willful engagement, maintenance, control, or operation, Directly or indirectly, of any lascivious exhibition of sexual organs sexual activity, with a computer system, favor consideration. There of sexual organs or or sexual activity, with thethe aidaid of of a computer system, forfor favor or or consideration. There is ais a discussion matter it involves â&#x20AC;&#x153;couples peopleinin relationshipâ&#x20AC;? who engage cybersex. For discussion on on thisthis matter if itifinvolves "couples "or"orpeople relationship "who Engage inin cybersex. For long is not done favor or consideration, do not think it will be covered. However, if one party as as long it isitnot done forfor favor or consideration, I doI not think it will be covered. However, if one party a couple or relationship) sues claiming to forced be forced to cybersex, do cybersex, then it can be covered. (in(in a couple or relationship) sues claiming to be to do then it can be covered. 11. Child Pornography Child Pornography Prohibited or unlawful defined punishable Republic No. 9775 theAnti-Child Anti-ChildPornography Pornography Prohibited or unlawful actsacts defined andand punishable byby Republic ActAct No. 9775 oror the Act of 2009, committed through a computer system. Act of 2009, committed through a computer system. 12. 12. Libel Libel Unlawful prohibited acts libelasasdefined definedin Article 355 355 of amended committed Unlawful or or prohibited acts ofof libel in Article ofthe theRevised RevisedPenal PenalCode, Code,asas amended through through a computer system orsystem any other similar there arethere priority devised the future. Revised committed a computer or any otherMeans similar Means arebe priority beindevised in the PenalRevised Code Art. 355Code states libel bystates writings orMeans similar.Means A libel by means writing, printing, future. Penal Art. 355 libel by committed writings or similar. - Aof libel committed engraving, radio, phonograph, painting,radio, theatrical exhibition, cinematographic exhibition, or by lithography, Means of writing, printing, lithography, engraving, phonograph, painting, theatrical exhibition, any similar means, shall be punished prison correctional in by its prision minimum and medium or a cinematographic exhibition, or any similarby Means, shall be punished correccional in itsperiods minimum ranging from 200 6,000 pesos, or both, addition to the civil action are priority would be brought andfine medium periods or ato fine ranging from 200 toin6,000 pesos, or both, in addition to the civil action are by thewith offended party. by The Cybercrime Prevention Act strengthened libelAct instrengthened terms of penalty priority be brought the offended party. The Cybercrime Prevention libelprovisions. in terms The electronic counterpart of libel counterpart has been recognized since the year 2000since when the E-Commerce of penalty provisions. The electronic of libel has been recognized the year 2000 WhenLaw passed. The E-Commerce all existing laws toallitsexisting electronic thewas E-Commerce Law was passed.Law The empowered E-Commercerecognized Law empowered recognized lawscounterpart to its whether or not commercial in nature. electronic counterpart Whether or not commercial in nature. 13. Aiding or abetting in the commission of cybercrime 13. Aiding or Abetting in the aids Commission of the cybercrime - Any whooffenses willfullyenumerated aids or abetsininthis theAct Any person who willfully or abets in commission ofperson any of the commission of any of the offenses enumerated in this Act shall be held liable. shall be held liable. 14. Attempt in the commission of cybercrime 14. Attempt in the commission of cybercrime Any person who willfully attempts to commit any of the Any person who willfully attempts to commit any of the offenses enumerated in this Act shall be held liable. offenses enumerated in this Act shall be held liable 15. laws, if if committed by, 15. All All crimes crimesdefined definedand andpenalized penalizedby bythe theRevised RevisedPenal PenalCode Code, as , asamended, amended,and andspecial special laws, committed through and with the use of information and communications technologies shall be covered by the provisions by, through and with the use of information and communications technologies shall be covered by the of this Act Relevant. provisions of this Act Relevant. 16. Corporate liability. Liability. (Section 9) When any of the punishable punishable acts actsherein hereindefined definedare areknowingly knowinglycommitted committedon onbehalf behalfofofororfor forthe the benefit benefit a juridical person, a natural person acting either individually as part an organ the juridical of a of juridical person, by aby natural person acting Either Individually or asorpart of anoforgan of theofjuridical person, a positionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s leading within, based a power representation the juridical person person, whowho has has a position's leading Within, based on on: : (a)(a) a power of of representation of of the juridical person provided the committed act committed within scope of such authority; (b)authority an authority to take decisions provided the act fallsfalls Within the the scope of Such authority, (b) an to take Decisions on on behalf of juridical the juridical person provided, that committed falls within scope such authority; behalf of the person. Provided, That thethe actact committed falls Within thethe scope of of Such authority, or or (c)authority an authority to exercise control within the juridical person. It also includes commission of any of the (c) an to exercise control Within the juridical person, It also Includes commission of any of the punishable made possible to Lack the lack of supervision or control. punishable actsacts made possible duedue to the of supervision or control. Source : PTV4 Forum on Anti-Cybercrime Law, Department of Justice Assistant Secretary Geronimo Sy

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Table 2. Non-detectable cases/activities and their corresponding types of cybercrime Non/Less Detectable Cases NON/LESS DETECTABLE CASES Hacking 1. HACKING A. IP spoofing (hoax,deception,parody) (hoax, deception, parody) a.1 Hacker must first first use use aa variety variety of oftechniques techniquesto tofind findan anIPIP address of aa trusted trusted host hostand andthen thenmodify modifythe thepacket packetheaders headersso that so that it appears it appears that that thethe packets packets areare coming coming from from that that host host. a.2 they insert misleading information insertfalse falseoror misleading information in e-mail or in netnewsFalsified headers.headers Falsified are headers nete-mail news or headers. usedare to used mislead the to misleador the recipient, or networkas applications, recipient, network applications, to the originasoftoa message. the of a message. This is of a common technique of Thisorigin is a common technique spammers and sporgers , who wish to conceal the origin their avoidof being spammers and sporgers , whoofwish to messages conceal thetoorigin their tracked down. messages to avoid being tracked down. B. Trojan Trojan horse horse B. This isisaacommon commonmechanism mechanismforfor hiding viruses or worms This hiding viruses or worms (A (A virus is a code fragment that copies itself into a larger program, virus is a code fragment that copies itself into a larger program, modifying that thatprogram. program.AAworm wormisisanan independent program, modifying independent program, which reproduces reproducesby bycopying copyingitself itself full-blown fashion from which inin full-blown fashion from one computer to another, usually over a network). It is almost one computer to another, usually over a network). It is almost impossibleto todetect detectthe thepresence presenceofof a Trojan horse because impossible a Trojan horse because it it does not not cause causeany anynoticeable noticeabledamage. damage. does 2. Spam (unsolicited e-mail) 2. SPAM (unsolicited e-mail) Using Image spam, or Image-based spam, is an obfuscating Using Image spam, or Image-based spam, is an obfuscating method in which the text of the message is stored as a GIF method in which the text of the message is stored as or JPEG image and displayed in the email. This prevents a GIF or JPEG image and displayed in the email. This text based spam filters from detecting and blocking spam prevents text based spam filters from detecting and blocking messages. A newer technique, however, is to use an animated spam messages. A newer technique, however, is to use an GIF image that does not contain clear text in its initial frame, or animated GIF image that does not contain clear text in its to contort the shapes of letters in the image (as in CAPTCHA) initial frame, or to contort the shapes of letters in the image Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and (as in CAPTCHA)Completely Automated Public Turing test to Humans Apartâ&#x20AC;?) to avoid detection by OCR(optical character tell Computers and Humans Apart") to avoid detection recognition) tools. by OCR(optical character recognition) tools. 3. Plagiarism 3. PLAGIARISM Internet plagiarism is sometimes harder to detect than with Internet plagiarism is sometimes harder to detect than with printed materials because of the ease of which materials can be printed materials because of the ease of which materials can be stolen. Not all documents are electronic and some are not textstolen. Not all documents are electronic and some are not textbased which are hard to detect. (wisegeek, n.d.). based which is hard to detect. (http://www.wisegeek.com/) 4. Pimps on line (flesh peddling) 4. PIMPS LINE (flesh peddling) 1. The useON of virtual currencies and anonymous payment. 1. The use of virtual currencies and anonymous 2. The use of encryption technology (ITU, 2012).payment. 2. The use of encryption technology. (ITU,2012)

Types TYPESof OFCybercrime CYBERCRIME

1. ILLEGAL Illegal Access 1. ACCESS 2. ILLEGAL Illegal Interception INTERCEPTION Data Interference 3. DATA INTERFERENCE Sysyem Interference 4. SYSYEM INTERFERENCE 5. MISUSE Misuse ofOFDevice DEVICE Cyber-Squatting 6. CYBER-SQUATTING Computer-Related Forgery 7. COMPUTER-RELATED FORGERY 8. COMPUTER-RELATED Computer-Related Fraud FRAUD

1. DATA Data Interference 1. INTERFERENCE 2. SYSYEM System Interference 2. INTERFERENCE

1. Computer-related Forgery 1. COMPUTER-RELATED FORGERY 2. COMPUTER-RELATED Computer-related Fraud 2. FRAUD 3. System Interference 3. SYSTEM INTERFERENCE

1. Computer-related Identity Theft 1. COMPUTER-RELATED IDENTITY THEFT

1. Cybersex 1. 2. CYBERSEX Child Pornography 2. CHILD PORNOGRAPHY

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III. RESEARCH METHODS The study utilizes Content Analysis method to analyze cybercrime law to extract and discover if there are some cases of cybercrime that have lesser or cannot be detected. Content Analysis defined as any technique for making inferences by systematically and objectively identifying special characteristics of messages (Holshi, 1968). Analysis of data once organized according to certain content element. It evolves consideration of the literal words in the text being analyzed. In this way, Content Analysis provides a method for obtaining good access to the words of the text or transcribed accounts offered by the subject (Glassner & Loughlin, 1987). From this perspective, photographs, videotape or any item that can be made into text are amenable to Content Analysis. This gives us an opportunity to learn about how the authors of textual materials view their social world. It shows how researchers can examine ideological mind-sets, themes, topics, symbols and similar phenomena while digging such examination to the data gathered. Researchers need to examine the artifacts of social communication, typically these are written documents or transcriptions of recorded communications. The study also utilizes the available research from government data and documentation, academic journals and books, and research engines available on line. The ultimate goal of this is to analyze the scope of cybercrime: types and cases/activities that corresponds cybercrimes that are less and cannot be detected; and what is being done about it that made it almost impossible to detect. IV. HACKING IP spoofing. The most dominant case of nondetectable cases and activities falls in the seven types of cybercrimes such as: (1) Illegal access; (2) Illegal interception; (3) Data interference; (4) System interference; (5) Misuse of device; (6) Computer-related forgery; (7) Computerrelated fraud; and (8) Computer related forgery.

It shows that Hacking is the most dominant case of non-detectable or most likely less detectable. Under the category of hacking is IP spoofing or IP address forgery and Trojan horse. IP spoofing, also known as IP address forgery or a host file hijack, is a hijacking technique in which a cracker masquerades as a trusted host to conceal his identity, spoof a web site, hijack browsers, or gain access to a network. Here is how it works: The hijacker obtains the IP address of a legitimate host and alters packet headers so that the legitimate host appears to be the source. When IP spoofing is used to hijack a browser, a visitor who types in the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) of a legitimate site is taken to a fraudulent web page created by the hijacker. For example, if the hijacker spoofed the Library of Congress Web site, then any internet user who typed in the URL www.loc.gov would see spoofed content created by the hijacker. If a user interacts with dynamic content on a spoofed page, the hijacker can gain access to sensitive information or computer or network resources. He could steal or alter sensitive data, such as a credit card number or password, or install malware . The hijacker would also be able to take control of a compromised computer to use it as part of a zombie army in order to send out spam (Rouse, 2007). Trojan horse. Trojans are malicious programs that perform actions that have not been authorized by the user. Unlike computer viruses and worms , Trojans are not able to self-replicate. These actions can include: • Deleting data; • Blocking data; • Modifying data; • Copying data; and • Disrupting the performance of computers or computer networks. This is how the hacker made all the trojan and virus key logger undetectable. 1. Hackers create a server as a remote administration tool that does not have a

Nalzaro, J. G. and Q. H.J.S.M. Nalzaro, J. G.Relatorres, and Oville,

router. realm, since hacker consider silicon silicon download They realm as the software best binder passport to make by everything 100%since undetectable all anti silicon realm, hacker by consider viruses. silicon realm as the best binder to make 3. Once it is downloaded and installed, everything 100 % undetectable by allthey anti will viruses. download it again for the pre-made 3. Once setting it and is downloaded make a backup and installed, file by putting they it will in the download same folder it again or location. for the pre-made 4. By setting reopening the software ,they and make a backuppassport file by putting will it in click the same “loadfolder existing or location. project ’’ where it 4. By saysreopening the software passport, they “Fileswill to protect click “load ’’in which existingthey project’’ will where add the it files says they “Fileswant to protect’’ to make innon which –detectable. they will Right add the after files clicking they the want“build to make project non– ’’ a bunch detectable. of windows Right after will clicking come up.the “build project ’’ a bunch of windows will come up. 5. they are are 100 100% 5. Once Once itit is is created they % undetectable. undetectable. Hacker will try the the code code:: virustotal.com to scan scan in every virustotal.com to every existing existing anti-virus they will won’t anti-virus and they notfind findanything. anything. 2.

V. SPAM SPAM (unsolici ted emai ls) (uNsolICItEd EMAIls) Using Image spam, or Image-based Image-based spam, is an obfuscating method in which the text of the message is stored as as aa GIF GIF or JPEG JPEG image and displayed in the email. This prevents text based spam filters from detecting and blocking spam messages. A newer technique, however, is to use an animated thatthat doesdoes not contain clear animatedGIF GIFimage image not contain text its initial to contort shapesthe of clearintext in itsframe, initial or frame, or tothe contort letters in the image (as in CAPTCHA) Completely shapes of letters in the image (as in CAPTCHA) Automated Turing test toTuring tell Computers Completely Public Automated Public test to and Apart”) to avoid detection by OCR tell Humans Computers and Humans Apart”) to avoid detection (optical character recognition) by OCR (optical tools. character recognition) tools. VI. PLAGIARISM Plagiarism is wrongfully appropriating and stealing one’s ideas and representation claiming it to be their own work or expression. Most of the time we are too open and vocal about what is in our thoughts that we wanted to express by posting it in facebook and other social network groups or sites. Because of the technology demands and the rapid change of faster access,

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with just people might idealize and copy justone oneclick, click, people might idealize and copiedworks some sometoworks claimtoit claim as their it own as their in order own to in order to exercise theirof rights of freedom of speech exercise their rights freedom of speech and and expression. In order be undetected, expression. In order to betoundetected, they they will will printed use printed materials because theofease of use materials because of the of ease which which materials be stolen. Notdocuments all documents materials can becan stolen. Not all are are electronic some text-based which electronic andand some areare notnot text-based which is is hard hard to detect. to detect. VII. PIMPS ON LINE (FLESH (FLESHPEDDLING) PEDDLING) pornography. The The sale sale of child Child pornography. pornography is highly profitable pornography profitable, ,with with collectors collectors willing to pay great amounts for movies and pictures depicting children in sexual pictures sexual context. context.Most Most material is password – protected material is exchange exchangedin in password–protected closed forums, which regular users and law enforcement agencies agenciescan canrarely rarelyaccess. access. enforcement are two twokey key factors factors for for the the exchange There are of child pornography acts as obstacles to the investigation of these crimes. crimes: The The use use of ofvirtual (1) virtual currencies currencies and anonymous payment. anonymous payment. Cash payments payments enables enable buyers of certain goods to hide their their identity, identity, so cash is dominant dominant in in many many criminal criminal businesses. businesses. Virtual currencies may not require identification and validation validation, ,preventing preventing law enforcement enforcement tracing money money flows flows back to agencies from tracing offenders. Recently, a number ofchild pornography offenders. investigations Recently, have a number succeeded of child in using pornography traces left by payments. have However, wherein offenders make investigations succeeded using traces left anonymous payments, is difficult for them to by payments. However,it where offenders make be tracked. payments, If such anonymous anonymous it is difficultcurrencies for them are to usedtracked. by criminals restricts thecurrencies ability of law be If suchit anonymous are enforcement to identify the suspects by following used by criminals, it restricts the ability of law money transfers. enforcement to identify the suspects by following money The transfers. use of encryption technology. Perpetrators (2) The are useincreasingly of encryption encrypting technology. their messages. LawPerpetrators areenforcement increasinglyagencies encrypting note their that offenders are using encryption technology to messages. Law-enforcement agencies note that protect information on their hard disks, offenders are using stored encryption technology to seriouslyinformation hindering stored criminal In protect on investigations. their hard disks, addition to a broad criminal criminalization of acts related seriously hindering investigations. to child pornography, other approaches as In addition to a broad criminalizationsuch of acts the implementation of obligations internet related to child pornography, other on approaches services register users or to of block or filter the such as to the implementation obligations on

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internet register userspornography or to block access toservices websitestorelated to child or the access to websites related to child arefilter currently under discussion. pornography currently under discussion. the In orderareto prevent identification In order prevent identification offender hadtodigitally modified the the partoffender of the had digitally modified thebefore part of the pictures pictures showing his face publishing the showing publishing the forensic pictures pictures his overface thebefore internet. Computer over thewere internet. experts are experts ableComputer to unpickforensic the modifications able to unpick the andAlthough reconstruct and reconstruct themodifications suspect’s face. the the suspect’s face. Although successful successful investigation clearly the demonstrates investigation demonstrates the potential clearly of computer forensics,the thispotential case is of this case is no proof of a no computer proof of a forensics, breakthrough in child pornography breakthrough in the child pornography investigation. investigation. If offender had simply covered If offender simply his facewould with histhe face with ahad white spot,covered identification ahave white identification would have been beenspot, impossible. impossible. One of the theoretical basis for explaining One of the istheoretical basis for theory.” explaining computer crime “Routine activities It computer crime is theory “Routine activities It is a criminological proposed by theory.” Cohen and is a criminological theory proposed by Cohen and Felson (1979). Felson (1979). The routine activities approach is based The routine approach is based on on two ratheractivities simple ideas: two1.rather simple It argues that ideas: in order for a crime to occur, 1. It argues that in ordermust for a crime to occur, motivated offenders converge with motivated offenders must converge with suitable targets in the absence of capable suitable targets in the absence of capable guardians. 2. Itguardians. argues that the probability of this 2. It argues is that the probability of this occurring influenced by our “routine occurring is influenced by our “routine activities”-including our work, family, activities”-including our activities. work, family, leisure, and consumption leisure, and consumption activities. Figure 2.1 The “Triangle of Crime” (Cohen & Felson, 1979)

Motivated Offenders

Availability of Targets

Figure 2.1 shows the “Triangle of Crime” (Cohen & Absence of Guardian Felson, 1979)

Three factors/elements of this approach : 1. The availability availability of of suitable targets. The technological advances produce more organizations organizations that are are dependent

2. 2.

3. 3.

on computer technology, technology, more more people people who have access to computers and the Internet, and and more computer literate internet, individuals (Adamski, 1998). All of these factors, in turn, increase the number of suitable targets. The Thepresence presenceofof motivated motivated offenders. With the increasing popularity of computer technology technology and and hackers, more and more people have entered the hacker subculture. The exact number of hackers is unknown (Adamski, 1998). A recent study stated that the Internet internet is an effective way for dissemination of criminal techniques, which facilitates hackers’ computer crime commitment (Mann & Sutton, Sutton,1998). 1998).Consequently, Consequently, the Internet provides an opportunity where internet where hacking behavior can be learned through interaction with others. others. Eventually, Eventually, this opportunity augments the number of motivated offenders. motivated The of capable capable guardians. guardians. The absence absence of Law enforcement has not kept up with Law technological developments. According technological to the Federal Bureau to Bureau of of Investigation’s Investigation’s (FBI) National Computer Crime Squad (FBI) (NCCS), between 85 97 percent (NCCS), 85 and % and 97 % of computer intrusions are not detected computer (Adamski, 1998). This statistic (Adamski, 1998). This clearly shows the current situation clearly shows the current of law enforcement, and gives us an of understanding about the magnitude of understanding the problem. problem. the

VIII. CONCLUSION CONCLUSION The non-detected acts actsbecomes becomesaacontributing contributing factors on the increased of relative relative offenses concerning cybercrime. This compels a challenge for our law enforcement bodies including our criminal justice system. New schemes being it’s created and it is very very difficult to detect cybercrime cases through traditional traditional channels. channels. That That’s is why cybercrime legislation must be an instantaneous concern of Congress. It is is clear clear however, however, that thateven

Nalzaro, J. G. and Q. H.J.S.M. Nalzaro, J. G.Relatorres, and Oville,

in in with the the existing existingCybercrime Cybercrimeprevention Preventionlaw Law the Philippines, there still exist a need to provide a comprehensive policy framework that would set regulations on cybercrimes. There is a need for our country to have a law that will define and refine well the punishable acts involving involving computers with corresponding penalties, determine legal procedures for the investigation and prosecution, clarity of scope and jurisdictions, provide an effective mutual mutual assistance and cooperation, and effective identify a local body that shall be responsible for providing a 24/7 assistance to foreign entities in the resolution of cybercrime cases. Agents of law enforcement should develop sophisticated technical skills which match the perpetratorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability. Scarcity of successful detection is due mainly to the vagueness of time and space dimensions often observed in cybercrimes. Law enforcement must must reinforce reinforce their their equipments, equipment, and information information infrastructure, infrastructure communication and , equiplaw law enforcement enforcement for for the the investigation equip of computer crime by providing an adequate training, providing proper equipment, allocating resources, and supplying well-defined personnel policies to strengthen their work force in order to deal these massive crises in cyber world. However being safe and behaving properly However, properly in the Internet is something wewe should notnot leave for the internet are something should leave for government to perform. ThisThis is something we can the government to perform. is something we all do can alltogether. do together. originality index: similarity index: paper id: Grammarly:

90 % 10 % 470237801 checked

Adamski A. (1998). Crimes related to the computer network. Threats and opportunities: A criminological perspective. Helsinki, Finland: European Institute for Crime Prevention and Control, affiliated with the United Nations (HEUNI). http://www.ulapland.fi/home/oiffi/ enlist/resources/HeuniWeb.htm Retrieved on 15th December 2013 Adamski, A. (1997). Legal and security aspects of information management. In Scherpenzeel, R.,

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& Quirchmayr, G. (Eds.), United Nations Crime and Justice Information Network: Providing Information to and from Developing Countries, A Resouce Book. Seoul: The Hage, Vienna. Cohen, L.E., & Felson, M. (1979). Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activity approach. American Sociological Review, 44(1), 588-608. Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012. Republic Act No. 10175: An act defining cybercrime, providing for the prevention, investigation, suppression and the imposition of penalties therefor and for other purposes. Retrieved from http://www.gov. ph/2012/09/12/republic-act-no-10175/ Glassner, B., & Loughlin, J., (1987). Drugs in adolescent worlds: Burnout to straights. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Holshi, O.R. (1968). Content analysis. In Lindzey, G., & Aaronson, E. (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Lohr, S. (1997). Be paranoid: Hackers are out to get you. New York Times Ondisk, Access No. 13503819970317. Mann, D., & Sutton, M. (1998). NetCrime: More change in the organisation of thieving. The British Journal of Criminology, 38(1), 201-229. Peters, W.T.M. (1997, October 20). Further study in white collar crime: Hacking and criminal hacking: Computer crime. Regulation and Control of White Collar Computer Crime. Available: http:// www.ozemail.com.au/~wtmp/wcc.html. Rouse, M. (2007). IP spoofing: IP address forgery or a host file hijack. Retrieved http://searchsecurity. techtarget.com/definition/IP-spoofing Sen, O.N. (2001). Criminal justice responses to emerging computer crime problems. University of Texas.

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The death of gold in early Visayan societies: Ethnohistoric accounts and archaeological evidences Victor P. Estrella Archaeological Studies Program University of the Philippines Diliman estella_vic@yahoo.com Date Submitted: July 15, 2014

Date Accepted: August 15, 2014

ABSTRACT literature about goldgold of Philippine societiessocieties in the last There is is aa scanty scantyamount amountof of literature about of Philippine inone the thousand years. Much of what weofknow the people’s the metal use comes last one thousand years. Much whatabout we know about use theof people’s offrom the ethnographic ethnohistoric sources. so, it becomes evenMore scantier we delve metal comes and from ethnographic and More ethnohistoric sources. so,when the literature deeper into howscantier early Filipinos viewed their use ofinto it. Hence, the paper tries to surveytheir the becomes even when we delve deeper how early Filipinos viewed vast sources in order to elucidate the reasons behind the blatantly apparent use of gold use of gold. Hence, the paper tries to survey vast sources of information in order in to death andthe burial practices of thethe early inhabitants Philippine archipelago, elucidate reasons behind apparent useofofthe gold in death and burialespecially practices societies. Indeed, burialarchipelago, sites comprised most of of the early early Visayan inhabitants of the Philippine especially ofthe thearchaeological early Visayan sources inIndeed, the area; thus,sites the study also most concerns itself with how mortuary societies. burial comprise of the archaeological sources analyses in the through archaeological methodologies and inferences, could provide concrete evidences area; thus, the study also concerns itself with how mortuary analyses through for these accounts. Focusing onand theinferences, early Filipinos’ death, dying and the archaeological methodologies couldconcepts provide of concrete evidences for afterlife, the paper argues that gold,early as a Filipinos’ distinct material, is deemed important in this these accounts. Focusing on the concepts of death, dying and the stage of people’s life.argues Moreover, importance, although explained from the immense afterlife, the paper thatthis gold, as a distinct material, is deemed important in ethnohistoric records, is realized to be incongruent in terms of the evidences recovered this stage of people’s life. The paper introduces the concept of object- soul, an animist through systematic archaeological pursuits. The paper introduces objectexplanation why certain materials were buried together withthe theconcept dead. of However, soul, an the animist explanationofwhy certain materials were buried together withargues the dead. beyond consideration nature spirits in such perspective, the study that However,objects beyondin theVisayan consideration nature spirits suchwere perspective, the study argues material death of and burial, like in gold, conceived as having that material objectsthe in same Visayan death andand burial, like gold, conceived having soul, thus undergo separation transition thatwas happens to theas deceased. soul, thus undergothat thethere samewere separation andjustifications transition that the deceased. Notwithstanding prevailing onhappens the use to of gold in death Notwithstanding were prevailing on the use goldthis in death and and burial duringthat thethere protohistoric periodjustifications in the Philippines, andofthat deliberate burialwas during the protohistoric period into theconsensual Philippines, and that this deliberate use was use predominantly attributed spiritualism, the persevering predominantly consensual spiritualism, the persevering of why is question of whyattributed is there atolimited archaeological evidence of gold inquestion burials still posits a limited archaeological evidence of gold in burials still posits a problem. athere problem. Keywords: gold, burial goods, object-soul, protohistoric Visayas, material culture in the past I. INTRODUCTION The first week of May of every year, though quite humid and dry, is among the busiest time for the people of the sleepy town of Oton, one of the oldest in the province of Iloilo in the Visayas. Just before the dawn of the rainy season, this is the time when inhabitants prepare for an annual event of curious tribute. Men and women, especially the

school children from every part of the locality craft costumes and rehearse dance routines. They gather in their streets and together celebrate. The routines were festive since the preparations were for a feast, but the costumes were quite distinct. Every single participant creates an interesting mask for his/her attire. They make sure that this is glittery, shiny and most importantly gold.

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The event is mentioned as the Katagman Festival celebrated since the year 2002. It was an ordinary fiesta with an extraordinary commemoration, since it is a celebration of their glorious past symbolized by a mask that had been used by earlier inhabitants of Iloilo as facial covers for the deceased. The death masks are buried together with the dead. They are usually made of metal, but gold is preferred. In 1973, evidence of such practice was recovered when Alfredo Evangelista and F. Landa Jocano found some of this kind through an excavation by the National Museum in Barangay San Antonio. The gold nose-disc and gold eyemask was believed to be from the late 1300s to the early 1400s BCE based on the associated grave goods. Because of its historical significance and probably it is made of gold, the locals deemed it worthy of high esteem and celebration. During the Katagman Festival, people engage in various performing and visual arts competitions. It is a week of merriment and feasts. From a past practice for uninviting death, the engagement became an exhilarating festivity. Information about Philippine prehistoric gold , like like the the one one mentioned mentioned earlier, earlier, comes from two-fold sources that generally generally relate with one another. While the first concerns itself with the materials recovered and the analyses done in archaeology, archaeology, the the other one talks about ethnographic data which was written by foreign observers from from the theneighbouring neighboring communities, communities, as well as the European colonizers. The latter records of ethnohistory of the Philippine archipelago, however, composed however, composed the the bulk of our knowledge about gold of our distant ancestors. So to speak, these records are ethnographies and historical accounts at the same time, since most of these narrations incorporate both the descriptions of the ways our early people lived, as well as the events and occurrences, which they personally witnessed and observed. However, However, documents from foreign people compose these ethnohistoric records. Neighboring Neighbouringkingdom kingdom like like China, China, as well as the earliest Europeans who came to the

archipelago provided this information. Thesewere explored in a previous study elsewhere (Estrella, 2013b).Nevertheless, Nevertheless,accounts accounts about gold were, 2013). about gold were, by by and large, amazements of the chroniclers and large, amazements of the chroniclers withwith the the abundance of such material. And as would abundance of such material. And as would Scott Scott (1994:67) puts it, is gold is mentioned (1967/94) puts it, gold mentioned more more often oftenany than any other one substance than other one substance. fromfrom the Conversely, itit seems seemsthat thatevidences evidences archaeological recordcould not rival the abundant the archaeological record could not rival the accounts about gold about in the gold past. In a abundant accounts in addition, the past. perplexingly number ofsmall yieldsnumber could pose In addition, asmall perplexingly of a problem. Whilea problem. the various ethnohistoric yields could pose While the various records consistently account an abundance of ethnohistoric records consistently account an gold, both trade and artisanal, little that welittle see abundance of gold, both trade and artisanal, thesewe materials in materials archaeological excavations that see these in archaeological and exposed and sitesexposed all throughout For excavations sites the all country. throughout one, we could say that the Philippines is young, in the country. For one, we could say that the of archaeological and surveys. terms Philippines is young, inexplorations terms of archaeological More archaeological yields More of thisarchaeological kind require explorations and surveys. more systematic excavations. But then again, yields of this kind require more systematic rereading these texts would suggest that at excavations. But then again, rereading theseleast, texts a site should a piece two, considering would suggestyield that at least, or a site should yield a also that is second South in piece or our two,country considering also to that ourAfrica country gold production perAfrica squareinkilometre (Villegas, is second to South gold production 2004:15-16). According(Villegas, to Bennett (2009:104per square kilometre 2004:15/ 16). 105), gold appears in the archaeological According to Bennett (2009:104/ 105),record gold only in the second half of therecord first millennium appears in the archaeological only in the BPE, duehalf to the reason the methods gold second of the first that millennium BCE, of due to extraction and working were introduced to the reason that the methods of gold extraction Southeast Asia through Indiantoand/or Chinese and working were introduced Southeast Asia traders pursuing gold ores available in the region. through Indian and/or Chinese traders pursuing Harrison (1968, quoted Villegas, 2004)(1968) adds gold ores available in the in region. Harrison further that the foremost goldsmithing occurred as quoted in Villegas (2004) added further that afterforemost 1000 BCE, especially occurred between after 12001000 and the goldsmithing 1400 especially BCE, since between a change 1200 in trade and BCE, andpatterns 1400 BCE, exportarequirements to thepatterns mainland after the since change in trade and export start of the Ming dynasty were prevailing requirements to the mainland after the start in of addition the new attitudes evoked Islam the Ming to dynasty were prevailing in by addition after and large, the disparity between to the1400s. new By attitudes evoked by Islam after the ethnohistoric and archaeological record could 1400s. By and large, the disparity between the be attributed in gold, as a material itself (Estrella, ethnohistoric and archaeological record could be 2013a; 2013b). Finally, inconsistency might attributed in gold, as a this material itself (Estrella, be found further ininconsistency the nature and properties of 2013). Finally, this might be found gold, since it nature is indeed, exceptional, if not a further in the and an properties of gold, since mystical metal. it is indeed exceptional, if not a mystical metal.

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Part of its numinous properties is the perplexing idea that gold is indeed ironic. In point of fact, Peter Bernstein (2004/7) reveals through his striking book The Power of Gold: A History of an Obsession, that indeed, “gold is a mass of contradictions.” Its properties and materiality posit cunning ironies. To wit, gold is among the noble metals yet it is so ductile and malleable that a gram of it will cover half a square meter when hammered thoroughly (Austin, 1921:121; Rose, 1898:3). In the midst of being a metal, gold is also easy to work with that even the earliest of the humans moulded fascinating objects out of it largely due to its occurrence in its native, uncombined state (Alexander, 2011:171; Gimeno, 2008:2; Rapp, 2009:146; Rose, 1898:2). Gold is astonishingly dense weighing about seventeen and a half kilograms per cubic centimetre. Ultimately, the metal is chemically inert, that is why according to Venable (2011: xviii), there are little substantial formation activities that happened to gold throughout the development of the Earth, and that it is highly resistant to disparaging oxidation. In other words, the gold that we are exhausting today is physically and chemically, the same gold that the earliest people had interacted with before, yet, gold’s radiance never faded. On one hand, it is a mass of paradox, on the other and most importantly, it is a material with contradicting meanings. Various meanings attributed to this curious material create a complex confusion in the minds of the people, resulting to perplexing actions in return. In consistent with Peter Bernstein; Nations have scoured the earth for gold in order to control others only to find that gold has controlled their own fate. The gold at the end of the rainbow is ultimate happiness, but the gold at the bottom of the mine emerges from hell. Gold has inspired some of humanity’s greatest achievements and provoked some of its worst crimes. When we use gold to symbolize eternity it elevates people to greater dignity-royalty

religion, formality; when gold is regarded as life everlasting, it drives people to death (2004:8). But of all the paradoxes gold entail, the ironic ways the early inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago employed this particular material in life and death baffle the researcher the most as an enthusiast. Particular emphasis is hereby given with how the early inhabitants of the Visayan polities interacted with the material in life and even in death. These contradictions in its materiality are nevertheless discussed in this paper, with the aim of providing a theoretical context in which to consider gold in burial practices done by the Visayans in the Philippine archipelago in the last one thousand years. By and large, the study tries to elucidate the following musings. Was there a high regard by the early inhabitants of the region for gold objects in death and burial? If gold is precious, then why was it disposed together with the dead, left buried underneath the cold and putrid dirt? Was the act of leaving this kind of material seen as a seize in use or could it mean something else for the people? II. DOCUMENTARY ARCHAEOLOGY Since the objective is to shed light to the precolonial Visayan belief about death and burial, the paper utilized, as a primary method of contextualizing material evidences recovered archaeologically, the documentary archaeology approach. Laurie Wilkie (2006:13) defined documentary archaeology as “an approach to history that brings together diverse source materials” concerning the culture and the societies of the past. These source materials do not only include archival documents but also other possible sources of information in the past like artifacts and other material products of past cultures–the primary concern of archaeology. The term was first introduced by Mary Beaudry (1988, quoted in Wilkie, 2006:13) forwarding a documentary analysis in archaeology that is uniquely their own. Accordingly, this approach

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provides wide variety of viewpoints not possible through “single lines” of analysis through giving ample attention to historical documents, often referred to as “texts” (Wilkie, 2006:13). More than a combination of History and Archaeology in the level of the utility of sources, documentary archaeology lets scholars and investigators in the disciplines to “excavate” further these sources. It is true that history greatly influenced the practice of documentary archaeology; however, this emerging sub-discipline is more focused on historiographical concerns in creating a story. The document or the “text”, though not the sole evidence employed, is among the most important sources of information, thus, should be treated the same way researchers in the field treat material evidences of culture. Over and above, Wilkie (2006:16) cautions practitioners that all endeavors must be guided by anthropological perspectives and concepts of materiality. Although it seems like documentary archaeology is widely used, Wilkie (2006:33) confirms that it is still a young field, at least in its methodological practice. Both archaeological and historical evidences have been used in a lot of investigations about the past, especially in the Philippines since according to Junker (2000:29) historical and ethnographic sources which compose a large portion of our historical documents accounts for the recent past while archaeological data have allowed us to extend our country’s existence far back suggesting a more genuine cultural development. Likewise, the relationship between historical and archaeological sources has been scrutinized extensively ever since, but little has done in understanding the relationship of these two sources, more so in integrating these kinds of evidences into an evocative narratives of the past. III. GOLD OF THE DEAD Grave or burial sites in the Visayas are one of, if not the major, sources of gold artifacts. Scott (1984:24) maintained that it is partly due to the fact that burial sites exhibits an array of variations,

especially with the material remains it go along with. In addition, there are more burial sites than settlement at the contemporary archaeological record (Scott, 1984:24). Remarkably enough, gold is easily distinguished within the record although difficult to recover in situ. Among the most celebrated gold yields found in burial sites, is the death mask in Oton, in the province of Iloilo. The yields were accidentally recovered in Barangay San Antonio, in this first class municipality in 1973. The site is believed to be a protohistoric port settlement locally referred to as Katagman. Katagman is in the middle of the Iloilo and Batiano rivers and the settlement was one of the oldest and most important seaports during the late 1300s to the early 1400s BCE. The people were coastal traders as viewed from the associated tradeware goods and they are as well, among the few people recorded to have used gold facial covers in death and burial. The death mask is composed of two parts; the eye-piece, measuring 13.3 cm in length and 2.5 cm in width, and the nose piece, measuring 16.3 cm in width and 5.5 cm in width. Both of these covers are intricately designed and manufactured. Looking closely, the death mask might have been done out of the process of simple gold sheeting through hammering. However, applying intricate designs would have taken the artisan extra effort for repoussage and chasing techniques (Esguerra, 2013:90). A similar finding was found in the neighboring island of Cebu. In the city’s Plaza Independencia, while a tunnel was about to be built, a death mask was also recovered, but, unlike the one recovered in Iloilo, the gold mask in the Plaza Independencia is less intricately etched. Bersales (2008) described facial covers as hastily made, probably because of its appearance. Nida Cuevas (2009) the head of the project, on the other hand noted that the gold death mask was found not far away from a probably female cranium that is artificially reformed based on initial analysis. In addition, these finds were part of a burial assemblage which includes also Thai “guan” celadon, Vietnamese, and Chinese ceramics. Therefore, the gold death mask, together with the

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cranial reformation and associated goods, asserts idea of of aa high status grave of a female in this the idea find in inCebu Cebu(Tomada, (Tomada,2008). 2008). archaeological find Furthersouth southof ofthe theprovince provinceof of Cebu, another Further gold assemblage assemblage was was found found in in Boljoon. Boljoon. With the gold total of of twenty-six burials, this sixteenth sixteenth century century total grave site site remarkably remarkably revealed a glimpse of of early early grave Cebuano burial customs through the different different Cebuano through the mortuary aspects, aspects, and and more more importantly through mortuary burial goods (Gerschwiler, burial (Gerschwiler, 2009: 18-20). Within this assemblage, assemblage, an an astonishing astonishing 2.2 2.2 meter gold this chain was was found found on on the the left side above the ribs, chain clasped by by a male individual (Bersales & & Dela Dela clasped Torre, 2008a). 2008a).Also, Also, in in the the grave of of aa 35-49 35-49 years yearTorre, old female in a supine supine position position yielded carnelian and gold gold beads, beads, and and while while further exploring the and same grave, three gold pendants same pendants were found. One pendant pendant shows shows a human face, whereas the One other two exhibits zoomorphic designs. Notably also, Bersales & Dela Torre Torre (2008b) found a gold earring found found in in another another burial near the the right earring lobe of of a probable adult male male. Nonetheless, Nonetheless, these these lobe were accompanied accompanied with with Zangzhou-type of finds were ceramics, plain plain white powder box, brass beads, ceramics, implements and and a fragmented earthenware iron implements pot. cooking pot. Other gold artifacts documented Other gold artifacts documented archaeologically in in burials in the Visayas Visayas include include archaeologically those recovered recovered through through the the efforts efforts of of the those University of Michigan Philippine Expedition

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headed by Dr. Carl E. Guthe. The The yields yields comprise gold items, items, usually usuallyornaments; ornaments; from from the the town gold of Pangol and Carcar in the province of Cebu, of Loay in in Bohol, Bohol, Vallehermoso Vallehermoso in Negros Oriental, Loay and Suluan Suluan Island Island in in Samar Samar (Guthe, (Guthe, 1927). Gold and ornaments found found in in these these burial burial sites in the ornaments different parts parts of of the Visayas were mostly found different together with with rich rich associated associated artifacts. They were together more often often than than not, not, found together with some more ceramic objects objects that ranges from green, grey, and ceramic white sung, dark-glazed jars, Celadon white celadon or greenglazed, blue blue and and white, white, black black and and white ceramics, glazed, to stonewares stonewares and and earthenwares. earthenwares.Iron, Iron, brass to and copper copper implements, implements, with a couple of beads and and shell ornaments ornaments were were also also found associated and with these goods, amounting with amounting to about hundreds of artifacts in each site of site (Beyer, (Beyer, 1947:281). Lastly, the province province of of Samar, Samar, towards towards the the east east of the the Visayas group of islands has sites as well which yielded gold artifacts. Gold yielded Gold ornaments ornaments were also present in in “porcelain-age” “porcelain-age” burials burials in the localities present of Motiong, Motiong, Lawaan Lawaan Basey, Basey, Catubig, Catubig and Giwan of (Beyer, 1947:268). Feodor Jagor in 1860 reported gold ring ring of of the the hollow hollow tube tube type type found found in a aa gold cave burial burial in inGiwan, Giwan,whereas whereas Ralph Ralph S.S. Frush, cave an engineer working on a road extension, found an few ornaments ornaments of of this this material material in in the barrio of few Motiong. To To picture picture out out the distribution, a map Motiong. showing the the gold-yielding gold-yielding burial burial sites sites inin the showing Visayas appears in Figure 1 .

Figure 1: Archaeologically excavated burial sites in the central Philippines with gold items.

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The burial assemblages where gold artifacts were found in this part of the archipelago suggest that the gold items appear and widely used when trade intensified from the last millennium up to the 1300s and 1400s. This period was commonly referred to as the protohistoric period because it denotes the period in the development of the Philippines, wherein recorded accounts about the existence of the population were generated due to rigorous contact between the indigent population of the archipelago and the societies around it, evident also in the appearance of an array of tradeware ceramics from these different neighbouring cultures of Southeast Asia and China in the archaeological record. As much as a confusing span of time when prehistory and history meet as asserted by Manuel (1979:xiii), it is also a period of link between the advent of indigenous literacy and ethnographic records of surrounding cultures, since early population in the Philippines started to build their own system of writing. Decisively, Jocano (1998:36) characterized this protohistoric period as “events” that are marked by “early cultural differentiation resulting from contacts” with foreign cultures, especially, fellow Asians. During this protohistoric period, either trade items or local crafts, gold objects were deliberately used as burial goods and thus made its way to the contemporary period through archaeological excavations. It is never new in the Visayas, and in fact, it is quite abundant in the whole country. Primarily, this is due to the volcanic nature of the archipelago according to Robert, Poulsen and Dube (1999:210, 214). In addition, a much recent assessment reveals that the Philippines is second to South Africa in gold production per square kilometres (Villegas, 2004:15-16). Particularly in the islands of the Visayas, its coastal and riverine areas are considered to be one of the archaeologically productive places where gold artifacts are quite a find. No wonder that gold is so commonplace that even the earliest inhabitants in the region made use of this material in their daily lives–even in their

deaths. Most of the sites with gold yield exhibits proximity to coastal areas for one, settlement and therefore burials were concentrated in these topographies. Also, these sites have nearby rivers which are mostly outlets of running water coming from elevated terrains. Many of the gold artifacts are deemed to be sourced out from placer goldrich rivers of the islands, from where the early inhabitants patiently panned dusts and nuggets. Sutherland (2007:31-32) advises that rivers play an important role in this kinds of activities. Bennett (2009:100) agreed that most of the gold in the prehistoric and early historic periods would have been sourced out from alluvial sediments through panning since this method only requires few “capital investments in equipment and no specialist technology”. But unfortunately, this method left little to no archaeological evidence. Nevertheless, Hutterer (1977:184-185) asserted that gold jewellery, among other objects were imported from other localities in Southeast Asia during the Metal Age. Allowing Rehren & Pernicka (2008:234) and Schoenberger (2010:3), economic, political and social interactions were necessitated and stimulated by the geological constrains of gold production, corresponding the spread of the knowledge with the spread of the material. This is further supported by the idea that there are no historically-documented lode ore sources within the group of islands, in contrast with those larger gold-mining and processing activities in Luzon and Mindanao. A map, showing these large gold-ore sources, appears in Figure 2. Bennett (2009:99) emphasized the abundance through irregularly of such deposits in Luzon and in Mindanao. While Morga (1609) enumerated placers and mines at Pracale in Camarines and Butuan River in Mindanao, Beyer (1947:217,253) supported this account, however identifying two gold mines in the archipelago being in the Bontok, Lepanto and Amburayan sub-provinces and in Camarines Norte as evident with gold mine workings and tools. In any other cases, these areas within certain towns or provinces had a good grasp of this metal and became important sources

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of gold. attested by by Santiago (2005:59) (2005:59) gold. This Thiswas is attested who claims that Iloilo, formerly referred to as Arevalo at at the the advent advent ofof Spanish Spanish colonization, was linked to the “gold routes”. routes.” Accordingly, the route connected the gold mines in Luzon through Paracale in Bicol, coursing southward “to foster and infuse the inter-island and Chinese trade in the Visayas” Visayas” (Santiago, (Santiago,2005:59). 2005:59).And At at this this case, the islands of Cebu and Panay dominated this illustrious trade. Figure 2: Historically-documented larger gold-ore deposits in the Philippines.

Figure 2: Historically-documented larger gold-ore deposits in the Philippines.

Moreover, apparent with the comparison of the burial sites in the Visayas appearing in Table 1, ornamentals were the most common type of finds; however, these gold ornaments could be further separated into two categories according to where in the body the items were used in addition to the functions they entail. Whereas gold objects found covering the face of the deceased serve as death masks, those found within the body serve as adornments. Both categories aim to augment the appearance of the dead body, but they are quite distinct in terms of their functions. Gold facial covers or bodily adornments could be considered

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valued goods. The kinds of of items items being being buried buriedtogether together with the dead are limitless. The variety of burial burial goods in the world suggests that every single burial might might include include different different kinds of of objects for different reasons. reasons. As As Piggott Piggott (1969, quoted in fordifferent Ucko, 1969) asserted, there isis aa strong strong tendency asserts, there that burial goods are socially selected, according to reasons and conditions that until this very moment remain not yet deciphered. Therefore, grave goods placed in the tomb will in no sense represent a random sample. sample. Needless Needless to to say say,, only those objects with certain certain value value are are usually usually included since nobody would wouldwant wanttotodeck deckout out a adeceased deceased loved things loved oneone withwith things easilyeasily foundfound everywhere else or with a lot of items everywhere else or with a unnecessary lot of unnecessary for no for good These valued perhaps items noreason. good reason. Theseitems valued items include objects in their everyday perhapsthose include thoseemployed objects employed in their pursuits, it almost everyday making pursuits, makingaitvirtually almost household, a virtually ornamental and devout item. More than anything household, ornamental and devout item. More else, the people looked at the some materials than anything else, the people looked at like the articles of gold, as something relevant, them some materials like articles of gold, asgiving something arelevant, differentgiving and a higher over other them avalue different and acommon higher objects. According to Renfrew (1986:158) the ct value over other common objects. According oncept of value was very complicated, however o Renfrew (1986:158) the concept of value is one important idea is that, is something very complicated, however one itimportant idea assigned individual or by a group and it may is that, it by is an something assigned by an individual be assigned because an array of reasons and or by a group and itofmay be assigned because potentials. After all, among the earliest exploited of an array of reasons and potentials. After all, metals, goldearliest is withexploited quite a distinction among the metals, gold(Guerra, is with 2003:1527; Rehren & Pernicka, 2008:233-234; quite a distinction (Guerra, 2003:1527; Rehren & Schoenberger, 2013:3). Nevertheless, Pernicka, 2008:233-234; Schoenberger, apparent 2013:3). with the burial sites in the Visayas Nevertheless, apparent with the being burialexamined sites in this paper; gold is examined a customary, not an essential the Visayas being thisif paper; gold is a part since, of Visayan burial goods. It isofessential, customary, if not an essential part since, Visayan in the sense metals were not burial goods.that It isthe essential, in thelargely sense part, that the only of the people’s pursuits, but also a central metals was largely part, not only of the people’s feature thealso different stages in the pursuits,ofbut a central feature ofdevelopment the different of their life 2012). stages in and the consciousness development (see of Estrella, their life and Consequently, this inclusion of such, consciousness (see customary Estrella, 2012). Consequently material might inclusion suggest aofreason that could be this customary such material might rooted somewhere else within the society. The suggest a reason that could be rooted somewhere most within important however for what else the question society. The mostis important reason orhowever reasons did these bury the question is for whatitems reason or with reasons dead. did these items buried with the dead?

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Archaeologically-documented Burial sites in the Visayas

Table 1: Comparison of burial sites with gold artifacts in the Visayas

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IV. When Gold dIes The vast ethnohistoric records written by the Spanish chroniclers throughout the three centuries of their colonization in the Philippines recorded a rather detailed description of the early

inhabitant of the archipelago during these times. Especially during the initial institutionalizations of colonial systems between the late 16th and 17th centuries, many chroniclers were commissioned to report on how the people of the new colony

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lived, and most most probably probably died. died.Probably Probably because because of their interest, they noticed the deliberate use of gold by the early Filipinos. To wit gold objects, might be in the form of taels (monetary units) or of ornamentals, were patronized and utilized by early inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago not only to augment their theirappearance appearancebut but also maintain their their experiences with to change changeoror maintain experiences the world. They were everyday living with the world. They part wereofpart of everyday of theofpeople as much as asit itwas living the people as much was socialized throughout their lives. During a mother’s pregnancy, Plasencia (1589a:178 (1589:178; quoted in Blair & Roberston, 1903:180) noted about the need pregnant mother motherto togive giveher her master half of the pregnant master half of of a gold tael because of her risk of death and a gold tael because of her risk of death and for her for her inability to labour the pregnancy. inability to labour during during the pregnancy. When When thewas child was the takes mother it to the child born, theborn mother it totake the river thebathe, river to bathe, cut theumbilical infants umbilical cord, to cuts the infants cord, washes wash well, it, dryand it, and turn it over to the father it well,it dries turns it over to the father to to place it in bagcontaining containingsmall smallpieces pieces of of gold place it in a abag (Boxer Codex, 1595). At childhood, youngs were socialized with gold objects through ornaments such as necklaces, rings, most especially, earrings quoted in or circlets of of gold gold (Colin, (Colin,1663:40 1663:40; quoted Blair && Roberston, Necklaces, collars of in Blair Roberston,1903). 1903). Necklaces, collars bead or gold, leg and comprise these of bead or gold, leg arm and bands arm bands comprise ornaments. Also, atAlso, this at point time gold gold was these ornaments. thisinpoint introduced as well as penis pins referred to as tugbuk which was inserted in childhood. Scott asserts that (1994:24) asserted thatthis thispin pinof of brass, brass, ivory or gold is aimed for greater stimulation of their sex partners at the time they were ready. They also believe that. Only wild animals had white teeth therefore it was customary for them to colour them. Gold, among other forms of colouring the teeth was considered all the more effective, and, more than enough to differentiate themselves animals.This This is evident, apparently, from animals. is evident, apparently, with the with the earlier discussed Bolinao gold dental earlier discussed Bolinao gold dental peggings peggings (Legaspi, 1966). At marriage, the soon(Legaspi, 1966). At marriage, the soon-to-be to-be husband is deemed to pay hisfuture future wife husband is deemed to pay to tohis dowry, as Loarca (1582a:170) observed, the sum of 100 taels, in gold, slaves and jewels. Besides, as supported by the Boxer Codex (1595) it is not only during the time of betrothals that people

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wear their gold, instead, when the the maganito maganito is held not for a sick man, but also for the harvest in their fields, each one wears all the gold and precious stones he own. The Boxer Codex (1595) also mentioned gold being displayed in wreaths at the event one party wins warfare and abled to bring back some prizes, and these were pendant feathers of gold. Finally, may be because of gold’s resilience to time, objects made from the material were being passed on from one generation to another as inheritance (Plasencia, 1589b:104). Consistent with the chroniclers’ records, gold is perplexingly very crucial in virtually every aspect of human life, only to be disposed with the dead. Delving deeper into the ethnohistoric accounts about the population’s belief might further enlighten us with this absurdity. Looking further unto the people’s belief in terms of death, the Povedano Manuscript (1572 quoted in an appendix provided in Demetrio, 1966:388-389) managed to account the tale of the first death according to the early Visayan spirituality. The Boxer Codex of 1590 reports this as well, whereas Miguel de Loarca(1580a:176) has a slight different version. Nevertheless, according to the story, the children of the first pair, crafted a fishing instrument and caught a shark. They brought it to the shore and caused its death. This enraged their great ancestors who sent a fly to check the event. Upon confirmation, they hurled a thunderbolt that immediately killed them. Jose Maria Pavon (1838-1839) on the other hand, tells a rather longer version, adding some curious geneses of things like the origin of corral fishing, of ray-fishes, shellfishes and tortoises, along the course of the story (Demetrio, 1966:360). In any other cases, Demetrio (1966:361) observed two deaths were first recognized to have had happened –the death of the shark and the death of the children. Successively, the fate of the soul after death is narrated in Ignacio Alcina’s (1668) la Historia de la Islas e Indios Visayas. Accordingly, the soul is said to go to a place called Sayar where a diwata, Bararum, governs. His primary duty is to call

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and announce to all the relatives the death of a person. The dead arrives in his or her coffin and welcomed by the relative who are engaged with generous feasting. Loarca (1580a:180) asserted on the other hand, that instead of coffins, balangays are used to transport the dead to Sisiburanen, a high mountain in Borneo. The diwata will then recognize and should recognize the dead person because of the gold and other ornaments which adorn the person. Consistent with the Pavon Manuscripts (1838), quoted in an appendix provided in Demetrio (1966:392-395), it provided further information about the belief after what happened after the death of the first causality upon arriving in the afterlife. It tells us that the dead had the chance to go back to the mortal world but never wanted to return to the earth because of what he found out about what transpired to the relatives who are still living. As much as gold objects were used tangibly as offerings to or as materials for the idols as noted by Loarca (1582), Plasencia (1589) and Chirino (1604), they also believed that spirits around them patronize gold objects the reason perhaps why they have to constantly include such materials in their offerings. A quite parallel translation as compiled by Blair and Robertson in the early 1900s can also provide an easier reference to this. Nevertheless, gold objects appear as well, in death and burial. According to Chirino (1604b:130), “during the internment, valuables like gold rings, chains bracelets, clothing, porcelain and other goods were buried with the dead, especially if he was of a high rank.” When Gemelli Careri visited the Philippine archipelago in 1697, he noticed the same practice of leaving gold bracelets and other ornaments in graves and burials (452). The people believed that if they depart rich they will be well received in the other world, but coldly if they go poor. The Boljoon Site in Cebu might provide an archaeological data when Bersales & Dela Torre (2008) found four (4) clear grave goods among the late 16th century human burials in the area. Among these goods were gold beads, gold pendants of human and zoomorphic design

and gold earring. Chirino (1604c:260) also noted about placing the gold in the mouths of the corpses, and laid with them many articles of value, and the evidence for this and other components death masks were recovered as well as in Cebu, and in Oton, Iloilo. Based on the first-hand reports, death, as viewed by the early Visayans, is a transitory phenomenon in which the deceased goes from one known geographical unit (i.e. mortal world) to another. Therefore, death and dying are considered to be a movement from one dimension to another. More importantly, it entails separation and transformation since the afterlife is a renewed existence “different from life here, yet, strangely enough, somewhat similar to life on earth” (Demetrio, 1866:386). The difference however according to him could be seen in symbols of long journey over waters usually towards trees, caves or mountains, the judgement or separation at the centre, and the further climb up the summit for the just and descent into the place for the wicked. Likewise in a modern investigation, the Sulod society confirms this belief of death. Sulod is a group of people living in the interior highlands of Panay. These people are among the indigenous population of this part of the Visayas and therefore deemed important source of testimonies about experiences with death and the afterlife. For them, “death is not the end of everything”, thus, when the person dies, he or she assumes a different form and continues to exist as a separate personality (Jocano, 1964:52). As quite similar to the ethnohistoric reports, death therefore is seen by the members of the society as the most unwelcomed rite of passage. Death according to the field works of Jocano (1964:53) in the society is perceived as well as a process of passing a narrow door. The door is so narrow that one pulls itself hard to pass through only to be welcomed or eaten by the mahikawon or evil spirits, depending whether the living relatives pacified them or not through funerary rituals. The entity which passes through the door is the person’s soul. It is conceived as a smoke appearance of the body, 241

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finely dressed and accompanied with a variety of times, just like physical remain of the dead. It goes to Muruburu to bath to be properly welcomed to the realm of the dead (Jocano, 1964:54). Like the accounts of the Spanish chroniclers, separation is what feared the Visayans the most when thinking about death. Even though it is seen as a whole new existence in another dimension, the thought of not coming back, rejection to the other world, and breaking of the bond terrify the people. This could be the reason why complex ceremonies and rituals were performed to ease the anxiety. These performances, nevertheless, were never complete with material things that try to accompany the dead. Moreover, from the ethnohistoric records, emphasiswas provided to the material objects that go along with the dead. This includes the coffin or the boat for that matter, clothing, other bits and pieces and of course ornaments of gold, to name a few. One, therefore, cannot separate material things with the person even in death, at least his/ her personal and treasured items, not to mention the evidence of material wealth. According to Demetrio (1966:364), this belief captured by the various chronicles, is probably the primary reason why the living â&#x20AC;&#x153;deck the dead out with material thingsâ&#x20AC;? like curious items made out of precious stones and metals for burials. The account tells us further that in some cases, the keeper of the world of the dead fails to recognize those who carry little or no items with them, and this scenario is what early Visayans also fear the most in their death. Material things therefore are believed to have travelled also to this new dimension, the realm of the dead, just like the deceased person. Therefore, the objects go through a similar transformation that the physical material remains buried with the physical remains of the person, while a sort of soul accompany the soul of the deceased. V. GOLD IN THE AFTERLIFE Gold objects therefore, are indispensable items deemed by the early Visayans to accompany their deceased relatives. Based on

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the ethnohistoric accounts as they verify the appearance of such artifacts in the archaeological record, gold is a customary part of the goods they buried with the dead, if not a prescribed inclusion. They are therefore, part of the separation and transition process in which according to the belief of the early Visayans that the object has a soul, and so symbolically transferred as well to the realm of the dead. Remarkably, the accounts reveal that the early Visayans believe that material goods were transported together with the dead in the afterlife, and these objects are important in order for the dead to be accepted. The dead person is initially assessed by appearance, on how he or she has been groomed, dresses or prepared. Gold, more than anything else in this case, is a significant ticket. Scott (1994:77) acknowledged that the early Visayans worship nature spirits personified in entities. He noted that specific natural occurrences were believed to be caused by invisible forces. In view of that, early inhabitants in this part of the archipelago revered prescribed landscape and other natural forms. Abrera (1992), on the other hand, talked about anting-anting, or amulets made out of an array of materials from the environment. Particularly, she observed that among the precolonial Visayans, as noted by Chirino (1604, quoted in Blair & Robertson, 1903:294), gold objects, especially ornamental rings worn in the toes, served as a sort of amulets that either guide or defend its owner. The toes, Abrera (1992:284) forwards, are portions of the body greatly associated with the personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s soul, since these either enclose them or serve as openings from which the soul penetrates. Accordingly, when people sleep, their soul goes out of their body through body openings, say through their mouths, noses, ears, and eyes, as well as through the hands and the feet. At the event that the body is empty, it is most vulnerable to evil spirits that wanting to find a host. The gold ornament consequently serves as a defence that fend away evil spirits through its bright radiance. Accordingly, the evil spirits are afraid to the brightness being projected

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by the gold ornaments, and are therefore forced to go, leaving the body and soul without any malign impurities (Chua, 2012:18). There were plenty other study that deals with the unseen forces in the environment and their relationship with material things. However, little has been noted about the role of the object, itself, from nature in these complex animistic practices. Very few accounted for the important beliefs concerning specific materials. Objects from nature then, have been hastily reduced to passive materials. In the case of gold, it might be found in its natural state, or crafted to become among the most stunning ornaments, accompanying the dead in burial would mean a simple object to be carried in the afterlife. Yet, this is just a part of the story. What the researcher investigates in this paper and the researcher believes another parcel of this view; is that the early Visayans’ believed that certain materials, say gold, have their own soul. Thus, having a soul for itself, materials are deemed to have died and transformed to a similar form, just like the soul of the dead. This might not be apparent with the ethnohistoric accounts of the Spanish chroniclers who recorded the ways of live of the early inhabitants of the archipelago upon the initial contacts. This could be attributed to the reason that the chroniclers hurriedly encapsulated every practice and belief to a more familiar and safe term of animism, or their belief system barred them to think such complex thoughts. On the contrary, the indigenous population the foreign chroniclers had observed before might believe in the view that the soul of the object takes a similar transformation in order to penetrate the realm of the dead. The physical material is buried although the people might have known its resistance to decay. This burying act should symbolize the death of gold as well as mark the start of its transformation and further the passage of the material to the afterlife. Nevertheless, the ethnographic accounts were more open and thus, some of these important details were noted by American ethnographers who visited and studied a couple of ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines. This

belief in the object-soul is evident not only with the Visayan population, but also observed by the different ethnographers all over the Philippine archipelago. Towards south, in Mindanao, Laura Benedict (1916), in her documentation of the Bagobo group, noted the population’s belief about gimokod. Gimokod, according to Bagobo belief as noted by Benedict (1916:53), is the “spiritual substratum or essence” of an object. When a person dies, a couple of objects are laid with the deceased to rest believing that the gimokod of the object abstracts and enjoys whereas the physical material left in the burial stays with the physical remains of the dead (Benedict, 1916:53). Every object is deemed to have its own soul and in consistent to Benedict’s (1916:54) observation, only what is buried can go together with the dead to the world of the dead. So the object is figuratively killed through the burying and seen as transforming with the deceased. The Sama of Cagayan Tawi-Tawi has a similar belief as observed by Eric Casiño when he was studying them in 1976. The Jama Mapun, what the people themselves prefer to be called, believes that things in nature have their own spirit, might it be animate or inanimate. Casiño (1976:113) furthers that because of this belief the population grown a special reverence to certain weapons, to daily articles and especially to rice. Another group in this southern part of the archipelago believes in this idea of regarding inanimate objects with animate attributes. According to Cole, who documented the Tingguians of Mindanao in 1915, these people “enjoy unusual relations” with objects and things. In fact, she noted of people conversing with spears and jars. Their tales would provide some insights as well with how the Tingguians treat these objects, especially in magic. Likewise, this group believes that by executing different rites against garments and other objects, people can inflict harm to these object’s owners (Cole, 1915:20). Way up north, the Ifugaos of the Cordilleras believe in a linauwa. Translated by Roy Barton (1930: 141) as “soulstuff”, he recorded that

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these people conceive all things around as having souls. In consistent also with his report, the soul of an object dictates the desirable qualities and attributes of the object, say the soul of a knife is its capability of taking and holding an edge whereas the soul of rice is its productivity. In addition, Barton (1930: 142) revealed that magic could augment or abate the soul, therefore the qualities, of an object, and as he observed, headhunting is the best way to do it. Finally, in Walter William Skeat’s documentation of indigenous Malay population in 1900, the people is said to believe in soul of an animal, plants and even minerals. Likewise, the soul is conceived as a “diminutive but exact counterpart of its own embodiment, occasionally at least, to assume the shape of some animal or bird” (Skeat, 1900: 52). For the purpose of the study, a particular emphasis is given to the animist theory of the Malay world that it incorporates the belief in souls of inert objects. these include stones, weapons, boats, food, clothes, ornaments, and even minerals. Particulary, gold, the Malays have a distinct reference to this kind of materials. For this population, the gold-soul takes the form of a deer or locally called kijang in abstraction. Early inhabitantsof the Philippine archipelago therefore, like the general population of the Malay world, have this kind regard to the soul, which a member finds in virtually everything around. This belief was earlier explored in an animist context by Abrera (2007). Looking into the context of the employment of boats in precolonial Philippine society, according to her, the belief in a soul elucidates the presence of an array of materials within a grave. And, these objects’ souls accompany the dead to the afterlife, going beyond their normal function in the society (Abrera, 2007:5). In the case of the indigenous boat, its soul is revered in an array of activities, such as from cutting a tree, from which the boat will be built, conducting rituals, before, during and after its use, and even at its disposal. Ultimately, Abrera (2007:7) asserted that because the people believe that objects, particularly boats, have soul, they

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are qualified to accompany the deceased to the afterlife. Her argument is compelling enough; however, there is one thing that Abrera (2007) might have failed to expound further, yet quite evident with the direction of her paper. Beyond mere accompaniments of a dead person’s soul in the afterlife, objects, in this perspective, have a rather active role in the society of the living, which enables the object to have a certain degree of “potency” (Gilmore, 1919:14). The role was active in the mortal world, or simply, in the society of the living, more than in the realm of the dead. The use of such materials or the inclusion of certain objects in graves and burials is for the living more than for the dead. It may be true that the belief prescribes particular objects needed in the world after, but the command is more for the living to procure, provide and even display these things. The concept is quite related with Alfred Gell’s (1992/1998) notion of agency. According to Gell’s (1992:43) “technology of enchantment”, the production of certain materials are conceived not in individual ability to create these objects, but the ability of the group of people to consensually create purposes for the materials. Although forwarding the same ability of collectively creation of purposes, the concept of the object-soul on the contrary shifts the focus on the certain degree of potency provided by a group of people to an object, perhaps due to its properties, materiality or value. The object-soul therefore is deemed to be the abstracted element of an object. It is the form of an item that is created and maintained in a person’s mind, perpetuated through his or her belief. The essence, spirit or any abstraction came from the distinctive natures of an object, its materiality, ascribed value, hailed qualities or simply attached memories. Gilmore (1919:14) further characterizes the concept of animism in the context of belief in object-soul, claiming that any object, in this kind of belief system, it might be tangible or intangible, as possessing emotional, volitional, and actional potency like that he himself possesses. Things, of whatsoever sort, he

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may consider the subjects of feelings–likes and dislikes, appetites or disinclinations, affections or antipathies, desires and longings; of will–to help or injure, to act or refrain from acting; and of the power to act according to the promptings of these feelings and the determinations of will. In any other cases, the object is seen as having life, takes part of the everyday living, and even dies. Therefore in death, it is symbolically or ritually killed as well, through breaking and burning, by any destructive or additive transformation, or mere seizure of use. Gold and Cultural Development Most, if not all, of the techniques employed by our early ancestors could be recognized through careful considerations of the goldworks themselves. As Eluère (1983:82) would sum up, the examination of these artifacts are “viewed from the viewpoint of their structure, the nature of the alloys used in fabrication and the techniques by which they were made.” Accordingly, studies of gold in prehistory which focus on the technical aspects enables archaeologists to construe information about the ancient industry. Such information might include (1) the cultural context of the manufacturing process, (2) the link between forms and techniques, (3) the effect of the raw materials in the production, and (4) the organization of the craftspeople (Eluère, 1983:82). Over and above, looking into the technical features of the material would inevitably shed considerable light to the industries oftentimes misunderstood. However, the amount of gold from secured archaeological contexts in the Philippines is quite scanty. This is also true when looking into the whole Southeast Asia (Miksic, 2013:72). The problem arising from this fact is primarily the difficulty of delving deeper into the thoughts and interactions of the people with this extraordinary material. Miksic (2013:76) furthers that “much potential data has been lost because of the pressures of poverty and the easy convertibility of gold into cash.” This must be the bitter truth the

material entails, other than its brilliance. Gold, in any other form, is still gold. And, gold in today’s time more than the past, has a high economic value. In addition, another reason why we do not have the equal amount of gold in tangible material with what was written in ethnohistorical records is the material’s ability to be reworked. According to Guy (2013:87), gold is among the “most vulnerable, readily melted down by those desiring its metal value or wishing to make adornments of their time.” Reworking of gold, on the other hand, is possible. In fact, gold has been sought after because of this ability to be reworked into newer objects. Besides, as Bennett (2009:102) forwarded, because gold is never thrown away, it has, most probably, been recycled and traded many times. In other words, gold has never been disposed; instead it underwent transformations that by and large coped with the desires of the people who used it from generation to generation. Although the design and decorations might change, gold traverses temporality through the value of the material. Miksic (2013:72) agrees in stating that “until recently, antique gold was synonymous with scrap gold”. Thus, regardless of its form, it is constantly being melted, reworked and recasted to suit the demands of the time. Clearly, the ancient Filipinos had this sophisticated way of life during this early phase of Philippine history. One indicator of this sophistication could probably be read and reread amongst the records of past chroniclers who witnessed this magnanimity. And according to them, this complexity is the capacity of the early Filipinos to create, manipulate and maintain commodities that in return, create, manipulate and maintain societal systems in the form of restricting luxury and prestige goods. Indeed, Miksic (2013:66) claimed that “goldwork is a highly sensitive indicator of cultural change and communication.” The acquisition and perpetuation of the different knowledge and skills about the fabrication of luxury goods, like gold works, other than subsistence technologies

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at this early point in time, could be considered as an advancement, if not an achievement. The people were aware of the need of this industry inside and outside the archipelago; therefore, they coped up by learning the craft. Likewise, goldsmiths in the Philippines, as Miksic (2013:69) would assert, aware of the Hindu and Buddhist artistic traditions widely prevailing in the region. However, the goldsmiths who designed them did not include motifs that would concretely assign them a specific identity. Even so, the studies about gold as a material culture in Southeast Asia and in the Philippines are stylistic in nature. And from this single parameter, a lot of scholars agree that the ancient Philippine society is among the advanced cultures in the region as manifested with their knowledge and skills. This concern could either be a good or a bad thing. On one hand, investigators in the field could probe on this topic comprehensively; on the other hand, the studies on gold might be reduced to these kinds of study. In doing the latter there is a great chance of neglecting the active role of this dynamic material. Archaeological inquiry though, is starting to look at this, but, has this hesitant attitude. Furthermore, the paper suggests that more than the knowledge and skills however, one could study the conscious effort of the early Filipinos in asserting their identity through the crafts they make. Fortunately, this could be investigated and be done historically and archaeologically. As earlier synthesized from these data, the prevailing artistic and technological traditions in gold were prevalent during those time but the early Filipinos did not mind them. Miksic (2013:70) proposed two different but closely intertwined explanations. Firstly, according to him, is that the people were consciously imitating the designs and techniques for aesthetic purposes only with no religious intention or whatsoever. Secondly, they were aware of Indian iconographic conventions but blatantly disregarded them. In any other cases, there is this intentional

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overlook at this great tradition that could be investigated archaeologically, probably in the light of studying past identities, After all, as consistent with the archaeologist John Miksic (2013:70) “Philippine artisans were deliberately maintaining a traditional ethnic identity rather than volunteering to join an international cultural sphere. The perpetuation of traditional styles in the Philippines cannot be seen as the result of ignorance; rather they are evidence of a conscious decision to maintain ethnic and cultural identities” VI. CONCLUSION The paper has explored the archaeological evidence with a more summary exploration of the ethnohistorical and anthropological literature in order to provide a theoretical context on the presence and deliberate inclusion of gold objects in death and burial in the Visayas during the last one thousand years. This period in the development of the Philippine archipelago is referred by Ramon Villegas (1998:236-237) as the “golden age” because of increasing cultural developments. Deduced from the archaeological record, gold items found in the various burial sites in the Visayas were objects of trade and were considered luxury goods, products of an “intense focus on maritime commerce” (Junker, 2000:279). We are reminded that the Visayas region was marked by relentless contact between local and foreign trade and commerce. In fact, among its earliest reference in the history of trade in the world comes the Chinese records in the accounts of its official dynastic histories such as the Sung Shih (宋史) or the Sung History (960-1279 CE), and Chu ju-kua‟s (趙汝, 1225) Chu fan-chih (諸蕃志) or the Account of the Various Barbarians, which concerns itself with the records of economic transactions with neighbouring cultures since it was written by the Superintendent of Maritime Trade in Ch‟uan-chu Province in Southern China (Scott, 1983). Since economic in nature, the relations took note of the people’s awareness of the importance of gold as a commodity and

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medium of exchange. In fact, the Chinese refers to this as Huo-chiin. As Wang (1972:32) suggested huo means goods or money and chiin means gold, thus, the term appearing mostly in the records related to the Philippine islands might indicate trade-gold. Therefore, gold’s appearance in the graves might have started and flourished during this last one thousand years, during the time span referred to as the protohistoric period, evidently because of the association of this kind of materials with other items of Southeast Asian and Chinese contacts. On the other hand, we were informed by the vast ethnohistoric records that gold objects are very important in the Visayan death and burial since they serve as passes to the afterlife. Since death is seen by the early inhabitants of the Visayas as a transitory phenomenon that entails long journeys and judgement at the middle that separates people from further climbing up the summit for those people who are worthy and descending into the place for the unworthy (Demetrio, 1966:386), different objects were conceived indispensable during these transformations. By and large, gold is one of them. In point of fact, the records noted that a certain Bararum, the keeper who meets the dead in the afterlife, most often than not, fails to admit people less adorned with gold. Very discriminating indeed, but this belief, might have dictated the living to include gold in their deceased loved ones’ graves. Furthermore, these earliest accounts emphasized the various objects that go along with the dead in the afterlife. After all, death for them is never the end of life, but instead, just another rite of passage, wherein they will need some objects to continue their existence. It is therefore argued that gold objects were conceived as having souls. Material things with value determined by the people, perhaps through their distinct properties, materialities and attributed meanings, were believed to undergo the same separation and transition alongside with the dead. While the physical remains of the deceased were buried and left to deteriorate, so too the materials. This is in connection with the

early Visayan belief that their souls shall leave the carnal realm and do enter the spiritual world. More importantly, the object-soul is with the dead people wherever they go. For the indigenous Malay population, the soul of the object is its “diminutive but exact counterpart” (Skeat, 1900:52). For the Ifugaos of the north, according to (Barton, 1930:194), the soul lies on the desirable qualities and attributes of an object. On the other hand, the Bogobos of Mindanao see it as the “spiritual substratum or essence” of the objects (Benedict, 1916:53). However it may be defined by a culture, object-soul is the abstracted part of an object. It is the form of an item that is created and maintained in a person’s mind. The essence, spirit or any abstraction came from the distinctive natures of an object, its materiality, ascribed value or simply from an attached memory. In any other cases, the object is seen as having life, takes part of the everyday living, and even dies. Therefore in death, it is symbolically or ritually killed as well, through breaking and burning, by any destructive or additive transformation, or simply seizure of use. Conversely, more than mere containers of essences, spirits or any abstractions, the concept of objectsoul disagrees with the idea of a conventional passive object in an animist perspective. Instead, it should be looked as an active means by way the value of an object dictates the people through its important not only for the dead since these objects will be needed to the afterlife, but also for the living because the need to include and compelled them to procure, provide and display these materials. Over and above, gold as an object is a curious mystery. It could be a symbol of antagonism (White, 1974:46) at the same time a protagonist. It might really have a soul since, following Bernstein (2004:280) numerous thirsts for power, glory, beauty, security and more importantly, immortality have been enthused by this mysteriously cunning object. And for millennia, no other object in this world parallels its ability to command so much regard. Whereas the living strives to acquire them while alive, the dead is dying also to have it in its grave. Its power lies most probably with the gold’s

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incomprehensibility causing the early of inhabitants properties of andthe materiality Visayan region tothe regard as having aofsoul, elevating it causing early itinhabitants the Visayan region comparable a human. to regard it aswith having a soul, elevating it comparable with a human. originality index: similarity index: paper id: Grammarly:

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Philippine Journal of Science Vol. 77 (3-4), 205374. Boxer manuscript. (1590a). In Jocano, F. L. (Ed.). (1975) The Philippines at the Spanish Contact. Manila: MCS Enterprises, Incorporated, 188-235. Boxer manuscript. (1590b). In Garcia, M. (Ed.). (1979) Readings in Philippine prehistory. Manila: The Filipiniana Book Guild, 307-357 Casiño, E. (1976). The Jama Mapun: a changing Samal society in the southern Philippines. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press Chau Ju-Kua. (1225a). Chu fan-chi. In Hirth, F. & Rockhill W.W. (Ed.). (1911) Chau Ju-Kua: his work on the Chinese and Arab trade in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, entitled, Chu Fan-Chi. St. Petersburg: Printing Office of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. Chau Ju-Kua. (1225a). Chau Ju-Kua’s description of the Philippines in the thirteenth century. In Garcia, M. (Ed.). (1979). Readings in Philippine prehistory. Manila: The Filipiniana Book Guild, 194-196 Chirino, P. (1604a). Relacion de las islas Filipinas. In Blair, E. & Robertson, J. (Eds.). (1903) The Philippines, 1493-1898, Vol. 12. Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company, 293-296. Chirino, P. (1604b). Of marriages, dowries, and divorces among the Filipinos. In Jocano, F. L. (Ed.). (1975). The Philippines at the Spanish contact. Manila: MCS Enterprises, Incorporated, 125146. Chirino, P. (1604c). Relation of the Philipine islands. In Garcia, M. (Ed.). (1979). Readings in Philippine prehistory. Manila: The Filipiniana Book Guild, 241-265. Chua, M. C. B. (2012). Banga, bangka, bangkay: isang panukalang gamit ng arkeolohiya sa pagtuturo ng araling panlipunan at kasaysayan ng Pilpinas Manila: De La Salle University. Unpublished Manuscript. Cole, F.-C. (1915). Traditions of the Tinguian; a study in Philippine folklore. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History Publication no. 180. Colin, F. (1663a). Ethnological description of the Filipinos native races and their customs. In Blair, E. & Robertson, J. (Eds.). (1903). The Philippines, 1493-1898, Vol 40. Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company, 37-48. Colin, F. (1663b). Native races and their customs: of the origin of the nations and peoples who inhabit these islands. In Jocano, F. L. (Ed.). (1975). The Philippines at the Spanish contact. Manila: MCS Enterprises, Inc, 147-187. Demetrio, F. (1966). Death: its origin and related beliefs

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Press. Jocano, F. L. (1964). Notes on the Sulod concept of death, the soul, and the region of the dead. Philippine Studies 12 (1), 51-62. Jocano, F. L. (1998). Filipino prehistory: rediscovering precolonial heritage. Quezon City: PUNLAD Research House, Incorporated. Legaspi, A. M. (1966) Bolinao. Manila: National Museum of the Philippines Loarca, M. (1582a). Relacion de las islas Filipinas. In Blair, E. & Robertson, J. (Eds.). (1903). The Philippines, 1493-1898. Vol. 5. Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company, 32-187. Loarca, M. (1582b). Relacion de las islas Filipinas. In Jocano, F. L. (Ed.). (1975). The Philippines at the Spanish contact. Manila: MCS Enterprises, Incorporated, 81-109. Loarca, M. (1582c). Relation of the Philippine islands. In Garcia, M. (Ed.). (1979). Readings in Philippine prehistory. Manila: The Filipiniana Book Guild, 197-220. Lorenzo-Abrera, M. B. (1992). Ang numismatika ng anting-anting: panimulang paghawan ng isang landas tungo sa pagunawa ng kasaysayan at kalinangang Pilipino. Quezon City: University of the Philippines. Unpublished Manuscript. Manuel, E. A. (1979). Introduction: doors to Philippinesian prehistory. In Garcia, M. (Ed.). Readings in Philippine prehistory. Manila: The Filipiniana Book Guild, xiii-xiv Miksic, J. N. (2013. Philippine gold in early Southeast Asia. In Arts of Asia 43 (1), 66-77 Morga, A. (1609a). Sucesos de las islas Filipinas. Manila: National Historical Institute Morga, A. (1609b). Relation of the Philippine islands and of their natives, antiquity, customs, and government. In Garcia, M. (Ed.). Readings in Philippine prehistory. Manila: The Filipiniana Book Guild, 266-306. Morga, A. (1609c). The Philippine Islands, Moluccas, Siam, Cambodia, Japan, and China, at the close of the sixteenth century. (Stanley, H. E. J., Trans.). (2009). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Plasencia, J. (1589a). Customs of the Tagalogs. In Blair, E. & Robertson, J. (Eds.). (1903). The Philippines, 1493-1898, Vol. 7. Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company, 173-185. Plasencia, J. (1589b). Customs of the Tagalogs. In Jocano, F. L. (Ed.). (1975). The Philippines at the Spanish contact. Manila: MCS Enterprises, Inc, 81-109. Plasencia, J. (1589c). Customs of the Tagalogs. In Garcia,

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M. (Ed.). (1979). Readings in Philippine prehistory. Manila: The Filipiniana Book Guild, 221-234. Rapp, G. (2009). Archaeomineralogy. Berlin: Springer. Rehren, T. H. & Pernicka, E. (2008). Coins, artefacts and isotopes –archaeometallurgy and archaeometry. Archaeometry 50, 232–248. Renfew, C. (1986). Varna and the emergence of wealth in prehistoric Europe. In Appadurai, A. (Ed.). The social life of things: commodities in cultural perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Robert, F., Poulsen, K. H. & Dubé, B. (1997). Gold deposits and their geological classification. In Gubins, A. G. (Ed.). Proceedings of Exploration 97: Fourth Decennial International Conference on Mineral Exploration, 209-220. Rose, T. K. (1898). The metallurgy of gold. London: Charles Griffin And Company, Ltd. Santiago, L. P. R. (2005). Pomp, pageantry and gold: The eight Spanish villas in the Philippines (15651887). Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 33 (1), 57-75. Schoenberger, E. (2010). Why is gold valuable? nature, social power and the value of things. Cultural Geographies 18 (1), 3–24. Scott, W. H. (1983). Filipinos in China before 1500. Asian Studies 4,1-19. Scott, W. H. (1984). Prehispanic source materials for the study of Philippine history. Quezon City: New Day Publishers. Scott, W. H. (1994). Barangay: sixteenth-century Philippine culture and society. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. Skeat, W. W. (1900). Malay magic: an introduction to the folklore and popular religion of the Malay peninsula. London: Frank Cass & Co., Ltd. Sutherland, H. (2007). Geography as destiny? The role of water in Southeast Asian history. In Boomgaard, P. (Ed.). A world of water: rain, rivers and seas in Southeast Asian histories. Leiden: KITLV Press, 27-70. Tomada, N. M. (2008). Artifacts from Plaza Independencia excavation unveiled. Retrieved 02 March 2014 from the World Wide Web: http://www. philstar.com/cebu-news/424350 /artifacts-plazaexcavation-unveiled. Ucko, P. L. (1969). Ethnography and archaeological interpretation of funerary remains. World Archaeology 1 (2), 262-280. Venable, S. L. (2011). Gold: a cultural encyclopaedia. California: ABC-CLIO, LLC. Villegas, R. N. (1998). The legacy of a golden age. In

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Casal, G. S., Dizon, E. Z., Ronquillo, W. P. and Salcedo, C. G. (Eds). Kasayayan: the story of the Filipino people Vol. 2, the earliest Filipinos. Hong Kong: Asia Publishing Company Limited, 236-237. Villegas, R. N. (2004). Ginto: history wrought in gold. Manila: Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas. Wang, T.-M. (1974). Notes on Ma’I in Chu Fan-Chih. Philippine Historical Review 5, 19-34. White, P. T. (1974) Gold, the eternal treasure. National Geographic 145 (1), 1-51.

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Development of the third gender linguistic variation Lorlaine R. Dacanay College of Arts and Sciences University of the Visayas ldacanay@gmail.com Date Submitted: June 24, 2014

Date Accepted: October 18, 2014

ABSTRACT adding or inverting letters Members of the third third gender gender develop developlinguistic linguisticpatterns patternsby characterized by adding or from the letters originalfrom word. patterns addition, changing, omission inverting theLinguistic original word. Theshow studyinversion, uses descriptive-interpretative design. Three and coinage. areas The are study interpreted. uses descriptive-interpretative Linguistic patterns show design. inversion, Three areas addition, are interpreted; changing, omission coined words and coinage. are ambivalent Coinedtowords become arediscreet ambivalent in exchanging to becomemessages discreet in that exchanging might be messages that might be offensive offensive to conservative listeners.to conservative listeners. Keywords: third gender, linguistic variation, queer theory, gay lingo I. INTRODUCTION Language is dynamic and and arbitrary. arbitrary.Linguistic Linguistic patterns vary according to gender orientation, regional location, occupational choice and socioeconomic status. However, However, the the representation of the third gender in language study is minimal. As observed, Zimman Zimman and andHall Hall(2014) (2014)asserted assert that members of the third gender develop linguistic patterns characterized by adding or inverting letters from the original word. It is popularly known as gay gay lingo. lingo. This The study investigates investigates the proximity proximity or or distance of the gay lingo word from the original word. Since members of the third gender are underrepresented or unrepresented in the thelanguage languagestudy, study,the conducting conduct ofthis this study study is deemed necessary. Studies have already explored much of the spoken linguistic variation between male and female speakers. Studies proved that women have far more developed linguistic ability (Romaine, 1998; McElhinny, 1998/2014) 1998, 2014). Hence, women tend to be creative in reporting. The same studies proved that men, on the other hand, have economy of words. Their spoken language expose little adherence to correctness in grammar and structure. However, another pool of studies

mentioned that men are keener in giving accurate data; but, they are found to be more talkative than their women counterpart (Johnson & Repta, 2007; Howells, 1996; Wilson,1996; Zimman & Hall, 2014). Furthermore, Nemati and Bayer (2007) did not confirm Lakoffâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s opinion regarding gender-bound language at least in the use of intensifiers, hedges and tag questions in English. There are several noticeable gaps in the the body body of knowledge. Studies focus on both written and oral language registers. registers. Spoken Spoken registers registers must be focused focused on, on because because language arbitrariness is prevalent. Studies have dealt only with the differences between female and male linguistic patterns. Members of the third gender are underrepresented or unrepresented in the language study. If studies mention the linguistic characteristics of the members of the third gender, they only represent Western and other countries, but not with the local setting. In this study, linguistic pattern of the members of the third gender is explored through discourse analysis. It focuses on the spoken registers of the members of the third sex in Cebu City, Philippines. Observation of the members of the third gender engaging in a natural conversation is done in

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order to gather spoken data. From the spoken registers, the study is geared toward analyzing the lexicographic processes involved in coining new words. Lexicographic process is the development of linguistic variation by creating a variety of words out of the original word. The distance and proximity of the newly-coined words in comparison with the original word are analyzed. II. TheoreTIcal FrameWork The This study study is is based on Queer Theory. Queer theory establishes a socially constructed division between what is a normative behavior and a deviant behavior (Harris, 2005). Ritcher (1998) and Klages that queerness Klages (2012) (2012) postulated postulate that focused largely on questions of homosexuality and transgender. The members of the third gender identify their sexuality beyond malefemale polarities. Hence, they are deviant from the constructed gender norms. By extension, they develop linguistic patterns that areare “queer.” which “queer.” In connection, developing linguistic patterns different from the normative linguistic patterns spoken inin a community suitably describedescribes concepts a community suitably on genderon uniqueness; deviance from norms;from and concepts gender uniqueness; deviance reinforcement of meaning-making comprehensive norms; and reinforcement of meaning-making to the speaking tocommunity (Zimman & Hall, comprehensive the speaking community 2008). (Zimman & Hall, 2008). Pertinent to the premise of this the study, study, the variables are lexicon processes (LP) in identifying third gender uniqueness; distance and proximity (DP) of the processed lexicons from the normal Cebuano language language; ; and and level level of of ambiguity of meaning (AM) depending upon which context the lexicon has been used. III. research desIGn and meThod The study uses a descriptive-interpretative design for economy and convenience purposes. By purposively selecting participants who personally admitted they are members of the third gender, observation is made in order to record their naturally flowing conversation. The primary phase is to gather data to identify lexical processes (LP). First to be done is listening

to the questions questions and and answers answersoccurring occurringfrom from a naturally naturally flowing flowing conversation between two members of the third gender. Second is to record conversations. Three conversations are recorded: one in the morning, one at noon, and one at night. Third is to transcribe their responses on field notes containing the context of the conversation. Fourth is to translate questions and answers into original Cebuano word. Fifth is to present data in tabular form participants’ responses; form to toshow: show (a) a) participants’ (b) original Cebuano Cebuano words words of the processed b) original lexicon; and the English translation of the and, (c) c) the Cebuano terms. The next phase is to determine the distance or proximity (DP) of the coined words from the original Cebuano word. This is done by determining the linguistic distance of the gay lingo compared to original Cebuano word. Linguistic Distance. The Linguistic distance is compiled from the lexicographic processes of coining of a word. As defined, lexicographic process is a process of developing a variety of a language. For instance, given a base word, the equivalent derived word is obtained by: (W) Weight

Variable X0 = no change

X1 = inversion

X2 = addition

X3 = omission

X4 = changing a letter or group of letters

X5 = coinage (entirely new)

The distance between the base word (BW) and the derived word (DW) is: d (BW, DW) = √W2x + W2x + W2x +W2x +W2x +W2x o

The distance function is a non-negative number d ≥ 0. The maximum distance is 5 when the derived word is totally changed viz new coinage. Hence, 0 ≤ d ≤ 5. Examples: Let the base

Dacanay, L. R.

word be “laki” “laki” which whichmeans means“male” “male” translated translated as as “ikal” gaylingo lingoobtained obtainedby by inversion. inversion. Here: “ikal” in in gay d(laki, male) = 5; while (laki, ikal)=1. Obviously, the base word is closer to the gay language (weight of 1) than to the English equivalent word (weight of 5). Thus, linguistic distance can be measured by comparing how close or how far two words of the same meaning from two different speech communities. Another instance, the same base word “laki” (male) among general Cebuano speakers is translated as “kikerou” in gay-lingo gay lingo speakers obtained by omission and addition. Here, (ikal, laki) =1; while (kikerou, laki) = 3.60. Following the of of 2; the formula, formula,omission omissionhas hasa weight a weight addition hashas a weight of 3ofd= 2; addition a weight 3 √22 + 32 . Hence, the linguistic distance 3.60. “Ikal” is closer distance to “laki” d= √22 + 32 . isHence, the linguistic than “kikerou” is. “Ikal” is more comprehensible is 3.60. “Ikal” is closer to “laki” than “kikerou” is. than is. “Ikal”“kikerou” is more comprehensible than “kikerou” is. a linear “kikerou” have given been In a In linear draft,draft, “kikerou” couldcould have been given a weight of 5.the With the retention “ki”“laki” from a weight of 5. With retention of “ki”of from “laki” (boy), the linguistic distance is reduced (boy), the linguistic distance is reduced to 3.60.to 3.60.The Thefinal finalphase phaseisisto to determine determine the ambiguity of meaning of the processed lexicon used by members of the third gender. Conversations are contextualized to show the arbitrariness and dynamism of the processed lexicon. IV.RESULTS resulTs and dIscussIon IV. AND DISCUSSION Presentation. Table 1 compares the Cebuano third gender lexicon from the original Cebuano term; and identifies the lexical processes (LP)

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of variation. The comparison is basically on on identifying the processes which have been involved in the creation of a new coined word. Apparently, inversion, addition, changing, omission and coinage are the processes involved in concocting new words in the gay lingo. Concocted words are gathered from the three conversations. Inversion and addition processes are most often used in the linguistic variation. Coinage appears to be more often used. Omission and changing processes are used sparingly. There are words in Cebuano which are not changed; and there are English words and phrases used in gay lingo. From the utterances, there are words having manifested no change (X0). They fall in point (0) which can be comprehensible to general Cebuano speakers. The words do not have special meaning because they retain their meaning. These words are librehon (treat out), gwapa (beautiful), swerte (fortunate) as examples. Inversion1(X ) is a lexicographic process of reading the words from the last letter to the first. For instance, “day” (girl) is read as “yad(s).” Other words involving this process are akim (sleepy), imal (delicious), aan, (there is) as examples. These words receive a weight of 1 as their linguistic distance from the original word. If one knows the principle of the development of a gay-lingo, gay lingo, it will be easier in inverting the words back to their original form. Thus, the difficulty of understanding is less.

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Table 2. Cebuano Third Gender Lexicon Processes and their Distance/Proximity Value to the Original Term

Dacanay, L. R.

Addition(X2) (X2 )is isa a lexicographic lexicographic process Addition process of attaching letters to the words. For instance, yads/z – day (girl), yads/z–day (girl), graveh graveh–grabi – grabi (very), (very), starla starla–– sikat (famous), to name a few examples have been added with letters leading to ambiguity of the original word. Reoccurrence of added letters (h) and (s), is apparent. Hence, they receive a weight of 2 as their linguistic distance. Changing (X 3) is a lexicographic process of changing the letters of either the original or the coined words. To illustrate, day (girl) is changed to “dae” a diphthong sound /ay/ to long /e/; grabi (very) to “graveh” bilabial /b/ to a fricative /v/;

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amiga (friend) to “meka” hard, long sound /iy/ is substituted with soft, short sound / É/. The Linguisticdistance of these developments is given linguistic a weight of 3 leading to ambiguity. Omission (X 4 ), on the other hand, is a lexicographic process of deleting a letter or group of letters from the original word leading to their incomprehensibility. Hence, the weight is 4. This process is evident in the words “meka” from amiga (female friend). The initial letter “a” is omitted. True with the word “kikerou” kilkerou” from laki (boy), the initial syllable is dropped and the final syllable is retained, added with other characters.

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Lastly, Coinage (X 5) is a lexicographic process of creating new expressions which are incomprehensible to common Cebuano speech community. Newly coined words in the gay gay lingo are incomprehensible, aside from having received a weight of 5 in their linguistic distance from the original word. Listeners should contextualize uttered expressions because a common word may mean differently in the conversation. In the same table, proximity and distance (PD) of the coined word from the original Cebuano word is reflected. Assigned points are reflected to the processes depending on the gravity of their impact on word derivation in the third gender lexicon. Linguistic Distance (LD) can then be determined by adding all the points for every process gay lexicon undergoes; and getting the average. The nearer the average is to 5, the more distant it is from the Cebuano word. Likely, the nearer the average is to 0, the closer it is to the original Cebuano word. The table table also alsoreveals revealsambiguous ambiguousmeanings meanings (AM) to terms perceptible in the conversations. Ambiguities occur when the words used are uttered in different contexts. Ambiguities happen when the thethe words do not fit from themeaning meaningof of words does not the fit traditional meaning Cebuano from the traditional meaning speakers Cebuano perceive. speakers Ambiguities also happen when different words perceive. Ambiguities also happen when different wordsone mean mean thing. one thing. Analysis. The comparison between the derived third gender lexicon from the original Cebuano lexicon shows no boundaries as to how many processes the word coinage undergoes. For instance, “akim” means “mika” involves inversion process only. Both words mean sleepy. Moreover, the phrase “motogsh na” is the equivalent form of “gotom na.” The phrase undergoes process of inversion “motog” from “gotom” but it has been added with additional letters “sh” to make it “motogsh.” Thus, the term “motogsh na” undergoes two processes: inversion and addition before the phrase has been derived. It means “hungry already.” Another instance of lexical processes is illustrated in “meka.” From the Cebuano term “amiga,” two processes are noticeable: omission

and changing. “a” is no longer seen in “meka.” It could have been read as “miga.” However, it undergoes another process again by changing the hard “i” to “e”; and “g” to “k.” The terms “meka” and “amiga” both mean “friend.” Lastly, coinage is a lexical process which is done by creating a new word unintelligible bycommon Cebuanospeakers. It is illustrated in the term “datch.” Compared to the common Cebuano term “kwarta,” it is really far away from its original Cebuano term. For coinage lexical process, it is an interesting point to note that in gay lingo conversation, “in fairness ha” is uttered. It is far from the Cebuano phrase “sa way paglipod-lipod ha.” In that utterance, the speaker uses a foreign phrase thus it falls under coinage because it is not derived from a Cebuano lexicon, but in English. Except the retention of “ha” which is a purely Cebuano expression attached to a foreign phrase, the phrase is far too different from the Cebuano language. Secondly is to establish the linguistic distance. As an illustration, comparing the linguistic distance of “imal” to “ampatuan” is to compare the terms to the original Cebuano terms. “Imal” is from “lami.” If a Cebuano who does not understand the third gender language variety, but knows the principle of the word formation, he will be able to understand it easily because the linguistic distance is not far enough for it to be unintelligible. However, “ampatuan” is purely not intelligible because it is coined. From the phrase “okadyang ampatuan” or “dako kaayo” (very big) in Cebuano language, “ampatuan” is not the same with “kaayo.” There are no similarities between the coined word and the original which an ordinary Cebuano can associate it with. Hence, the linguistic distance is five (5). Thirdly is to establish the ambivalence or ambiguity of the third gender language. When a friend asks, “Yads, mika?” or “Girl, sleepy?” normally, a “yes” or “no” answer will be enough. However, the word “mika” is associated with something else because the response talks about being a star in the night “graveh ang pagka starla sa kagabhion” or (I really had a huge job at night).

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This response may be found off-tangent from the common Cebuano speaker. However, the conversation does not show radical response from the one being talked to. Instead the response is smooth, “mao na panglaki pa!” or “That’s what you get with your boy!” Being a star ofin the night is no longer about being a performer on stage or perhaps a famous person. However, it means being a great one with someone he adores. Okadyang ampatuan” “Okadyang ampatuan means big. It has only been intensified because of the word “ampatuan” which is associated with the news on massacre. If one has to give meaning to it, the size becomes deadly. Eating at night time with a boyfriend has not been properly responded. The conversation shows that the participant becomes reactive to the expression of eating. It is logical though that they need to eat dinner because it is at night. Reacting to it by calling the other participant as “Otcheserang baki” makes one wonders why angst was there by calling someone a “frog”. “frog.” Although it meant no harm to the one being talked to, it is still a connotation beyond eating dinner. Interpretation The linguistic linguistic distance distance serves serves as as a blueprint whether or or not not a foreign foreign language is comprehensible to a certain community. community. By determining the lexical processes processes involved involved in comparing a foreign word compared from a native word, word, linguistic linguistic distance distance can be measured. In this the study, study, gay lingo is closer to Cebuano than it is to English. The third gender language is dynamic. The lexical processes a gay lingo undergoes are limitless depending on the context. However, the commonly used processes are inversion and addition because they are easy to use; and easy to be identified by the listener. The word formation is spontaneous. The word is abstracted far enough from the original Cebuano word when coinage process is used. As can be noticed, it is useful in making and exchanging messages with a lot of sexual innuendos. Ambiguity and ambivalence of the message serve to hide meanings which

might upset conservative listeners. However, the other member of the third gender listening to the message directly understands what is meant. V. CONCLUSION The development of the third gender linguistic variation (gay lingo) allows the third gender to converse discreetly in public places. It allows confidentiality by speaking out negative comments openly. Generating linguistic patterns is a form of art in language studies.

originality index: similarity index: paper id:

99 % 1% 442073927

Grammarly:

checked

REFERENCES Johnson, J.L., & Repta, R. (2007). Sex and gender: Beyond the binaries. Vancouver, BC, Canada: Women’s Health Research Network 17-37. Harris, K.D. (2005). Queer theory: Definition and literary example. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Main_Page on June 24, 2014. Howells, S. (1996). Wretched fetishes: Character, realism, and other modern instances. Texas Studies in Literature and Language. 38(1):26-50. McElhinny, B. (1998). Genealogies of gender theory: Practice theory and feminism in socio-cultural and linguistic anthropology. Social Analysis. 42(3): 164–89. McElhinny, B. (2014). Theorizing gender in Sociolinguistics and Linguistic Anthropology: The History and theoretical background to the study of language and Gender. In S. Ehrlich, M. Meyerhoff, J. Holmes & B. McElhinny (Eds.) Handbook of Language, Gender, and Sexuality (pp. 22-42). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Nemati, A., & Bayer, J.M. (2010). Gender differences in language use: A short look at Lakoff ’s and Tannen’s theories. Richter, D. (1998). Introduction to “Gender Studies and Queer Theory” in the Critical Tradition (2nd ed.). NY: Bedford/St. Martin’s. Romaine, S. (1998). Variation in language and gender. Berkeley, CA: Berkeley Women and Language Group, University of California.

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Wilson, A. (1996). How we find ourselves. Identity development and two-spirit people. Harvard Education Review. 66(2): 303-317. Zimman L., & Hall, K. (2014). Language, embodiment,

and the ‘third sex’. In Watt, D. & Llamas, C. (Eds.) Language and identities. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

APPENDIx – CONvERSATIONS

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Cebuano folklore and the embedded Filipino values Regina Plaza-Galigao College of Arts and Sciences University of the Visayas reginpgaligao@yahoo.com

Date Submitted: April 26, 2014

Date Accepted: June 6, 2014

ABSTRACT Thisstudy studyanalyzes intends to of theCebuano selectedfolklore Cebuanowhich folklore which The theanalyze contentthe of content the selected primarily primarilythe depicts the original the Filipinos. study usedthe the interpretativeinterpretativedepicts original values values of theofFilipinos. TheThis study used appreciative-analytical method appreciative-analytical method inin examining examining the the values values delineated delineated in in Cebuano Cebuano Folklore. This involves identificationand of the Filipinowere valuesgathered embedded in Folklore. The method tools used for the interpretation analysis from the Cebuano used for interpretation and analysis werethat gathered selected areasfolklore. in Cebu.The Thetools study identified the common Filipino values reflect fromideal selected in Cebu. This study the commonand Filipino values which the wayareas on how Filipinos valueidentified family, community, profession. These reflect the ideal are waystrongly on how Filipinos valueexpectedly family, community, profession. These original values intuited and gleaned and in the four categories original values arestudied stronglysuch intuited andfolktales; expectedly(b) gleaned from (c) the riddles; four categories of folklore being as: (a) folksongs; and (d) of folklore being studied such as: folktales, folksongs, riddles, and sayings. sayings/proverbs. Keywords: Folkore, folktales, folksongs, riddles, sayings

I. INTRODUCTION The essence of to folklore is content something This study intends analyze the of the selected Cebuano folklores primarily that cannot be contained in a which definition but depictgrows the original values experiences of the Filipinos. that upon folklore shown These original values are strongly intuited and in liking indigenous songs, stories, sayings, expectedly gleaned from the four categories of beliefs, customs, and practices (Sanburg, 1944). folklore studied such as: folktales, folksongs, Folklorebeing is an excellent instructional device riddles, and sayings. because it provides facts in an emotional The essence of folklore is something that setting (Pajo, 1954). Furthermore, it can also be cannot be contained in a definition but that used as an instrument for the appreciation of grows upon folklore experiences shown in personalities of beauty what issayings, right and duty liking indigenous songs,ofstories, beliefs, (Pajo, 1954). customs, and practices (Sanburg, 1944). Folklore of ancientdevice Filipinowhich valueswill in is anIdentification excellent instructional Cebuano folktales, folksongs, and sayings as be unforgettable to the young because they are materials instruction justified the given facts for in an emotional are setting (Pajo, in 1954). sense that “the value literature is Furthermore, it can alsoofbecreative used as an instrument for the appreciation of personalities of beauty of the principal treat to the creative imagination what isisright and dutyto(Pajo, 1954). which an attempt control man’s thoughts” Identification (Cornolly, 1955). of ancient Filipino values

in Cebuano folktales, folksongs, and saying as materials A value is of a powerful instruction emotional are justified commitment, in the sense that “the value of creative literature is a strong liking for something that influences an the principalaction treat to creative imagination individual’s or the behavior (Ambo, 1993). which is an attempt to control man’s thoughts” Values are things whether as object, person, or (Cornolly, A valueinfluence is a powerful idea, that 1955). considerably the emotional behavior commitment, a strong liking for something that of an individual and determine that behavior influences an individual’s action or behavior as worthwhile (Hollnsteiner, 1975). Similarly, (Ambo, 1993). Values are things whether as object, folklore is recognized as one of the most person, or idea, which considerably influence the important means of transmitting values, behavior of an individual and determine that (Francisco, behavior as1984). worthwhile (Hollnsteiner, 1975). One ofitthe problems education Similarly, ismajor recognized as of one of the today most isthedegenerationofthemoralandspiritualvalues important means of transmitting values, these amongthe themost youth. Religiosity, respect for elders, being culturally acceptable sustaining self-preservation, industriousness, elements in a givenhelpfulness, society (Francisco, 1984). of the major problems of education today and One moral sensitivity are gradually eroded by is theexposure degeneration theof moral andthey spiritual their to the of kind materials view values of the youth. Religiosity, number respect for and they read. An increasing of elders, young self-preservation, helpfulness, industriousness, people are influenced by the corrupting impact

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and moral sensitivity are gradually eroded by their Each literary genus offolklorewas categorized of lewd shows, gangsterism, materialism, and Each reading literary . Values genus delineated of folklore was exposure to the kind of materials they view and for critical in each categorized for critical reading. Values the wrongAn sense of values and misplaced theylike. readA lately. increasing number of young material under each category: folktale, folksong, delineated each material under There each people areininfluenced by the corrupting impact riddle, sayings,inproverbs were identified. decorum public and private life gradually category: folktales, folksongs, riddles, and of lewd shows, gangsterism, materialism, and was also an in-depth analysis that provided a more bring the young to an in-consequential life. sayings/proverbs were identified. There was the like. wrong to sense of valuesaand misplaced thorough study of content and its implications. The A need establish value-oriented also an in-depth analysis that provided a more decorum inispublic and private gradually which bring Interpretative-appreciative-analytical education the vision of thelife researcher thorough study ofcontent content and its implications. thefirmly youngbelieved to an in-consequential life. the goals method employs analysis for every is to secure effectively Interpretative-appreciative-analytical method category of Cebuano folklore being studied. The need to establish a value-oriented of a well-established cultural identity and valueemploys content analysis for every category of educationpeople. is the vision of the which oriented For such, it isresearcher expected that it Cebuano folklore being studied. is firmly believed to secure effectively can be accomplished through one of the the goals more IV. PRESENTATION OF DATA AND ANALYSIS of a well-established cultural identity valueThis portion presents an analytical discussion important and effective medium, i.e.,and Cebuano IV. PRESENTATION DATA on AND ANALYSIS oriented people. For such, it is expected that it of Cebuano FolkloreOFbased the sub-types, folklore that is rich in Filipino values worth For a systematic treatment of each can be accomplished through of the more namely: folktales, folksongs, riddles, andmaterial, sayings. preserving and upholding at allone times. format is utilized: interpretation important and effective medium, i.e., Cebuano the For following a systematic treatment of each material, theaf analysis, andis utilized: values delineated in and the folklore that is rich in Filipino values worth nd ollowing format interpretation II. OBJECTIVES material. preserving and upholding at all times. analysis, and values delineated in the material. The general objective is to identify the four Folktales. There are are two two oral oral narratives narratives Folktales. There categories of Cebuano folklore considered in the transcribed in Cebuano; these narratives II. OBJECTIVES study namely: folktales, folksongs, riddles, and transcribed in Cebuano; these narratives Banawaand andNaukban. Naukban.InInthis this section, section, include:Banawa The general objective is to identify four sayings/proverbs. It also provides the the body of include: the tale is reproduced in the original Cebuano categories of Cebuano folklore considered in the the tale is reproduced in the original Cebuano the literature which is to be analyzed. from oral oral transmission. transmission. These These folktales folktales study namely: folktales, folksongs, riddles, and language language from The specific objectives are to examine interpreted and analyzed based on how sayings. It also provides the literature were being interpreted and analyzed based the on literarily through the the usebody of ofinterpretativepresentscharacters, the setting,and characters, which is to be analyzed. method as the input, to narrative how the setting, problem and are appreciative-analytical Thethespecific aretotoanalyze examine being presented. collect Cebuanoobjectives Folklore, and the problem. literarilyvalues through the use of interpretativeFilipino embedded on them. Banawa.May magtiayongSipaugTibo. appreciative-analytical method as the input, to Si Tibo usa ka mangangahoy ug si Sipa usa collect the Cebuano Folklore, and to analyze the III. DESIGN AND METHODS ka yanong asawasa panimalay. Usaka adlaw Filipino values embedded on them The study used the interpretativeniana, nahitabo nga wala mahiuli si Tibo appreciative-analytical method in examining sa ilang panimalay. Tungod niini, nabalaka III. DESIGN METHODS the values AND delineated in Cebuano Folklore. pagayo si Sipa. used the interpretativeThe This methodstudy involves the identification of the Nangayo siya ug panabang sa mga appreciative-analytical method in examining Filipino values embedded in the Cebuano silingan uban sa kahingawa, kon unsa nay the values delineated in Cebuano Folklore. This folklore. nahitabo sa iyang bana. method the identification of the Filipino The involves first phase of the research process Gisuhid nila ang tibuok lugar apan values embedded in the Cebuano folklore.Cebuano involved the collation of different wala gyod nila makti-i si Tibo. Tungod niini, The first phase ofriddles, the research process folktales, folksongs, and sayings/ nakahukom sila nga magdala ug lata o taro involved from the collation different Cebuano proverbs different ofsources. These were aron basal-basalon uban sa pagsinggi tnga“ Si folktales, folksongs, and literature sayings/ mainly gathered fromriddles, the printed Tibo nawa”. proverbs different sources.Center. These Some were from thefrom Cebuano Studies Uban si Sipa nga nagsiyagit sa pag-ingon mainly gathered from the printed literature from transcribed materials were taken from the old nga, Akong bana nawa! Intawon iulina.” the Cebuano Studies Center. Some transcribed folks in the countryside. However, majority of Gikan niadto ang maong lugar gitawag na ug materials wereintaken folks intales, the the materials the from studythe areold popular countryside. However, majority of the materials in “Banawa” tungod sa sibaw sa tingog ni Sipa. riddles, and proverbs. (ElvieRabor) this study are popular tales, riddles, and proverbs. (Elvie Rabor)

Galigao, R.

Interpretation and analysis. Oftentimes, it is noted that simple folks possess the more enduring values of filial duty and concern. In the story of Tibo and Sipa, an ordinary exposition of the problem of the sudden loss of Tibo prompts the wife to respond with much more concern than would an ordinary wife in the city. In the latter, the immediate reaction is passive concern and eventually emotional panic. But in the former, Sipa mobilizes her neighbors through a spirit of cooperation to look for her husband. In this this unhappy unhappy predicament predicament ofof Sipa, Sipa,she she succumbed theintervention interventionof ofthe the supernatural succumbs totothe being to bring back her husband. husband. It It also alsoimplied implies the mischief that supernatural beings play play on hapless simple creatures like Tibo and Sipa. Hiding Tibo in a drum is an extraordinary act of utter mischief and belies the anthropomorphic weakness of rational judgment of spirits. Furthermore, it establishes an uncanny relationship between humans and and deities/spirits deities/spirits whom where the the former are objects of the folly and ridicule of the latter latter.. Human beings end up being play things of the supernatural forces. However, the subject of the narrative is love and concern for the husband. The wife goes to great lengths in searching for the lost spouse. She enlists the cooperation of the neighbors; implicitly she undergoes a lot of pain and sacrifice looking for the husband. Willingly, she complies with traditional beliefs and practices by participating in rolling and kicking drums to attract the attention of supernatural beings. It also conveys mute request for the release of the husband from the enchantment of superiors being cast on the husband. This goes on for some time with undiminished optimism. The reverberating echo of the call of Sipa for the lost husband is intensely magnified by the unmeasured feeling of love, concern, and patience emanating from her heart. Values delineated. The filial virtues of love, self-sacrifice, and fidelity are implied in the tale. Likewise, the value of cooperation is evident in the narrative. The wife’s optimistic fervor in finally locating the lost husband is manifested in

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the untiring effort effort and andself-sacrifice self-sacrificeshe sheendures endures while in search of the husband. Love is at in search of the husband. Love isthe atcore the of theof patience that shewhich exhibits continuing core the patience shewhile exhibits while the search for spouse. continuing thethe search for the spouse. The dutiful housewife indulging in domestic chores while the husband is attending to his occupation of cutting firewood for sale reveal the mutual reinforcement of each other’s domestic obligations to family. It conveys undiluted relationship, devoid of the superficialities and sophistication of husband-wife relationship. The woman is always for the home and the man is the breadwinner of the family. These are mutually complementary roles that remind couples of their roles in the household. In the wife isisa the modern modern family, family, even evenif ifthethe wife career woman, it does not absolve from her a career woman , it does not no her absolve domestic concern and for the husband from her duties— domesticlove, duties-love, concern for and the children demonstrated in manifold the husband and the children demonstrated ways. These ways. may take themay formtake of looking after in manifold These the form of the needs of the husband in the looking after thechildren needs ofand thethe children and home, notinnecessarily Beyond financial. that, one husband the home,financial. not necessarily can see how is an the object of concern Beyond that, the onehusband can see how husband is an in a moment of loss heofisloss the reinforcing object of concern in because a moment because he pillar family solidarity is adorned with is the of reinforcing pillar ofthat family solidarity thatthe is heart and passion of woman. adorned with the heart and passion of woman. Naukban. Si Apo Koyug ug ang iyang asawa nabalaka sa ilang bugtong nga anak kay wala pa maminyo bisan pa sa kahamtong naniini. Agi’g sulbad sa ilang kabalaka, nangita sila ug babaye nga sarang ika paris sailing anak didto sal aing isla. Sa ilang pagtabok sa laing dapit, agi’g pagsuroysuroy, may napalgan gyod sila nga matahom kayo nga babaye. Wala man sa uso ang pangulitawo saunang panahon, gihikay dayon nila ang pagpamalaye. Tuod man sa didto nasila, gipangayu-an sila ug luna sa yuta agi’g bugay sa babaye nga pangasaw-on sa ilang anak. Misanong gidayon sila samaong kasabutan. Mipauli sila sailing lugar sa Pilar, Camotes aron sapagpangandam sailing bugay. Sa pagkagabii niana may daw barko nga nakitaang mga tawo samaong lugar nga

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UV Journal of Research nagalawig apan natingala sila kay sobra ang kasilaw sakahayag niini. Mao nadiay kadto ang yutang agi lalin gikan samaon dapit. Sa pagka buntag niana, dako kayo ang ilang kahibulong asa naang yuta samaong dapit nag nahimo naman kining wanang sa tubig. Sukad niadto ila na kining gibuyagan ang lugar ug “Naukban”.(Cristita “Naukban” (CristitaAustria) Austria).

Interpretation and analysis. Parents go to a great extent in looking for an appropriate partner for a son or a daughter. It is not merely a manifestation of insecurity in their old age because a man cannot take care of his parents. But those parents believe women have the natural predisposition to assume maternal obligation toward in-laws in old age. This is a common manifestation of parental concern other that the eagerness to have a grandchild. Parents act as marriage matchmakers when the security of the family is at stake. When the early signs of the perpetuation of the amily bloodline family bloodline are are threatened threatened through the bachelorhood of children in in the the family, family, parents act as matchmakers. This is an ageless tradition not only practiced in the country, but even in Asia Europe. Even Evenininmodern modern times, times, parents and in Europe. try to protect their lineage and their social status by matching their children children with with their their friends”, friends, compadres’/comadres’ children, or with business associates children. Today, Today, matchmaking among the rich is basically motivated by the perpetuation of social status-wealth, royal and the like. socialstatusstatus— wealth, wealth, royal lineage, lineage, royal lineage, and was a practice by Matchmaking the like. Matchmaking was of a fixing practice marriage of fixing This mostly It the folks. by marriage thewas folks. This done was mostly by thedone Chinese. by the motivated inmotivated the rural in security was motivated Chinese. It wasin the areas the by rural areas for by lineage desire for for grandchildren. securityand for desire lineage and desire for grandchildren. The practice practice of ofmatchmaking matchmakingisisalso also a test a test of of children’s children’s loyalty, loyalty,obedience, obedience,love, love,and and respect for for parents. parents. Among Among matchmaking matchmaking parents consummating the marriage of their children is a manifestation of sincerity to a verbal agreement and honoring one’s commitment, as well as safeguarding the interest of business interests. Furthermore, it itstrengthens strengthens goodwill and goodwill and inter-

interfamily relationship. amily relationship. Values delineated. The value of loyalty, love, and respect areareimplied obedience, love, respect implied inin the narrative. Parents often love to test their children’s loyalty to them other than their obedience, love, and respect. In the case of the only son of Apo Kaug and his wife, the value of parental concern is accompanied by a corollary value of loyalty. The son’s compliance with the matchmaking practice of his parents is a manifestation of loyalty and obedience to them. The parent’s concern for the delayed marriage of the only son expresses implicitly the desire for their security in old age. No one takes care of them more appropriately other than a woman. A daughter-in-law is generally obliged to look after their in-laws; in the same way that a daughter also equally shows loyalty to parents by taking care of them in old age. Matchmaking is as much a manifestation of the values of respect for parents and parental authority as for the test of the extent of children’s obedience to their parents. Although this has moral limitations, parents, do not look at it as interference but an extended act of parental concern for the welfare of their children. In such a case, it is also a manifestation of the dichotomous values of parental concern and children’s respect and love for parent’s generous intentions. In the story, the tragic consequence of matchmaking implies the disadvantages of overzealousness of parents. Folksongs. Cebuano folksong has a certain lilt in its tune that gives a folksy impression. This folksiness creates an impression of gay laughter and humor that tries to divert attention from the humdrum of rural folk life. It arrests attention of people from their daily chores to lighten the burden of work. The folksong folksong conveys conveys varied varied moods moods the the humorous poignant.. humorous to to romantic, romantic,from from gaiety gaiety to to poignant At times, times, ititisisinformative informativeand andreflective reflectivereminding reminding people of their people their natural natural predispositions predispositions to life. The social cares cares and and simple simple truths truthsof oflife life are revealed revealed folksong.But Butmost mostofofall. all, it contains in the folksong. They contain social, social,

Galigao, R.

cultural, intellectual values. They They are arereflected reflected cultural, and intellectual in the the five fivefolksongs folksongs chosen chosenfor forinterpretation interpretation and and analysis. analysis. Inday Na IndayPamutos Inday Pamutos PamutosNa Na Inday pamutos na Indaypamutosna Sa imong mga bestida Saimongmgabestida Kinsay imong padad-on Kinsayimongpadad-on Si Dodongngaimongbanahon Dodong nga imong banahon Dodong ayaw awaya Dodongayawawaya Si Inday imong asawa Indayimongasawa Imong ganing awayon Imongganingawayon Si Indayakongbawi-on Indaya kong bawi-on Interpretation and The song is and analysis. analysis.The written in two stanzas whose structure features the aabb..aabbriming aabb..aabb rhyming scheme with a blend of scheme with a blend of the the iambic-anapestic trimester. In following the following iambic-anapestic trimester. In the line, line, the anapestic trimester is evident, the anapestic trimester is evident, thus:thus: Si Dodong nga imong banahon Dodongngaimongbanahon /Si Dodong/ ngaimong / banahon/ Underlined syllables represent the accented/ stressed syllable preceded by two unaccented/ unstressed syllables. In the succeeding line, a combination of the iambic-anapestic line is observed: Imo awayon Imo ganing ganingawayon /Imo /ganing/awayon/ /Imo /ganing/awayon/ The first two metres are iambic in structure while the third one is anapestic. This rhythmical stressing complements the folksy tune of the folksong and conveys a humorous and gay mood. Inday is a polite address intended address generally generally intended for a lady-either lady— either married unmarried. married or or unmarried. EvenEven the the semantic configuration impressesaa gentleness gentleness semantic configuration impresses that is appropriate appropriate to the tenderness of a woman. So that in the song Inday Pamutos Na, Na, the the fatherfatherIndayPamutos in-law of ofDodong Dodongsoon soon to the be husband the husband of to be of Inday, Inday, his daughter andher go tells histells daughter to pack to herpack bagsher andbags go with with her husband. The father-in-law humors her husband. The father-in-law humors her daughter

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by askingbyIndayt will carry daughter askingwho Inday who will her carrybag, herbut bag, indirectly suggests the husband as a gentleman but indirectly suggests the husband as a gentleman who should carry the bag of the wife. who should carry the bag of the wife. The light-hearted humor reflects the The light-hearted humor reflects the broadmindedness of fathers’ acceptance of the broadmindedness of fathers’ acceptance of the independence of children when they marry. They independence of children when they marry. They should not live with their in-laws but live a life should not live with their in-laws but live a life of their own. Unlike in other traditional Filipino of their own. Unlike in other traditional Filipino families, married children remain dependent on families, married children remain dependent on their parents even in marriage. This song is both their parents even in marriage. This song is both instructive and entertaining because it implies instructive and entertaining because it implies the necessary pleasant disposition that fathers the necessary pleasant disposition that fathers have when their married children leave the have when their married children leave the house. It is devoid of the sentimentalism that is house. It is devoid of the sentimentalism that is usually attached to this occasion. Based on my usually attached to this occasion. Based on my perception “Sentimentalism” is an act of showing perception “Sentimentalism” is an act of showing emotion which is somehow similar to what emotion which is somehow similar to what others feel. In most instances, parents feel sad if others feel. In most instances, parents feel sad if a child gets married. Parents in general should a child gets married. Parents in general should be sober about married children departing the be sober about married children departing the home for their own. This clearly shows the value home for their own. This clearly shows the value of of sentimentalism. sentimentalism. In the second stanza, the father-in-law In the second stanza, the father-in-law admonishes his son-in-law to preserve the admonishes his son-in-law to preserve the harmony in the family. Husbands should not harmony in the family. Husbands should not quarrel quarrel with their wives; they should treat their with their wives; they should treat their wives wives with care, with understanding, with love. The with care, with understanding and with love. The term ayawawayahas many relative connotations term ayaw awaya has many relative connotations although meansliterally literally“not “nottoto quarrel/fight.” although ititmeans quarrel or fight.” The implication is clear; the husband should try The implication is clear; the husband should try to preserve the unity and harmony in the family to preserve the unity and harmony in the family through mutual love and understanding. The through mutual love and understanding. The father-in-law implicitly reminds his son-in-law father-in-law implicitly reminds his son-in-law of anything unpleasant that comes between the of anything unpleasant that comes between the husband and the wife which should be avoided. husband and the wife which should be avoided. In the event that Inday, the daughter is In the event that Inday, the daughter is unhappy, hurt, or experiences problems caused unhappy, hurt, or experiences problems caused by the husband the father-in-law will get back by the husband the father-in-law will get back his his daughter. The last line in the second stanza, daughter. The last line in the second stanza, Si inday Si indayakongbawi-on is merely a fatherly akong bawi-on is merely a fatherly admonition admonition showing concern for his daughter, not showing concern for his daughter, not a threat to a threat to the husband. the husband. Values delineated. The value of parental concern, security, commitment are security, trust, trust,andcommitment distinctly evident in this folksong. Basically,

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parental concern is a predominating value that is reflected in the song. The father’s love for the daughter should be matched by the husband, or even immeasurably so. But attendant values are explicated like the maintenance of family unity and harmony by avoiding conflict in the home. Conflict is manageable and must not be waged through unreasonable clash of emotionalism and egocentrism. Couple’s individual pride undermines the unity and harmony in the family. The song is a seeming reminder that relationship is likened to a song that reflects the ardent interaction of husband and wife. The moment undue moment the the husband husband inflicts inflicts undue pain, suffering, and discomfort to the wife and complicates this with undue pressure in the woman’s work woman’s work in the home, disunity seeps in. For this reason, the Father father admonishes admonishes both wife and husband to preserve their relationship through their love for one another. Helping Helping one another is the best cooperative manifestation of love in the home. The Father father reflects reflects inin his his actuations and thinking the value value of trust, trust, security, security, and commitment. How these values are delineated in the song is obvious. The wife leaving the home for a new home with the husband shows the complete trust, pagsaligof pagsalig ofthe theFather father on Dodong, Dodong, otherwise, otherwise, he would not have have consented consented to the marriage of Inday and Dodong.The Dodong.The value value of of concern or Indayand pagpakabana natural trait trait of of parents parents that pagpakabanaisis aa natural they show toward their children. In the song, the father Father wants wants Dodong Dodong to to share share this concern by being pleasant and nice in his relationship with Inday. The value of security or pagpaniguro, however, family however, is is implied implied not necessarily on family security in in the the home homeofofDodong Dodong and Inday and Indaybut but a sense of security allow also also a sense of security that that doesdoes not not allow the the husband to go philanderingaround aroundininorder order to husband to go philandering preserve the social security of the family, family, coupled with commitment or katungdanan as guiding fforce in shaping shaping aa home. home. The The value value of goodwill is orce in likewise noted in the the trusting trusting faith faith of of the theFather father on Dodongso Dodong sothat thatthe the wife wife Inday remains in Indayremains good hands. Finally, the the value value of independence

or pagsolo should be encouraged and and cultivated cultivated to avoid being too dependent on parents which has a devastating consequence that brings about animosities between in-laws and their children. value of of independence independencealso also prevents prevents the The value risk of a broken home brought about by undue interference of parents. Laylay Laylaysapayag sa payag Ang Angawitsamgabukidnon awit sa mga bukidnon Nga Ngasapayagpagalaylayon sa payag pagalaylayon Pagkalalim Pagkalalimngapamati-on nga pamati-on Kining Kiningawitngabukidnon awit nga bukidnon Sa Sapayagpagalaylayon. payag pagalaylayon. Ang Angkatahomniningtanaman katahom nining tanaman Ug kasadya sa kalanggaman Ugkasadyasakalanggaman Maoy pansalan labing malig-on Maoypansalanlabingmalig-on Kining awit nga bukidnon Kiningawitngabukidnon Nga sa payag pagalaylayon. Ngasapayagpagalaylayon. Bisanangpayaglayosalungsod Bisan ang payag layo sa lungsod Apan Apanangtananpulostinuod ang tanan pulos tinuod Pagkalalim Pagkalalimngapamati-on nga pamati-on Kining Kiningawitngabukidnon awit nga bukidnon Nga Ngasapayagpagalaylayon. sa payag pagalaylayon. Interpretation analysis. song Interpretation andand analysis. TheThe song is is accentual-syllabic in its prosody just like the accentual-syllabic in its prosody just like the first first presented. Structurally, linesfeature feature an songsong presented. Structurally, lines iambic-dactylic tetrameter. Each stanza consists iambic-dactylic tetrameter. Each stanza consists of five lines in polysyllabic rhyme. The five-line of five lines in polysyllabic rhyme. The five-line stanza contains a refrain found in the last two contains a refrain found in the last two lines of the lines of the stanza. stanza. Kiningawitngabukidnon Kining awit nga bukidnon Sapayagpagalaylayon Sa payag pagalaylayon In the last stanza, the last three lines of the first stanza are repeated as refrain to the song. In analyzing the song, one notices that there are six lines distributed in the three stanzas which contain the main thought of the songs as seen in the following:

Galigao, R.

Stanza 1 Line 3

: Pagkalalimngapamati-on Pagka lalim nga pamati-on

: Ang Angkatahomniiningtanaman Stanza 2 katahom niining tanaman Line 1 and 3 : Ugkasadyasakalanggaman Ug kasadya sa kalanggaman Maoypansalanlabingmalig-on Maoy pansalan labing malig-on Stanza 3 Line 1 & 2

: Bisanangpayaglayosalungsod Bisan ang payag layo sa lungsod : Apanangtananpulostinuod Apan ang tanan pulos tinuod

When interpreted, it conveys the way of life of people in the countryside expressed in song. The song of rural folks residing in the hills and mountainsides live in peace and harmony with nature. They have simple tastes and simple ambitions in life. The simplicity of oflife lifeisisliving livingininconsonance consonance with the simple truth in nature. The song is reminiscent of the lyrical poem of Wadsworth’s romanticism and the elegiac theme about common people in Gray’s poem. In the folksong, one is reminded of the significance of the symbiotic relationship between man and nature. This is reflected in the life of the rural folks in whose song, song, awit awitsabukidnonis sa bukidnon isaasimple simple as as it is complex. People from the city admire how these people could make life seem so simple yet to them so complex and fraught with so much struggle. Life in the countryside does not have the sophistication of the lowland towns but it has preserved the beauty of its natural setting and natural resources. resources.InInthethe countryside, countryside, in the in hills, the in theinmountains, hills, the mountains, one experiences one experiences the truththe the truth truth when when communing communingwith with nature. nature. People possess the natural warmth and sincerity in their relationships with people and with nature; Unlike the tainted affectations of the people in the unlike lowlands. Bisan ang payag layo sa lungsod Bisanangpayaglayosalungsod Apan ang tanan pulos tinuod. Apanangtananpulostinuod. Life in the simple hut and in the hills/ mountains is a life that provides everyone a sense of appreciation or paghatagbili, a life of peace,

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kalinaw, and satisfaction, katagbawan. Values delineated. The values of preservation of nature, cheerful disposition are clearly reflected in this song. There is much to appreciate in this song and it is equally fraught with meaning because of its value. The value that is placed in the preservation of nature and the ecology of the environment is a timely concern. People find happiness and satisfaction in a well-preserved environment because of the natural bounties it provides. One is at peace with himself when he is at peace with nature and his surroundings. Conflict emerges when man experiences the ravages of nature that impacts on his wife. When nature no longer exists to provide man with its natural sustenance, man also perishes with nature. The simple truth of of life life isis in in nature; nature; itit isis stressed or in oriental philosophy that the need to coexist with nature must be ne perpetuated because man’s destruction of nature consequently brings destruction to him. Another value implicit in the song puts premium on simplicity of life and living within one’s resources. This value value is is also also stressed stressed on in Montesquieu’s viable viable social social relations relationswhere that he argued that consistency between institutions, values, and practices must must take take into account a respect for nature, principles, and laws (Montesquieu, 1940).InInthat, that, simple of (Montesquieu,1940). thethe simple lifelife of the people the people in the incountryside the countryside and their and simple their simple belief in simple belief in simple truth truths truths are are the undiluted fixtures of natural harmony in nature. The value of of unaffectation unaffectation is is also evident in the song. song. People People prefer prefer to to live live simple simple lives lives in the countryside and refuse to succumb to the sophistication of life in the lowlands, in the towns, and in the cities because they believe believe that these are artificial. They possess the intelligent understanding that anything artificial is detrimental to them. For this reason, they stress it on theirsong: song: in their Apan ang tanan pulos tinuod Apanangtananpulostinuod

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When referring to their life in the countryside. Implicitly, they sense the danger of crash materialism in the towns and cities, and they refuse to be drawn into this kind of life experienced in these places. They are cheerful in in their their dispositions dispositions and do not take their burdens burdens seriously seriously but as part take their of living life. Unlike in the towns and cities where the vicissitudes of life prevail prevail brought about by a highly highly materialistic materialistic life, life,people peopleininthe thehills hills/ or mountains are spared from such problems. Riddles.The Riddles. Thevillage villagefolks folksclaim claimthat that riddles riddles are the food for thought that develop develop the the thinking thinking skills of the the young. young. Children Childrenwho whoare areexposed exposed to riddles riddles tend tendtotobebe more more analytical analytical andand more more sensitive in their interactions interactions ifif they theyare are regularly regularly exposed to toititatat a young a young age age (Palomar, (Palomar, 1977). 1977). Mueller and andGaynor Gaynorclaim claim thatthat there there is more is more essential meaning in riddles riddles other otherthan thanprovoking provoking deeper introspection introspectionandand analysis (Mueller, analysis (Mueller, 1985; 1983). Montes (1969) believed that 1985, Gaynor, Gaynor,1983). Montes believes riddles “intrinsically “intrinsically contain containmore morephilosophical philosophical reflection of ofthought thoughtand and feeling feeling thatthat requires requires further analysis analysis of ofitsitsmetaphysical metaphysical dimension dimension”” (Montes, 1969). 1969). In Inthis thissection, section,two two riddles riddles areare examined for for their theirvalue valueimplications. implications.AsAsinin thethe other sections, the theriddle riddleisisprovided providedanananswer answer that is isanalyzed by an an which analyzedcontextually. contextually.ItItis is followed by exposition of the value implicit implicit in it. Riddle 1. 1. Kabansa Kabansa pare, pare, kung kung Riddle unongablihandilinamauli. unong ablihan dili na mauli. Answer: Itlog Itlog Answer: Interpretation and analysis. The virginity of a certain woman cannot be restored once it is damaged. This is actually the best situation which explains the meaning of the riddle. The meaning of the riddle lies in the irreplaceable restoration of something to its original substance and form. The riddle has deeper connotation and significance. The riddle uses a biological concept of procreation as a point of departure in getting across the meaning of the importance of virginity. The egg is the manifestation of the consummated act of biological intercourse between a male and

female emale specie. species. In this In this case,case, whenwhen the eggthe is cracked egg is open, it open, cracked won’titbe would restored not restored to its original to its original form without some trace beingofbroken. The fragility form without someoftrace being broken. The in the egginrepresents the fragilitythe of woman fragility the egg represents fragilityand of the eggand represents the virginal dignity dignity of the woman the egg represents the virginal woman that isthat ravished. of the woman is ravished. In this case, a woman must truly protect her virginity until sheis married to the man she loves. It also implies the importance of the sacred purpose of sex in biological procreation. Notwithstanding the allure of physical pleasure, the woman must temper the emotional impulsiveness of man: likewise, she must discipline her mind and her emotions in order not to fall into the libidinal trappings of passion. Values delineated. Chastity, self-esteem, discipline, and true love are implicit in the riddle. A woman must be chaste in order to preserve her virginity until she is married. This is her most valuable gift to her husband on honeymoon night. Chastity is a virtue that is rare nowadays. In the riddle, the concept of “virginity” should not only focus on the woman; likewise, it should include the man’s chastity. Self-esteem is a consequence of a disciplined emotion and passion. One is able to achieve the highest value of self-dignity when one is strengthened by self-denial and abnegationinstrumental values that are important in the preservation of one’s virginity. True love is characterized by controlling emotional excitement and temptations of the flesh. In contemporary times, young people rarely possess the virtue; they rather explore sex with impunity make it a test of their compatibility. The riddle is a timely admonition of the impulsiveness of the young who always equate love with sex. Simply it means that some of the new generation are raised without fear that sex is a mortal sin. It may also relay a message that virginity is much important to be preserved because once it is broken, it cannot be restores restoredanymore. anymore. Kung molingkudtaas, molingkud taas, Riddle 2: Lung kung mo barog mubo kungmobarogmubo Answer: Iro

Galigao, R.

Interpretation and analysis. The intensely reflective meaning of the riddle arouses deeper contemplation. The dichotomous concepts of high and low are presented here ironically. A person of humility is highly esteemed by the people for the true measure of character and virtue that possess. On the contrary, a person whose contradicting concepts are understood is explained in the succeeding page. The dog is an animal like a man and is man’s best friend. There is a seeming illusion of tallness and shortness in the appearance of the dog when it sits and when it stands on four feet. This beguiling illusion is deceiving and it deserves closer examination. The village philosopher has exploited his uncanny ability to observe and relate it to the simple wisdom of experience. This riddle is a manifestation of that wisdom. In many occasions, people who are popular and brag in public about their accomplishments in whatever form—whether it has done little or much to the people or for other want the adulation of the majority. They do not want the nobility of their actions go unnoticed despite an ulterior motive for doing good. On the contrary, the humble person prefers to be anonymous and wants that his virtuous character and his noble actions are merely acknowledged without being publicized. Two opposing traits of character are reflected in the riddle. The braggart and the humble person. Self-contentment and fulfillment for the former is not achieved without the adulation of the public. The latter looks at self-contentment and fulfillment in his relations with people more spiritually because it is more enduring and meaningful. This situation is a fact of life. Politicians and braggarts have many things in common; few, if any, are truly politicians who bask more in the glory of their noble intentions rather than in the adulation of people. As in the adage, “a hollow log resounds more feebly than an African drum.” Values delineated. Humility and sincerity are values which are rare nowadays. There are people, who extend favor and require a reciprocal

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gesture of equal gratitude, it is not more than what is extended. Yet there are people who merely find spiritual fulfillment in their sincerity and humility. Humility is a virtue of character that is indifferent to raucous adulation. The explanation is simple the humble person does not have any ulterior motive in dealing with people. He exudes warmth and understanding, and love without expecting anything in return. The other person who manifests vain glory is only too proud to acknowledge the anticipated reciprocity of the recipient of his actions. The value of sincerity is more manifested in the spiritual fulfillment of a noble intention or gesture extended to people who deserve it rather than a hollow tribute of mere reciprocity. Sincerity and humility are unaffected traits of virtuous people who desire selflessness rather than adulation. Sayings. Witty sayings are the indigenous manifestations of philosophical reflections of the village elders or village philosophers. Embedded in these witty statements are social, moral and political gems of thought. Saying 1 :Ang mag-antus ma santos. Interpretation and analysis. This is a common saying which implies that a persevering person achieve the glory of success. The term masantos represent the highest form of achievement which is acculturated from the Spanish term, Santo which means holy. Patience is a virtue that elevates one to the level of holiness. Its application in an ordinary life simply means that a person who lives prudently through patience in every undertaking is like Job in the bible who earned his place in the realm of spirituality. That achievement crowns success is another interpretation of the sayings. When a person possesses the determination to live life with quiet perseverance, uncomplaining, he or she will eventually reap the fruits of his or her labor in the end.

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Values delineated. Perseverance, hardwork, and discipline are obviously implied from the saying. A person who disciplines himself by avoiding every temptation avoids sloth and makes life productive. He thinks of the meaningfulness invested for everything that he undertakes in life. A person who works hard naturally values the fruits of his labor; on the other hand, a person who does not put so much love and attention, commitment to the work that he/she does easily squanders the value of labors. Patience must accompany hard work because it engenders quality in the work that is undertaken. The benefits derived from one’s labor are valued so much that they are wantonly abandoned but protected and wisely used. A sense of responsibility is evident in a person’s perseverance in enduring the travails of life. The difficulties of life provide the opportunities that shape as person’s mature attitude toward life and a commitment to the work that he does. Commitment to one’s work entails the manifestation of the value of patience in undertaking which work no matter how difficult it is. Saying 2: Ang kinabuhi sa tawo mohayang mokaub Interpretation and analysis. The life of man is likened to a clam that opens and closes. Openness characterizes a person attitude toward people but learns how to protect himself from those who tend to harm or destroy him. A person must learn to give himself to others wholeheartedly without counting the cost. However, he must also develop a sensitive reaction to others, particularly those who harbor ill will and are bent on destroying a person. It is a natural reaction for a person to protect himself from whatever form of threat. Self- preservation is always a primary consideration. As such, a person must learn to discriminate his thoughts and feelings and must not allow the least uncertainty to harbor opportunities that take advantage of one’s personality. Values delineated. The most evident

values implied from this saying is the value of self- preservation and security. Every individual learns to isolate himself from the outside world at a time when threat to survival is at stake. Likewise, an individual must learn when to curb openness to others. The spirit of openness implies sharing, generosity, kindness, and helpfulness. In a sense, it is a broadened attitude that places importance on the ability of people to respond to the needs of others. One is emboldened to open to people because of trusting attitude. When one places trust on others, one learns to be broadminded and open to others’ needs. V. CONCLUSION For the two folktales studied, the values fidelity, love, and self-sacrifice were delineated in Banawa and in Naukban. The values of loyalty, obedience, love, and respect were noted. For the folksongs “Inday Pamutos Na” the values of parental concern, security, trust, and commitment were distinctly evident; in “Laylay sa payag” the values of preservation of nature, and cheerful disposition were observed. Riddles. The riddle is a test of wit and analytical skills. The two riddles presented in the study delineated the following values; Riddle 1 with the answer “ Itlog” or egg delineated the chastity, self-esteem, discipline; and true love, for Riddle 2 with the answer “Iro” dog Sayings. Different values were noted in the sayings or proverbs transmitted to Cebuanos from their ancestors, namely: self-acceptance, resignation, and submission to the will of God (saying1) and discipline, modesty, and temperance (saying 2). Basically, the Cebuano folktales bear original Filipino values that are instructive in nature. It can be inferred than, singing folksongs may give something to people appreciate their simple wherever they are. For folktales, riddles, and sayings, since there are people who enjoys these genre, and appreciation to what life is, may be obtained. Thus, it conforms with the concept of Hollnsteiner (1975) that says values are things

Galigao, R.

person, as or object, idea person, considerably the whether or ideainfluence considerably behavior of an individual and determine that influence the behavior of an individual and behavior worthwhile. further be It noted determineasthat behaviorItascan worthwhile. can that singing folksongs, uttering riddles, sharing further be noted that singing folksongs, uttering folktales, sharing and using sayingsand in all aspects of riddles, folktales, using sayings communication surely affect how people lives. in all aspects of communication surely affect The withinThe each literarywithin genre each has how message people lives. message reflected the original Filipino attitude. So, if these literary genre has reflected the original Filipino types willSo, beifintroduced it is for affect attitude. these typesstudents, will be introduced to how new generations live. students, it affects how new generations live. originality index: similarity index: paper id: Grammarly:

99 % 1% 432882509 checked

REFERENCES Ambo, B.M.P. (1993). Filipino values. edited by Milagros Espina. PH: The Philippine Foundation, Inc. Cornolly, F. (1995). The types of Literature. NY: Hardcourt Brace and World, Inc. Francisco, J.R. (1984). Fifth Philippine Folklore. PH: University of the Philippines Press. Gaynor, E. (1983). Interpreting Folk Literature. NY: New York Free Press. Hollsteiner, M. (1975). Reciprocity in lowland Philippines. Four Reading on Philippine Values. Montes, M. (1969). Developing critical thinking in children. EC, NJ: Prentice Hall. Mueller, V. (1985). Folk literature; Educational significance. NY: Academic Press. Pajo, M.C. (1954). Bohol folklore. (Unpublished Master Thesis, University of San Carlos, 2013). Palomar, A. (1977). Educational value of indigenous Literature. (Unpublished Master Thesis, University of the East, Manila, 1977). Sanburg, C. (1944). Foreword to the original edition. Botkir B.A. New York. NY: Crous Publisher Company.

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Traditional games in Leyte and the values learned by the players Joel Alambra Alfarero Crescencio L. Mejarito College of Education University of the Visayas Joel_alfarero@yahoo.com Date submitted: February 10, 2014

Date accepted: October 25, 2014

ABSTRACT study attempted attempts to unpublishedtraditional traditionalgames gamesinin The study toidentify identify and and describe the unpublished Leyte,and to develop a guide onon how researchers specifically Leyte to develop a guide howtotoplay playthe thegames. games.The It specifically identified the fundamental identified thecharacteristics fundamental characteristics of each game of namely: each game the background, namely: the the background, players, the materials players, the materials used preparation in the game,before the preparation before game, and used in the game, the game, and the the mechanics. It also the mechanics. identified the It also values identified presentthe in the values games present studied in the based games on the studied DepEd based Values on Education the DepEd Framework. Values Education A guide Framework. on playingAthe guide traditional on playing games the traditional in Leyte was games made in as Leyte an was output made of as theanstudy. output The of the guide study. consists The guide of 12consists games of which 12 games are described which are accordingly described accordingly based on based the fundamental on the fundamental characteristics characteristics of the games, of thethe games, fitness the fitness component development, thedevelopment, play skills development, the emotional-social component development, play skills emotional-social development, and the valuesand present in thepresent games. in the games. development, the values Keywords: traditional, games, Leyte, values, play I. INTRODUCTION Games are are part partofofthe thelives livesofofthe the people people in in a community. Through participation in games, one may develop physical fitness and desirable social traits as well, such as sportsmanship, tteamwork, and honesty. honesty. “Malay “Malay pointed pointed out as eamwork, and cited by Barbosa (2003) that Filipinos like to play games, and this is observed to be true. Traditional and high-tech games are simultaneously played around the country. As part of Filipino pastime, especially in rural areas and during moonlit nights, the neighborhood gathers and shares games in the plazas, open areas, and main roads, trying different sets of games and interacting with one another as part of their recreation, socialization, and relaxation after a hard day’s work.” work.” However, traditional games are more seldom played by toto thethe boom of by children childrennowadays nowadaysdue due boom of technology technology and and the thepopularity popularityofofvideo video games games

which confines confine the spend more moretime timeinin the player to spend front of the computer, being idle idle for for long long hours. hours. computer, being Thus bodily Thus, bodily movements movements are hampered because less movement is needed in manipulating the computer keyboard and joystick in contrast to the greater mobility of body parts when playing traditional games, or laro ng lahi. Since traditional games are a delicate component of the nonmaterial part of our culture, it is necessary to safeguard and preserve such components through written documentation because they are orally transmitted. transmitted. Constitution Article The 1987 Philippine Philippine Constitution XIV, Section 14, mandates that the State shall foster the preservation, enrichment, enrichment, and and dynamic dynamic evolution of a Filipino national culture based on the principle of unity in diversity in a climate of free artistic and intellectual expression (Lazo, 2009). To further promote this mandate, House

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Bill Bill1813 1813was waspromulgated promulgatedwhich which mandates mandates the inclusion of of Philippine inclusion Philippinetraditional traditional games games and sports physicaleducation education(P.E.) (P.E.) courses sportsin in the the physical courses in in all alllevels levels of educational institutions and of educational institutions and sports sports activities local government and activities of local of government units, andunits, for other for other purposes. One component heritage purposes. One component of heritageof mentioned mentioned the 1987 constitution Philippine constitution is in the 1987inPhilippine is traditional traditional game andwhich sport,iswhich is considered game and sport, considered a dying acultural dying legacy. cultural legacy. The preservation and The preservation and promotion promotion of games traditional gamesisand sports is a of traditional and sports a fundamental fundamental contribution for the valorization contribution for the valorization of such an of important such an important and field essential field for the and essential for the intangible intangible world cultural heritage (UNESCO, world cultural heritage (UNESCO, © 2005-2010). 2005/2010). As a physical education teacher As a physical education teacher teaching teaching Philippine (Laro ngit has Lahi), it Philippine gamesgames (Laro ng Lahi), been has been by observed by the that proponent that there observed the proponent there are students are who students who do some not know some traditional Philippine do not know Philippine traditional games (Laro ng Lahi). Furthermore, games (Laro ng Lahi). Furthermore, as a teacher as a teacher tasked to promote the love of tasked to promote the love of P[hilippine culture, Philippine culture, Laro ng inLahi, particularly Laroparticularly ng Lahi, as included the as included in the learning competencies in learning competencies in MAKABAYAN under MAKABAYAN under Edukasyon sa Edukasyon sa Pagpapalakas ng Pagpapalakas Katawan for ngboth Katawan for both secondary elementary andelementary secondary and curriculum, it curriculum. Hence, it isupnecessary to come up is necessary to come with a comprehensive withwritten a comprehensive written these document of[ thesedocument traditionalofgames traditional games are on orally passed on from which are orallythat passed from generation to generation generation. this will generation.toMo[reover, this Moreover, would contribute to contribute to theof preservation of the heritage nation’s the preservation the nation’s cultural cultural heritageand in general and our local cultural in gene[ral our local cultural heritage in heritage inThus, particular. an oral of the particular. an oralThus, history of thehistory tradit[ional traditional games in Leyteproposed. is hereby proposed. games in Leyte is hereby II. Objectives theSTUDY Study II. OBJECTIVES OFofTHE The study attempted to identify and describe the unpublished traditional games in Leyte and to develop a guide on how to play the games. Specifically, it sought to answer the following questions: 1. 2.

What are the unpublished traditional games played in Leyte?; What are the fundamental characteristics of the traditional games in terms of : 2.1 Background; Background 1.1.1. Classification; Classification

1.1.2. Objective, 2.2 Players, 2.2.1. Number, 2.2.2. Age, and 2.2.3. Sex. Sex 2.3 Materials/props used; used 2.4 Preparation of the Game (Pre-Game); 2.4.1. Setting/Venue, 2.4.2. Ground Preparation, 2.4.3. Selection of the IT (taya), 2.4.4. Assignment of Roles, 2.4.5. Deciding turns or figuring out who plays first, and 2.4.6. Formation, 2.5. Mechanics in playing the game; game 2.6. Winning in the game?; game 3. What fitness components play skills, and emotional-social skills can be developed in the players as they play the game?; game? 4. What are the values that may be developed in the players as they play the game? game?; and 5. What instructional guide can be developed as an output of the study? III. METHODS AND PROCEDURES Selection of the Games to be documented. The selection of the games that is included The selection of the games that were included in the study was based on the preliminary survey conducted by the the researcher researcher where where the students under the researcher’s physical education classes were asked asked to list down games in their locality. From From the lists submitted, the researcher locality. selected the games that were were not yet documented matching thelist listofofgames gamespublished published in by by matching the in the the Philippines taken from internet and print sources. Philippines taken from internet and print sources. Other Other games games not not included included in in the the list list can can also also be be documented documented provided provided that that the the game game is is not not yet yet published published and and is is played played in in Leyte. Leyte. Research Method. The descriptivequalitative method was employed in the study. The study is an oral history of traditional games in Leyte. Oral history is “a process of collecting, usually by means of a tape-recorded interviews, recollections, accounts, and personal experience

Alfarero, J. A. and Mejarito, C. L.

narratives of individuals for the purpose of expanding the historical record of a place, event, person, or cultural group group”(Hunt, (Hunt,2003). 2003). Data collection was done through a recorded interview as used in oral history. An interview guide was prepared to serve as a guide to the interviewer and for the key informant or the bearer of tradition to validate answers after the interview. A post-interview recording of information was also done. An observation on how a game is played with the use of photographs was also done. This was done to give the researcher a clearer view and understanding of the game being studied. Selection of Respondents. The qualifications of a respondent or informant are as follows: 1. A person who is a native in the place where the game is played and played the game for a significant period of time; time. 2. A person who is willing to be interviewed and able to tell comprehensively the game being documented. documented; and 3. A person referred to by an interviewed informantwho the interviewedinformant thinks helpful in the documentation of the game. Two or more respondents were interviewed for each game in order to establish the authenticity and validity of the information given. Research Locale. Selected towns in Leyte where the games are played were the focus of data gathering. Most of the towns included in the study are located at the eastern side of the province. The towns included in the study were Palo, Alangalang, Tunga, Carigara, La Paz, Mayorga, Pastrana, Dagami and Tacloban City. Their populations use Winaray or Lineyte-Samarnon. Other towns not mentioned can also be included provided that the game to be documented is also played in the place. Identification of the Values Present in the Game. A focus-group discussion was done by the researcher together with two other colleagues in the teaching profession for validation of the values present in the games under study before coming up with the final list.

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Treatment of Data. All information obtained was transcribed. A translation of the information from the Winaray dialect to English language was done for international understandability. Accounts were integrated according to relationships from one to the other. This was done to create a comprehensive write up of the games under study. IV. ANDDiscussions DISCUSSIONS Iv. RESULTS Results and The Traditional Games in Leyte: Buras-Buras The name of this game is derived from the term buras. In the Alangalang, Leyte, buras means to spread things that are piled. Place retrieved: Alangalang, Leyte Objective: To spread out the slippers and pile it back without being hit by the slippers thrown by the opposing team. Fitness Development: Muscular strength, cardiovascular endurance, agility, reaction time Play Skills Development: Accuracy in hitting a player, accuracy of time to escape from an oncoming slipper, catching a slipper. Emotional-Social Development: Control during the exciting parts of the game, waiting for one’s turn, courtesy regarding others’ mistakes, readiness to be hit by the slipper, careful in throwing so that a playmate can catch the slipper. Venue: Outdoors; open area Players: Children; team Materials: Slippers Lay-out of the Playing Area:

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Mechanics: 1. The players lay the court usedused in in willout lay-out the court the game. game. 2. The among each The players players will are toagree be grouped. Each which group group they will belong to. If players have must have a representative to determine athe group representative of each groupalready, to play afirst. group will have the (stone, 3. Two representatives palagunting from the opposing paper, and scissors) to determine the team go to the lines at the end of the group to play first. court and use the slippers to hit the 3. Two representatives from the opposing players inside playing area. team will go the lines at the end of the 4. court The players in the spread and use the playing slippersarea to hit the out the inside slippers piled area. at the center and players playing try players to pileinback the slippers tospread their 4. The the playing area will original position. Foratthe team out the slippers piled theplaying center and try to pile win back the game, they need to buras or the slippers to their original position. For the playing team to win the spread out the slippers again. Players game, they to burasbeing or spread can also tryneed to escape hit byouta the slippers again. will alsoteam try slipper thrown by Players the opposing to escape being hit by a slipper thrown while trying to pile back the slippers. by the opposing while pile 5. Players hit by theteam slipper aretrying to be to taken back slippers. out ofthe the game. If the last player of 5. Players hit by the slipper will be out of the playing team is able to spread out the game. If the last player of the playing the piled slippers without being hit, all team is able to spread out the piled other players who were earlier hit can slippers without being hit, all other now enter in the game. players who were earlier hit can now 6. If all the players of enter in the game. the playing team hit by the slipper they can are 6. If are all the players of thebefore playing team spread out, or buras, the slippers on hit by the slipper before they can spread the the team are changed. out,ground, or buras, the slippers on the ground, there will be a change of the teams. Cruz ni Magellan The game received its name from the shape of the playing area of the game which resembles a cross. Place retrieved: Tacloban City, Tunga, La Paz Objective: The objective of the game is to have ownership of the box in the court, known as balay in the vernacular, and to have as many balay as possible. The players must go through the stages of the cross before they can have ownership of the

box or balay. Fitness Development: Muscular strength, flexibility Play Skills Development: Accuracyin inmaking makingthe the Development:Accuracy flatstone fall inside the box, hopping skills Emotional-Social Development: Control during the exciting parts of the game, courage to hop a long distance, waiting one’s turn, and courtesy regarding others’ mistakes. mistakes Venue: Outdoors; open area Players: Children; individual Materials: Flatstone Lay-out of the Playing Area:

Mechanics: 1. Lay-out the court in a flat, smooth surface. 2. Players will have their pa-ulo. Player’s stone that is nearest to the paulohan will be the first to play in the game. 3. The player will throw the stone to the first box and hop to the other boxes to the top of the cross, then go back to get the tarap in the first box, then move out to the base of the cross. The movement will be repeated until all the boxes/stages are passed by the player. 4. When the player finishes all the stages, the player will now have the pagbalaypagbalay –throwing throwinga a stone from the base of the cross where the player faces away from the cross. The box where the stone falls is where the player has the balay. The

Alfarero, J. A. and Mejarito, C. L.

player can write or draw symbols in the box as a sign of the player’s ownership. Only the owner of the balay can step on the box. Other players will skip the box that has a balay on it. Players should be careful not to commit mistakes like stepping on the line, the stone fell on the line, and the stone fell outside the box. If a mistake is committed, the player will lose a turn and the tarap will stay on the box/stage where the player committed the mistake.

Dampa The game is played with the use of rubber bands, known as lastiko in the vernacular. Dampa is the act of producing air to come out from a hollow of dome-shaped palms when struck against the ground. Place retrieved: Tacloban City, Mayorga Objective: The player will aim to move the rubber band beyond the service line through dampa.

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Players will alternately dampa the piled rubber bands on the ground. A player will win in the game if the player is able to move an odd number of rubber bands beyond the service line and take rubber bands that go beyond the line. If an even number of rubber bands goes beyond the line, the opponent will take rubber band. Players should not clip the rubber band when doing the dampa so as not to forfeit the turn to play. If a player moves an odd number of lastiko beyond the service line, he will continue the play. The turn to dampa will change only if an even number of rubber bands is displaced; then the opponent will have the turn to play.

Latik-Latik This game is played with the use of rubber bands, known as lastiko in the vernacular. The name of the game is derived from the way the game is played where the players will flick, or latik, the tangled rubber bands in order to loosen its entanglement.

Fitness Development: Arm strength

Place retrieved: Tacloban City

Play Skills Development: Control in producing an amount of air in dampa.

Objective: To let an odd number of rubber bands loosen from its entanglement.

Emotional-Social Development: Control during the exciting parts of the game, courage to move the rubber bands beyond the line, waiting one’s turn, and courtesy regarding others’ mistakes. Venue: Outdoors or indoors; smooth, flat surface Players: Children; individual Materials: RubberRubber bands bands smooth, flat Lay-out of the Playing Area: smooth, flat surface surface Mechanics: 1. The players will determine the sequence Mechanics: to players dampa will the determine rubber band through 1. The the sequence palagunting en poy) or hurumpyang to dampa (jack the rubber band through ifpalagunting there are 3 (jack or more players. en poy) or hurumpyang if there are 3 or more players.

Fitness Development: Flexibility Play Skills Development: Control the amount of force in every flick flick. Emotional-Social Development: Control during the exciting parts of the game, courage to loosen rubber, waiting one’s turn, and courtesy regarding others’ mistakes. mistakes

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Venue: Outdoors or indoors; smooth, flat surface

Players: Children;or individual or group.flat surface Venue: Outdoors indoors; smooth,

Players: Children; individual

Materials: Slippersindividual or group. Players: Children;

Materials: Rubber bands

Lay-out of the Playing Area: Materials: Slippers

Mechanics: 1. Players will determine the sequence to latik the rubber bands through palagunting (jack en poy) or hurumpyang if there are 3 or more players. 2. Players will alternately flick, or latik, the tangled rubber bands. A player will win the game if the player loosens an odd number of rubber bands from its entanglement. If even number of rubber bands are loosened, the opponent will take all the rubber bands.

Lay-out of the Playing Area:

Market Day The name of the game varies from place to place. Several names are coined with the game such as market day, market-market, and and sambakya. Place retrieved: Tacloban City, Carigara Objective: The goal of the game is to reach the opponent’s service line and touch the opponent’s slipper with his/her own slipper attached to any part of the body, using only one foot for locomotion. Fitness Development: Leg strength, flexibility Play Skills Development: Hopping without falling, balancing the slipper on the different parts of the body so as not to fall. Emotional-Social Development: Control during the exciting parts of the game, courage in hopping a distance, creativity in making variations of carrying the slipper, waiting one’s turn, and courtesy regarding others’ mistakes, cooperation among group members to pass each stage. Venue: Outdoors or indoors; smooth, flat surface

Mechanics: Mechanics: 1. Playersdrawa parallel line approximately 1. Players draw a parallel line approximately 4 meters apart, or depending upon the 4 meters apart, orplayers. depending upon the convenience of the the have players. 2. convenience Each player of must a slipper aligned 2. Each player must have a slipper aligned on on the line assigned to their team. the line assignedwill to their team.the pa-ulo. 3. The players have 3. The players will have thein pa-ulo. Whichever Whichever team wins the pa-ulo will team theto pa-ulo be thewins firstinone play.will be the first one to play. 4. The team who plays first must perform 4. The teamways whoofplays first the must perform different carrying slippers to different ways ofservice carrying to the opponent’s linethe in slippers a creative the opponent’s service lineisinattached a creative manner where the slipper to manner thethe slipper attached to differentwhere parts of body.isThe slippers different parts of from the body. will be carried theThe footslippers up to will the be carried the footwill up to the head. This head. Thisfrom sequence serve as stages sequence will serve as stages in the game. in the game. 5. If the slipper fallsto tothe the ground ground from any 5. If the slipper falls member of the playing playing team, the other team will willhave haveaaturn. turn. 6. The Theteam team wins wins ififthey reached the the top 6. theyhave have reached level, which is carrying the slipper on top of top level, which is carrying the slipper on the the slipper falling falling to the top head of thewithout head without the slipper ground. to the ground. Creativity transporting the slippers to the the Creativity in transporting the slippers opponent’s service line makes the game unique and opponent’s service line makes the game unique enjoyable. and enjoyable. Variation: A player who commits a mistake Variation: A player who commits a mistakeplayer. in the game in the game can be saved by another This can be saved by another player. This is done by is done by the player who already carried out the

Alfarero, J. A. and Mejarito, C. L.

player who already carried out stage the movement in that movement in that particular by performing particular stage by performing thecarried movement the movement which was not outwhich by a teamnot was member. carried out Theby variation a team member. will be agreed The variation upon before the start of the game. will be agreed upon before the start of the game. 3. Moro-Moro Moro-moro is a team game with the same number of players on each team. The game is also known as Bahaw-Bahaw and Base-Base Base-Base. Place retrieved: Alangalang, Leyte Objective: The objective of the game is to touch the home base of the other team without being tagged by the guards of the opposing team. Fitness Development: Cardiovascular endurance, speed, agility Play Skills Development: Running without falling, escaping from being tagged, alertness in guarding the team’s base. Emotional-Social Development: Admitting when tagged, good-natured acceptance when tagged, control during the exciting parts of the game, waiting one’s turn, and courtesy regarding others’ mistakes, cooperation among group members in guarding the base. Venue: Outdoors; wide open smooth flat surface Players: Children; group Materials: Slippers Mechanics 1. Members of each team will go to their respective homebase or territory. Each player will guard his/her homebase so that the members of the other team will not be able to touch the base. 2. In cases that a player is tagged by a player of another team before touching the home base of the opponent, the tagged

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player will be a prisoner of the team. The prisoner will only be saved if a member of the other team touches the home base of the opposing team. The winner is based on the number of touches made to the home base of the opposing team.

Palpagay The name of the game is taken from the vernacular word palpag, which means to strike or hit something with another thing. Another name of the game is a vernacular term Lampas-Lampas Lampas which which means means to go beyond to go beyond the line.the line. Place retrieved: Tacloban City Objective: The objective of the game is to let the other pair of slippers reach the other end of the line by means of palpag—hitting palpag- hitting the slipper with the other slipper for it to move and reach the finish line. Fitness Development: Arm strength, flexibility Play Skills Development: Running without falling, escaping from being tagged, and alertness in guarding the team’s base. Emotional-Social Development: Accuracy in hitting the slipper on the ground, control during the exciting parts of the game, waiting one’s turn, courtesy regarding others’ mistakes, courage in making the slipper reach the finish line. Venue: Outdoors Players: Children; Individual Materals: Materials:SlippersSlippers Lay-out of the Playing Area: Wide open space

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Mechanics: 1. Lay out the court on smooth, flat ground. Lay-out Each player will place one slipper on the line. 2. Players in the game will have the pa-ulothrowing a slipper to the other end of the line. The slipper which is near or at the line will be the first to strike the slipper and followed by the other players. 3. The player will hit one’s own slipper for it to move nearer to the other line. The player has also the choice to hit the opponent’s slipper to be moved away from the other line. 4. The procedure will continue until a slipper will reach the other end of the line. 5. The last slipper to reach the other end of the will to have a “consequence.” 5. The lastline slipper reach the other end The consequence will depend upon the of the line will have a “consequence.” agreement of the players who won in the The consequence will depend upon game or one already agreed before agreement of the players who won in the start game. gameoforthe one already agreed before the start of the game. Rizal-Rizal The game is played with a player stoned at Rizal-Rizal the end of the game as a consequence of losing The game is played with a player stoned at the game. The game depicts the execution of Jose the end of the game as a consequence of losing Rizal, our national hero. the game. The game depicts the execution of Jose Rizal, our national hero. Place retrieved: Tacloban City Place retrieved: Tacloban City Objective: The objective of the game is to shoot the ball in the hole in the ground and to escape being Objective: The objective of the game is to shoot the hit so as not to lose a life. ball in the hole in the ground and to escape being Fitness Development: Endurance, agility hit so as not to lose a life. Play Skills Development: Running without falling, Fitness Development: Endurance, agility escaping from being hit, accurateness in shooting the ball. Play Skills Development: Running without falling, Emotional-Social Development: Accuracy in escaping from being hit, accurateness in shooting shooting the ball, control during the exciting parts the ball. of the game, waiting one’s turn, and courtesy regarding others’ mistakes, admitting when hit. Emotional-Social Development: Accuracy in shooting the ball, control during the exciting parts Venue: Outdoors

of the game, waiting one’s turn, and courtesy Players: Children; Individual regarding others’ mistakes, admitting when hit. Materials: Small ball, pebbles Venue: Outdoors Lay-out of the Playing Area: Wide open space Players: Children; Individual Materials: Small ball, pebbles Lay-out of the Playing Area: Wide open space

Mechanics: 1. Prepare 1. Preparethe theholes holesininthe the ground ground and the service line away from the holes. . Each player must have a hole. A ball will also be used in shooting it to the hole and in hitting a player. player. 2. Players 2. Players will will have have the the palagunting palagunting or hurumpyang to determine the sequence of the play. 3. Each the ball ball to hole the 3. Eachplayer playerwill will throw throw the to the hole from the service If the ballshoot was from the service line. Ifline. the ball was shoot thethe hole, the owner of the hole to the to hole, owner of the hole would will pick the and ballrun andtowards run towards the pick the ball the other other players to hitIfthem. If theisplayer players to hit them. the player hit by is hit by athe ball,stone a small will on be the ball, small will stone be placed placed of the as hitaplayer the holeonofthe thehole hit player mark as thata markplayer that the player looses life.player If the the looses one life. one If the player missed to hit another player, the missed to hit another player, the player’s player’s hole to be own holeown would bewill the be onethe to one be placed placeda with as a mark with smalla small stone stone as a mark that that the the player loses a life. player loses a life. 4. The 4. Theplayer playerwho whowas washit hit by by the the ball ball will 5 lives. If lose a life. Each player is given five lives. the 5 five liveslives are lost, thatthat player willwill be the If the are lost, player be Rizal. RizalRizal is the whowho will will be hit/ the Rizal. is player the player be stoned at the of the hit/stoned at end the end of game. the game.

Alfarero, J. A. and Mejarito, C. L.

5. 5. The TheRizal Rizalwill willmaintain maintain aa distance and face away from the other players. The other players will stone the Rizal depending on the life left leftby byeach eachplayer. player.For Forexample, example, if aif player a player hashas already already four 4 small stones in one’s own ownwhole, whole,that thatplayer playeris is entitled entitled to to one one shot. shot. If the If the players players havehave three 3 small stones in the hole, that player is entitled to two 2 shots. shots. 6. 6. A play will start from the beginning once punished. the Rizal is already punished. Samit-Dangaw Samit in the meansmeans to fall to onfall the on linethe or Samit invernacular the vernacular hit and line dangaw a distance linethe or line hit the and means dangaw means ameasured distance by a full stretch thestretch thumb to finger. measured by aoffull of the thesmall thumb to the small finger. Place retrieved: Tacloban City, Dagami Place retrieved: Tacloban City, Dagami Objective: The objective of this game is to let the tarap fall on or objective hit the lineoforthis fallgame nearest Objective: The is to to the let line the to have dangaw other to tarap. tarap fallanonadvantage or hit thetoline or fallthe nearest the The is aan material used to throw to the line. It line tarap to have advantage dangaw other could be a coin, takop/tansan cover to of the tarap.either The tarap is a material used (lid to throw bottled drink), or be stone. line. It soft could either a coin, takop/tansan (lid cover of the bottled soft drink), or stone. Fitness Component Developed: Flexibility Fitness Component Developed: Flexibility Play Skills SkillsDevelopment: Development: Accuracy Accuracy in in letting letting the the tarap fall on the line. Emotional-Social Development: Starting with feet behind the line, waiting one’s turn, and courtesy regarding others’ mistakes. Venue: Outdoors; Outdoors;indoors indoors Players:Children Players: Childrenand andadults; adults;individual individual Materials:tarap Materials: tarap(coins, (coins,tansan, tansan, ororstone) stone)

samitan. The tarap that falls to the line will automatically take all the other tarap which did not fall on the line. If no tarap exactly fall into the line, the tarap nearest to the line will have the chance to dangaw the other tarap. The player will win the other tarap as long as the player reached the others’ tarap in a measure of one dangaw. The tarap that falls to the other side of the line is not included in the dangaw if the one doing the dangaw is on the other side of the line. The sequence will be repeated until a player has won many tarap.

Saya-Saya Saya in a skirt. The The lay in the thevernacular vernacularmeans means a skirt. out of the court resembles a skirt. This is is where layout of the court resembles a skirt. This where derived. the name of the game is derived. Place retrieved: Dagami, La Paz Objective: The objective of this game is to have ownership of the box in the court, known as balay in the vernacular, and to have as many balay as possible. The players must go through the stages in the saya before they can have ownership of the box or balay. Fitness Development: Muscular strength, flexibility Play Skills Development: Accuracy in making the flatstone fall inside the box, hopping skills. skills Emotional-Social Development: Control during the exciting parts of the game, courage to hop a long distance, waiting one’s turn, and courtesy regarding others’ mistakes. mistakes Venue: Outdoors; open area

Lay-out of Lay-out of the thePlaying PlayingArea: Area:Open Openspace space Players: Children; individual Mechanics: 1. Each player will throw their tarap to the

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Flatstone Materials: Flatstone

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UV Journal of Research Place retrieved: Tacloban City, Dagami, Palo

Lay-out Lay out of of the thePlaying PlayingArea Area: open space Objective: To tag all the players in the game. Fitness Development: Endurance, speed, agility Play Skills Development: Running without falling, quickness in escaping to be tagged.

Mechanics 1. Layout Lay-out the court in a flat, smooth surface. 2. Players will have their pa-ulo. Player’s stone that is nearest to the pa-ulohan will be the first to play in the game. the paulohan—a ulohan-a line line inin the the middle middle portion portion ofof the saya. the saya. 3. The player will throw the stone to the first box and hop to the other boxes on top, then go back to get the tarap in the first box, then move out to the base of the saya. The step will be done until all the boxes/stages are passed by the player. 4. When the player finishes all the stages, the player will now have the pagbalay – throwing a stone from the base of the saya where the player faces away from it. The box where the stone falls is where the player has the balay. The player can write or draw symbols in the box as a sign of the player’s ownership. 5. The player should be careful not to commit mistakes like stepping on the line, and letting the stone fall on the line or outside the box. If a mistake is committed, the player will lose a turn and the tarap will stay on the box where the player committed a mistake. Tamban-Tamban The game is a chasing game where a player tags other players. The game is associated with the word from the vernacular tinamban which means to add manually.

Emotional-Social Development: Control during the exciting parts of the game, courage to skip from the IT, admitting when tagged, good-natured acceptance when tagged. Venue: Outdoors; open area Players: Children; individual Materials: none none Mechanics: 1. Players will select the IT through palagunting or hurumpyang. 2. The selected IT will tag all the players. If the IT has tagged a player, the tagged player also helps in the tagging the remaining players until all players are tagged. 3. The next IT in the succeeding rounds of the game is the first tagged player. A variation for the next IT can be agreed upon. One variation is that if all players were already tagged, the players will try to touch the ground. The player who is last in touching the ground will be the next IT. Tumbaw-Tumbaw Tumbaw is a vernacular term which means to put something on top the other. Place retrieved: Tacloban City, Palo Objective: To let the rubber band fall over the other rubber bands on the ground and to win

Alfarero, J. A. and Mejarito, C. L.

many rubber bands as you can. Fitness Component Developed: Flexibility Play Skill: Accuracy in throwing the rubber to fall on top of the other rubber bands on the ground Emotional-Social Development: Control during the exciting parts of the game, starting with both feet behind the line, waiting oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s turn Venue: Outdoors or indoors; open area Players: Children; individual Materials: Rubber bands Mechanics: 1. Players will determine who who gets will to 1. Players determine first first throw throw the the rubber rubber band band from the service service line through salagunting, paulohay, ulohay,or orhurumpyang. hurumpyang. 2. Players Players will thenalternately alternately throw throw their rubber rubber band with the objective of letting the rubber rubberband bandtofall letting the fallon on top the other rubber band on the ground. the other The also variations. variations.Others Other The game has also variations place band a rubber place a rubber beyondband the beyond the service line first before the service line before the player first player throws a rubber band throws a rubber band while others while do not.others do not. 3. Whoever Whoeverlets letsthe therubber rubber band band fall on top top of of the other rubber band wins the the game and taking all the rubber bands bands on on the the ground. ground. Values Shown in the Games The games under study showed the values that can be learned by the players as they play in the games. Values such as asfairness, fairness,honesty honestyand andintegrity, integrity, physical physical fitness, fitness,self-worth self-worthand andself-esteem self-esteempresent were in all theingames Additionally, courage, present all thedocumented. games documented. personal discipline, critical thinking, appreciation of Courage, personal discipline, critical thinking, appreciation cultural heritage, of creativity, cultural openness heritage, and creativity, respect

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for others,and andrespect trust are presentand in many of the openness for others, trust were games. responsibility and accountability are presentSocial in many of the games. present in some of the games. Social responsibility and accountability were Concern for of the common present in some the games. good, cooperation, and Concern unity arefor present in minority the games the common good,ofcooperation, documented. and unity were present in minority of the games documented. V. FINDINGS V. FINDINGS There are many unpublished traditional games that are played Leyte. The name of the There many inunpublished traditional games that varies some places, but thename mechanics areinplayed in Leyte. The of the are thevaries same.inThere alsobut many not games some are places, the games mechanics yet documented that included in the are the same. There arewere also not many games not yet study. documented that were not included in the study. The name games depends on theonshape nameofofthethe games depends the or layout the court as shown games shape or of lay-out of the court in as the shown inCruz the ni Magellan Saya-Saya and on the movements/ games Cruzand ni Magellan and Saya-Saya and on the actions of the players of in the playing the game as shown movements/actions players in playing the in theasgames Latikgame shownBuras-Buras, in the games Dampa-Dampa, Buras-Buras, DampaLatik, Riza-Rizal, and Dampa,Palpagay, Latik-Latik, Palpagay,Samit-Dangaw, Riza-Rizal, SamitTumbaw-Tumbaw. Dangaw, and Tumbaw-Tumbaw. All the games included in the study were played by children. Children learned the game through observation of the other players who played the game and others were taught by other children how to play the game. The rules of games are often flexible and arbitrary. Players must come up with a consensus on the rules to adopt before the game starts. There are different ways in selecting the IT and in determining the sequence of the players to play. The method used depends on the kind of game played and on the number of players participating. The most commonly used methods in the selection of the IT are palagunting (jack en poy or bato bato pick), humpyang (paper, stone, scissors), and pa-ulo. Players develop skill in decision-making as shown in the games where the winner of the game has to decide on the consequence to impose to the loser. It also makes players be considerate by not imposing a consequence that is not doable by other players. It also makes players decide on things quickly while considering suggestions of the majority on the game rules to be carried out.

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Leadership skills are developed. This is observed in group games where a team chooses a leader. The chosen leader organizes one’s own group so as to win in the game. Players assume roles of make-believe such as being a leader in a group, a skilled performer in doing a task, a life saver of the other players who commit mistakes in the game. Players learn to manage their feelings as they play the game. They learn how to accept defeat. Several values were shown in the games under study as reflected in the DepEd Values Education Framework. These values include appreciation of cultural heritage, creativity, critical thinking, concern for the common good, cooperation, courage, fairness, honesty and integrity, openness and respect for others, personal discipline, physical fitness, self-worth and self-esteem, social responsibility and accountability, trust, and unity of all. VI. CONCLUSIONS researchers concluded The The researcher concluded that: that: • Many traditional games Many traditional gamesareare found found in Leyte, yet yet many of these games are not Leyte, documented. The The researchers researcher believed believes documented. that there have not been many studies that conducted or or documentated documentationininthis thisfield; field. conducted • The namesofof game in Thevarious various names thethe game in different different places made the understand researcher places made the researcher understand the other words which the other local wordslocal which were not were not known to him before, thus known to him before, thus enriching his enriching hisofvocabulary of the Lineytevocabulary the Lineyte-Samarnon Samarnon dialect. It also helped the dialect. It also helped the researchers researcher know the common pastimes know the common pastimes of people in of people in this province. this province; • The take Thedifferent differentroles rolesthat that aa player may take as they play the game makes the player as ready to face correlative life situations ready that the the player player may may encounter; encounter. and that • The games games studied showed The studied showed severalseveral values values can be developed in The the that canthat be developed in the players. players.are Theangames are tool an effective tool games effective in teaching in teaching children good valuescan which children good values which be can be adopted in schools. adopted in schools.

VII. RECOMMENDATIONS The following recommendations were proposed by the researcher: •A A similarstudy studybebeconducted conducted by by future similar researchers since there are still many games which are not documented. Doing so will help preserve our own local folklore; folklore. • A Adocumentation documentation ofof other other games games in the locality or in the region should be conducted and a book be published for local games in Leyte or in the region; region. • TheThe guide playingthe thetraditional traditional games guide ininplaying made by the researcher be adopted in schools for instruction purposes and in the community organizing socio-cultural activities for it holistically develops a child participating in the games; games. and • The The output output of of this this research, research, the instructional guide on playing traditional games be published.

originality index: similarity index:

99 % 1%

paper id:

412975913

Grammarly:

checked

REFERENCES Barbosa, A.C. (2003) Traditional games in the Philippines. National Commission for Culture and the Arts. Accessed 29 July 2010. DepEd Memorandum No. 22, s. 2010. Dissemination of the Republic Act No. 10066 (An Act Providing for the Protection and Conservation of the National Cultural Heritage. Hunt, M. (2003). The Smithsonian folklife and oral history interview guide. Washington D.C. Smithsonian Institute. Lazo, R. (2009). S. Philippine governance and the 1987 constitution. Manila Philippines: Rex Bookstore. Senate Bill 1813 (2007). Traditional games and sports act of 2007”. UNESCO’s Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (2010). Adopted by the 31st Session of the General Conference of UNESCO. Paris: UNESCO.

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