UV Journal of Research Vol.7 December 2013 by University of the Visayas Center for Research and Development

Journal of Research Editorial Board and Support Staff

EDITORIAL BOARD Editor-in-chief

Brian A. Vasquez

Managing Editor

Zosima A. PaÃ±ares

Associate Editors

Shu-Chin Su Ma. Victoria U. Sy

EDITORIAL SUPPORT STAFF Copy Editing Officer Journal Officer

: :

Joel B. Serad Jufil F. Boquecosa

EDITO RIAL Greetings and welcome to the 7th edition of UV-JOR for 2013. The goalmouths of cultivating research skills and competency, along with, evolving the research culture in the University of the Visayas, continuously move the Center for Research and Development of the university to support elucidate the faculty researchers’ aspiration of having each research articles put into publication. This volume is the outcome of several research competency trainings. As an exhibition of the center’s promise, this publication serves as an evidence of dynamism and an action of seriousness in safeguarding the hegemony of research in trailing academic responsibilities en route to excellence. We have 22 papers published from the 29 submitted for this volume. A thoughtprovoking and eclectic collection of themes are contained in this volume: (1) Fractal Statistics with 6 papers; (2) Information Technology with 2 papers; (3) Theory Development with 3 papers; (4) Deductive Researches with 6 papers; and (5) Naturalistic Researches with 3 papers. We also included 1 Review paper and 1 Creative Work. Previous volumes were reviewed internally. However in this edition, papers were externally refereed by local, national and international content experts. This action is another step in assuring the quality of papers produced by the faculty researchers. It took some time to have this publication considering the rigors in developing the: (1) publication policies and guidelines; (2) tools and rubrics for refereeing; (3) pool of experts; (4) publication quick guides; and (5) entire process and system for publication. This however assures the quality of work and the center’s fulfillment for excellence. Let us continuously appreciate learning thru research and theory development. Enjoy reading.

Brian A. Vasquez Editor-in-Chief

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JOURNAL OF RESEARCH EDITORIAL SECTION COMPOSITION The composition of UVJOR have three sectors, namely: (1) Editorial Board; (2) Editorial Support Staff; and (3) Consultants. Each have unique duties, function and responsibilities. Editorial Board. The Editorial board dictate the tone and direction of the UVJOR publication. The UVJOR editorial board is composed of at least three (3) recognized research experts: (1) Editor-in-chief; (2) Associate Editor; and (3) Managing Editor, with at least two (2) major research papers beyond their graduate thesis or dissertation published in a refereed journal. They are research experts in the disciplines covered by the journal. Each of the editorial board has its own responsibility, that is: Editor-in-Chief

− Cross-checking facts, writing style, design pages, photos, citations and examining references − Accepting and rejecting research articles − Editing any content in question − Ensuring final draft is complete − Handling complaints and taking responsibility for resulting issues

Associate Editor

− Review and evaluate research articles − Endorse researches for publication

Managing Editor

− − − − −

Manages Staff Sets and enforces policies Determines coverage Liaison Evaluates research articles

Editorial Support Staff. The editorial support staff will improve the chances of manuscript being accepted for publication and add credibility to published research articles. They are the leg-worker of the journal. They accept commands directly from the Managing Editor.

Copy Editing Officer

− Performs ‘quality check’ on publications such as spelling & grammar

Journal Officer

− Act as journal secretary & clerk − Draft the final journal lay-out − Plagiarism check operator

The UVJOR Editors Editorial Board Editor-in-chief Managing Editor Associate Editor

: : :

Brian A. Vasquez Zosima A. Pañares Ma. Victoria U. Sy Shu-Chin Su

Editorial Support Staff Copy Editing Officer Journal Officer

: :

Joel B. Serad Jufil F. Boquecosa

POLICY AND GUIDELINES Contributors to the University of the Visayas Journal of Research must prepare the publishable article in accordance with these parameters. These are designed to standardize the process of preparing the journal for publication. Failure to keep on with this reference may culminate in the rejection of the article for publication. SUBMISSION OF MANUSCRIPTS All manuscripts shall be sent electronically to journal@uv.edu.ph . UVJOR considers all publishable articles on the condition that they:      

are original are the property of the researcher have not been submitted for publication elsewhere have not been published already unless permission to republish was sought are not under consideration for publication elsewhere use respectful language

UVJOR may require the author/s to submit additional documents when necessary for authentication purposes. The UVJOR is a multidisciplinary research journal that accommodates:        

Natural Sciences Engineering and Technology Medical Sciences Social Sciences Humanities Education Criminal Justice and Law Maritime This multidisciplinary research journal caters:      

Empirical articles Theoretical articles Review articles Methodologic articles Philosophical articles Creative work

       

Arts & Culture Computer Technology Communication Health & Allied Sciences Business & Economics Management Psychology Mathematics

vii

PEER REVIEW SYSTEM UVJOR subjects the author’s scholarly work to the scrutiny of scholars with appropriate expertise. They are chosen from the pool of experts in a given field who are qualified and able to perform impartial review. They will perform content and methodologic screening and recommend acceptance or rejection for publication. The process encourages authors to meet the standards and prevents the dissemination of unwarranted claims, unacceptable interpretations and personal reviews. Initial Screening. The board will initially choose articles for refereeing using the following criteria:   

Quality and significance of contribution to knowledge and/or practice Technical appropriateness Ethical consideration

Quality and Significance of Contribution. The research article must obtain at least the passing rate of twenty five points (25/40) from the content quality evaluation to qualify for publication. There are eight (8) areas: Validity (quantitative)

Measures what it intends to measure

Credibility (qualitative)

Confidence in the truth of data and interpretation

Reliability (quantitative)

Consistent and dependable results

Dependability (qualitative)

Stability over time and conditions

Generalizability (quantitative)

Inference are true to the broader populace

Transferability (qualitative)

Findings can be transferred to other group/ setting

Theoretical Support and Analysis

Clearly focal theories and background knowledge • (quantitative) reflected in introduction and strong discussion in results • (qualitative) frameworks may be absent but resilient integration in the results in both descriptive and interpretative segments

Novelty

Quality of being new, original, innovative or unusual

Replicability

Research process is replicable by other researchers

Clarity of Analysis

Simplicity and lucidity of reasons

Impact/Utility

Contribution to the stock of knowledge and/or practice

viii Ethical Consideration. The research article must obtain at least the passing rate of six points (5/9) to qualify for publication. The editorial board will rate the manuscripts according to: Beneficence Justice Respect

Do not harm any of the subjects Substantial integrity of the research paper and equal treatment of the subjects Informed consent, used its truest sentence, and insures privacy of the subjects

In addition, the board may ask for IRB clearance and other pertinent records. Technical Appropriateness. The research article must obtain at least forty points (40/60) to qualify for publication. The editorial board will rate the manuscripts according to: □ □ □ □ □ □ □

□ □ □ □ □

Title – The paper must state its title without any abbreviations Author/s’ Demographics – The paper must write the complete list of authors all in GMIS form, individual name of institution and country Abstract – The paper must no more than 250 words contains introduction, method, and result and discussion (IMRAD) Introduction – The introduction is engaging, states the main topic and previews the structure of the paper Research Objectives – The paper must clearly and concisely states the paper’s purpose which is engaging, and thought provoking Body - Each paragraph must have a thoughtful supporting detail sentences that develop the main idea Organization and Structural Development of the Idea – The writer demonstrates logical and subtle sequencing of ideas through well-developed paragraphs and transitions are used appropriately Conclusion - The conclusion is engaging and restates the thesis Mechanics – The paper must have no errors in punctuation, capitalization and spelling Usage – The paper must have no errors in sentence structure and in word usage In-Text Citation - All cited works, both text and visual are done carefully Reference List – The paper must include more than ten (10) major references all in APA Format

The author/s will be notified once the paper submitted for publication is rejected for the initial screening. External Review. Manuscripts accepted from the initial screening will proceed to the next step. The board will identify two independent (external) content experts who will appraise the manuscripts according to: □ □ □

Significance of contribution to knowledge and/or practice Substance of the content Clarity of exposition

ix Reviewers will enumerate explicit suggestions. The suggestions will be consolidated by the publication officer. When comments are contradictory, the editor-in-chief may intervene. A third referee may be invited if the editor-in-chief cannot arrive in a decision. The consolidated report will be communicated to the authors. Double-Blind Process. UV Journal of Research operates a strictly double blinded peer review process in which author/s and reviewersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; names are withheld to each other. Referee Recruitment. The peer reviewers will be chosen according to their subject and major concentration. Qualification of Reviewer. Reviewers must have at least 5 researches for the last consecutive 5 years published in refereed journals. Each of them will be invited according to their subject and major concentration. All reviewers are external. Selection of reviewers is the responsibility of the editorial board. UVJOR have a pool of invited reviewers. If there are no identified/qualified experts from the pool to review the submitted paper, the editorial board, with the assistance of the publication officer, will facilitate identification and invitation. If the board cannot identify one, especially when academic topics are highly-specialized, authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s inputs may be solicited in enumerating a list of experts in the specific specialized field. Scoring System. The research manuscripts will be rated according to the evaluation criteria of UVJOR. Score

1) 2)

3) 4)

Description

5 4

Accept without revision Accept with minor revision

3 2 1

Accept with major revision Reject with option to resubmit Reject without option to resubmit

The mean will be determined by summating all scores and dividing it by the number of referees. If one referee rejects the paper without the option to resubmit, automatically, the article is rejected. A notification will be sent to the author/s for their information. If the article obtained an average score of 2.00, automatically, the article is rejected. A notification will be sent to the author/s for their information. If the article obtained an average score of 2.01 and above, the Editorial Board will send a letter to the author/s concerning on either: - for minor revision; - for major revision; or - advise the author for resubmission. Even if the article obtained an average score of 5.00, the author/s still needs to integrate all suggestions.

x 6)

Rejected articles are advised to submit their manuscripts to another journal publication.

Transmittal of Comments. After careful scrutiny, the editorial board will notify the author/s whether their manuscripts are accepted or rejected. The summary of consolidated comments will be attached to the letter together with the plagiarism check results. Author/s are usually given fifteen (15) days to comply with the suggestions. The editorial board may also communicate their own comments. Finalization of the Journal Entries by the Board. The Board decides for the final entries for publication.

Figure 1. Acceptance/Rejection Process

xi Figure 2. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Guide for rejected manuscript

xii GRAMMAR CHECK UVJOR utilize Grammarly to aid in guarding the quality of sentence structure of accepted manuscripts for publication. It is a comprehensive grammar editing tool that checks the text for the proper use of more than 250 common and advanced grammar rules. Grammatical errors are categorized, clearly displayed, and organized for review and revision. PLAGIARISM CHECK The UVJOR will utilize the turnitin originality checker to determine the Similarity Index. It generates originality report by providing a summary of similar text form its data base. Direct Quotation and Reference Lists are excluded in the report. Only the content of the manuscript are considered for text matching. Similarity Check. Turnitin recommends that the final arbiter in excluding materials should be based from human judgment. The editor-in-chief determines which materials are not contextually related to the submitted manuscript and manually excludes them in the report. Matches less than 6 words are also excluded. Originality Scoring. Manuscript with an originality rating of 90% and above will be published without revision. A rating of 51% to 89% will be returned to the authors for revision. Ratings below 51 will be rejected for publication. Transmittal of Similarity Index Result. The report will be printed and transmitted to the author/s for manuscript revision. COPYRIGHT POLICY Manuscript submitted to UVJOR is made possible by limited license grant from the author(s). The authors shall retain all copyrights of their contribution. All other elements of the journal including its name, structure and organization are also protected by copyright and are the property of the Center for Research and Development, University of the Visayas. Declaration of Previous Publication. The author/s must declare any form of print and online publication before the actual release of the journal. Consideration for full or partial reprint, including abstracts, of the article needs approval from the UVJOR. This includes publication of conference proceedings. If UVJOR allows the reprint, Permission letter to reprint from the editor-in-chief of the previous prints must be sought. Policy for Handling Complaints. If UVJOR receives a complaint that any contribution to the Journal infringes copyright or other intellectual property rights or contains material inaccuracies, libelous materials or otherwise unlawful materials, UVJOR will investigate the complaint. Investigation may include a request that the parties involved substantiate their claims. The Journal will make a good faith determination whether to remove the allegedly erroneous material. A decision not to remove material should represent the Journalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s belief that the complaint is without sufficient foundation, or if well-founded, that a legal defense or exemption may apply, such as fair use in the case of copyright infringement or truthfulness of a statement in the case of libel. UVJOR should document its investigation and decision.

xiii POLICY ON CONFLICTS OF INTEREST UVJOR will only publish articles after the author/s have confirmed that they have disclosed all potential conflicts of interest. Disclosure of the Conflict of Interest. All sponsors supporting the work including all the institutions involved must be acknowledged in text. All sponsors and institution involved must be notified for the submission of the article for publication. This includes declaration of no commercial association that may pose conflict of interest. It is the researcherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sole responsibility to any issues pertaining to this matter. AUTHORSHIP Authors Undertaking. Authorship undertaking does not only involve the very people who actually formulate and introduce the idea or perform the experiments or field works necessary for the paper but also includes those who make the undertaking possible, such as providing logistical, technical, or financial support and the likes. 1) The author must first acquire an application form for authorship, declaration of authorship and copyright form, and the IRB clearance that comes with the paper or manuscript. Forms are available in the office of the UV Center for Research and Development (UV-CRD). You may also correspond to journal@uv.edu.ph 2) After filling up the forms, the author may either submit them personally, together with the IRB clearance and a soft copy of the paper or manuscript, to the Editorial Board, or by electronic mail. There must be one set of forms or requirements for every paper. Originality Undertaking. An undertaking of originality in publication is an undertaking not only of honesty and integrity but of the pursuit of new ideas, the very rationale of publication itself. 1)

Authors must first choose a topic or subject for their paper and search out for existing works of similar idea with that of their own and determine whether the similarity between them is not close enough for either of them to be identical with the other, unless if the paper is comparative by nature. Authors must not overly rely upon or absorb the entire substance of other published works and should try toinnovate and create new ideas. Authors may use the postulations of other works to either refute them or make a new approach off of them. Authors must and always make a citation of their references.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATION Policy on Use of Human Subjects in Research. UVJOR will only publish research articles involving human subjects after the author/s have verified that they have followed all laws and regulations concerning the protections afforded human subjects in research studies within the jurisdiction in which a research study they describe was conducted. For research conducted outside the University of the Visayas, the research protocol must have been approved by the appropriate institutional review board (IRB). In the case of exempt research, the IRB must have deemed the research protocol exempt.

xiv

Ethics Undertaking. Ethics undertaking is that which maintains the balance of the effects between the naturally aggressive character of the pursuit of knowledge and the establishment of some restrictions on said pursuit for it to abide with the existing societal norms which all members of the society, authors included, must observe. STEPS: 1) Authors must procure an acknowledgment form prior to the start of making their paper. The acknowledgment form enumerates the general ethical guidelines that authors must adhere to during the formative course of their paper or manuscript, or in the coauthorship thereof. They are to affix their signatures on the form to acknowledge full understanding and comprehension and compliance with the guidelines. 2) Authors must submit to the editorial board, together with the finished paper or manuscript and the required forms of authorship, the IRB clearance that certifies compliance with the ethical guidelines set forth by their research institution, either personally or by electronic mail. IRB Exemption. Some may need not undergo IRB process. However, UVJOR requires the researcher/s to submit IRB Exempt clearance. These include: 1) 2)

Research conducted in established or commonly accepted educational settings, involving normal educational practices. Research involving the use of educational tests (cognitive, diagnostic, aptitude, achievement) survey procedures, interview procedures or observation of public behavior. Research involving the collection or study of exixting data, documents, records, pathological specimens, or diagnostic specimens, if these sources are publicly available or if the information is recorded by the investigator in such a manner that subjects cannot be identified, directly or through identifiers linked to the subjects. Research and demonstration projects which are conducted by or subject to the approval of department or agency heads, and which are designed to study, evaluate, or otherwise examine procedures or programs. Taste and food quality evaluation and consumer acceptance studies.

IRB Approval Certification. Researcher/sâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; who are unable to present IRB Exempt Clearance must obtain a certification indicating that the/ir research obtained IRB approval prior to the conduct of the study. SCHEDULE OF PUBLICATION AND CIRCULATION Schedule. The University of the Visayas Journal of Research is published in print annually. Circulation. UVJOR is available in printed copy. The dissemination of the journal will be in the form of subscription for public and private institutions and agencies. A complimentary copy will be given for the authors.

xv BOARD ADJUDICATION The editorial board’s decision is final and unappeasable. GENERAL AUTHOR GUIDELINES FOR STRUCTURING THE PUBLISHABLE EXECUTIVE SUMMARY OF RESEARCH ARTICLE (TECHNICAL PAPER) Note: 1) most of the entries are based from APA 6th Edition ©2010 and Wiley-Blackwell’s Writing for Publication ©2009 2) these are only recommendations and not a dogmatic prescription 

Letter Size Microsoft Word Format 2010 or higher (XXX.docx)



Format Margin – T = 1” ; B = 1” ; L = 1” ; R = 1”



Format Paragraph Spacing in the following specification: Indention – L = 0 ; R = 0 ; Special = (none)



Spacing – Before = 0 ; After = 0 ; Line Spacing = Single ; check box for don’t add space between paragraphs of the same style



Font is Times New Roman – point 12 throughout (except the title of 14)



Single Spacing throughout unless specified



Text and subheadings are left justified (align text to the left)



Headings are centered, bold phase



Direct quotations and verbatim tracts shall be in inset format (0.5” left and right), Times New Roman # 9 and justified



Italicize non-English in-text words only



Avoid plagiarism and self-plagiarism



Avoid redundant publication



Reader-friendly – simple words, short sentences, direct speech, no jargon



To avoid ambiguity: (1) use a personal pronoun rather than the third person when describing steps taken in the study; and, (2) Write the plural forms to avoid several problems

xvi

TITLE

Author/s and Department

ABSTRACT

Keywords

INTRODUCTION

Times New Roman # 14 Centered, bold phase Headings unlabeled Construct a clear descriptive title It should be concise and informative, but contain the essential words that will grab readersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; attention and let them know what your article is about - There should be no abbreviations in the title - Capitalize only the first word in the title unless the word is a proper name or is the first word after a colon

Space after the title Centered, bold phase Headings unlabeled Space after enumeration of author(s) Author(s); Centered, roman phase The preferred form of an author's name is first name, middle initial(s), and last name; do not use initials; omit all titles - Department(s) must be enumerated (numeric superscript assignments corresponding to name of the author â&#x20AC;&#x201C; in case of multiple departments only); include no more than two departments per author

Space after the title Label with headings centered, bold phase Space after heading Text inset 0.5 inch, single spaced 300 to 500 words

Space after the text of abstract Label with headings on left margin, bold phase Enumerate keywords immediately after label Keywords italicized except heading Arrange alphabetically Minimum of 3 and maximum of 5 keywords

Space after the keywords Label with headings centered, bold phase Space after the label Rational, context Development of the problem under investigation, including its historical antecedents This should include a substantial, critical literature review Should contain conclusions drawn from the review for the study No space in-between paragraphs Guide questions: 1) What is to the topic all about? 2) What are the literature saying? 3) What is the research gap? 4) How the research gap can be addressed? Space in-between paragraphs

xvii

THE STUDY

- Space after the text of introduction - Label with headings centered, bold phase - Space in-between paragraphs (subheadings preferably in the following order)

Aim/s or Objectives (for quantitative)

Domain of Inquiry (for quantitative)

Space after the heading Label subheading – left aligned Space after subheading – begin text immediately Include research objectives/questions/ hypothesis(es) if appropriate Space in-between paragraphs

Space after the text of aim(s) Label subheading – left aligned Space after subheading – begin text immediately Identify the specific research tradition and philosophy if appropriate Specify the research design. Guide questions: (1) were subjects placed into conditions that were manipulated?; (2) were they observed naturalistically?; (3) if multiple conditions were created, how were participants assigned to conditions, through random assignment or some other selection mechanism?; and, (4) Was the study conducted as a between-subjects or a withinsubject design? - If interventions or experimental manipulations were used in the study, describe their specific content. Include the details of the interventions or manipulations intended for each study condition, including control groups (if any), and describe how and when interventions (experimental manipulations) were actually administered. - For qualitative studies, discuss deliberately the philosophical and methodological stances utilized. - Space in-between paragraphs

Design / Methodology

Sample / Participants

Data Collection

Space after the text of Design / Methodology Label subheading – left aligned Space after subheading – begin text immediately Type and size Description and justification Sampling procedure Participants characteristics Sampling size, power and precision Was power calculation done, if appropriate, and if not, why? Response rate Space in-between paragraphs

Space after the text of Sample / Participants Label subheading – left aligned Space after subheading – begin text immediately Label specific components for different types if appropriate (tabbed, bold phase with period, then begin text immediately Space between specific components Pilot study – if done, what changes (if any) did this lead to for the main study? When the data collection was undertaken? Space in-between paragraphs

xviii

Space after the text of Data Collection Label subheading – left aligned Space after subheading – begin text immediately Statement of criteria used – should be appropriate to the design or methodology Steps undertaken to ensure this – if audit trail, research journal , peer assessment, etc., mentioned then give the results of this – do not just mention that it was done Describe the methods used enhance the quality of the measurements . Provide information on instruments used and evidence of cultural validity. Describe the smallest unit that was analyzed to assess effects. If the unit used for statistical analysis differed from the unit used to deliver the intervention or manipulation, describe the analytic method used to account for this. A complete description of the methods used enables the reader to evaluate the appropriateness of your methods and the reliability and the validity of your results. Space in-between paragraphs

Ethical Considerations

Space after the text of Validity and Reliability / Rigor as Appropriate Label subheading – left aligned Space after subheading – begin text immediately Ethics committee approval (panel) Information and guarantees given to participants Any special considerations, and how dealt with Space in-between paragraphs

Data Analysis

Space after the text of Ethical Considerations Label subheading – left aligned Space after subheading – begin text immediately Including software used, if appropriate Space in-between paragraphs

Validity and Reliability (for quantitative)

Rigor and Reflexivity as Appropriate (for qualitative)

RESULTS / FINDINGS

DISCUSSION

Space after the text of Data Analysis Label with headings centered, bold phase Space after heading Start with description of actual sample studied Subheadings as appropriate For qualitative research – findings and discussions / literature may be integrated - Space in-between paragraphs

Space after the text of Results / Findings Label with headings centered, bold phase Space after heading Start with limitations Must be linked with the literature Space in-between paragraphs

xix

CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

Space after the text of Discussions Label with headings centered, bold phase Space after heading Real conclusions, not just a summary / repetition of the findings Recommendations for practice/ research / education / management as appropriate, and consistent with the limitations Space in-between paragraphs

Space after the text of Conclusions Label with headings centered, bold phase Space after heading Space in-between paragraphs

Space after the text of Conclusions Label with headings centered, bold phase Space after heading References should follow the APA format 6th edition ÂŠ 2010 including in-text citation Remember first line is left aligned and second line is tabbed (5 spaces) Spacing in-between entries Keep record of exact details of all resources you cite Make sure that you do not have any in the list that are bot mentioned in the text, and conversely that all those in the text appear also in the reference list Arrange alphabetically

Types of citation One work by one author One work by two author One work by three author

One work by four author One work by five author One work by six author Groups (readily identified through abbreviation) as authors Groups (no abbreviation) as authors If there are no authors, utilize the title of the article

Note:

First Citation in text

Subsequent citation in text

Parenthetical format, first citation in text

Parenthetical format, subsequent citations in text

Pañares (2010)

(Pañares, 2010)

Gullas and Dioko (2005)

(Gullas & Dioko, 2005)

Gullas, Dioko and Pañares (2011)

Gullas et al. (2011)

(Gullas, Dioko & Pañares, 2011)

(Gullas et al., 2011)

Dioko, Gullas, Pañares and Vasquez (2011) Pañares , Gullas, Dioko, Vasquez and Lopez (2009)

Dioko et al. (2011) Pañares et al. (2009)

(Dioko, Gullas, Pañares & Vasquez, 2011) (Pañares , Gullas, Dioko, Vasquez & Lopez, 2009)

(Dioko et al., 2011) (Pañares et al., 2009)

Serad et al. (2008)

(Serad et al., 2008)

Commission on Higher Education (CHED, 2009)

CHED (2009)

(Commission on Higher Education, 2009)

(CHED, 2009)

University of the Visayas (1919)

(University of the Visayas, 1919)

The philosophy of love and service (1919)

(The philosophy of love and service, 1919)

Spell out the word “and” when utilized as part of the sentence Use the “&” when utilized within the “(&)”

xxi 1. Capitalization a. Capitalize first letter of proper nouns and titles b. Capitalize first letter of titles c. For journal names and book titles do not capitalize “articles” unless it is the first word 2. Italicization a. Italicize name of books and journal b. Do not italicize article titles or book chapter titles Books  Quick Guide Format

Author(s) of book – family name and initials, use & for multiple authors. (Year of publication). Title of book – italicized. Place of publication: Publisher.

One author

In-text  examples Reference  list example

Two to six authors

In-text  examples Reference  list example

More than 6 authors

In-text  examples Reference  list example

No author

Multiple works by the same author

In-text  examples Reference  list example



In-text examples

Vasquez (2013) argued that qualitative research is scientific…. Qualitative research is scientific (Vasquez, 2013) Vasquez, B. A. (2013). Research methods. Cebu City, PH: J & J Printers Vasquez & Pañares (2013) argued that qualitative research is scientific… Qualitative research is scientific (Vasquez &Pañares, 2013) Vasquez, B. A., & Pañares, Z. A. (2013). Research methods. Cebu City, PH: J & J Printers Vasquez et al. (2013) argued that qualitative research is scientific… Qualitative research is scientific (Vasquez et al., 2013) Vasquez, B. A., Pañares, Z. A., Serad, J. B., Arbuis, R. A., Dayame, A. M., Tiking, D. P. al. (2013). Research methods. Cebu City, PH: J & J Printers Qualitative research is scientific… (Research methods, 2013) Research methods. (2013). Cebu City, PH: J & J Printers Vasquez (2012, 2013) argued that qualitative research is scientific… Qualitative research is scientific (Vasquez, 2012, 2013)

xxii Reference  list example

Multiple works by the same author, published in the same year

Book by an organization or institution (corporate author)

In-text  examples Reference  list example

In-text  examples Reference  list example In-text  examples

Different editions

Reference  list example

 Edited book

In-text examples

Reference  list example

Book Series

Electronic book – entire book

Vasquez, B. A. (2012). Research methods. Cebu City, PH: J & J Printers. Vasquez, B. A. (2013). Qualitative research methods. Cebu City, PH: J & J Printers Vasquez (2013a) argued that qualitative research is scientific… Vasquez (2013b) states that research proposal is… Vasquez, B. A. (2013a). Research methods. Cebu City, PH: J & J Printers Vasquez, B. A. (2013b). Research proposal. Cebu City, PH: J & J Printers University of the Visayas (2013) argued that qualitative research is scientific… Qualitative research is scientific (University of the Visayas, 2013) University of the Visayas (2013). Research methods. Cebu City, PH: J & J Printers Vasquez, Pañares & Serad, (2013) argued that qualitative research is scientific… Qualitative research is scientific (Vasquez, Pañares, &Serad, 2013) Vasquez, B. A., Pañares, Z. A., & Serad, J. B., (2013). Research methods (3rd ed.). Cebu City, PH: J & J Printers Vasquez & Pañares (2013) argued that qualitative research is scientific… Qualitative research is scientific (Vasquez & Pañares, 2013) Vasquez, B. A., & Pañares, Z. A. (Eds.). (2013). Research methods. Cebu City, PH: J & J Printers

Reference  list example

Vasquez, (2013) argued that qualitative research is scientific… Qualitative research is scientific (Vasquez, 2013) Vasquez, B. A. (2013). Research methods. Series of Research Method. Cebu City, PH: J & J Printers

In-text  examples

Vasquez, (2013) argued that qualitative research is scientific…. Qualitative research is scientific (Vasquez, 2013)

In-text  examples

xxiii Reference  list example

Translation of a book

In-text  examples Reference  list example

Vasquez, B. A. (2013). Research methods. Cebu City, PH: J & J Printers. Available from EbscoHost database. Vasquez, (2013) argued that qualitative research is scientific…. Qualitative research is scientific (Vasquez, 2013) Vasquez, B. A. (2013). Research methods (R. A. Arbuis, Trans.). Cebu City, PH: J &J Printers

Chapter in a book  Quick Guide Format

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Table of Contents 1

Aspects of Climate Change Induced by Human Activities: Impact on Global Natural Disaster Mortality Mark S. Borres Joel B. Serad

Societal Offenders in Prison: Global In-Country Analysis by Fractals Mark S. Borres Queen Heneylour S. Relatorres Efren O. Barabat Adelo S. Yurong

Bombings and Violence on Mindanao: A Fractal Analysis Queen Heneylour S. Relatorres Dan Jerome Barrera Jerome Napao Jiffy Bacalso

Classification of Mangrove Species Based on Leaf Fractal Dimensions Vincent T. Lapinig Celso C. Almirol Anna Lou Cabuenas Mc Nell O. Sabandal

Fractal Similarity Index for Forensic Handwriting Analysis Dan Jerome S. Barrera Queen Heneylour S. Relatorres Kevin Ross Rosento

Characterization of Mathematics' Tests Level of Difficulty and Discrimination Through Roughness Analysis Helmae N. Etulle Regina P. Galigao

Geographic Crime Information Reporting System:Crime Mapping and Analysis Elizalde J. Duran Jonalyn G. Nalzaro Gian Lorenzo Ababon Henry Joseph Sabarre

Traffic Light Management System Using Image Processing Elizalde J. Duran Mizpha Joy Aclon Kevin Clyde Chu Erwin Jason Lim

Psychological Impact of Social Networking Sites: A Psychological Theory Charita B. Lasala Regina P. Galigao Jufil F. Boquecosa

Determinants of Human Deficiency Virus Prevalence Tonette M. Villanueva Melvin R. de Castro Brian A. Vasquez

Sensitivity of Humanity on Valuing Life Regina P. Galigao Brenda M. Catadman Ephraim A. Vasquez

107

Contributory Factors and Prevalent Cause of Medication Errors Among Nurses in Cebu City Joel B. Serad

117

Purchasing and Control Strategies: Economic Order Quantities of Oligopolistic MediumScale Enterprise Dutchque Van E. Dato-on

133

Perceptions of Patients on Contemporary Nursing Care Based on Watson's Theory Resty L. Picardo Salina A. Loquellano

145

Variations in Well-being Across Law Enforcement Agencies Queen Heneylour S. Relatorres Jonalyn G. Nalzaro Jerome P. Napao Ian O. Lavares

153

Implementation of the National Competency-Based Teachers Standards in the UVCollege of Education Nerissa S. Lopez

171

Perceptions on Illness Among Terminally Ill Clients Resty L. Picardo Evelyn G. Base

183

Politico-Economic Influence and Social Outcome of English Language Among Filipinos: An Autoethnography Brian A. Vasquez

195

The Dynamics of Barter Trade Among CebuanoFarmers Zosima A. Pañares Agnes C. Sequiño

207

Cebuano Nurses in Non-Nursing Doctoral Degrees Brian A. Vasquez

219

Review of Fractional and Fractal Derivatives in Relation to the Physics of Fractals Gibson “Gibby” Maglasang Jay M. Ontolan Mark S. Borres Adriano V. Patac

229

Binaybayon: A Dance Composition Ildebrando N. Buot

UV Journal of Research 2013

Aspects of climate change induced by human activities: Impact on global natural disaster mortality* Mark S. Borres1 Joel B. Serad2 Research Center1 University of San Jose-Recoletos Center for Research and Development2 University of the Visayas research@uv.edu.ph Submitted: October 1, 2013

Accepted: November 10, 2013

*Topic suggested by Dr. Roberto N. Padua, consultant, USJ-R and UV. Dr. Padua is currently developing the area of Fractal Statistics to support known results in Fractal Geometry.

ABSTRACT Some scientists believe that global warming and the consequent climate change are inevitable results of slight deviations of the earth’s movement around its axis, a greater majority of scientists stipulate that a greater bulk of the reason for global warming and climate change is accounted for by human activities that destroy the natural environment. The present study looks into the chain of events that lead to natural disasters with specific focus on quantifying the human contribution to these catastrophes. The centroid regression approach identifies the categories of countries that contribute most to the world’s CO2 emissions and determines the relationship among natural resource depletion (% forest area) and CO2 emission and forest land area. The fitted curve states that the CO2 emissions increases as the square of the fossil fuel usage by the countries so that those nations, particularly those belonging to the high and very high HDI which are highly developed, contribute tremendously to the level of CO2 emissions across the globe. The impact of human exploitative activities on the accelerated CO2 accumulation in the atmosphere led to natural disasters spawned by rising global temperatures increasing natural disaster mortality. Keywords: fossil fuel, renewable energy, CO2 emission, forest area, climate change, global warming, natural disaster mortality I. INTRODUCTION Scientists believe that global warming threatens the planet in a new and unexpected way as evidenced by triggering earthquakes, tsunamis, avalanches and volcanic eruptions. Reports by international groups of researchers showed that climate change, caused by rising outputs of carbon dioxide from vehicles, factories and power stations, will not only affect the atmosphere and the sea but will alter the geology

of the Earth (McGuire, 2009). Recent events in the Philippines have likewise lend credence to these forecasts with the world’s strongest super typhoon hitting Central Visayas in the same location still reeling from the havoc created by a magnitude 7.2 earthquake in less than a month’s time. While some scientists believe that global warming and the consequent climate change are inevitable results of slight deviations of the earth’s movement around its axis, a greater majority

UV Journal of Research

of scientists stipulate that a greater bulk of the reason for global warming and climate change is accounted for by human activities that destroy the natural environment. The present study looks into the chain of events that lead to natural disasters with specific focus on quantifying the human contribution to these catastrophes. Van Aalst (2006) opined that human emissions of greenhouse gases are already changing the climate. Several trends in weather extremes are sufficiently clear to inform riskreduction efforts. In many instances, however, the potential increases in extreme events due to climate change come on top of alarming rises in vulnerability. Hence, the additional risks due to climate change should not be analyzed or treated in isolation, but instead integrated into broader efforts to reduce the risk of natural disasters. The emission of greenhouse gases result to rising global temperature (hence, global warming) which in turn precipitate weather extremes. Of all the greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide accounts for the greatest bulk in the earth’s atmosphere. Carbon dioxide emissions come from industrial operations, motorized vehicles, factories, and other human activities necessary to support the needs of an ever-growing population. Developed and industrialized nations are the greatest producers of greenhouse gases. In an effort to strike a balance between development and environmental conservation, developed , developing and underdeveloped nations agreed to jointly address the issue of carbon emissions through diplomatic instruments e.g. Kyoto Protocol, Washington Protocol and Rio de Janeiro Protocol, where underdeveloped and developing nations serve as carbon sinks through a “carbon trading” mechanism. These protocols have raised several climate change and environmental ethics issues: how does one account for loss of human lives vis-a-viz continued carbon emission? Ethical debates emanating from international efforts to curb continued carbon emission will continue with no foreseeable conclusion unless quantitative evidences are presented. This research is an attempt in this direction.

II. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK The major consequences of global warming are the drastic ecological and social changes caused by the rise in global temperatures. There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring, and that human activities are the primary driver (Joint Statement of 18 Scientific Organizations 2007). In the northern hemisphere, manifestations of climate changed have surfaced to include, but not limited to, (1) a decrement in the snow cover, (2) sea levels rising inevitably, and (3) considerable increments in the environmental temperature (IPCC, 2007). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) emphasized that the relatively high concentration of greenhouse gas has most likely caused the continually increasing global mean temperatures since mid-20th century. Moreover, as climate change continues to intensify, global warming also heaps on. Along with this, weather concerns inevitably rise tremendously in terms of frequency and severity. Further, sea level rises on a threatening level. Corollary to these changes, parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) have agreed to “stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system” (UNFCC, 2009). Observations reveal that there have been changes in weather brought about by climate change. For instance, the type and quantity of rain as well as the intensity and frequency of precipitation have observably changed. Extensive increments in rainfall have taken place, even in places where there was reduction in the total rainfall amounts. With middling level of confidence, IPCC (2012) concluded that occurrences, which brought about heavy rainfall across the globe, were attributed to human causes and influences. In the future, expected changes in rain amounts will bring about a positive shift on the global average. However, there might be a consequent substantial shift as to where and how rain would actually fall. Projections recommend a precipitation in the sub-tropics should decrease,

Borres, M. S. and Serad, J. B.

and oppositely there will be increments of rainfall in sub-polar latitudes and in selected equatorial regions. This implies that areas which are currently dry on the onset will become even drier while those that are normally wet at present will generally become even wetter. However, this projection may not be true and applicable to every locale, and in some cases can be changed by some local conditions. Since the 1950s, there is a reduction in the number of cold days and nights all over the world. Some of the changes in the climate were extremes such as floods and tropical cyclones but on a general perspective, these deviations are more difficult to recognize. As previously stated, human factors have relatively led to some of these obvious climate changes. Resultantly, more very hot days and fewer very cold days associated with the expected climate change can inevitably occur. In most land regions worldwide, there will be a high propensity for heat intensity and frequency to increase. The length of heat waves over these regions could be heightened. The number of cyclones may decrease but if cyclones occur, they would most likely bring a higher maximum wind speed compared to normal ones before. More regions may experience more extreme droughts, including southern Europe and the Mediterranean region, central Europe, central North America, Central America and Mexico, Northwest Brazil, and Southern Africa. Heavier precipitation could greatly bring about an increase of flooding in some localities and even in catchments or regions alike. In regions near water bodies, precipitation will most likely cause to tremendous rising of sea levels. The effects of tremendous events on the environment and the general public will swerve. Some implications will be favorable e.g., fewer cold extremes will most likely result to lesser number of cold deaths. However generally, the impacts will probably be mostly detrimental to human. On the other hand, oceans have a very

complex function with regards to climate change and global warming. Because they serve as serve as a drop point for carbon dioxide, they take up a considerable amount of the gas that would otherwise be retained in the atmosphere. However, the high levels of carbon dioxide have contributed greatly to ocean acidification. Add to that, with an increase in the oceanic temperature, their function decline and thus lesser CO2 are absorbed from the environment. Besides taking in CO2 from air, oceans also function to absorb excess heat from the atmosphere. Consequently, heat content of oceans has increased significantly and is a lot greater than any other accumulated heat energy in the planetâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s heat balance on the two time frames (1) 1961 to 2003; and (2) 1993 to 2003. This accounts to greater than 90% of the prospective increase in the Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s heat content during these periods. Global warming is predicted to impact on oceans in a number of ways. Continuing dismal effects can include (1) rising sea levels because of thermal expansion and dissolution of ice sheets and glaciers; (2) increase in the ocean surface temperature, which could result to augmented heat stratification; and (3) extensive disturbances in the ocean flow and movement. III. METHODOLOGY We made use of data obtained from the data base of the IPCC (2009) readily available from the internet. The variables considered pertained to: the primary energy supply (fossil or renewable), total CO2 emission, natural resource depletion, impacts (deaths due to natural disaster) across countries with : very high Human Development Index (HDI), high HDI, medium HDI and low HDI. The relationship between the primary energy supply used by different countries and their corresponding CO2 emissions was obtained. Fittingaregressioncurveonthesetwovariablesfor a given category (say high HDI countries) usually hides the overall global relationship between the two variables. Given this, we estimated the mean energy usage (fossil or renewable) and the mean

UV Journal of Research

CO2 emissions per category. This method will smooth out the ruggedness that tends to obscure the relationship. The regression curve is fitted that passes through the four (4) centroids. The centroid regression approach identifies the categories of countries that contribute most to the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s CO2 emissions. It may be recalled that CO2 is a primary greenhouse gas that causes rise in global temperature. Global warming, in turn, precipitates extreme weather conditions such as cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons. The same centroid regression approach was then performed for determining the relationship between natural resource depletion (% forest area) and CO2 emission. Finally, we estimated the impact of unfettered CO2 emission to the damage brought about by natural disasters to the nations in various categories. IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1 displays the basic statistics obtained for three variables: use of fossil fuel, use of renewable energy sources and CO2 emissions in megatons across nations in different categories:

nations have widely differing CO2 emissions relative to the average. In fact, this is an indication that the CO2 emissions can be properly modeled by a fractal distribution (see Padua et al. 2012). Tabular values likewise indicate that countries belonging to the high and very high Human Development Indices have generally higher CO2 emissions. In fact, they produce more than double the CO2 emissions of medium HDI countries. This fact is a reflection of the reality that countries belonging to the high HDI category are highly industrialized and have more cars per capita than the other countries in the lower HDI category. In contrast, countries belonging to the lower HDI category tend to utilize renewable energy sources. In fact, these countries registered five times bigger utilization of renewable (green) energy sources than those countries that are more economically developed and belonging to the high to very high HDI category.

Table 1: Basic Statistics for Primary Energy Supply and CO2 Emission by Category HDI Category

Fossil Fuel

Renewable Energy

CO2 emission (mT)

Very High

78.31 (sd:18.90)

13.14 (sd:15.82)

150.20 (sd: 189.8)

High

83.60 (sd:16.23)

13.80 (sd:15.68)

111.00 (sd:147.0)

Medium

69.15 (sd: 24.98)

32.35 (sd:33.22)

72.80 (sd:117.80)

Low

30.14 (sd: 23.51)

69.48 (sd: 23.83)

19.52 (sd: 61.90)

Tabular values show that the standard deviations for the CO2 emissions are generally larger than their means which indicate a very wide spread in terms of the distribution of CO2 emissions by the nations per category. That is, various countries found in each category of

Figure 1. Scatterplot of the centroids of fossil fuel and CO2 emissions

Figure 1 shows the scatteplot of the centroid of fossil fuel against the centroids of the CO2 emissions across the different HDI categories. The scatterplot suggests a quadratic curve sloping upwards. The best quadratic function that fits the observations is given below: The regression equation is CO2 = 1.6 + 0.0185 fossil squared

Borres, M. S. and Serad, J. B. Table 2. Raw Data for Regression Equation Predictor

Coef

SECoef

Constant

1.56

35.02

0.04

0.969

Fossils

0.018462

0.006673 2.77

0.110

R-Sq = 79.3%

R-Sq(adj) = 68.9%

S = 31.07

The fitted curve states that the CO2 emissions increases as the square of the fossil fuel usage by the countries so that those nations, particularly those belonging to the high and very high HDI which are highly developed, contribute tremendously to the level of CO2 emissions across the globe. The marginal rate of contribution of fossil fuel utilization to the CO2 emission can be computed from the derivative: d(CO2)/d(fossil) = 0.037*fossil fuel This means that for each unit increase in the fossil fuel utilization, approximately 3.7% of a megaton of CO2 is added to the global emission (or 37,000 kilos of CO2 are added).

The use of renewable energy (green energy) appears to drastically reduce CO2 emission by the countries. In fact, for each unit of green energy utilization, CO2 emission is reduced by 1.99 megaton. Browsing through the green energy utilization of the countries, we find that medium HDI countries and low HDI countries contribute the most to the minimization of carbon emissions across the globe.

Figure 2. Scatterplot of renewable energy source against CO2 emission Table 2. Basic Statistics for Forest Area and Total CO2 Emission by HDI Category

Figure 2. Scatterplot of renewable energy source against CO2 emission

The scatterplot in Figure 2 illustrates downward sloping straight line relationship between the use of renewable energy sources of the nations and their CO2 emission. The linear regression curve is given below: The regression equation is CO2 = 152 - 1.99 renew Table 3. Raw Data for Regression Equation Predictor Coef SE Coef T P Constant 152.47 19.58 7.79 0.016 renew -1.9907 0.4959 -4.01 0.057 S = 22.68 R-Sq = 89.0% R-Sq(adj) = 83.4%

Number of deaths due to natural disasters

HDI Category

Forest Area (% of land area)

Total CO2 emission (mT)

Very High

35.05 (sd: 19.37)

150.20 (sd: 189.8)

7.69 (sd: 11.09)

High

33.16 (sd: 20.52)

111.00 (sd:147.0)

2.95 (sd: 8.49)

Medium

32.53 (sd: 26.79)

72.80 (sd: 117.80)

2.93 (sd: 3.69)

Low

28.47 (sd: 22.88)

19.52 (sd: 61.90)

9.78 (sd: 43.93)

(annual average per million people)

Entries in Table 2 indicate that the forest cover of nations in high to very high HDI categories is generally higher than the forest areas of the countries in the lower categories. All over the world, however, less than half of the forest areas remain intact. The forces of modernization and urbanization encroach into the remaining primary forest covers in several nations; the rate of encroachment is obviously faster in the

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developing and underdeveloped nations as evidenced by smaller percentages of forest areas in the medium and low HDI categories. In contrast, mere developed nations have sophisticated urbanization plans that include a clear resolve to preserve their remaining forested areas. Countries like the Philippines, with developing economies exploit their forests for logs, timbers and other forest products despite laws and statutes that prohibit logging. In Southern Philippines for instance, vast tracts of forest areas give way to more profitable mining operations. These human exploitative activities are more clearly demonstrated in nations whose economies depend on agriculture, mining, and wood production. Collectively, all these human exploitative activities result to a surplus of CO2 because the carbon requirement of plants in both terrestrial and marine environments is exceeded by the rates of carbon emission and forest degradation. Consequently, the accumulation of CO2 in the atmosphere induces the inevitable “greenhouse effect” leading to global warming. Equation (2) shows the relationship between CO2 emission and percentage of forest covers using the centroid regression: CO2 = - 542 + 19.5 forest cover (2) The regression fit is counter-intuitive in the sense that as the percentage of forest covers increases, the rate of CO2 emissions correspondingly increases. The equation is “actually” describing the phenomenon that as national development intensifies (hence, greater CO2 emissions), rational plans for forest conservation and reforestation are similarly put in place. More forested areas do not induce significantly greater CO2 emissions. V. IMPACT The phenomenon of global warming, as evidenced by several scientific studies, is real and appears to be irreversible. Rise in global temperatures foretells of natural disasters e.g cyclones, hurricanes, typhoons, floods, volcanic

eruptions, earthquakes and tsunamis, which nations all over the world are experiencing. Table 2 illustrates the dire consequences of man’s unfettered CO2 emission. Countries belonging to higher and very high HDI registered a total of over 11 deaths per million people (i.e around 110,000 deaths per year) compared to 13 deaths per million (i.e around 130,000 deaths per year). Over a ten-year period, since the phenomenon of natural disasters have become more frequent, the low and the medium HDI countries suffered a loss of no less than 1.3 million lives. This staggering revelation illustrates that climate change-induced disasters cost the lives of men and women for exceeding any of the known plagues on earth; exceeding even the infamous Bubonic plague in the 1800’s. What is ever more dismal is the prospect of continuing such scourge well into the first half of the 21st century. VI. ETHICAL ISSUES Climate and environment ethics issues have surfed of late. More than 80 % of the CO2 emissions emanate from highly to very highly developed nations, yet the developing and underdeveloped nations equally endure the loss if lives of their citizens due to natural disasters. Can these poorer nations ask for “compensation” from the world’s CO2 polluters? If so, how does one quantify the loss of a single human life? On the other hand, the more developed nations can equally accuse the less developed nations of wanton destruction of forest areas which is also a primary causative factor in the increased atmospheric CO2 accumulation. Can these nations rightly ask for compensation, too? VII. CONCLUSION The impact of human exploitative activities on the accelerated CO2 accumulation in the atmosphere led to natural disasters spawned by rising global temperatures. Loss of lives and deaths from these natural disasters has forced climate and environmental ethics issues to be raised in the global community of nations.

Borres, M. S. and Serad, J. B.

Originality Index: Similarity Index: Paper ID:

91 % 9% 384592027

Grammarly:

Checked

REFERENCES Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007). Observed changes in climate and their effects. IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2012). Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation. Special report of the IPCC Australia: Cambridge University Press. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2009). Towards a Science-based global harmonized carbon price. IPCC Special Report. Joint Statement of 18 Scientific Associations (2009). Scientific consensus on global warming. Sound Science Initiative. Union of Concerned Scientists. McGuire, D. (2009). Sensitivity of the carbon cycle in the Arctic to climate change. Ecological Monographs, 79 (4), 2009, pp. 523-555. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2009). Fact sheet: The need for mitigation. UNFCCC International. Van Aalst, M. (2006). The impact of climate change on the risk of natural disasters. Disasters 30(1):5-18.

UV Journal of Research 2013

Societal offenders in prison: Global in-country analysis by fractals* Mark S. Borres1 Queen Heneylour S. Relatorres2 Efren O. Barabat3 Adelo S. Yurong4 1 College of Arts and Sciences , College of Engineering3 University of San Jose Recoletos1,3 College of Criminal Justice Education2 University of the Visayas2 Jose Rizal Memorial State University4 mark_borres@apps.usjr.edu.ph Submitted: October 1, 2013

Accepted: December 2, 2013

*Topic suggested by Dr. Roberto N. Padua, consultant, USJ-R, UV and JRMSU. Dr. Padua is currently developing the area of Fractal Statistics to support known results in Fractal Geometry.

ABSTRACT This study examines the relationship between a country’s human development index (HDI) and the number of societal offenders in jail (Off Index) for the country. Traditional analysis of this nature strongly veers towards linear (regression) analysis which may be inappropriate for the present case because of the high variabilities viz. fractality, of the data for the number of offenders in jails. Results revealed that: (1) the one-dimensional plot reflects the variability of human development indices throughout the world; (2) the onedimensional plot of offenders’ index is far more fragmented than the HDI with a fractal dimension of 1.5795 reflecting a smoothness deviation of close to 60% (57.95%); (3) the two-dimensional plot reflects the impact of the variability of HDIs to the roughness of the number of incarcerated offenders; and (4) it follows that the key to minimizing the occurrence of deviant social behavior is the development of human potentials as reflected in the various dimensions of the human development index. The fractal correlation coefficient (fractogram) and the correlation of the fractal dimensions in tandem give a clearer picture of the degree of relationship induced by one highly variant variable on another variable than using the ordinary correlation coefficient. This is illustrated in the case of the relationship between the human development index and the number of incarcerated offenders in the various countries in the world. Keywords: fractogram, fractal correlation, human development index, incarcerated offenders I. INTRODUCTION The prisoners in jails represent the percentage of population who are considered unfit to join society either because they pose danger or because society believes that their seclusion from the normal flow of life would provide them with the necessary time to rehabilitate themselves and thereafter become productive members of the

society again. The growing number of prisoners in jails across different countries in the world is alarming (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2002) and requires a closer look into the phenomenon in order to arrest this trend. This study examines the relationship between a country’s human development index (HDI) and the number of societal offenders in jail (Off.

UV Journal of Research

Index) for the country. Traditional analysis of this nature strongly veers towards linear (regression) analysis which may be inappropriate for the present case because of the high variabilities viz. fractality, of the data for the number of offenders in jails. We propose to analyze the phenomenon using fractogram or fractal correlation analysis. Fractal correlation analysis is a relatively new addition to the arsenal of statistical techniques to analyzing relationships that may not be linear in form. In the past, linear analysis of the relationship between the number of jailed individuals and aspects of human development had been done (Stevens, 2008). The high proportion of prisoners in developed countries may be explained by a range of factors, including: (1) better funded criminal justice systems; (2) a more strict approach to law and order (e.g. through the use of mandatory sentencing); and (3) a larger gap between the rich and the poor. In non-developed countries, rates of incarceration may be a reflection of a tendency for some crimes to go unpunished, political corruption, or the use of other mechanisms which provide an alternative to incarceration as a means of dealing with crime (e.g. through the use of reconciliation). These factors all have relationship to the dimensions of human development index. The Founder of the Human Development Report Mahbub ul Haq (1998) averred: “The basic purpose of development is to enlarge people’s choices. In principle, these choices can be infinite and can change over time. People often value achievements that do not show up at all, or not immediately, in income or growth figures: greater access to knowledge, better nutrition and health services, more secure livelihoods, security against crime and physical violence, satisfying leisure hours, political and cultural freedoms and sense of participation in community activities. The objective of development is to create an enabling environment for people to enjoy long, healthy and creative lives.” Thus, the Human

Development Index developed over the years covers the main dimensions of education, health and income which are indicated by educational attainment, mean years of schooling, expected years of schooling, life expectancy at birth and gross national income per capita respectively (Human Development Report Office, UNDP, 2013). While it is clear that the rate of incarceration varies inversely as the nation’s human development index (HDI), a straight correlation analysis reveals a non-significant correlation coefficient of 0.118 (p-value= 0.138). Not only is this figure misleading in terms of the direction of the relationship, but more importantly it implies that human development has nothing to do with the rate of incarceration or the population of societal offenders. Obviously, a different kind of analysis is required in order to better describe the actual situation obtaining in the various countries. This is the purpose of the present study. II. BASIC CONCEPTS IN FRACTAL Fractal statistical analysis applies tosituations where the mean or first moment does not exist. It also applies to situations where smaller fluctuations dominate the larger ones. Padua (2012) suggested using a power law distribution similar to Pareto’s distribution given by: 1....f(x) =

, λ >0, θ > 0, x ≥θ

where λ is defined as the fractal dimension of X and θ is the smallest (positive) value of the random variable. The maximum likelihood estimator of λ is: 2....

=1+

so that each observation contributes to the fragmentation of the support X. Padua (2013) demonstrated that the distribution of the maximum likelihood estimators follow an exponential type of distribution so that both the mean and variance of the fractal dimensions exist.

Borres, M. S., Relatorres, Q. H. S., Barabat , E. O. and Yurong, A. S.

A device called fractal spectrum or λ(s) spectrum was suggested by Padua et al. (2013) to identify locations on the support X where high data roughness or fragmentation occur and where smoothness appear to dominate. The spectrum is defined as: 3..... λ(s) = 1 –

of the two-dimensional graphical representation. This fractal dimension now represents the effect of the ruggedness or roughness of the figures representing human development on the number of incarcerated individuals. The extent to which the roughness of HDI influences the roughness of the number of incarcerated individuals is given by

=1(λxλy)1/2

where Xα is the αth percentile of X and s = Deviations from smoothness indicate the severity of poverty incidence in a given context. A test for deviation from smoothness i.e. H0 :λ = 1, is suggested in the second paper of Padua (2012) and the reader is referred to the paper as provided in the list of references. III. METHODOLOGY Design and Methods. The study is descriptive in nature and aims to validate a new procedure for assessing relationships between two variables that do not behave as realizations from a normal distribution but from a power law or fractal distribution. Data for the variables are obtained from Nation Master (2013) for the incarceration statistics and Economic and Political Weekly (2013) for the HDI of the countries of the world. The data obtained are analyzed first by utilizing statistical software to determine the onedimensional representations of the incarceration rates and the human development indices. This one-dimensional graphical representation was then exported to a fractal software available for free in the net. The fractal software yields the fractal dimensions of the variables in question. In turn, these fractal dimensions represent the degree to which the variables fragment a smooth straight line. The two-dimensional scatterplot of the number of offenders incarcerated versus the human development indices of the countries was plotted using the same statistical software. Once again, the plot was exported to the fractal software to obtain the resulting fractal dimension

where:

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Figures 1 and 2 show the one-dimensional plots of HDI and number of incarcerated persons per thousand in various countries while Figure 3 shows the two-dimensional plot of HDI vs number of incarcerated persons. Figure 1. One-Dimensional Plot of Human Development Index of Countries.

Figure 2. One-Dimensional Plot of Offenders’ Index.

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Figure 3. Two-Dimensional Plot of HDI vs Offenders’ Index.

Table 1 shows the summary of the fractal dimensions computed for the variables of the study. Table 1. Summary of Fractal Dimensions.

Variable

Fractal Dimension

X: human Development Index

1.4985

Y: number of incarcerated persons XY: scatterplot

1.5795 1.2814

R2 = 0.908184: fractal correlation Rλxy = -0.028 (p-value= 0.138) : correlation of fractal dimensions Rxy = 0.118 (p-value=0.734) : correlation of original variables

1. The one-dimensional plot reflects the variability of human development indices throughout the world. It is noted that the straight line has been fragmented into four distinct clusters representing low, medium, high and very high human development. The rest of the countries not belonging to the clusters are shown as isolated points on the one-dimensional plot. On the whole, the degree of fragmentation is calculated by its fractal dimension as 1.4985. The deviation statistic which describes the degree to which the data depart from a smooth

straight line is roughly 49.85% or 50% deviation from smoothness. Countries belonging to very high human development include 1st world countries from the West (with the exception of Asian countries like Singapore, Korea, Japan, Hongkong). The HDI rankings featured above were published in the 2013 Human Development Report: The Rise of the South: Human Progress in a Diverse World. On the other hand, the countries belonging to the low human development index include mostly African nations and some Asian countries like Yemen and Myanmar. 2. The one-dimensional plot of offenders’ index is far more fragmented than the HDI with a fractal dimension of 1.5795 reflecting a smoothness deviation of close to 60% (57.95%). This means that the number of social offenders vary far greater than suggested by the variations in the HDI. This implies too many surprises which cannot be predicted using the traditional methods of analysis. In the case of United States of America, where HDI is reported to be the 3rd best amongst nations, its number of incarcerated offenders is high, in fact ranked number 1. (Human Development Report, 2013). However, the case of Australia (rank 2nd in terms of Human Development) reported a considerably smaller number of incarcerated offenders. Norway, ranked 1st in terms of HDI ranked 114th in number of incarcerated offenders (The Eighth United Nations Survey on Crime Trends and the Operations of Criminal Justice Systems: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Centre for International Crime Prevention, 2002). 3. The two-dimensional plot reflects the impact of the variability of HDIs to the roughness of the number of incarcerated offenders. The degree of variability induced by the HDIs tends to decrease the variability of the number of incarcerated offenders as shown by the fractal dimension of the two-dimensional plot of 1.2814. Thus, the ruggedness or irregularities of the HDIs of various countries , on the whole, tended to pull down the inherent ruggedness in the reported number of incarcerated offenders viz. high human

Borres, M. S., Relatorres, Q. H. S., Barabat , E. O. and Yurong, A. S.

development index induces a corresponding reduction in the number of offenders. 4. It follows that the key to minimizing the occurrence of deviant social behavior is the development of human potentials as reflected in the various dimensions of the human development index. We note in passing that this conclusions could not have been drawn if the ordinary correlation coefficient (Rxy = 0.118; p-value=0.734) were used because this Pearson measure would have indicated the opposite conclusion. In fact, the correlation of the fractal dimensions (RÎťxy = -0.028; p-value= 0.138) in conjunction with the fractal correlation coefficient (R2 = 0.908184) give a fairer picture of the actual magnitude of the relationship between the two variables. V. CONCLUSION The fractal correlation coefficient (fractogram) and the correlation of the fractal dimensions in tandem give a clearer picture of the degree of relationship induced by one highly variant variable on another variable than using the ordinary correlation coefficient. This is illustrated in the case of the relationship between the Human Development Index and the number of incarcerated offenders in the various countries in the world. Originality Index: Similarity Index:

92 % 8%

Paper ID: Grammarly:

384261229 Checked

REFERENCES Economic and Political Weekly (2013). Human Development Index. Human Development Report (2013). The rise of the South: human progress in a diverse world. Mahbub ul Haq (1998). Human development paradigm. Human Development Reports. Nation Master (2013). Crime statistics: Prisoners (most recent) by country.

Padua, R. N., & Borres, M. S. (2013). From Fractal Geometry to Fractal Statistics. Recoletos Multidisciplinary Journal of Research, 1(1). Padua, R. N., Palompon, D. R., & Ontoy, D. S. (2012). Data roughness and Fractal Statistics. CNU Journal of Higher Education, 6(1), 87-101. United Nations Development Program (2007). Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s empowerment. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crimes (2002). The eighth United Nations survey on crime trends and the operations of criminal justice systems.

UV Journal of Research 2013

Bombings and violence in Mindanao: A Fractal Analysis* Queen Heneylour S. Relatorres1 Dan Jerome S. Barrera2 Jerome P. Napao1 Jiffy Bacalso1 College of Criminal Justice Education1,2 University of the Visayas1 Negros Oriental State University2 rqueenheneyhour@yahoo.com Submitted: October 1, 2013 Accepted: December 2, 2013 *Topic suggested by Dr. Roberto N. Padua, consultant, UV and NORSU. Dr. Padua is currently developing the area of Fractal Statistics to support known results in Fractal Geometry.

ABSTRACT Spatio-temporal data obtained from 1980 to 2013 on the incidence of bombings in Mindanao were subjected to fractal analysis. The inter-bombing times were analyzed through a multi-fractal formalism introduced by Padua (2012) while the spatial data were plotted as points on the map of Mindanao. Results revealed that there is a substantial, albeit, geometric escalation of terrorist attacks through bombings in the last fifteen (15) years. In terms of the inter-event times, fractal analysis showed that the time intervals between bombings are getting shorter (from the previous 6 months to as short as 1 day). Geometric fractal analysis similarly revealed that bombings are targeted to sustain maximum damage in areas defined by triangles whose vertices are found in Davao City, Zamboanga City, Jolo/Sulu/Basilan, Cotabato, Lanao and General Santos City. Relative roughness analysis also demonstrated a 200% increase or double the number of bombings in the period 2000-2013 as compared to the two decades covered in the period 19801999. The forces that shaped the fractal dimension of hostilities and bombing incidents in the last fifteen years are discussed in the paper. Keywords: terrorism, fractal analysis, inter-event times, multifractal formalism I. INTRODUCTION The spate of violence and bombing incidence on Mindanao, the southern island of the Philippines, is of serious national security concern. The spatio-temporal distribution of these incidences appear to be random and without discernible patterns but it is quite possible that there are hidden dimensions (not immediately obvious) that could aid those in the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s national intelligence and security agencies formulate an effective strategy to minimize, if

not, forestall the occurrence of similar violent incidence in the future. Over 40 major bombings against civilians and civilian property have been carried out by radical Islamist groups and separatist forces since January 2000 in the Philippines. Numerous bombings have also been carried out in and around Metro Manila, although several hundred kilometres from the conflict in the southern regions, due to its political importance. In the period from 2000 to 2007 attacks killed nearly

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400 Filipino civilians and injured well over one thousand five hundred more (Banlaoi, 2009a,b, 2010), more casualties than caused by bombings and other attacks in Indonesia, Morocco, Spain, Turkey, or Britain during the same period. In this paper, we shall adopt the definition of terrorism used by the United Nations General Assembly condemnation of “Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them” (United Nations, 1994). Most of the terrorism in the Philippines are based on political conflicts conducted by rebel organizations, mainly, the Islamist separatist forces. Just when and where the next bombing incident would take place on the island are questions of immediate concern both for disasterpreparedness and national security concerns. The usual model in stochastic processes which is used to analyze the “when” question is the Poisson model (Ross, 1987) where the occurrence of bombings are assumed to be Poisson distributed while the inter-bombing times obey the exponential distribution. In such models, interest lie on the mean and variance of inter-event times. However, the model is based on a very restrictive assumption that the arrivals obey a specific Poisson model. Along this concern, other authors have proposed entirely different approaches to the problem. Telesca et al. (2004) hinted on the use of fractal analysis in the case of seismic data (interevent or inter-earthquake times) gathered from three (3) locations in Italy. Investigating into the patterns of seismic sequences revealed evidence of time-scaling features. This was shown in the fractal analysis of the 1986–2001 seismicity of three different seismic zones in Italy. Describing the sequence of earthquakes by means of the series of the inter-event times, power-law behaviour has been found applying Hurst analysis

and de-trended fluctuation analysis (DFA), with consistent values for the scaling exponents. The multi-fractal analysis has clearly evidenced differences among the earthquake sequences. The Legendre multi-fractal spectrum parameters (maximum A0, asymmetry B and width W), derived from the analysis of the shape of the singularity spectrum, have been used to measure the complexity of seismicity. In this paper, we propose to use a simpler version of the Legendre multifractal spectrum as proposed by Padua et. al. (2012). This same version was used by Padua and colleague (2013) in the analysis of earthquake data for the Philippines. Meanwhile, the “where” question is approached through Geometric fractals. Fractal geometry, the original impetus for fractal analysis, was introduced by Benoit Mandelbrot (1967) in his book: Fractals and the Geometry of Nature. Mandelbrot posited that while classical geometry or Euclidean geometry focused on smooth, continuous and regular objects, nature is a strong motivation for developing models that would describe its inherent ruggedness and irregularity. Crucial to this modelling is the notion of a dimension viz. that it is possible to construct real geometric objects whose dimensions are fractional rather than integral. Fractal dimensions (λ) represent the ruggedness of an object: the higher they are, the rougher are the objects. II. FRACTAL SPECTRUM In this section, we provide a brief overview of fractal spectrum as modified by Padua (2012). This fractal spectrum will be our main analytic tool for analyzing the occurrence of inter-bombing times in the island of Mindanao. The utility of multifractal analysis in the analysis of seismic data in Italy was demonstrated by Lapenna et al. (2003), in the Philippines by Panduyos and Padua (2013), and in other countries by various authors. Of these multifractal models of seismic data, the main tool used was Legendre’s multifractal spectrum which essentially involves finding a sequence of multifractal manifolds which can be expressed

Relatorres, Q. H., Barrera, D. J., Napao, J. P., and Bacalso, J.

in terms of power laws. In Padua and Barabat (2013) a simpler multifractal spectrum λ(s) was found useful in fractal data analysis. A useful device for examining multifractal observations is the multifractal spectrum. The current multifractal spectrum in use is the Legendre’ spectrum but its application is largely confined to scientists in specialized fields because of its complexity. Padua (2013) suggested a simpler version of a multifractal spectrum, namely: (3)

Note that the multifractal spectrum is a singlehumped continuous function of scale (s). This was also mentioned in the work of Lapenna et al. (2003) using the Legendre spectrum method. III RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Data for the bombing incidents in Mindanao were obtained from various sources but mainly through a trace of the newspaper headlines dating as far back as the 1980’s. We noted the places and dates of occurrences of bombings (but not the number of fatalities). The data are tabulated below for easy reference. Table 1. Occurrence of Bombings in the Philippines Date

. that behaves in exactly the same way as the Legendre’s spectrum. Thus, monofractal λ(s) spectrum is a cluster of points or a single point while multifractal spectra are single – humped, continuous functions of scale s. The fractal spectrum was shown to be a one – to – one function, monotonically increasing with x on a logarithmic scale for non – fractal distributions. Instead of examining the observations on the data space, we propose to examine them in the spectral space. The value of used in (8) serves as a powerful “microscope” that enhances the detailed picture of the spectrum λ(s) in terms of its finer structures. A typical multifractal λ(s) spectrum is shown below:

Interval Months

19-Apr-81Davao City (Davao) 4-Apr-91

Zamboanga City (Zamboanga Peninsula)

120.5

11-Aug-91

Zamboanga City (Zamboanga Peninsula)

4.23

24-Dec-93

Misamis Occidental (Northern Mindanao)

27-Dec-93

Davao City (Davao)

4-Apr-95

Ipil (Zamboanga Peninsula)

3-Jan-99Jolo (ARMM) 14-Feb-99 25-Feb-00 18-May-00

Basilan (ARMM) Ozamis City (Northern Mindanao) Jolo (ARMM)

16-Jul-00

Kabacan (SOCCSKSARGEN)

31-Jul-00

Monkayo (Davao Region)

29-Oct-01

Zamboanga City (Zamboanga Peninsula)

20-Apr-02

General Santos (SOCCSKSARGEN)

28.43 0.1 15.7667 44.0333 1.3667 12.3667 2.23 1.0667 0.5 14.0667 5.3

Zamboanga City (Zamboanga Peninsula) Kidapawan City (SOCCSKSARGEN) Zamboanga City (Zamboanga Peninsula)

0.2667

21-Oct-02

Zamboanga City (Zamboanga Peninsula)

0.1333

24-Dec-02

Datu Piang (ARMM)

31-Dec-02

Tacurong City (SOCCSKSARGEN)

0.2333

4-Mar-03

Davao City (Davao)

2.9

2-Apr-03

Davao City (Davao)

0.0667

2-Oct-02 10-Oct-02

Figure 1. Plot of fractal dimension versus scale for earthquake magnitudes

Place

17-Oct-02

23-Apr-03 24-Apr-03

Carmen (SOCCSKSARGEN Kolambugan (Northern Mindanao)

5.6

0.2333

2.1

0.7 0.0333

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cont. Table 1. Occurrence of Bombings in the Philippines Date

Place

Interval Months

Date

Koronadal City (SOCCSKSARGEN)

0.5

2-Nov-08

3-Oct-03

Midsayap (SOCCSKSARGEN)

4.2

18-Dec-08

5-Oct-03

Tawi - tawi (ARMM)

0.0667

4-Apr-09

4-Jan-04

Parang (ARMM)

2.0333

26-Apr-09

9-May-03

Place Linamom (Northern Mindanao) Iligan City (Northern Mindanao) Isabela City (SOCCSKSARGEN) Lebak (SOCCSKSARGEN) Zamboanga City (Zamboanga Peninsula) Cotabato City (SOCCSKSARGEN) Cotabato City (SOCCSKSARGEN)

12-Dec-04

General Santos (SOCCSKSARGEN)

12.2667

21-May-09

14-Feb-05

General Santos (SOCCSKSARGEN)

2.0667

3-Jun-09

14-Feb-05

Davao City (Davao)

5-Jul-09

21-Apr-05

Piagapo (ARMM)

2.2333

7-Jul-09

Jolo (ARMM) Iligan City (Northern Mindanao)

Interval Months 2.0333 1.5333 3.4667 0.7333 0.1667 0.6 1.0667 0.0667

Lamitan (ARMM)

4.2333

7-Jul-09

Patikul (ARMM)

5.8667

17-Sep-09

Luuk (ARMM)

2.3333

27-Mar-06

Jolo (ARMM)

1.8333

29-Sep-09

Sulu (ARMM)

0.4

23-Jun-06

Shariff Aguak (ARMM)

2.1333

20-Oct-09

Marawi City (ARMM)

0.3

Tacurong City (SOCCSKSARGEN)

Jolo (ARMM)

1.5

10-Oct-06

3.4333

10-Oct-06

Makilala (SOCCSKSARGEN)

28-Aug-05 2-Feb-06

10-Jan-07 10-Jan-07 10-Jan-07 17-Apr-07 8-May-07 18-May-07 29-May-08

General Santos (SOCCSKSARGEN) Kidapawan City (SOCCSKSARGEN) Cotabato City (SOCCSKSARGEN) Jolo (ARMM) Tacurong City (SOCCSKSARGEN) Cotabato City (SOCCSKSARGEN) Zamboanga City (Zamboanga Peninsula)

5-Dec-09

27-Feb-10

Parang (ARMM)

2.7333

27-Feb-10

Tubigan (ARMM)

15-Mar-10

Davao City (Davao)

0.4

12-Apr-10

Isabela City (SOCCSKSARGEN)

0.1

23-Jun-10

Maluso (ARMM)

5-Aug-10

Zamboanga City (Zamboanga Peninsula)

3.2333 0.3 0.3333 12.3667

24-Jul-08

Digos City (Davao)

1.1667

29-Jul-08

Malabang (ARMM)

0.1667

1-Sep-08

Digos City (Davao)

1.9333

2.3667 1.6

21-Oct-10

Matalam (SOSSKSARGEN)

2.5333

15-Nov-10

Carmen (SOCCSKSARGEN)

0.2

25-Dec-10

Jolo (ARMM)

1.3333

9-Mar-11

Jolo (ARMM)

2.5333

Tampakan (SOCCSKSARGEN)

0.5667

4-Apr-11

Mangundadatu (ARMM)

0.7333

6-Apr-11

Tungawan (Zamboanga Peninsula)

0.0667

26-Mar-11

Relatorres, Q. H., Barrera, D. J., Napao, J. P., and Bacalso, J.

cont. Table 1. Occurrence of Bombings in the Philippines Date 26-Jun-11

Place Isabela City (ARMM)

Interval Months 2.6667

2-Aug-11

Cotabato City (SOCCSKSARGEN)

1.8

23-Oct-11

Sumisip (ARMM)

2.7

27-Nov-11

Zamboanga City (Zamboanga Peninsula)

24-Jan-12

Sibago Island (ARMM)

20-Feb-12

Kidapawan City (SOCCSKSARGEN)

23-Feb-12

Lapuyan (Zamboanga Peninsula)

3-Mar-12 10-Apr-12 5-May-12

1.1333 1.1 0.1333

performed using the multi-fractal formalism introduced by Padua (2012). The inter-bombing times were computed and subjected to a fractal analysis. The fractal spectrum was determined using Equation (8) and the spectral parameters: maximum A, asymmetry B and width W, derived from the analysis of the shape of the singularity spectrum, have been used to measure the complexity of the inter-event times. IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The time-series plot of inter-bombing times is shown below:

0.1

Figure 2. Time Series Plot of Inter-Bombing Times

Jolo (ARMM)

0.6667

Carmen (SOCCSKSARGEN)

1.2333

Iligan City (Northern Mindanao)

0.1667

SPATIAL ANALYSIS 11-Jul-12 Basilan (ARMM) 2.2 Spatial analysis of the data proceeded in the Cagayan de Oro (Northern following 10-Oct-12manner: we divided the observations 2.0333 by Mindanao) periods (from 1980-1999 and from 2000-2013). Nunungan (Northern We22-Apr-13 then plotted the bombing locations on6.4 a map Mindanao) (of Mindanao) downloaded from the NET for each Guindolongan 25-Apr-13 0.1 (SOCCSKSARGEN) of the time periods. The two (2) dimensional (Northernto a fractal analysis graphs wereBukidnon then subjected 11-May-13 0.4667 by using theMindanao) FRAKOUT.COM software available free from the NET. In order to do this, the images were converted into files whose extensions were either .PNG or .BMP prior to inputting them into the software. The resulting fractal dimensions were then compared for complexity analysis. TEMPORAL ANALYSIS Temporal analysis of the data set was

The time series plot shows evidence of multifractality. In the period from 1980 to 1997, the intervals between bombings were longer, thereafter, getting shorter and shorter, and thus, becoming more frequent. These indicate escalation of terrorists’ attacks on Mindanao by the Islamist extremist groups. Peace agreements between these groups and the Philippine Government appeared to have had no appreciable impact on the cessation of terrorism on the island. In fact, data appeared to support the opposite conclusion: that once a Peace Agreement with one group is signed, a break-away group or another group would begin to escalate terrorism mainly on the disputed areas of the region. There also appears to be some pattern evolving in terms of the “month” in which the bombings occurred. Table 2 shows the summary of the frequency of occurrence per month over the period of study:

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Table 2. Frequency of Bombings on Mindanao Per Month Month January February March April May June Total

Frequency 7 10 8 18 11 5 59

Percentage 6.54% 9.35% 7.48% 16.82% 10.28% 4.67%

If the choice of month for terrorism were truly random, then each month would have 8.33% probability of being the target month. Tabular values, however, show that the month of April is almost twice as likely as the other months to be the favoured “bombing month” followed by October. We are unable to explain why these months are the favoured months for terrorism but they happen to be months when students are on school holidays in the Philippines and the target places for bombings are often busy markets, bus stations, bars and the like. The geometric fractal dimension obtained by using the FRAKOUT software is λ = 1.1382 while its statistical fractal dimension obtained by using the maximum likelihood estimation procedure is λ = 1.1329. The latter estimate of the fractal dimension is more accurate than the geometric fractal since the former is affected by pixel sizes and computer limitations. Figure 3 shows the fractal spectrum of the computed fractal dimensions:

Month July August September October November December

Frequency 9 6 5* 14 4 10 50

Percentage 8.41% 5.61% 4.67% 13.08% 3.74% 9.35%

The fractal spectrum shows evidence of multi-fractal distribution (instead of a monofractal distribution). The histogram of the fractal dimensions (Figure 4) computed also confirms this hypothesis. The multi-fractal distribution of the fractal dimensions implies at least two (2) operant fractal dimensions: one operating at the lower scales (from 0 to 0.10) and another at higher scales (higher than scale = 0.10).

Figure 4. Histogram of the estimated fractal dimensions

Table 3. Statistical Fractal Dimension: Likelihood Estimation Procedure Variable N lambda 81 THETA = 0.001

N* 8

Mean Median TrMean StDev 1.1329 1.1060 1.1258 0.0895

Figure 3. Fractal Spectrum for Inter-Bombing Times

SPATIAL ANALYSIS The graph representation of the bombings that occurred on the island from 1980 to 1999 or two (2) decades is shown below. The fractal dimension calculated is λ = 1.3680.

Relatorres, Q. H., Barrera, D. J., Napao, J. P., and Bacalso, J.

Graph 1. Incidence Map for Mindanao Bombings 1980 to 1999: Îť = 1.3680

Source: Googlemap 2013

Since there were less than 20 bombing incidents in these two decades, the lines connecting areas where consecutive bombings occured appeared smoother and less dis-arrayed. The graph representing the bombing

incidents from 2000 to the first half of 2013 (a period of 14 years) is shown on Graph 2. Note how much more chaotic the lines appear. The computed fractal dimension is Îť = 1.8752.

Graph 2. Incidence Map for Mindanao Bombings 2000-2013: Îť = 1.8752

Source: Googlemap 2013

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To compare the roughness of the graphical representations of the bombing incidence we define the relative roughness index: Relative Roughness = (λ2-1)/(λ1-1) x 100% In this case, RR = 237.826%, that is, the second graph is about 238% rougher than the first graph despite the shorter period of observations for the second graph. Expressed in another way, the relative roughness index indicates over 200% intensification of the terrorists attacks on Mindanao. Terrorism has indeed tremendously escalated in the last fifteen years. Spatial comparison of the two incidence maps likewise revealed interesting patterns. In the first and smoother graph, we find two (2) triangular configurations. The smaller triangle has vertices in Davao City-Zamboanga City-Zamboanga del Sur while the bigger triangle has vertices in Davao City-Zamboanga del Sur and the islands of Basilan,Sulu. In the second more chaotic graph, we find the same two triangles in Graph 1 but with more cris-crossing lines in them and the emergence of a third triangle with vertices in Davao City-General Santos City and the provinces of Basilan-Sulu. These spatial features of the two graphs appear to demonstrate that: (1) the terrorist attacks have specific targets represented by the vertices of the triangles; and (2) locations inside these triangles are also being saturated by bombing incidences in the last decade. Fractal analysis of the bombing incidences on the island of Mindanao revealed that there is a tremendous escalation of terrorist attacks on the island occurring within the last decade inside three (3) specific target areas covered by Davao City, Zamboanga City, Zamboanga del Sur, Cotabato-General Santos, and Basilan-Sulu. The temporal fractal distribution of the bombings is but a manifestation of the urgency of the terrorists’ desire to obtain what they want while the spatial distribution may be rooted on the contents of the various Peace Agreements signed by the Philippine Government and the various

Islamic groups. Discussions and Peace Agreements 1980-1999 The war for peace in Mindanao predates the data sets that we have gathered. In fact, more violence and terrorist attacks can be noted prior to 1980 under the Marcos regime kicking off with the infamous Jabidah massacre in the early 1970’s. The deposed Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi brokered an agreement that culminated in the signing of the Tripoli Agreement which introduced the concept of an Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) in 1976. The agreement became enshrined in the 1987 Philippine Constitution and enacted by Republic Act 6734. The smoother features of the graph representing the occurrence of bombing in the period 1980 to 1999 may therefore be attributed to the “honeymoon” period after the signing of the Tripoli Agreement between the MNLF and GRP. Indeed, with Gaddafi’s assistance, the Philippine government was able to sign the Final Peace Agreement with the MNLF in 1996 in what was supposed to be the end of the Moro armed struggle in Mindanao. Misuari was elected governor of the ARMM and was made responsible in the implementation of the peace pact. Unfortunately, other fractions within the MNLF were not satisfied with this peace pact and saw this as a deviation from the framework of the Tripoli Agreement. A group of officers led by Hashim Salamat broke away and formed the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) in their desire for complete secession from Philippine sovereignty to continue their armed struggle for an independent Bangsamoro (Moro nation) in Mindanao. 1999-2013 The exploratory talks between the government and the MILF began in August 1996, followed by low-level negotiations starting January the following year. Ramos’ term as president ended in June 1998, but the low-level negotiations pushed through under the new administration of President Joseph Ejercito-

Relatorres, Q. H., Barrera, D. J., Napao, J. P., and Bacalso, J.

Estrada. By October 1999, the formal peace talks would begin, only to be suspended by Estrada’s sudden policy-shift by waging an “all-out war” against the MILF. Terrorist attacks commenced with vengeance as evidenced by the graph of the bombing incidents in the period 1999 to 2001. When Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo became President in 2001, a unilateral declaration of ceasefire on the part of the Government became the basis for a revival of the peace process. On March 31, 2001, Republic Act 9054 lapsed into law without the signature of the president. This law amended the Organic Act of the ARMM to provide for the region’s expansion from the original four provinces. However, only Marawi City and Basilan (excluding Isabela City) voted to be included in the ARMM. Later that year, violence ensued when the military attacked the MILF after reports that the MILF has been aiding the Abu Sayyaf terrorist group which held American and Filipino hostages. Again, the bombing incidents in the period 2001-2003 have intensified for the reasons cited above. A final draft of the peace agreement was presented to the leaders of Congress on February 10, 2003, but on the next day, a setback would ensue as the military launched an offensive in Buliok Complex against the MILF which would last for more than a week. Ceasefire was enforced three weeks later. It appeared that the peace process had to begin again at square one. By March, the parties re-initiated exploratory talks in Malaysia with a commitment from both sides for a “mutual secession of hostilities.” The aspect of a Muslim ancestral domain was laid down as the next agenda for the peace talks. Until the end of 2008, the peace process remained in a deadlock due to constitutional and legal issues surrounding the ancestral domain aspect. On July 27, 2009, the parties drafted a Memorandum of Agreement on the Muslim Ancestral Domain (MOA-AD) in Malaysia. Under this agreement, some 700 villages in Mindanao would vote within a year to determine if they wish to join the “Bangsamoro Juridical Entity,”

through a referendum. Three days before the scheduled signing of the MOA-AD, local officials of North Cotabato filed a case asking the Supreme Court to block the signing of this agreement. The Court voted to strike down the MOA-AD as unconstitutional. The junking of the MOAAD sparked another round of bombings with the armed conflicts for the year 2008 reaching a record-high of 30 incidents in Mindanao. Back to the drawing board, the parties set out for yet another round of exploratory talks to draft a document entitled: “Decision Points on Principles”. As spelled out, a “new autonomous political entity” governed by a “ministerial form of government” will replace the current ARMM through a mechanism dubbed “institution of transitional mechanisms” under the new entity. On October 15, 2012, the Philippine government signed a much-hyped document touted as the Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro, which culminates the Aquino Administration’s effort to end the deadlock in the peace process. The absence of the de facto MNLF leader Nur Misuari in the signing ceremony was conspicuous and telling. Failing to intuit on the psychological impact of the formulation of a document without Misuari’s presence, the Government practically paved the way for rebellion by the MNLF. This new document announces that “the status quo is unacceptable and that the Bangsamoro shall be established to replace the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM).” According to President Aquino, this is the agreement that “can finally seal genuine, lasting peace in Mindanao.” Almost a year later, Zamboanga City was attacked by the MNLF (September 9, 2013) and hostaged areas of the city for more than two weeks: an event which could have been prevented prior to the signing of the Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro. Thus, from an inter-bombing time lasting for more than a year, the inter-bombing incidents deteriorated to less than a day. It can be deduced from all these review of the various peace efforts in Mindanao that the

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causative factor explaining the higher fractal dimension of the second map of bombing incidence is the heightened desire by MNLF/ MILF to claim parts of Mindanao as their territory fuelled by : (1) sudden policy shifts on the part of the GRP, (2) formation of break-away groups among the MNLF/MILF main group whenever peace agreements are inked; (3) internal leadership disputes from the main groups of MNLF and MILF; and (4) palliative policies rather than clear-cut policies on the Mindanao conflict.

Originality Index: Similarity Index: Paper ID:

90 % 10 % 380680491

Grammarly:

Checked

REFERENCES Banlaoi, R. (2009). Al Harakatul Al Islamiyyah: Essays on the Abu Sayyaf Group. Quezon City: Philippine Institute for Peace, Violence and Terrorism Research. Banlaoi, R. (2009). Media and terrorism in the Philippines: The Rajah Solaiman Islamic Movement. Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter-Terrorism. 4(1), 64-75. Banlaoi, R. (2010). Philippine Security in the Age of Terror. New York and London: CRC Press/Taylor and Francis. Human Rights Watch (2007). Lives destroyed: Attacks on civilians in the Philippines. Retrieved September 18, 2013 from http://www.hrw.org/reports/2007/ philippines0707/philippines_lives_destroyed.pdf in the study of Giarrossa landslide: Southern Italy. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, 62(1), 259-268. Lapenna, V., Lorenzo, P., Perrone, A., & Piscitelli, S., Sdao, F., & Rizzo, E. (2003). High-resolution geoelectrical tomographies Mandelbrot, B. (1967). Fractals: The Geometry of nature. New York: Wiley Series. Padua, R. N., & Borres, M. S. (2013). From Fractal Geometry to Fractal Statistics. Recoletos Multidisciplinary Journal of Research, 1(1). Padua, R. N., Palompon, D. R., & Ontoy, D. S. (2012). Data roughness and Fractal Statistics. CNU Journal of Higher Education, 6(1), 87-101.

Ross, S. (1987). Introduction to Stochastic Processes. New York: Wiley and Sons. Sadian, J. C. G. M. (2012). The long struggle to silence the guns of rebellion. The CENSEI Report, 2(13). 4-10. Santos, S. M. Jr. (2005). Delays in the Peace Negotiations between the Philippine Government and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front: Causes and Prescriptions. Working Paper. Retrieved September 18, 2013 from http://www.eastwestcenter.org/fileadmin/stored/pdfs/ EWCWwp003.pdf Telesca, L., Lapenna, V., & Macchiato, M. (2004). Monoand multi-fractal investigation of scaling properties in temporal patterns of seismic sequences. Chaos, Solitons and Fractals, 19(1), 1â&#x20AC;&#x201C;15. United Nations (1994). United Nations Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism. Annex to UN General Assembly resolution 49/60: Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism. [UN Doc. A/Res/60/49, December 9, 1994].

UV Journal of Research 2013

Classification of mangrove species based on leaf fractal dimensions* Vincent T. Lapinig1 Celso C. Almirol2 Annalou C. Cabuenas3 Mc Nell O. Sabandal4 School of Arts and Sciences1 Gov. Alfonso D. Tan College1 College of Arts and Sciences2,3 Mindanao University of Science and Technology2 University of the Visayas3 College of Education Management4 Northwestern Mindanao State College, Tangub City4 Submitted: August 23, 2013

Accepted: December 2, 2013 *Topic suggested by Dr. Roberto N. Padua, consultant, GADTC, MUST, UV and NMSC. Dr. Padua is currently developing the area of Fractal Statistics to support known results in Fractal Geometry.

ABSTRACT The study utilized the fractal dimensions of the leaves of mangrove species locally found in the City of Tangub to determine if the same can be used for classification purposes. The species used were: Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia marina, Pemphis acidula, Sonneratia alba and Acrostichum aureum. Findings revealed that fractal dimensions can be used to differentiateonemangrovespeciesfromanotherthroughtheirleafroughness(f=14.400,p= 0.000). However, leaf fractal dimensions alone cannot differentiate the following mangrove species within groups: {Rhizopora mucronata and Avicennia marina},{Acrostichum aureum and Pemphis acidula}, {Sonneratia alba}. In effect, leaf fractal dimensions identify only the following groupings: {Rhizopora mucronata, Avicennia marina}, {Acrostichum aureum, Pemphis acidula} and {Sonneratia alba}. The results may be due to the small sample sizes used for some of the mangrove species. In particular, the standard deviations of the fractal dimensions of the Sonneratia alba and Avicennia marina may have been over-estimated because of the small sample sizes. The empirical probability of misclassification using the technique is approximately4.5%. Keywords: leaf fractal dimensions, taxonomy, mangrove species I. INTRODUCTION Central to research ranging from physiology to conservation biology is the problem of sorting individuals into species categories. The importance of accurate species descriptions or accurate classification stems from their impact on estimations of speciesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; habitat ranges, physiologic tolerance, and population sizes. Knowlton and Jackson (1994) noted, in fact, that these errors have consequences for our understanding of

ecologic and evolutionary theory as well as the management and mitigation of the effects of global climate change. Establishing techniques that provide accurate characterization of species that minimize ambiguity in allocating individuals to species groups is important. Carlo, Barbeitos and Lasker (2011), however, averred that it is important to realize that traits used in discerning the evolutionary status of groups are not necessarily practical tools for

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identification. Moreover, traits that can be used to identify specimens do not necessarily provide information about the evolutionary relatedness of species (Carlo, Barbeitos & Lasker, 2011). This study proposes the use of fractal dimensions as bases for taxonomic classification of mangrove species because of the sensitivity of fractal measures in detecting very small changes in the morphological features of plants and animals. Classification methods based on shape and morphological forms have been done in the past using Elliptic Fourier Analysis (EFA) and Geometric Morphologic Analysis (GMA) (Neto et al., 2006). Rodriguez (2013), for instance, found that the fractal dimensions of fruit tree leaves endemic in the Philippines are significantly different across fruit trees but highly similar for the same fruit trees. These findings imply that the fractal dimensions of the leaves of fruits trees can be used for classification purposes. Palmer (1992) also found the same phenomenon for the fractal dimensions of leaves of trees endemic in the United States. In general, fractal dimensions have been used successfully for classification and identification purposes in various other fields. Barrera and Relatorres (2013) used fractal dimensions for handwriting analysis; Krummel (1986) applied fractal on soil fertility analysis; Selvam (2007, 2009) described the fractal dimensions of puffer fish; Telesca, Lapenna and Macchiato (2004) used fractal analysis for the seismic activities in Italy. The use of fractals in classification and identification of mangrove species in the Philippines has not been tried out. This study is a pioneering investigation in this direction. II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE On the river banks, Rhizophora mucronata is a small to medium size evergreen tree growing to a height of about 20 to 25 meters (66 to 82 ft). The more typical height on the fringes of the sea are within 10 or 15 meters (33 or 49 ft). Buttressing the trunk of the tree is a large number of aerial stilt

roots. The shape of the leaves resembles ellipses with major axis about 12 centimeters (4.7 in) long and minor axis within 6 centimeters (2.4 in) wide. They have elongated tips but these often break off. There are corky warts on the pale undersides of the leaves. The seeds are viviparous and start to develop while still attached to the tree. The root begins to elongate and may reach a length of a meter (yard) or more. When sufficiently welldeveloped, the propagules become detached from the branch and these begin to take roots in the mud below. The natural habitat of Rhizophora mucronata consists of estuaries, tidal creeks and flat coastal areas subject to daily tidal flooding. This mangrove species appears to be more tolerant of flooding than other mangrove species and they often form an evergreen covering to mangrove areas. The mangrove species can occur as a single pure stand or they may grow with a mangrove species of the same genus Rhizophora apiculata. On the intertidal zones of estuarine areas, Avicennia marina, commonly known as grey mangrove or white mangrove, grow in profusion in tropical regions. They grow as a shrub or tree reaching heights ranging from three to ten meters, or up to 14 meters when conditions are right. The overall feature of the shrub resembles a gnarled arrangement of multiple branches with smooth light-grey bark made up of thin, stiff, brittle flakes. The five to eight-centimeter long leaves are thick, with an upper surface of bright and glossy green on appearance, and grey or silvery-white surface below, with minute matted hairs. As with other Avicennia species, it has aerial roots (pneumatophores) which grow to a about 20 centimeters in height, and a diameter of one centimeter. These allow the plant to absorb oxygen, which is deficient in its habitat. These roots also anchor the plant during the frequent inundation of seawater in the soft substrate of tidal systems. The fruit contains large cotyledons that surround the new stem of a seedling. The grey mangrove can experience stunting of growth in the conditions of water which are too saline,

Lapinig, V. T., Almirol, C. C., Cabuenas, A. C . and Sabanal. M. N. O.

but thrive to their full height in waters where both salt and fresh water are abundantly found. High salinity can be tolerated by the species within the process of excretion of salts through its leaves. Grey mangrove is a highly variable tree, with a number of ecotypes, and forms closely resembling other species Extreme weather conditions, high winds, and invasion of various pests and diseases are highly tolerable within its system, according to reports. It is a pioneer in muddy soil conditions with a PH value of 6.5 to 8, but is intolerant of shade. Described in 1775, Pemphis acidula is a genus of maritime plants in family Lythraceae. While it was originally believed to have only one species, scientists now believed that there are at least two species of the genus. Pemphis are highly adaptive to their environment and depending on environmental factors; they can be densely branched, or low and spreading bushes or short trees. There are also variations in the leaves of this mangrove species. Thus, leaves may be small, fleshy and succulent, or they may be larger, flat and not fleshy at all. However, all surfaces are generally covered in silky, colorless trichomes. Their main stems can be furcated and can lie nearly prone, or can develop into one erect trunk. Most Pemphis live either at the fringes of mangrove forests, staying away from the forestocean interface; or they sometimes colonize beaches behind the intertidal zone, taking hold on rocks, gravel or sand, laterite or limestone, and frequently on promontories or crags. The Sonneratia are called ‘berembang’ in Malaya, ‘mangrove apple’ in English, and ‘Mangrovenapfel’, “Pagatpat” in the Philippines, particularly in the Bataan and Pampanga region or ‘Holzapfelmangrove’ in German. Sonneratia is a genus of plants in the family Lythraceae. The leaves of the Sonneratia resemble the leaves of apple trees, hence, the monicker “mangrove apple”. They survive in brackish water with relatively low tolerance for high salinity. Likewise, they thrive in tandem with the Pemphis genus in most mangrove forests.

In mangrove swamps and other wet locations, Acrostichum aureum, the golden leather fern, grows in large numbers. Large fronds often growing to a length of 1.8 meters (six feet), the golden leather ferns have leaves that are glossy, broad and pinnate. The pinnae are dark green in color, leathery, alternate and widely spaced. The overall feature of the fern can be described with the outer fronds arching over sideways and the central ones being nearly straight. Some of the larger fronds bear sporangium (or reproductive organs) on the upper five to eight pairs of pinnae. These are brick red and give the pinnae a felted appearance. The golden leather fern is found in tropical and sub-tropical areas around the world. Tolerant of raised salinity levels, it grows in swamps and mangrove forests, salt marshes and on river banks. However spores germinate better in fresh water. It tends to grow on slight elevations in the mangrove swamp in areas which are inundated by the sea occasionally. It can also grow in freshwater locations. In Malaysia there are two plant forms. The larger ones occur on the periphery of the swamp where they may reach 4 meters (13 ft) while much more stunted plants grow in the areas which are frequently inundated. This mangrove species blend well and can grow in full sun or in deep shade with the mangrove Rhizophora mucronata. While the present study uses the fractal dimensions of the leaves of mangrove species, other authors have used elliptic fourier shape analysis (EFA). Neto et al (2006) used elliptic Fourier (EF) and discriminant analyses to identify young soybean (Glycine max (L.) merrill), sunflower (Helianthus pumilus), redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus) and velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti Medicus) plants, based on leaf shape. Chain encoded, Elliptic Fourier harmonic functions were generated based on leaf boundary. A complexity index of the leaf shape was computed using the variation between consecutive EF functions. Principal component analysis was used to select the Fourier coefficients with the best discriminatory power. Canonical

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discriminant analysis was used to develop species identification models based on leaf shapes extracted from plant color images during the second and third weeks after germination. The classification results showed that plant species during the third week were successfully identified with an average of correct classification rate of 89.4%. The discriminant model correctly classified on average: 77.9% of redroot pigweed, 93.8% of sunflower, 89.4% of velvet leaf and 96.5% of soybean. Using all of the leaves extracted from the second and the third weeks, the overall classification accuracy was 89.2%. The discriminant model correctly classified 76.4% of redroot pigweed, 93.6% of sunflower, 81.6% of velvetleaf, 91.5% of soybean leaf extracted from trifoliolate and 90.9% of soybean unifoliolate leaves. The Elliptic Fourier shape feature analysis could be an important and accurate tool for weed species identification and mapping (Neto et al. (2006). III. CONCEPT OF FRACTAL AND FRACTAL DIMENSIONS Classical geometry considers objects that have integral dimensions: points have zero dimensions, lines have one dimension, planes have two dimensions and cubes have three dimensions. Within a plane, one can represent points and straight lines and other geometric objects as shown below: Figure 1. A fractal object in a plane.

It is possible to represent geometric objects within a plane that are neither points nor lines like the squiggly line above. This squiggly geometric object cannot have dimension equal to 1 because it fills up more space than a line; it cannot have dimension equal to 2 because it does not form an area. Hence, its dimension λ has to be between 1 and 2 like λ = 1.63. We will say that the squiggly line is a fractal (a geometric object having fractional dimension). The fractal dimension of an object defines its roughness, ruggedness or fragmentation. The higher the fractal dimension, the more rugged and irregular-looking the object is. Thus, although fractals are rough and irregular objects, the pattern of irregularities are repeated over and over again. This is called the self-similarity property of fractal. Benoit Mandelbrot (1967) is acknowledged as the mathematician who opened roughness as a legitimate topic for investigation in modern science. He claimed that nature and natural processes are fractals, while uniform, smooth and continuous patterns are man-made concepts and pervade mathematical analysis. He also said that by introducing “randomness” into the situation, one gets more realistic fractal representations. After the publication of Mandelbrot’s book: Fractals: The Geometry of Nature, many scientists used fractals with great success: Cohen (1987) on fractal antennae; Krummel et al. (1987) on forest fractals; and others. It has found applications in various disciplines as well as in many areas of practical technology. In Padua and colleagues (2012, 2013), fractal geometry was translated to statistical language. A probability distribution akin to Pareto’s distribution for incomes was proposed as a model for fractal random variables X: (1)

Where λ = fractal dimension of x, . A maximum – likelihood estimator for λ based on a random sample of size n was provided as:

Lapinig, V. T., Almirol, C. C., Cabuenas, A. C . and Sabanal. M. N. O.

(2)

straight lines, curves, strokes, spacings, slants and so on, and, must therefore belong to the same species.

He then proceeded to show that for n=1: (3)

It is also possible to determine what values of will yield high similarity index thus: or: (9)

(4) For a random sample of size n, the random variable: (5) Has

the

same

is therefore

distribution as . The distribution of (5) where

(6) ,

Thus, if we have one sample of a species and if we are able to estimate its (geometric) fractal (see for example some available freeware like FRAK.OUT), then we are able to compare the fractal dimension for species (say, ) with the specimen ): (7)

We approximate the distribution of exponential distribution and obtain: (8) index

by an

For instance, if , then the values of above will indicate 95% similarity index or greater. IV. DESIGN AND METHOD The study is designed to assess the viability of using fractal analysis in classifying and identifying the taxonomic classification of mangrove species based on the fractal dimensions of their leaves. For each species of mangrove, we randomly collected at least five (5) leaves. The leaves were carefully washed to ensure that only the leaf shape, form and structures are photographed. Their fractal dimensions were calculated using the available FRAKOUT software. A digital camera was mounted and fixed approximately one ft. (12 inches) from a platform where the specimen is mounted on a piece of white , 11” x 8”, cardboard. Room lighting and dust contamination were controlled in order to ensure that only the specimen’s features are caught on camera. The percent correct identification is then calculated as: (10)

, a similarity

where = fractal dimension q specimen species. We refer to (8) as a similarity index. As the difference increases, the similarity index decreases. If (hence, ), the fractal dimensions are identical and the two documents are 100% similar. This means that the two species contains exactly the same fractal characteristics:

The PCI’s are then compared across species to determine if the proposed methodology is sensitive to species differences through an analysis of variance methodology. To augment the metric (10), we also computed for average similarity index ) per species: (11)

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V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Plates 1 to 5 show the mangrove leaves used.

Plate 1. Avicennia marina

Plate 2. Rhizopora mucronata

Plate 3. Acrostichum aureum Plate 4. Sonneratia alba

Plate 5. Pemphis acidula

Lapinig, V. T., Almirol, C. C., Cabuenas, A. C . and Sabanal. M. N. O.

Table 1. Summary of Empirical Fractal Dimensions of Mangrove Leaves.

Trial

Rhizophora macrunata

Acrostichum aureum

Avicennia marina

Sonneratia alba

Pemphis acidula

1.9523

1.9722

1.9582

1.9496

1.9686

1.9536

1.9610

1.9525

1.9601

1.9584

1.9458

1.9579

1.9471

1.9454

1.9570

1.9596

1.9711

1.9600

1.9360

1.9639

1.9484

1.9692

1.9564

1.9465

1.9603

1.9447

1.9686

1.9466

1.9414

1.9535

1.9453

1.9628

1.9458

1.9321

1.9582

1.9478

1.9528

1.9408

1.9610

1.9409

1.9591

Table 2. Means and Standard Deviations of the Fractal Dimensions.

Variable

Mean

Median

TrMean

StDev

SE Mean

Rhizopho

1.9497

1.9481

1.9497

0.0051

0.0018

Acrostic

1.9636

1.9619

1.9638

0.0064

0.0020

Avicenni

1.9540

1.9546

1.9541

0.0058

0.0018

Sonnerat

1.9436

1.9409

1.9466

0.0814

0.0027

Pemphis

1.9600

1.9584

1.9600

0.0049

0.0019

Table 3. One-way ANOVA: Rhizophora m, Acrostichum, Avicennia ma, Sonneratia a, Pemphis a.

Analysis of Variance Source

Factor

Error

0.0015388

Total

0.0038174

0.0022786

MS 0.0005696 0.0000395

F 14.44

P 0.000

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Table 4. Summary of t-values for comparing fractal dimensions. Mean difference

t-value

p-value

Rhizopora vs. Acrostichum

0.01388

5.10

0.000*

Rhizopora vs. Avicenia Rhizopora vs. Sonneratia Rhizopora vs. Pemphis Acrostichum vs. Avicenia Acrostichum vs. Sonneratia Acrostichum vs. Pemphis Avicenia vs. Sonneratia Avicenia vs. Pemphis Sonneratia vs. Pemphis

0.00426 0.00304 0.01030 0.00962 0.01993 0.00358 0.01031 0.00604 0.01634

1.64 1.87 3.95 3.51 5.85 1.30 3.14 2.30 4.96 Probability of Misclassification

0.121 0.087 0.002* 0.002* 0.000* 0.214 0.007* 0.020* 0.000*

Pair

All the mangrove leaves display high fractal dimensions which demonstrate that mangrove leaves are indeed highly complex and rugged in shape and form. Acrostichum aureum and Pemphis acidula registered the highest fractal dimensions (beyond 1.96) while the most uniform in shape is Sonneratia alba (1.9436). The graph of the fractal dimensions below clearly illustrates the complexities of the mangrove leaves. Notice that the red curve (Acrostrichum aureum) is monotonically higher than the rest of the curves; the light blue curve (Pemphis acidula) follows closely. The violet curve (Sonneratia alba) is the lowest curve in the set of curves reflected on the graph. Figure 6. Graph of the fractal dimensions of selected mangrove leaves.

0.0451

Comparison of the fractal dimensions between mangrove species revealed that the fractal dimensions of the five (5) mangrove leaves are significantly different (f = 14.400, p = 0.00). The high computed f-value could be attributed to the small standard errors of the mean (fractal dimension) computed for each species. This means that leaves belonging to the same species of mangrove have relatively the same fractal dimension in comparison to leaves belonging to different species. The similarity index computed for the fractal dimensions of the leaves exceeded 95%. Further analysis, however, revealed that Rhizopora mucronata and Avicenia marina have statistically similar fractal dimensions. This is true as well for Acrostichum aureum and Pemphis acidula . In other words, the proposed methodology using fractals in classifying the mangrove leaves across species would not be able to detect differences between the leaves of the aforementioned mangrove species. On the other hand, Sonneratia alba would be easily detected by the proposed methodology. In the study of Mancuso (1997) and others (Ng et al., 2002), the number of leaves used for each species of plants was 20 or more. The larger sample size would have the effect of reducing the standard error of the mean of the fractal

Lapinig, V. T., Almirol, C. C., Cabuenas, A. C . and Sabanal. M. N. O.

dimensions. It is therefore very likely that the findings of the present study would be different had more observations been taken. Due to time and resource limitations, however, we were constrained to reduce the observations to 10 or less. From the present study, it is possible to recommend studies that would respond to scientific questions such as: Do water salinity and PH impact on the fractal dimensions of the mangrove species? Can the carbon sequestration properties of mangrove species be deduced from knowledge of the fractal dimensions of their leaves? (see for example Boudon et al., 2006) who studied the carbon sequestration properties of other trees). VI. CONCLUSION The methodology of using fractal dimensions of leaves of mangrove species to classify the mangroves themselves is a potentially powerful technique yielding a low misclassification probability (4.5% or less). Leaves belonging to the same mangrove species have equally high similarity index exceeding 95%. Across species, however, the fractal dimensions of mangrove leaves varied significantly beyond the 0.01 probability level. Originality Index: Similarity Index: Paper ID:

93 % 7% 384252431

Grammarly:

Checked

REFERENCES Barrera, D. J. S., & Relatorres, Q. H. S. (2013). Fractal similarity index for forensic handwriting analysis. University of the Visayas Journal of Research, 6(1). Boudon, F., Godin, C., Pradal, C., Puech, O., & Sinoquet, H. (2006). Estimating the fractal dimension of plants using the two-surface method. An analysis based on 3D-digitized tree foliage. Fractals, 14(3), 149-163. Carlo, J. M., Barbeitos, M. S., & Lasker, H. R. (2011). Quantifying complex shapes: Elliptical Fourier analysis of Octocoral Sclerites. Biological Bulletin, 220(3), 224-237.

Knowlton, N., & Jackson, J. B. C. (1994). New taxonomy and niche partitioning on coral reeds: Jack of all trades or master of some. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 9(1), 7â&#x20AC;&#x201C;9. Krummel, J. R. (1986). Landscape ecology: spatial data and analytical approaches. In Dyer, M. I., & Crossley, D. A. (Eds.), Coupling of ecological studies with remote sensing: Potentials at four biosphere reserves in the United State. Washington, DC: Department of State. Krummel, J. R., Gardner, R. H., Sugihara, G., Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Neill, R. V., & Coleman, P. R. (1987). Landscape patterns in a disturbed environment. Oikos, 48(3), 321-324. Mancuso, P. (1999). Fractal geometry-based image analysis of grapevine leaves using the box-counting algorithm. Vitis, 38(3), 97-100. Mandelbrot, B. B. (1982). The Fractal Geometry of nature. New York: W. H. Freeman and Co. Neto, J. C., Meyer, G. E., Jones, D. D., & Samal, A. K. (2006). Plant species identification using Elliptic Fourier leaf shape analysis. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 50(1), 121-134. Padua, R. N., & Borres, M. S. (2013). From Fractal Geometry to Fractal Statistics. Recoletos Multidisciplinary Journal of Research, 1(1). Padua, R. N., Palompon, D. R., & Ontoy, D. S. (2012). Data roughness and Fractal Statistics. CNU Journal of Higher Education, 6(1), 87-101. Palmer, M. W. (1992). The coexistence of species in fractal landscapes. The American Naturalist, 139(2), 375-97. Selvam, A. M. (2007). Universal spectrum for DNA base CG frequency distribution in Takifugu rubripes (Puffer fish) Genome. arXiv Cornel University Online Library. Selvam, A. M. (2009). Fractal fluctuations and statistical normal distribution. Fractals, 7(3), 333-349. Telesca, L., Lapenna, V., & Macchiato, M. (2004). Monoand multi-fractal investigation of scaling properties in temporal patterns of seismic sequences. Chaos, Solitons and Fractals, 19(1), 1-15.

UV Journal of Research 2013

Fractal similarity index for forensic handwriting analysis* Dan Jerome S. Barrera1, Queen Heneylour S. Relatorres2 Kevin Ross Rosento2 College of Criminal Justice Education1,2 Negros Oriental State University1 University of the Visayas2 Submitted: October 1, 2013

Accepted: November 26, 2013

*Topic suggested by Dr. Roberto N. Padua, consultant, NORSU and UV. Dr. Padua is currently developing the area of Fractal Statistics to support known results in Fractal Geometry.

ABSTRACT The use of fractal analysis is recommended to place handwriting analysis within the purview of science and scientific methods. The current practice of subjecting a questioned document to a handwriting expertâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s eye borders on art and is replete with subjectivity. A similarity index based on the fractal dimension of a handwritten document is proposed to augment the current practice. A random sample of ten(10) respondents, five(5) male and five(5) female, were asked to copy ten(10) paragraphs of the same lengths by hand. The first paragraphs for each respondent was used as the specimen document while the remaining nine (9) paragraphs were utilized to test and validate the proposed fractal procedure. Results revealed that the similarity index identified authorship as well as genuineness (of signatures) with 99% accuracy. Keywords: fractal signatures,sractal analysis, Fractal Geometry, handwriting analysis, questioned document examination I. INTRODUCTION Forged signatures are some of the more common criminal offenses that require careful analysis. Current methodologies used in practice consist of a handwriting expert who, through years of experience, has gain remarkable insights and discrimination ability to distinguish authentic from falsified signatures. Handwriting experts specialize in various aspects of handwriting analysis viz. authenticity assessment, psychological insights based on handwriting, and other facets of handwriting useful in forensic science. Overall, handwriting analysis has remained more of an art than a science. This study attempts to use fractal analysis as a tool for handwriting analysis with focuses on authenticity assessment.

The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has published standards for many methods and procedures used by Forensic Document Examiner (FDE) (E30.2, 2009 and ASTM Standard E444-09, 2010). An examiner renders scientific examination, comparisons and analysis of documents to: (1) establish genuineness or non-genuineness (expose forgery, reveal alterations, additions or deletion); (2) identity or eliminate persons as the source of handwriting; (3) identity or eliminate the source of typewriting; and (4) write reports or give testimony. There are many historical cases where document examination by FDEâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s were required: (1) Himmler forged documents (2005); (2) Killian Memos (2004); (3) Martha Stewart Trial (2004); and (4) Anthrax Attack Mailings in the US senate

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(2001). Any document about which some issue has been raised or which is under scrutiny is referred to as questioned document. A disputed document is a questioned document where there is argument over it, usually in terms of ownership. A questioned document, like other documents, may have been prepared with any of the numerous materials available. Sometimes, the very materials of which it is constructed bring discredit and suspicion upon it. Many times, however, its elements are entirely in keeping with its history and purpose, and yet there are those who contest its authenticity. A document may be questioned in whole or in part with respect to its authenticity, identity, origin, relation among its parts, or its relation to other things (Hilton, 1982). Handwriting identification is another aspect of handwriting analysis which requires identification of authorship. Handwriting identification is a more difficult procedure and requires long study and experience. The problem is that no person ever writes his letters exactly the same way every time. This is apart from the basic principle that “No two people have exactly the same handwriting”. The handwriting expert has to learn differences of form and structure by a sort of intuition which was not easily reducible to a science prior to the discovery of fractal geometry by Benoit Mandelbrot (1967/1982) and the subsequent development of fractal statistics by Padua (2012). While no person ever writes his letters exactly the same way every time, there are statistical signatures embedded in that person’s fractal writing dimension that can be extracted and exploited as his unique handwriting index. The main barriers to putting handwriting analysis within the purview of science include: (1) the difficulty in translating handwriting characteristics in mathematical/measurable terms e.g. strokes, slants, form, styles, and others; (2) the difficulty in defining other aspects of handwriting that capture nuances not otherwise earlier identified; and (3) the inherent variances in handwriting that can only be visually detected. Fractal analysis addresses all these barriers

because: (1) fractal dimensions measure all geometric forms and patterns that repeat themselves at various scales. They are good and exact measures of the degree of roughness that define all handwriting; (2) visual symbols/ representations are immediately amenable to fractal analysis because the technique is rooted in geometry; and (3) fractal dimensions capture almost every characteristic of handwriting, explicit or implicit. II. CONCEPT OF A FRACTAL AND FRACTAL DIMENSIONS Classical geometry considers objects that have integral dimensions: points have zero dimensions, lines have one dimension, planes have two dimensions and cubes have three dimensions. Within a plane, one can represent points and straight lines and other geometric objects as shown below: Figure 1. A fractal object in a plane.

Barrera, D. J. S., Relatorres, Q. H. and Rosento, K. R.

again. This is called the self-similarity property of fractal. Benoit Mandelbrot (1967/1982) is acknowledged as the mathematician who opened roughness as a legitimate topic for investigation in modern science. He claimed that nature and natural processes are fractals, while uniform, smooth and continuous patterns are man-made concepts and pervade mathematical analysis. He also said that by introducing “randomness” into the situation, one gets more realistic fractal representations. After the publication of Mandelbrot’s book: Fractals: The Geometry of Nature, many scientists used fractals with great success: (1) Cohen, (1995) on fractal antennae; (2) Krummel (1986) on forest fractals and others). It has found applications in various disciplines as well as in many areas of practical technology. Handwriting analysis, a forensic science discipline, is one area where the power of fractal analysis can be put to bear. The handwritten text can be viewed as “symbols of repeated strokes” and, hence, fractals. Each individual possesses a unique fractal writing signature that, in some sense, distinguishes his writings from everybody else. It is this visual sense of uniqueness of individual handwritings that can be tested for fractality and this is what we will exploit in this paper. As explained earlier, the current state of the art in handwriting analysis is largely subjective and is more of an art than a science. The fact that each person’s handwriting contains individual differences is the fundamental principle on which handwriting comparisons are based. The natural and subconscious handwriting characteristics developed by an individual are a product of both the movements of the hand and the mind which directs the writing (Ordway, 1982). Writing characteristics involves form, system, muscular habits/coordination, straight lines, curves, angles, proportion, line quality, retracing, connections, size, slant, spacing, strokes, and others. All these characteristics give the appearance of ruggedness and roughness which, we contend, can be summarized in a single

number – the fractal dimension (λ). In Padua (2012), fractal geometry was translated to statistical language. A probability distribution akin to Pareto’s distribution for incomes was proposed as a model for fractal random variables X: (1)

Where λ = fractal dimension of x,

maximum – likelihood estimator for λ based on a random sample of size n was provided as: (2)

He then proceeded to show that for n=1: (3)

or:

(4) For a random sample of size n, the random variable: (5) Hasthesamedistributionas The distribution of (5) is therefore where :

(6)

Thus, if we have one person’s handwriting and if we are able to estimate his (geometric) fractal from this handwriting (see for example some available freeware like FRAK.OUT), then we are able to compare the fractal dimension for the questioned document (say, ) with his specimen handwriting ): (7)

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We approximate the distribution of exponential distribution and obtain: (8) index

by an

, a similarity

where = fractal dimension q specimen handwriting. We refer to (8) as a similarity index. As the difference increases, the similarity index decreases. If (hence, ), the fractal dimensions are identical and the two documents are 100% similar. This means that the two documents contains exactly the same writing characteristics: straight lines, curves, strokes, spacings, slants and so on, and, must therefore have been written by the same author. It is also possible to determine what values of will yield high similarity index thus: (9)

For instance, if , then the values of above will indicate 95% similarity index or greater. III. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS The study is designed to assess the viability of using fractal analysis in determining (a) authorship; and/or (b) genuineness of a handwritten document. As such, two distinct procedures are adopted corresponding to these two objectives. For the problem of determining authorship of

a handwritten document, ten (10) respondents, five (5) male and five (5) female, were requested to copy by hand, ten (10) paragraph consisting of equal number of words. The first paragraph is considered the specimen handwriting of the respondents. The nine (9) other paragraphs are then compared with the specimen handwriting using the similarityindex(8). Foreachrespondent, we calculated: (10)

The PCIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s are then compared across sexes to determine if the proposed methodology is sensitive to gender differences. On the other hand, the same methodology and formula (10) are used to authenticate signatures of the respondents. To augment the handwriting metric (10), we also computed for average similarity index (Î´_s) per respondent: (11)

IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Table 1 shows the fractal dimensions of the handwritten paragraphs by the respondents. The fractal dimensions were obtained by the boxcounting method.

Table 1. Fractal Dimensions of Handwritten Paragraphs by Respondents sex

p10

Barrera, D. J. S., Relatorres, Q. Relatorres, H. and Rosento, Barrera, D. J. S. and Q. H. K. R.

Table 2 shows the calculated deviations of the fractal dimensions of each of the questioned documents (P2-P10) from the assumed specimen document (p1). Table 2. Distance(Îľ) of specimen handwriting (P1) from questioned documents P2-P10. eps2

eps3

eps4

eps5

eps6

eps7

eps8

eps9

eps10

Table 3 shows the computed similarity indices based on Equation (8). Table 3: Similarity Indices of questioned documents (P2-P10) from specimen (P1). index2 index3

index4 index5

index6

index7

index8

index9 index10 MEAN SIMILARITY INDEX PCI

Table 4 shows the analysis of variance performed to determine if the fractal dimensions of the handwritten documents can be differentiated between respondents. Table 4. Analysis of Variance of Fractal Dimensions Between Respondents One-way ANOVA: R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, R10.

Source DF Factor 9 Error 90 Total 99

SS MS F P 3.151464 0.350163 1123.54 0.000 0.028049 0.000312 3.179514 Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on Pooled StDev

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40 Level R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10

N 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Mean 1.9716 1.9446 1.9635 1.5999 1.9659 1.5804 1.9756 1.5583 1.9594 1.9806

StDev -------+---------+---------+--------0.0077 *) 0.0149 (* 0.0045 (*) 0.0226 (* 0.0146 (*) 0.0359 *) 0.0130 (* 0.0225 (*) 0.0099 (* 0.0054 (*) -------+---------+---------+--------Pooled StDev = 0.0177 1.65 1.80 1.95 TUKEYâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S POST-HOC: 5.08, p<.0001

Table 5. Correlations: R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, R10. R1

0.212 0.556

0.551 -0.183 0.099 0.613

-0.016 0.402 -0.478 0.965 0.250 0.162

-0.193 -0.046 -0.745 0.594 0.594 0.899 0.013 0.070

0.505 0.784 -0.292 0.385 0.161 0.137 0.007 0.414 0.273 0.657

-0.423 -0.111 0.319 -0.571 -0.782 -0.434 0.224 0.761 0.369 0.084 0.007 0.211

-0.666 -0.202 -0.874 0.474 0.784 -0.102 -0.326 0.035 0.575 0.001 0.167 0.007 0.779 0.358

0.782 -0.182 0.478 -0.188 -0.183 0.236 -0.369 -0.398 0.008 0.615 0.162 0.602 0.613 0.511 0.294 0.255

R10

0.387 0.472 0.529 0.293 -0.386 0.132 0.111 -0.614 -0.095 0.269 0.169 0.116 0.411 0.271 0.717 0.759 0.059 0.793 Cell Contents: Pearson correlation (p-value)

Barrera, D. J. S., Relatorres, Q. H. and Rosento, K. R.

V. DISCUSSIONS It is noted that indeed the fractal dimensions of the paragraphs written by each respondent vary but the observed variations are within 1% of the fractal dimension of the specimen handwriting. This supports the principle that “no person ever writes his letters exactly the same way every time.” However, the similarity indices computed per individual for each of the questioned documents 2 to 10 registered values well beyond 99%. That is, each of the documents written by an individual has 99% or more similarity with his specimen document. Moreover, the individual PCI’s (percent correct identification) were all 100% i.e. the fractal method correctly identified a questioned document as having been written by the individual respondent. The analysis of variance performed on the fractal handwriting dimensions of the ten (10) respondents yielded a very significant f-value of 1123.4 exceeding the required value for

significance at the 0.01 probability level. This means that no two individuals have the same fractal handwriting dimensions, a fact that is supported by a post-hoc analysis using Tukey’s method (Average Tuk = 5.08, p<.0001). Similarly, the correlation matrix (Table 5) revealed that either the respondents’ handwritings were negatively correlated (opposite in terms of roughness) with each other or bear positive similarity but not significant either at .05 or .01 probability levels. Again, this result exemplifies the principle that “No two people have exactly the same handwriting”. These results imply that the fractal handwriting dimension (FHD) of an individual serves as his unique handwriting index. This index is similar to the more current DNA testing for physical evidences found in crime scenes. Since individual DNA’s are unique, they can be used for purposes of identifying a crime perpetrator or for eliminating suspects.

Table 6. Fractal dimensions of respondents’ signatures. sex

index7

index8

s10

Table 7. Similarity Indices of signatures from specimen. index1

index2

index3

index4

index5

index6

index9 MEAN SIMILARITY INDEX

UV Journal of Research

Table 8. Analysis of variance for differentiating signatures.

Source df Factor 9 Error 90 Total 99

SS MS F P 3.548274 0.394253 1240.41 0.000 0.028606 0.000318 3.576880 Individual 95% CIs For Mean Based on Pooled StDev Level N Mean StDev -----+---------+---------+---------+r1 10 1.9525 0.0184 (*) r2 10 1.9406 0.0191 *) r3 10 1.9665 0.0336 (*) r4 10 1.6263 0.0072 *) r5 10 1.9264 0.0112 *) r6 10 1.5793 0.0113 *) r7 10 1.9582 0.0149 (* r8 10 1.4420 0.0165 (*) r9 10 1.9498 0.0108 (*) r10 10 1.9484 0.0206 (*) -----+---------+---------+---------+Pooled StDev = 0.0178 1.50 1.65 1.80 1.95 Tukey = 6.09, p < .0001

VI. DISCUSSIONS Variations in the fractal dimensions of the signatures of the respondents are noted as well. Of the ten(10) respondents, respondent 1 registered the highest variations. As in the previous analysis, results tend to support the principle that individuals write differently every time but the variations in their signatures are well within 1% to 2% from each other. Except for respondent 1, all the similarity indices are 99% or higher. For respondent 1, however, the mean similarity index was computed at 98% . The lower similarity index for this particular respondent is due to the higher variations observed in his signatures. The fractal handwriting dimension (FHD) remains valid as a unique indicator of a person’s signature. The analysis of variance performed on the fractal dimensions of the individuals’ signatures revealed that the respondents’ signature can be significantly differentiated from each other

(f-value = 1240). The computed f-ratio exceeded the required value for significance beyond the 0.01 probability level. VII. PROPOSED PROTOCOLS FOR HANDWRITING ANALYSIS AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION While the fractal handwriting dimension index (FHD) does give unique signatures for different individuals, it is possible to incorrectly attribute a handwritten document to an individual who is not the author of the document. For instance, respondents 5 (fractal dimension = 1.9781) and 7 (fractal dimension = 1.9782) have almost the same specimen handwriting. For this reason, we propose the following protocols: Protocols: 1. For handwritten specimen documents having more than one paragraphs (or sentences), obtain the fractal dimensionsof the paragraphs (or sentences). Use this fractal dimensions as

Barrera, D. J. S., Relatorres, Q. H. and Rosento, K. R.

the specimen fractal dimension. 2. Do the same for the questioned document. 3. Compute the correlation coefficient between the fractal dimensions of the questioned documents and the specimen fractal dimension.

Illustration: Suppose that Respondent 3 claims he is the author of a document (actually written by Respondent 1). The fractal dimensions of the paragraphs written by Respondents 1 and 3 are displayed below together with the computed correlation coefficient:

Figure 8. Respondents 1 and 3 with the Computed Correlation Coefficient. P1

P10

1.9662

1.9787

1.9691

1.9701

1.9802

1.9553

1.9778

1.9692

1.9699

1.979

1.9583

1.9635

1.9593

1.9706

1.9672

1.9583

1.9635

1.9593

1.968

1.967

pearson correlation of R1 and R3 = 0.551 p-value = 0.099

We claim that there is no significant relationship between the two fractal dimensions and, thus, Respondent 3 cannot claim ownership of the document and we are 90.1% confident of this conclusion.

Next suppose, that Respondent 7 claims that he is the author of a document actually written by Respondent 5, we perform a similar analysis:

Figure 9. Respondents 7 and 5 with the Computed Correlation Coefficient. P1

1.9781

1.9835

1.9676

1.9782

1.9539

1.9758

P10

1.9479

1.9522

1.9781

1.9835

1.9676

1.9479

1.953

1.9922

1.9771

1.9782

1.9539

1.9771

1.9922

1.9771

pearson correlation of R5 and R7 = -0.782 (p-value = 0.007)

The fractal dimensions are negatively related so that the handwritings of the two individuals are the exact opposite of each other. There is a significant evidence that Respondent 7 cannot claim authorship of the document (p<.01) and we are 99% confident of this conclusion. Finally, suppose that Document 1 is being questioned for authorship and there are nine (9) claimants , namely R2 to R10. Who is the most likely author of the document? We compute the correlation matrix and determine the most positively related fractal dimensions with Document 1. The claimant who is the most likely author of the document is R9: pearson correlation of R1 and R9 = 0.782 p-value = 0.008 r-squared value = 61.15%

The fractal handwriting dimension of R9 explains about 61.15% of the variations in the fractal handwriting dimensions of the questioned document Document 1. We are about 99.2% confident of this decision to assign authorship to R9. VIII. CONCLUSION The proposed fractal handwriting dimension (FHD) index is a unique measure of an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s handwriting and signature. It can be used as a method to augment current practices for determining (a) authorship; and/or (b) genuineness of handwritten documents.

UV Journal of Research

Originality Index: Similarity Index:

93 % 7%

Paper ID: Grammarly:

384252431 Checked

REFERENCES American Society for Testing and Materials (2009). Forensic Document Examiner. American Society for Testing and Materials (2010). ASTM Standard E444-09. Cohen, N. L. (1995). Fractal Antennas Part 1, Communications Quarterly, Summer, 5-23. Hilton, D. (1982). Questioned documents examination (accessed from a compilation of notes by NORSUCollege of Criminal Justice Education) Krummel, J. R. 1986. Landscape ecology: spatial data and analytical approaches. In Dyer, M. I., & Crossley, D. A. (Eds), Coupling of ecological studies with remote sensing: Potentials at four biosphere reserves in the United State. U.S. Man and the Biosphere Prog. Publ. 9504. Washington, DC: Department of State. Mandelbrot, BenoĂŽt B. (1982). The Fractal Geometry of nature. New York: W. H. Freeman and Co. Ordway, M. (1982) Characteristics of handwriting (accessed from a compilation of notes by NORSUCollege of Criminal Justice Education) Padua, R. N., Palompon, D. R., & Ontoy, D. S. (2012). Data roughness and Fractal Statistics. CNU Journal of Higher Education, 6(1), 87-101.

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Table 1. Test Scores Data.

Subjects MATH 1 MATH 2 MATH 3 MATH 4

Number of Students 390 385 361 353

Number of Items 100 100 90 100

Highest Score 98 100 88 96

Lowest Score 5 12 11 12

Table 1 above depicts the data utilized in the study including the highest and lowest scores of each subject. Table 2, on the other hand, gives the traditional test characteristics using the formulas indicated above: Table 2. Traditional Test Characteristics.

Subjects Math 1 Math 2 Math 3 Math 4

No. of Students 390 385 361 353

No. of Items 100 100 90 100

III. METHODOLOGY The test scores of the students across the various year levels were analyzed to determine if these can be appropriately modeled by fractal distributions or by the usual normal distribution. To this end, the histograms for the scores at each year level were obtained and subsequently subjected to a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for normality. For test scores that obey a non-normal distribution, a power law distribution or fractal distribution were fitted in accordance with the proposal of Padua et al. (2012) as follows: Mathematically, a monofractal distribution is described by the power-law probability density: (1) f(x;λ) = (λ-1)/Ө (x/Ө)-λ , λ > 1, x ≥ Ө It is shown in Padua, et.al (2013) that the maximum likelihood estimators of λ and Ө are respectively. (2) λ = 1+ n ( Σni=1log( xθ1 ) )-1 (3) Ө = min { x1, x2,…, xn }.

Test Difficulty 0.71 0.65 0.69 0.62

Test Discrimination 0.92 0.87 0.90 0.85

A practical approach suggested in estimating λ is to plot log f(x) versus log(x/θ) and to use the slope of the line as estimators of λ. This could be heuristically argued by taking the logarithm of both sides of (1): (4) log f(x) = log ( (λ-1)/Ө) – λ log (x/θ ). Moreover, the indicators of monofractality as presented by Padua, et.al (2013) fit to a fractal distribution f(x) to the quantile of the distribution G(.). Let (x(a))be the αth quantile of G(.): (5)… G (x(a)) = α At each of αth quantile of G(.), we fit a power law distribution F(.) such that: (6)… G (x(a)) = F(x(a)) = α, or equivalently, obtain:

UV Journal of Research 2013

Characterization of Mathematics testsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; level of difficulty and discrimination through roughness analysis Helmae N. Etulle1 Regina P. Galigao2 College of Education1 University of San Jose-Recoletos1 College of Arts and Sciences2 University of the Visayas2 helmae_24@yahoo.com Submitted: August 23, 2013

Accepted: December 21, 2013

ABSTRACT This paper is an exploratory study that deals with fractal dimensions in assessment and evaluation. Specifically, the study sought to determine how the tests characteristics: test difficulty and discrimination, may be quantified through knowledge of the fractal dimensions of the tests. As a by-product of the analysis, we may be able to identify which among the subjects in mathematics (from first year to fourth year) is found most difficult through analyzing and evaluating the ruggedness and irregularities of studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; performance. The researcher made use of fractal statistics and segmentation to determine the test difficulty and the mathematical capability of the students. Results reveal that test fractal dimensions can be used as surrogate measures of both test difficulty and test discrimination indices. Both traditional test characteristics monotonically increase and decrease with increasing or decreasing fractal dimensions. High fractal dimensions indicate huge variances in student performance which are tell-tale symptoms of uneven understanding of mathematical concepts. Keywords: mathematical assessment, fractal dimensions, fractal analysis, test scores, mathematical performance, and mathematics education I. INTRODUCTION Assessment has become a central issue in mathematics education in the new K-12 Curriculum. It has also becomes a significant field of study and learning for numerous authentic applications in real life experiences based on the outcomes-based education. Over the last decades, the importance of assessment education particularly in mathematics, had received much attention from the Department of Education, mathematics education researchers, mathematics teachers, and in many countries (Fan, 2006). The assessment standards for School Mathematics of

the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) describes assessment as the process of gathering evidence about studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; knowledge, skills, disposition towards Mathematics and of making inferences from that evidence for variety of purposes. The main purpose of mathematical education is to enable individual to apply mathematics in real-world problems (nature, society, culture). This is to help students to become mathematically literate to prepare learners for their future and occupational life. In 2005, Gallup conducted a poll that asked students to name the school subject that they considered to be the

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most difficult and not surprisingly, mathematics came out in the difficulty chart. Devlin (1994) states that mathematics is a science of patterns and a scientific discipline. In learning, learners must individually understand and appreciate mathematics as a science of numbers. This is an essential tool to thrive the day to day worldwide activities. Research revealed that most students perceive mathematics as a difficult subject which has no meaning in their life (Countryman, 1999). This perception begins to develop at the primary years of schooling were students find the subject very abstract and heavily relying on concepts and methods but not able to deepen why those symbols exist. These are the realities that teachers fail to emphasize in the teaching and learning process and students fail to appreciate. This trend continues up to high school and even to college. By the time students reach to higher years, they have lost the interest in Mathematics. Worst of all, they cannot even explain some of the simple operations (Walle, 2001). The major purpose of mathematical assessment is to promote learning as a whole. The assessment is not the goal but the means to achieve those goals. The three (3) guiding principles which form the foundation of all assessment that supports effective mathematical education as cited by Desoete, et al (2004) are: (1) the content principle which means that assessment should reflect the mathematics that is most important for students to learn. (2) the learning principle which states that mathematics assessment should enhance mathematics learning and support good instructional practice. Learning mathematics must be embedded in worthwhile (engaging, educative, and authentic) problems that are part of the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; real world (Black & William, 1998). Moreover, methodologies of teaching and its approaches must enable students to reveal what they know rather than what they do not know (Coeckroft, 1992). And lastly (3) the equity principle which means that mathematics assessment should support every studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s opportunity to learn the importance of mathematics. Lessons must be integrated to real

experiences, explain real-life task and be practiced through authentic assessment. These principles are supported with the assessment standard in the NCTM for School Mathematics that emphasizes on the reflection of mathematical assessment to the needs of students on what to know and be able to do. Also, assessment should be learning opportunities for students to demonstrate what they know and can do mathematically. The study conducted by Steinberg, et al (2004) with research data from different levels of perspective, reveals that mathematics education, can- in general, be considered as being difficult for learner during the entire primary school career. Finally, from an educational practice point of view, the study conducted by Stock, et al (2006) points out that mathematics education is experienced as a difficult subject during a pupilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s entire primary school career. Moreover, the study reveals that particular mathematics topics seem to be more difficult than others, and that some curriculum topics are experienced to be difficult in all primary and secondary learners. Furthermore, the study indicated that the choice for a specific CALP (commercially available learning packages) could matter to attain specific learning goals (Dowker, 2005). Building on the overview of the different experiences in relation to mathematics curriculum topics and the specific materials and strategies of teaching, teachers can start to develop specific interventions to circumvent the occurrence of mathematics learning difficulties or to compensate for some weaknesses in learning the mathematical concepts and skills. From the nature of the subject up to the level of its difficulty matters a lot in the learning process. Majority of the learners have negative connotation towards the subject and often as the most difficult subject due to low grade attainment per grading. Through this study, the researcher would like to unveil the ruggedness, selfsimilarities, and scale in variance of test scores in mathematics to identify which among the subject in secondary level is the most difficult. This is to help learners uplift their inclination and profound interest in mathematics. This is also, for teachers

Etulle, H. N. and Galigao, R. P.

to be guided on how to modify teaching strategies and its integration to real life tasks for further appreciation and higher and logical thinking. II. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Classical assessment and evaluation theory define “item difficulty index” and “item discrimination index” as follows: A test item difficulty index is the proportion of students obtaining the correct answer for that item to the total number of responses for that item: 1….P = R/T , where R is the number of correct responses and T is the total number of responses (i.e., correct + incorrect + blank responses). Hence, the higher this index value, the lower is the difficulty, and the greater the difficulty of an item, the lower is its index. This index is counter-intuitive since it actually measures the “item easiness” rather than its difficulty. For the purposes of this study, we propose to define “item difficulty” in the following manner: 2…. Qj = 1 – Pj,

j = 1,2,…,T

where T is the number of items, is now a monotone function of the difficulty level. The test difficulty, as a whole, is defined as the average of the item difficulties: 3…. Test Q =

ΣT1 Qj. T

Item discrimination index, on the other hand, is the item’s ability to distinguish between those who know and those who do not know the answer. The traditional approach is as follows: Arrange the scores of the students in the test from highest to lowest. Obtain the upper 27% and the lowest 27% student scores. Denote by PU the unmodified difficulty index of the upper 27% for the test item and by PL the corresponding difficulty index for the lowest 27%. The item discrimination index is then:

4. Dj = PUj - PLj , j = 1,2,…T The test discrimination ability is defined as the average of all the item discrimination indices: TD

5. Test Discrimination = Σ 1T

The test characteristics (2) and (5) are proposed to be replaced by the concept of a fractal dimension of the test. Fractals and Statistical Fractals. Fractals in its nature are mathematically inspired by Benoit Mandelbrot (1967; 1982), a well-known mathematician who introduced this body of knowledge to advanced mathematics. Fractals could explain myriad phenomenon and natural art around the world. It led people to understand that beyond chaos, there is order, beyond disorder, there is pattern and beyond minute thing, the whole thing could be represented. Thus, beyond irregularities of learning and human’s understanding, fractals can give expounded explanations and reliable basis of such claim. Additionally, with the method of assessment among the diverse learners, the researcher found out that their mathematical performances are not normally distributed. To analyze thoroughly the performance of the respondents, test results from different discipline of mathematics were utilized. Specifically, the data were from Mathematics 1 to Mathematics 4 of the school year 2012- 2013 of University of San Jose Recoletos. Mathematics 1 which embraced the K-12 (Spiral) Curriculum includes number concepts, number sense, measurement, algebra, and introduction to statistics. Mathematics 2 content focused on Intermediate Algebra. Mathematics 3 dealt with Geometry and lastly, Mathematics 4 was about Advanced College Algebra and Trigonometry. The test results of these subjects were constructed based on the specified competencies of the said curriculum and subject standards as mandated by the Department of Education.

Etulle, H. N. and Galigao, R. P.

(7)…λ (α) = 1- log〖(1-a)〗/(log ( x_α/Ө)), for all α ϵ (0,1). Denote the empirical quantiles by X(αk) where αk = k/n , 1≤ k≤ n-1. An estimate of λ can be obtained from (7): 1

(8)… λ = n-1

Σ n-1 λ(ak) k=1

The estimated fractal dimensions for the tests

at various year levels were then correlated with the test difficulty the test discrimination indices by the usual regression analysis. IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Figures 1-4 illustrate the histograms of the test scores for mathematics in four year levels. The histograms appear to be non-normal. This observation is formalized through a KolmogorovSmirnov test for normality.

Figure 1. Histogram, Math 1.

Figure 2. Histogram, Math 2.

Figure 3. Histogram, Math 3.

Figure 4. Histogram, Math 4.

Figures 5-8 show the formal tests for normality conducted. Significant deviations from the 45- degree lines are noted which signify deviations from normality.

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Figure 5. Normality Test, Math 1.

Figure 6. Normality Test, Math 2.

Figure 7. Normality Test, Math 3.

Figure 8. Normality Test, Math 4.

Figure 9. Histogram of the Computed Fractal Dimensions

(a)

Fractal Model and Analysis of Data Fractal Dimensions. Figures 9 (a-d) show the histograms of the computed fractal dimensions

(b)

for the tests. All histograms display exponential patterns consistent with the theory on fractal dimensions by Padua et al. (2012).

Etulle, H. N. and Galigao, R. P.

(c)

(d)

Table 2 below shows the descriptive statistics pertinent to the fractal dimensionsof the mathematics subjects being compared. Table 3. Descriptive Statistics of Fractal Dimensions (λ).

Variables

Mean

SE Mean

lambda 1

390

1.6492

0.0262

lambda 2

385

1.5789

lambda 3

361

lambda 4

353

Minimum

Median

0.4958

1.0185

1.5525

0.0235

0.4597

1.0546

1.4519

1.6063

0.0252

0.4729

1.0546

1.4889

1.3834

0.0171

0.3373

1.0034

1.2854

Table 2 shows that the subject with the highest average lambda is Math 1 while the subject with the lowest fractal dimension is Math 4. Relating Test Characteristics and Fractal Dimensions We proceeded to find appropriate relationships between the computed fractal Figure 10. Graph of Test Difficulty versus Fractal Dimension.

StDev

dimensionsofthetestsandthetestscharacteristics of “difficulty” and “discrimination”. The results are summarized in Figures 10 and 11 as well as in Tables 4 and 5. Table 4. Relationship between Test Difficulty and Fractal Dimension. The regression equation is Test Dif = 0.185 + 0.310 Lambda Predictor

Coef

Constant Lambda

0.1849 0.3105

S = 0.02089

SE Coef 0.1597 0.1025

R-Sq = 82.1%

1.16 0.367 3.03 0.094 R-Sq(adj) = 73.1%

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Figure 11. Graph of Test Discrimination versus Fractal Dimensions.

Table 5. Relationship between Fractal Dimension and Test Discrimination. The regression equation is Test Disc. = 0.521 + 0.234 Lambda Predictor Constant Lambda

Coef 0.5213 0.23395

s = 0.01771

SE Coef 0.1354 0.08692

r-sq = 78.4%

T P 3.85 0.061 2.69 0.115

r-sq(adj) = 67.5%

The mathematics tests across the various year levels displayed high fractal dimensions. This means that studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; performance in all these tests is quite erratic. The highest fractal dimension was noted in Math 1 implying that it is at this year level that huge variances in studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; mathematics performance can be noted. There appears to be a perfect matching between subjects found difficult (subjects with high difficulty indices) and subjects with high fractal dimensions. Thus, the table below shows this correspondence: Table 6. Ranking of Fractal Dimension and Difficulty Index Subject

Fractal Dimension

Rank

Difficulty Index

Rank

Math 1

1.6492

0.71

Math 2

1.5789

0.65

Math 3

1.6063

0.69

Math 4

1.3834

0.62

A significant linear relationship exists between fractal dimensions and difficulty indices. Empirical model obtained states: Test Dif = 0.185 + 0.310 Lambda with an R-squared value of 82%. The relationship indicates that higher fractal dimensions imply higher test difficulty. A similar linear relationship exists between fractal dimensions and test discrimination. The empirical model states: Test Disc. = 0.521 + 0.234 Lambda. The fractal dimension of the tests explains about 72% of the variances in the test discrimination. These results have interesting implications in measurement and evaluation. First, high variances in test performance indicate that the test instruments used have high difficulty levels. This need not necessarily imply that the subjects themselves are difficult. Second, high difficulty indices correspondingly induce high discrimination indices, both of which are summarized in terms of high fractal dimensions. V. CONCLUSION Test fractal dimensions can be used as surrogate measures of both test difficulty and test discrimination indices. Both traditional test characteristics monotonically increase and decrease with increasing or decreasing fractal dimensions. High fractal dimensions indicate huge variances in student performance which are tell-tale symptoms of uneven understanding of mathematical concepts. Originality Index: Similarity Index: Paper ID: Grammarly:

91 % 9% 3842322272 Checked

REFERENCES Black, T., & William S. (1998). Literature review on classrooms, assessment and classroom learning. Journal of Educational Research, 29, 664-676. Coeckcroft, W. H. (1992). Mathematics counts. London: HMSO.

Etulle, H. N. and Galigao, R. P. Countryman, R. (1999). Individualized and meaningful instruction in arithmetic. Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 79-84. Desoete, A., Roeyers, H., & De Clercq, A. (2004). Children with mathematics learning disabilities in Belgium. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37, 32-41. Devlin, K. (1994). The language of Mathematics. Senior Research. CSLI. Dowker, A. D. (2005). What works for children with Mathematical difficulties? Research Report no. 554. Nottingham: Department for Education and Skills. Fan, G. T. (2006). Characteristic behavior of students with learning difficulties who have teacher-defined math weaknesses. Journal of Learning, 333, 168-179. Gallup, A. M. (2005). Public opinion of annual polls. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Mathematical Sciences Education Board & National Research Council (1993). Measuring up: Prototypes for Mathematics assessment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (1999). Curriculum and evaluation standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM. Padua, R. N., Palompon, D. R., & Ontoy, D. S. (2012). Data roughness and Fractal Statistics. CNU Journal of Higher Education, 6(1), 87-101. Steinberg, R., Haymore, J., & Marks, R. (2004, April). Teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; knowledge and content structuring in mathematics. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago. Stock, P., Desoette A., & Roeyers, H. (2006). Focusing on Mathematical disabilities: A search for definition, classification and assessment. In Randall, S. V. (Ed.) Learning disabilities: New Research (pp. 29-62). Hauppage, NY: Nora Science. Walle, R. L. (2001). Diagnosis of arithmetical difficulties. Elementary and Secondary School Journal, 37, 592600.

UV Journal of Research 2013

Geographic Crime Information Reporting System: Crime Mapping and Analysis Elizalde J. Duran1 Jonalyn Nalzaro2 Gian Lorenzo Ababon3 Henry Joseph Sabarre3 College of Criminal Justice Education2 College of Computer Studies1, 3 University of the Visayas1, 2 University of San Carlos3 universitybelt@yahoo.com Submitted: October 30, 2013

Accepted: November 10, 2013

ABSTRACT The primary goal of this study is to successfully develop a Geographic Crime Information Reporting System at a station in Mandaue City, an electronic blotter that uses Geographical Information System (GIS) in recording crime information. The “Geographic Crime Information Reporting System” contains a Geo Spatial Crime Visualization module that loads and displays the maps from shape files. The Crime Management Module to assign coordinates in the map given by the user to be stored in a Database. The Geographic Crime Information Analyzer analyzes the data and creates a report which is a list of possible suspects. The system is then evaluated by randomly selected Philippine National Police Officers (PNP Officer) and Philippine National Police Information Technology personnel (PNP IT Personnel) of Mandaue City. The Results show that 75% of the respondents are familiar with the Electronic-blotter (E-Blotter), with only 26.7% of them who are currently using it. 85% are familiar with maps and pins, with 64.7% of them who are currently using it. The PNP Officers evaluated the usefulness of the E-blotter with a mean rating of 3.25, which is interpreted as Moderately Acceptable. And to the usefulness of the maps and pins with a mean rating of 3.82, which is interpreted as Very acceptable. The Response clearly showed that the proposed system is useful. The PNP officers evaluated the system interfaces ease of understanding as 3.95, which is interpreted as very acceptable. The system’s provision of time efficient decision making was rated 3.9, which is interpreted as very acceptable. The system’s implementation of the theories was rated 3.85, which is interpreted as very acceptable. The system’s accuracy of results was rated 3.75, which is interpretedasveryacceptable.The PNPofficersevaluatedthesystemsimportance(include all results) with an overall rating of 3.8625 which is interpreted as very acceptable. The PNP IT personnel evaluated the system with an overall rating of 4.515 on a 5-point rating system which is interpreted as completely acceptable. Functionality had a mean rating of 4.35, which is interpreted as completely acceptable. Usability had a mean rating of 4.68. This is interpreted as completely acceptable. Keywords: crime mapping, crime analysis, crime information reporting system

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I. INTRODUCTION With the presence of information technology, utilizing technology to protect and preserve life can as well improve and enhance the quality of life. Thus, the development of the Electronic Blotter System or simply the E-blotter system placed in various police stations all over the Philippines. It is an act of the Philippine Government, particularly the Philippine National Police to implement its goal for peace, order and security in the community with their course of programs and activities imbibed in their core activities. The certainty of Technology and the Philippine Government working together triggered the idea to develop the “Geographic Crime Information Reporting System” (GCIRS). Technology has been a major player in diverse aspect of human existence, particularly in this age of rapid changes and development. The utilization of information technology became a part and parcel of everyday life – with technology working hand in hand to improve and enhance the quality of life, it is as well imperative to utilize it in protecting and preserving life (Johnson, 2000). The Philippine Government, particularly the Philippine National Police extended its arm to the full implementation of its goal of peace, order and security in the community with their various and diverse course of programs and activities which is imbibed in their core objectives. Thus, the development of Electronic Blotter System or simply E-Blotter was put in place in various police stations all over the Philippines. With the new system, information or citizen’s complaint will be encoded directly to the computer, and the regional headquarters will automatically get a copy of the report. It will also allow officials to monitor police responses and development in a case, at the same time provide real-time crime data to field commanders that will eventually guide them in their crime prevention efforts (Guzman, 2012). The utilization of Technology in the government orotherwisetermed as e-government is one of the agenda or mandate of the President to provide better and faster service (Arceo-

Dumlao, 2012). The reality of Technology and the Philippine Government working hand in hand triggered the idea to develop the “Geographic Crime Information Reporting System” (GCIRS). Geographic Crime Information Reporting System is an electronic blotter that uses Geographical Information System (GIS) in recording crime information. A tool that is used by many countries to fight, prevent and reduce crime rate. The Research focuses in police stations from Mandaue City as a pilot study and is focused in areas where criminal activities are more apparent and prevalent. The system is designed in aiding police officers to narrow down or identifying probable suspects based on blottered crime information, identified by the Philippine National Police (PNP) from the logbooks which contains Blotter info. Types of crimes are also limited to crimes against property and person. II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The idea of Geographic Crime Information Reporting System (GCIRS) was formulated by the following four (4) key concepts: (i) E-Government drive of the Philippines to utilize and maximize the use of technology, PNP in particular can use it to better Serve and Protect, Blotter information that is available in various PNP Regional Offices, Crime Mapping has been a proven tool to prevent, reduce and fight criminal activities, thus integrating it in the study becomes a necessity (Johnson, 2000), (ii) Geographic Information System (GIS), with its diverse utilization and usefulness it was included as a major part of the study for geospatial visualization of crimes (easier analysis and decision making), and The inclusion of a graphic framework such as DotSpatial is an important factor in the study – in here it will be able to put grids and points on the map and connects it to the database. As a whole, the idea of GCIRS is a combination of unique and distinct concepts that will give birth to an integrated system. (iii) The Suspect Filtering Algorithm innovates the use of the Haversine Formula. The Haversine Formula is preferred over the

Duran, E. J., Nalzaro, J., Ababon, G. L., Sabarre, H. J.

Figure 1. Theoretical Framework Diagram

Pythagorean Formula and the Law of Cosines because it is less sensitive to any round-off errors (Sinnot, 1984). The Suspect Filtering Algorithm repetitively compares the crime incidence point to a previously recorded suspect crime incidence point from the shape files, within the given radius, on the map to find the distances between them. The radius suggested by Canter and Hodge (1997) states that Serial Murder yields location data values of 0.81 miles and 0.79 miles; and according to Koksis & Irwin (1997) 0.77 miles for rape, 0.6 for Arson, and 1.5 to 0.65 miles for burglary. (iv) The Suspect Ranking Algorithm uses the distances found and creates a probability of suspects list. The suspect’s probability of committing the crime is based on how close they are to the scene of the crime. According to the Rational Choice Theory, the existence of this buffer zone, where offenders are more likely to act on first opportunity, sees behavioral as interactional and adaptive, but rational does not equal intelligent sophistication (Cornish, 1993), is where they are likely to act on first opportunity. With the Crime Pattern Theory, D. K. Rossmo (2000) states that opportunities available to the offender are not entirely random – no matter how chaotic the crime may be, there is often a

rationality based on the location of the crime incidence and there exists a kind of simulation of a structure found in its spatial distribution. As Discussed by Keppel (1989), the targets are assessed according to their gain and risk. The targets are scanned for their visibility, unusualness and symbolism. To the offender rational choices are made to find specific targets of victimization. This process is consistent with the concept of an offender that operates within his “comfort zone”, “buffer zone” or territory. Under greater distance, the probabilities of target selection decreases (Rossmo, 2000). The Principle of Least Action pertains to the minimization of quantities within dynamic systems. It suggests that most aspects of nature follow this economy, simply because choosing to create or discover something new requires effort (Casti, 1998). People not only choose to find the most convenient and shortest path, but also to do something innovative in order to decrease cost, save time, save change (money), reduce cost, etc. The Rational Choice Theory, Crime Pattern Theory and the Principle of Least Action are chosen for the study. Rational Choice Theory pertains to the existence of a buffer zone or comfort zone; while the Crime Pattern Theory

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Figure 2. IPO Diagram of the Study

pertains to the chance of committing the crime within the buffer zone are not random; and the Principle of Least Action pertains to the relationship between the incidence of crime to the buffer zone and the probability of the suspect in committing the crime. Figure 3. Project Design Diagram

The Suspect Ranking Algorithm was created using the assumption of the suspect’s buffer zone based on the theories (Rational choice Theory, Crime Pattern Theory, and the Principle of Least Action). The diagram above shows the Input – Process – Output Diagram of the Study. The input will be the Software, Hardware and Knowledge Requirements, while the Process contains the series of steps and activities towards the development of “Geographic Crime Information Reporting System (GCIRS),” which is the expected output of the study. Furthermore, evaluation of the study on each step is a crucial factor in ensuring that the study is hitting the mark. III. OPERATION PROCEDURES The Police Officer at the Police Station will have to encode the Crime Information Report (CIR) or in other words – the Crime Blotter. The CIR then will be stored in the Crimes Database Server (Station Level). The Police Station Chief will have access to the Crimes Database Server and is capable to view the Geo-Spatial Crime Visualization feature of the system which will assist in the analysis of crime activities thus give way to timely decision making.

Duran, E. J., Nalzaro, J., Ababon, G. L., Sabarre, H. J.

Figure 4. System Design

Figure 5. System Flowchart

The map used in the system was the GIS of 1984. The Geo Spatial Crime Visualization module allows to read and write map data via a framework and a mapping system library. The program is then constructed on this library and framework. What this system will do is display and manipulates map data from a database and shapefiles. This program allows inputting data that is represented in points for the criminal activity and other data pertaining to the criminal. The maps that are used in this program are composed of shapefiles which contain spatial data pertaining to the area. The Geo Spatial Crime Visualization is responsible for the displaying of maps and for inputting blotter information into the shape file

and the database. The Geographic Crime Information Analyzer module uses the point of incidence given by the user with a specific crime. A calculation is performed to find the distance between two points on the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface. The result of the filtered data will then be the suspects that are the most probable cases of committing the crime on the said area. The Geographic Crime Information Report will contain the result of the filtered data; it will also include a daily crime report and a weekly crime status report. The report can be exported in Excel and Word, one of the commonly used formats.

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Figure 6. Geo Spatial Crime Visualization Flowchart

The parts of the Geo Spatial Crime Visualization are the Crime Management Module and the Geo Spatial Layering Sub Module. The Crime Management Module will assign coordinates on the map that will be given by the user using the Geo Spatial Layering sub module. The coordinates on the map will include and contain blotter data. The Geo Spatial Layering Sub Module will implement the framework and mapping system library by loading and displaying the map view from a shape file. The parts of the Geographic Crime Information Analyzer are the Suspect Filtering Algorithm which innovates the use of the Haversine Formula and the Suspect Ranking Algorithm. The Suspect Filtering Algorithm works by comparing two points on the map. The Suspect Ranking Algorithm works by using the filtered points on the map and creates percentages on

which of the following points are highly probable in committing the said crime. IV. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The primary goal of this study is the development of a Geographic Crime Information Reporting System at a Station Level in Mandaue City. The study intends to: (1) gather information from the Philippine National Police Station (Mandaue Headquarters); (2) design the crime database; (3) map the crimes into the Geographic Information System; (4) develop a geo-spatial visualization of crimes; (5) create an algorithm based on theories to narrow down the list of suspects; and (6) test and evaluate the developed system. V. METHODOLOGY The modified waterfall method was used as

Figure 7. Geographic Crime Information Analyzer Flowchart

Duran, E. J., Nalzaro, J., Ababon, G. L., Sabarre, H. J.

a software engineering paradigm for this project where the phases can overlap when needed (Munassar & Govardhan, 2010). The phases for this project are data gathering, design and coding, testing, evaluation. Figure 8. Modified Waterfall Model for Research Methodology

Data Gathering. The Data is gathered by conducting series of interviews with PNP to learn about blotter gathering. The information on what to write in a blotter was requested and collected from the PNP. The map information, longitude, latitude, was gathered from Philippine GIS Data Clearinghouse. Literature review is conducted to learn more regarding image processing. The blotter information was gathered from various stations in Mandaue City. Design and Coding. The system contains three components each with their own function. The Geo Spatial Visualization module contains other modules (Geo Spatial Layering module, and the Crime Management Module) using a mapping system library and framework. The Geo Spatial Layering Module will load and display the map view from a shape file. The Crime Management Module will assign a coordinate on the map given by the user. The Geographic Crime Information Analyzer Module will determine the list of possible suspects from the coordinates. A database is designed to store the coordinates and blotter information from the Crime Management Module.

The Geo Spatial Layering Module and the Crime Management Module are created by using GIS libraries from Philippine GIS Data Clearinghouse and C#. The Geographic Crime Information Analyzer module is created by analyzing the Rational Choice Theory, Crime Pattern Theory, and the Principle of Least Action. The Database is designed to store information from blotter information as well as the coordinates that was processed by the Crime Management Module. Testing. A series of testing (unit testing, integration testing, system testing and acceptance testing) were conducted to ensure the quality of the study. Individual program function testing, function coordination testing, and system performance testing were conducted. Individual functions of the program were tested to check if it performs its expected function. Function coordination was tested to check if the functions were coordinated properly to the main function. System performance testing was conducted to check overall performance of the system. Sampling Plan. Data provided from existing blotters were used as the medium for testing. Evaluation Instrument. Two evaluation instruments were designed for the proposed system to be evaluated by PNP IT personnel and PNP officers. The survey formulated for PNP IT personnel is to test the systems’ system process, and the survey formulated for PNP officers is to test the systems’ system goals. The PNP IT personnel evaluation instrument was developed using a 5-point scale where 1 is Not Acceptable, 2 is Slightly Acceptable, 3 is Moderately Acceptable, 4 is Very Acceptable, and 5 is Completely Acceptable, based on Henning’s scale (2009). The scale is akin to saying that 1 is poor, 2 is Fair, 3 is Good, 4 is Very Good, and 5 is Excellent. The PNP officer evaluation instrument was developed using a Yes/No scale for questions asking about e blotter and maps and pins and a 5 point scale for evaluating their usefulness. This

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attempted to verify the usefulness of the proposed system. The questionnaires for the evaluation stage for both PNP IT personnel and PNP officers were devised based on the readings and observations of suspect behavior and crime situations in Mandaue City. Some questions were made with the purpose of evaluating the importance of the developed system. The items were checked by to test its effectiveness and clarity to its respondents. Statistical Tool and Treatment of Data. The PNP IT personnel were sampled purposively, specifically IT specialists from the PNP IT department. The survey questions were grouped based on the programs’ functionality and usability. The survey results were averaged and interpreted where 1.00 to 1.80 means Not Acceptable, 1.81 to 2.60 means Slightly Acceptable, 2.61 to 3.40 means Moderately Acceptable, 3.41 to 4.20 means Very Acceptable, and 4.21 to 5.00 means Completely Acceptable. The PNP IT personnel surveys used a 5point rating system, where 5 is the highest possible rating. A mean rating of 1.00 to 1.80 is interpreted as not acceptable. A mean rating of 1.81 to 2.60 is interpreted as slightly acceptable. A mean rating of 2.61 to 3.40 is interpreted as moderately acceptable. A mean rating of 3.41 to 4.20 is interpreted as very acceptable. A mean rating of 4.21 to 5.00 is interpreted as completely acceptable. There were 20 PNP officers surveyed through convenience sampling. Jaisingh (2006) suggested that a sample size less than 30 is a small sample. They were asked regarding on how acceptable the project was. Results were then tabulated in a matrix form.

By dividing the raw score (the number of points acquired in the 5-point scale) and the total number of respondents, we obtain the Mean. Mean and an acceptance test will be utilized for the analysis part.

Moreover, comments and suggestions were taken for both surveys to be used for descriptive analysis. VI. ALGORITHM The Geographic Crime Information Analyzer Module contains the Point Filtration Processing Module which innovates the use of the Haversine Formula. It performs a calculation to find the distance between two points on the earth’s surface. The Haversine Formula is preferred than any other distance formulas because it calculates the distance between two points on a spherical plane. The Pythagorean theorem only calculates the distance on a flat plane. The maps that were used came from Philippine GIS. The maps in the program include the names of the barangay, names of the cities, and main roads. The Haversine performs the calculation from an aerial viewpoint. The earth’s surface were not taken into consideration when using this formula. A map with point data on it is fed to the program. The Haversine Formula:

Where: = Haversine distance between criminal incidences coordinates and crime incidence coordinates. –

Latitude of criminal incidence

–

Longitude of criminal incidence

–

Latitude of crime incidence

–

Longitude of crime incidence

With our given data, incidence were assigned point marks. The program determined the points given by the user from the radius. Values that

Duran, E. J., Nalzaro, J., Ababon, G. L., Sabarre, H. J.

were less than the quantity assigned by the user. It situated the points that reside in the radius. After filtering the data, it repeatedly performed the Haversine Formula on the set of points that have been filtered. The user then inputted the point of incidence on the map with a specific crime. From there we then calculated for the distance between the incidence and the points close to it. The closer the points, the higher the chance that the person is the suspect. The result determined the most probable suspect. The ranking of the possible suspects was determined by the formula; wherein the farther the point of incidence, the smaller the possibility/ percentage. Given an incident location X (which contains coordinates from the database) and a search radius RAD in kilometers, we take the X1 (the first coordinate from the database) and calculate the Haversine Distance from the incidence. If the result is less than the RAD, it is an accepted value. The radius minus the current result will be the new result. The new result will be divided by the total number of similar crime committed by X, which will then be divided by the RAD. The result will give a decimal number and will be multiplied by 100 to get the percent value.

Point percentage Formula:

Where: = Haversine Distance between criminal incidence coordinates and crime incidence coordinates. = suspect coordinates RAD = radius estimate = point percentage value = the total number of crimes committed by X in station n. Canter and Hodge (1997) suggests that serial murder will yield location data values of 0.81 miles and 0.79 miles; 0.77 miles for rape, 0.6 miles for arson, and 1.5 miles to 0.65 miles for burglary (Kocsis & Irwin, 1997). The values stated will be used for RAD.

Table 1. Geo Spatial Crime Visualization Module Testing Case Scenario

Expected outcome

Actual Outcome

Pass/Fail

Load point data

Map loads

Pass

Load shapefiles Load Background Picture

Shapefiles load

Reprojection prompt, then files load

Pass

Load picture Map moves with mouse hold and drag

Picture loads Map moves with mouse hold and drag

Pass

Map Scales accordingly inward

Map scales with discernible distortion.

Pass

Map scales outward

Pass

Points display properly

Pass

Panning Map Map Zoom In Map Zoom Out Displaying individual point data

Map scales accordingly outward Displays all possible point when zooming in

Pass

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VII. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION System Testing. System testing was conducted to check the system’s performance as a whole. Table 1 shows that the Geo Spatial Crime Visualization Modules’ loading maps, plot points as well as individual point data did not exhibit any problems. User errors regarding map zooming, and map panning point data were automatically corrected. Table 2 shows that Geographic Crime Information Analyzer results do not exhibit any errors. User errors line calculations and results were automatically corrected. Table 3 shows that the Geographic Crime Information Report Modules’ Importing data to the database and Importing data to Word, Excel, and shape files did not show any problems. User errors regarding importing and exporting database data were automatically corrected.

PNP officer survey results. According to surveys conducted for PNP officers, 25% of them are not familiar with E-blotter. For those who knew the E-blotter, only 26.7% of them are using it. For maps and pins 85% are familiar with it, and 64.7% of them are currently using it. Figure 9. PNP officer survey result for e-Blotter

Table 2. Geographic Crime Information Analyzer Testing Case Scenario

Expected Outcome

Actual Outcome

Pass/Fail

Testing values between June and July

21 results will display

21 results are displayed

Pass

Testing values of shoplifting

4 results will display

4 results are displayed

Pass

Testing values’ status to be “At Large”

1 result will display

1 result is displayed

Pass

Drawing lines

1 line per calculated data

Each calculated has one line each

Pass

Table 3. Geographic Crime Information Report Testing Case Scenario

Expected Outcome A shapefile and components are generated

Actual Outcome A shapefile and components were generated

Exporting database to Excel

All database data will export

The data exported, with erroneous fields

Exporting database to Word Importing .csv file to database

All database data will export File will import properly in the database

The data exported, with erroneous fields

Pass

File imported with proper id.

Pass

Exporting data as shapefile

Pass/Fail Pass Pass

Duran, E. J., Nalzaro, J., Ababon, G. L., Sabarre, H. J.

Figure 10. PNP officer survey result for Maps and Pins

result, and the results from their usefulness - this shows that the proposed system is useful too. Table 4. PNP officer survey: Importance table

Table 5.2.1: 2 PNP officer survey: Usefulness table

If Yes, Please rate its usefulness from 1 – 5, 5 being the highest and 1 being the lowest. If YES, Please rate its usefulness from 1 – 5, 5 being the highest and 1 being the lowest.

Raw score

Acceptability

3.25

Moderately Acceptable

3.82

Very Acceptable

According to the surveys the usefulness of E-blotter had a mean rating of 3.25, which is interpreted as moderately acceptable. The usefulness of maps and pins had a mean rating of 3.82, which is interpreted as very acceptable. Figure 11.Usefulness

The proposed system has an interface that is easy to understand; The Proposed system’s understandability The proposed system provides a time efficient decision making; The Proposed system’s Time Efficiency The proposed system implements the nearness theory and journey-tocrime theory effectively; The Proposed system’s Theory Implementation The proposed system creates accurate results of possible suspects; The Proposed system’s Reliability

Raw Score

Acceptability

3.95

Very Acceptable

3.9

Very Acceptable

3.85

Very Acceptable

3.75

Very Acceptable

Based on the PNP Officers response, the systems importance had a mean rating of 3.8625, which is interpreted as very acceptable. The ease of understanding the system’s interface was rated 3.95, which is interpreted as very acceptable. The system’s provision of time efficient decision making was rated 3.9, which is interpreted as very acceptable. The system’s implementation of the theories was rated 3.85, which is interpreted as very acceptable. The system’s accuracy of results was rated 3.75, which is interpreted as very acceptable. Figure 12. Importance of the proposed system

Based from the statistical results from the Eblotter survey result, the Maps and Pins Survey

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Table 5. PNP IT personnel survey: Functionality table result Raw score

Functionality

Acceptability Completely Acceptable Very Acceptable

The image map of Cebu is accurate

4.6

The image map of Cebu is up-to date

4.2

The proposed system provides proper landmarks

4.4

Completely Acceptable

The proposed system implements the proposed theories effectively

4.2

Very Acceptable

The simulation implements the algorithm accurately

4.6

Completely Acceptable

The proposed system creates accurate results of possible suspects

4.2

Very Acceptable

4.4

Completely Acceptable

4.2

Very Acceptable

4.35

Completely Acceptable

The proposed system creates an accurate filtration narrowing down possible suspects The proposed system provides a time efficient decision making OVERALL

According to the surveys with the PNP IT personnel, functionality had a mean rating of 4.35. This is interpreted as completely acceptable. The accuracy of the systems maps had a mean rating of 4.6, which is interpreted as completely acceptable. Up to date maps of the system had a mean rating of 4.2, which is interpreted as very acceptable. The delivery of proper landmarks had a mean rating of 4.4, which is interpreted as completely acceptable. The effective implementation of theories had a mean rating of 4.2, which is Figure 13. Functionality of the Proposed System

interpreted as very acceptable. The accuracy of algorithm implementation had a mean rating of 4.2, which is interpreted as very acceptable. The accuracy of creating a list of possible suspects had a mean rating of 4.2, which is interpreted as very acceptable. The creation of accurate filtration of narrowing down possible suspects had a mean rating of 4.4, which is interpreted as completely acceptable. The time efficiency of decision making had a mean rating of 4.2, which is interpreted as very acceptable.

Duran, E. J., Nalzaro, J., Ababon, G. L., Sabarre, H. J.

Table 6. PNP IT personnel survey: Usability table result Raw score The input area is free from error; The Proposed system’s accuracy The proposed system has a display that is easy to understand; The Proposed Systems understandability

Acceptability

3.8

Very Acceptable

The proposed system is user friendly; The Proposed system’s reliability

4.2

Very Acceptable

The system provides instructions for use; The Proposed system provides instructions

3.8

Very Acceptable

All system components are working properly; The Proposed system’s Functionality of components

Very Acceptable

The proposed system does not slow during runtime; The Proposed system’s efficiency

3.6

Very Acceptable

4.68

Completely Acceptable

OVERALL

Usability according to the respondents had a mean rating of 4.68. This is interpreted as completely acceptable. The error free input area had a mean rating of 3.8, which is interpreted as very acceptable. The easy to understand display had a mean rating of 4, which is interpreted as very acceptable. The user friendliness had a mean rating of 4.2, which is interpreted as very Figure 14. Usability of the Proposed System

acceptable. The provisions of instructions for use had a mean rating of 3.8, which is interpreted as very acceptable. The properly working system components had a mean rating of 4, which is interpreted as very acceptable. The constant running time of system had a mean rating of 3.6, which is interpreted as very acceptable.

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Table 7. PNP IT personnel survey: Overall result x

Acceptability

Functionality

4.35

Completely Acceptable

Usability

4.68

Completely Acceptable

Overall

4.515

Completely Acceptable

Overall the system had a mean rating of 4.515, which is interpreted as completely acceptable. VIII.CONCLUSION The blotter information was stored in a database which contained the point coordinates where the crime is committed, suspect name, time when crime was committed, date, suspect description, station recorded, officer in charge, and a narrative description regarding the said crime. Crime Information is mapped into the system with the use of shape files to be used for Geo Spatial Analysis. The map interface module was modeled successfully. The mapping of crimes into the Geographic Information System was performed using the Geo Spatial Crime Visualization via the Crime Management Module and the Geo Spatial Layering Module. The GeoSpatial Visualization of Crimes is capable of displaying of map layers and displaying the data on crime incidences. The Algorithm for filtration of suspects was developed. The list of possible suspects is produced after analyzing given crime information by the user. The output information of the Geographic Crime Information Report will be for the use and decision making of administrators. The system was tested and evaluated by Philippine National Police (PNP) officers and PNP Information Technology (IT) personnel. Overall, the development of a Geographic Crime Information Reporting System at a Station Level in Mandaue City was successfully developed. IX. RECOMMENDATIONS Further interdisciplinary research with various fields should be conducted, such as the human

ecology, operational, perceptual, behavioral, social psychological, legal, cultural, and geographic settings in its analysis (possible community based implementation), if one wishes to create an expert system. The logbook containing the blotter information will be retained for operational purposes. For Large Scale Blotter Information, an Enterprise Database is recommended. Originality Index: Similarity Index:

97 % 3%

Paper ID: Grammarly:

384318991 Checked

REFERENCES Arceo-Dumlao, T. (2012). What government should prioritize in 2012. Business: Philippine Daily Inquirer. Canter, D. V., & Hodge, S. (1997). Predatory patterns of serial murder. The University of Liverpool, Institute of Investigative Psychology and forensic Behavioral Science, Liverpool. Casti, J. (1998). Easy does it: Comets, light and even the information contained in DNA are all players in a cosmic conspiracy to get more for less. New Scientist, 2133, 44 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 47. Cornish, D. B. (1993). Theories of action in criminology: Learning theory and rational choice approaches. In Clarke, R.V., & Felson, M. (Eds.), Routine activity and rational choice (pp. 351â&#x20AC;&#x201C;382). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. Guzman, J. I. (2012). After Metro Manila, PNP to implement eblotter system nationwide. Philippine Information Technology. Jaisingh, L. (2006). Statistics for the utterly confused. New York City: McGraw-Hill. Johnson, C. P.(2000). Crime mapping and analysis using GIS. Pune: Geomatics Group, C-DAC, University Campus. Keppel, R. D. (1989). Serial murder: Future implications for police investigations. Cincinnati:Anderson. Koksis, R. N., & Irwin, H. J. (1997). An analysis of spatial patterns in serial rape, arson and burglary: The utility of the circle theory of environmental range for psychological profiling. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 4(2), 195206. Munassar, N. M. A., & Govardhan, A. (2010). A comparison between five models of software Engineering. International Journal of Computer Science Issues, 7(5), 95-101. Rossmo, D. K. (2000). Geograhpic profiling. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press Sinnott, R. W. (1984). Virtues of the Haversine. Sky and Telescope, 68(2), 159.

UV Journal of Research 2013

Traffic light management system using image processing Elizalde J. Duran1 Mizpha Joy Aclon1 Kevin Clyde Chu2 Erwin Jason Lim2 College of Computer Studies1, 2 University of the Visayas1 University of San Carlos2 kchu.projects@gmail.com Submitted: October 1, 2013

Accepted: November 10, 2013

ABSTRACT Traffic control is important. Traffic congestion creates many problems in our everyday lives. Travel time increases which lead to waste of time and fuel. A system that can manage traffic through the efficient use of traffic lights by applying an algorithm to control the time for the signals of a traffic light would be beneficial. A system was developed by using a modified waterfall model. Data from the City Traffic Operations Management (CITOM) were utilized. Images were taken using a digital camera from the GMT building and the Montesclaros Building to acquire snapshots of actual traffic zones. An image processing module was developed after reading on image processing and edge detection. A traffic density module was created to determine the density for each phase. A traffic management module was created by taking the phase densities into consideration. In the system, the snapshots were analyzed. After analysis, the system applied an algorithm which adjusts the time of a certain intersection based from its density. The system also stores analyzed data into a database. CITOM personnel gave the system an overall rating of 4.260 on a 5-point rating system, which is interpreted as completely acceptable. Meanwhile, motorists rated the systemâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s importance, and 100% of them wanted it to be implemented. Keywords: traffic light management system, image processing, traffic density I. INTRODUCTION The number of vehicles around the world is increasing (Al-Alawi, 2009). The growth of modern cities along with their heavy reliance on cars as their primary mode of transportation signified that traffic control is now more important. Travel time to and from work is time wasted. Traffic delays would impinge on productivity. Traffic is linked with road accidents (Robinson-Mosher & Egner, 2009). The country

has experienced growth in the number of vehicles over the period of 2002-2009 from four million vehicles in 2002 to six million vehicles in 2009 (National Statistics Coordination Board, 2010). Cebu also has its number of vehicles growing (Vergel, 2007). For the period of 2000-2006, there has been an average of 4% annual growth in number of vehicles. Cebu is the province that has the most number of vehicles registered in 2005 at 266,086 (National Statistics Coordination Board,

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2006). There is a confirmed growing trend in the number of vehicles registered in Cebu City. City Traffic Operations Management, or CITOM, stated that underground traffic detectors cost 50,000 Philippine pesos each for replacement. There are three broken detectors in the P. Del Rosario-Pelaez intersection and another three broken detectors in the P. Del RosarioJunquera intersection (City Traffic Operations Management). II. THE STUDY This study aimed to develop a traffic light management system using image processing. Particularly, this study intended to: (1) create a model of the intersections under the study; (2) model the existing traffic system; (3) develop an image analyzer based on traffic density; (4) store traffic density information per phase; and (5) test and evaluate the developed system. Two intersectionsâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;P. Del Rosario-Pelaez and P. Del Rosario-Junquera, were modeled. The system is to be used under heavy traffic congestion situations. The proposed system is not designed to replace traffic enforcers, but to support them in their decisions for traffic management. Stakeholders identified were: (1) motorists; (2) the City Traffic Operations Management; and (3) the academe. Included under motorists would be commuters, public and private vehicle drivers. The administration of the City Traffic Operations Management would benefit from the system. The academe would include researchers and students who are interested in the topic. Cebu City motorists. Reclaiming time lost due to traffic would improve lives of many commuters (Robinson-Mosher & Egner, 2009). Less congestion would mean that there would be fewer accidents, saving lives. Goods and services can be transported faster to their clients. City Traffic Operations Management. Traditional fixed time control schemes can waste time when there are lanes with heavier traffic (Robinson-Mosher & Egner, 2009). This should extend to situations where some lanes are empty

while the others are not, yet they are stopped by the signal light. An effective traffic management system will give more time to lanes which have more traffic and less time to lanes that are empty. Such a system should prevent deadlocks. A deadlock means that resources (i.e., road space) are nonsharable, motorists waiting for resources to be available while also holding resources, resources allocated not capable of being preempted, and motorists waiting for resources from each other (Coffman, Elphick & Shoshani, 1971). Academe. This research will attempt to combine the advantages of Canny and Sobel edge detection algorithms to create a modified edge detection algorithm. The algorithm dubbed as traffic light management system using image processing to detect traffic density can be used for further researches. As a result, additional knowledge would be created. Definition of Terms Signal group is the basic unit of a traffic control scheme. It is the collection of lights that always show the same color. A signal group corresponds to a single movement on the intersection (Van Kitwijk, 2008). Phase is a set of signal groups that can proceed concurrently without conflicts between major movements. Some movements are allowed, however, even if they cause conflicts such as allowing pedestrians to cross the street while right-turn movements are occurring (Van Kitwijk, 2008). Cycle is an iteration of a set of phases during the course of traffic management. One example would be the iteration between phases of P. Del Rosario and Pelaez. Traffic light management is the manipulation of the flow of vehicles by timing the signals from traffic lights. Image processing is a form of signal processing where the input is an image and the output is either an image or a set of characteristics or parameters related to the image. Edge detection is a fundamental tool in

Duran, E. J., Aclon, M. J., Chu, K. C . and Lim, E. J.

image processing that aims to identify points in a digital image at which image brightness has discontinuities. Traffic density is the measure of the heaviness of vehicle flow in a road. For this study, it is measured by the amount of area occupied by vehicles. Literature Review The traffic light management system using image processing is composed of three elements: (1) the traffic light system; (2) image processing; and (3) traffic density detection. The software engineering paradigm used is a modified waterfall model where phases can overlap when needed (Munassar & Govardhan, 2010). The modified waterfall model allows it to be more flexible than a pure waterfall model where backtracking is not allowed. Implementation of easy parts does not need to come after hard ones. An image processing tool for vehicle detection was developed which used edge based technique that is less sensitive to noise (Siyal & Fathy, 1995). The threshold selection is done dynamically to compensate the effects of variations of lighting and it does not impose any significant computational cost. This allows image processing in differently lighted areas. Image processing techniques were combined to achieve a better analysis of the images (Martin & Tosunoglu, 1997). Some techniques such as the Edge Detection Techniques, Grey-Level Segmentation Techniques, Iterative Method and Digital Morphology were used to minimize computation time. Edge detection significantly reduces the amount of data and filters out useless information while preserving important structural properties in the image. Two edge detection algorithms were explained: Sobel and Canny (Green, 2002a,b) Traffic density detection, over the years, has been an important study. Its use ranges from traffic light management to analysis of congestion (Li, Han, Lee & Gonzales, 2007). The modern traffic lights have been used since 1920 (Crandall, 2007). Traffic light systems

have evolved into smart traffic management system being able to make decision based from communication. There are also other vehicle detectors such as loop, radar, infrared, ultrasonic, and microwave detectors. These sensors are expensive with limited capacity and involve installation, maintenance, and implementation difficulties. For example, loop sensor might need maintenance due to road ground deformation or metal barriers near the road that prevents effective detection using radar sensors. In recent years, video processing techniques have attracted researchers for vehicle detection (Ozkurt & Camci, 2009). Furthermore, video image processing was also used to calculate the density of traffic by counting the number of vehicles. The system has some limitations such as visual homogeneity requirement and its effectiveness depends on the speed of moving objects (Ozkurt & Camci, 2009). There are four conditions that are necessary for a traffic deadlock (Coffman, Elphick & Shoshani, 1971). These are: (1) mutual exclusion condition where the resources are non-sharable; (2) hold-and-wait condition where processes are holding resources while requesting for additional resources; (3) the no-preemptive condition where resources held by processes cannot be preempted; and (4) the circular wait condition where processes in the system form a circular list (each process in the list is waiting for a resource held by the next process). A web-based intelligent traffic management system was created (Al-Alawi, 2009). This system links together the nodes, or traffic lights at various intersections. This allows the nodes to communicate with each other rather than operating independently. Fixed-time schemes require the duration and order of green phases to be fixed. Fixed-time schemes use historical data to predict traffic situations. However, as fixed-time schemes are based on historical data, they cannot adapt to real-time situations. Traffic-actuated control schemes require

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detectors to acquire information about the current situation. The decision to terminate the green phase requires knowledge that the last vehicle of the queue that has built up at the stop of the red phase has passed. Under traffic-adaptive control, the entire intersection is taken into account in order to decide whether to continue the current green phase or to switch to a different phase. This is different compared to traffic-actuated control that uses only the presence of demand on the active green phase to extend or to switch phases (Van Kitwijk, 2008). CITOM stated that due to broken traffic detectors, a fixed-plan system is used to direct traffic. The cycle time, or time an entire cycle consisting of phases takes to complete, is 200 seconds in this case. In the intersections under the study, there are only two phases in each intersection. For the P. Del Rosario-Pelaez intersection, one phase is the P. Del Rosario phase where traffic along P. Del Rosario travels straight in both directions. The other phase is the Pelaez phase where traffic goes straight, turns left and right. For the P. Del Rosario-Junquera intersection, one phase is the P. Del Rosario phase where traffic travels straight in both directions. The other phase is the Junquera phase where traffic goes straight, turns left and right. For these phases, the P. Del Rosario phase has 130 seconds while the Pelaez and the Junquera phases have 70 seconds each (City Traffic Operations Management). Section 9(b) of Article II of Chapter II of Republic Act 4136 states that no motor vehicle should exceed 2.5 meters in width. Only one vehicle may occupy the width of a lane (City Traffic Operations Management, personal communication). Theoretical Framework The Sobel edge detection algorithm performs a 2D spatial gradient measurement on an image (Green, 2002b). It uses a pair of 3x3 convolution masks, one to estimate between columns and the other to estimate between rows.

The Canny Edge Detection Algorithm performs a series of steps, starting with a Gaussian filter (Green, 2002a). The Gaussian Filter removes noise in the original image. The edge strength is determined by taking the: (1) gradient of the image; (2)edge direction (inverse tangent of the y-gradient over the x-gradient). A y-gradient of zero means a zero angle while having both y-gradient and x-gradient equal to zero means that the angle is 90 degrees. The next step is to classify the directions into one of four categories. If the angle falls between 0 and 22.5 degrees or between 157.5 and 180 degrees, it falls into category 1. If it falls between 22.5 and 67.5 degrees, it falls into category 2. Category 3 contains angles between 67.5 and 112.5 degrees. Category 4 contains angles between 112.5 and 157.5 degrees. The next step is non-maximum suppression where pixels are set to 0 if they are not part of edges, resulting in a thin line. An added step for the Canny Edge Detection is Hysteresis, which eliminates streaking (or breaking up of an edge contour) by using two thresholds: a high threshold and a low threshold (instead of simply one). A pixel higher than the low threshold is marked as an edge pixel, and pixels that are connected and have a value greater than the high threshold are marked as edge pixels. Fixed-time schemes require the duration and order of green phases to be fixed. However, fixedtime control schemes may be replaced using a clock as traffic situation changes over time. The assumption behind the fixed-time schemes is that traffic patterns can be accurately predicted based on historical data. However, as fixed-time schemes are based on historical data, they cannot adapt to real-time situations (Van Kitwijk, 2008). Video image processing was used to detect the number of vehicles by detecting the number of moving objects (Ozkurt & Camci, 2009). However, they faced limitations such as visual homogeneity requirements. Their algorithm was also very dependent on the speeds of moving objects to determine the number of vehicles.

Duran, E. J., Aclon, M. J., Chu, K. C . and Lim, E. J.

A snapshot approach was opted as visual homogeneity does not matter when looking for traffic density. Traffic density in this approach is calculated by the ratio of the area occupied by cars (predetermined area to the total area). Data were processed to produce the density of traffic per lane. This information were used in the overall analysis of the current traffic surrounding the intersections. Canny and Sobel Edge Detection algorithms were chosen for the study. Canny edge detection can reduce unnecessary features from the input image while Sobel Edge Detection determines thick edges. A system design of the proposed system is created, as shown below:

and this information was used to compute the amount of time. This was used in the phase time adjustment should the adaptive scheme be chosen. The time for each phase at each intersection was adjusted based on the information from the traffic density analyzer. After processing the image through the traffic density analyzer, the date, time, location, and density were stored in the database.

Figure 1. System Design

Figure 2 shows the Lane Traffic Density Processing Sub-Module. This sub-module works by extracting each lane by using pre-defined polygons. Each lane was processed by searching for the first white pixel from the left and the first white pixel from the right and making every pixel in between as a white pixel. The number of white pixels was calculated and divided over the total amount of space in the lane’s polygon to determine the lane’s traffic density.

Figure 2. Lane Traffic Density Processing

Figure 3. Traffic Density Synthesizer

Images were then fed into the Canny-Sobel Edge Detection. The processed images were fed to the traffic density analyzer, where the traffic density were calculated per lane. Alternatively, each lane’s density was provided directly without using images. After each lane’s density was calculated, the traffic density for each phase was calculated by dividing the sum of each lane’s density with the number of lanes in the associated phase. The density of each phase was determined,

Figure 3 shows the Traffic Density Synthesizer Sub-Module. This sub-module works by adding together the densities of all the lanes of the phase. The phase density was then determined by dividing the total of the lane densities by the number of lanes in the phase. III. METHODOLOGY The software engineering paradigm used was a modified waterfall model where phases

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were allowed to overlap when needed (Munassar & Govardhan, 2010). The phases for this project were data gathering, design and coding, testing, and evaluation. Figure 4. Modified Waterfall Model

Data Gathering Data gathering was performed by conducting an interview with CITOM to learn about the traffic situation in the intersections. The maximum cycle time, the different phases at each intersection and the amount of time given for each phase were gathered. The lengths of roads were gathered from the Cebu City Geographic Information System Center. Library research and literature review were conducted to learn more regarding image processing. Snapshots of the intersections were taken from the GMT Building and the Montesclaros Building as vantage points for the P. Del RosarioJunquera intersection and the P. Del RosarioPelaez intersection, respectively. Design and Coding The system was then designed with the creation of three modules. An image processing module used edge detection to determine the objects in the image. A traffic density module used the processed images to determine the amount of space occupied by vehicles. A traffic management module then adjusted time given for each phase using the results of the traffic density module. A database was also designed to store the data from the traffic density module The image processing module was created by

benchmarking Canny, Sobel, Homogeneity, and Difference edge detection algorithms. Choosing from the edge detection algorithms would follow. The traffic density module was created by analyzing the processed images and calculating the area that was occupiedbyvehicles per lane. The average lane density of each phase would be used to determine the amount of time for each phase. The traffic management module was created from the data gathered from CITOM and the Cebu City Geographic Information System Center. From the gathered data, an algorithm was created by taking into consideration the cycle time as well as the phase times calculated from average lane density. The database was designed to store the date, the time, the location, and the density of an image that was processed by the traffic density module. Testing Individual module testing, module integration testing, and system testing were conducted. Individual modules were tested to check correct performance. Module integration was tested to see if the modules interacted correctly. System testing was conducted to check overall system performance. Evaluation The system was then evaluated by CITOM technical personnel as well as motorists. A survey was conducted among CITOM technical personnel to test the system processes, and another survey was conducted among motorists to test the system goals. The CITOM evaluation instrument was created by using a 5-point scale where 1 is Not Acceptable, 2 is Slightly Acceptable, 3 is Moderately Acceptable, 4 is Very Acceptable, and 5 is Completely Acceptable, based on Henningâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s scale (Henning, 2009). The scale is akin to saying that 1 is poor, 2 is Fair, 3 is Good, 4 is Very Good, and 5 is Excellent. The motorist evaluation instrument was created by using a Yes/No scale. The questionnaires for the evaluation stage for both the motorists and CITOM personnel were constructed based on the readings and observations of the traffic situations in Cebu City. Specific items were formulated with the

Duran, E. J., Aclon, M. J., Chu, K. C . and Lim, E. J.

aim of evaluating the importance of the system developed. These instruments were pretested to detect their clarity and unambiguity to the intended respondents. The CITOM technical personnel were sampled purposively. A computer programmer from the Traffic Control Group, a planning officer, and an engineer from the Planning Department were sampled. Their survey involved rating the system based on functionality and usability. Their comments and suggestions were also taken. The survey results were averaged and interpreted, where 1.00 to 1.80 means Not Acceptable, 1.81 to 2.60 means Slightly Acceptable, 2.61 to 3.40 means Moderately Acceptable, 3.41 to 4.20 means Very Acceptable, and 4.21 to 5.00 means Completely Acceptable. There were 30 motorists surveyed through convenience sampling. A sample size of 30 qualified as a large sample. They were asked regarding the acceptability of the project, and their responses were tallied. The results of the surveys were collected and summarized using their mean score (Jaisingh, 2006). IV. ALGORITHM The image processing module utilized both Canny and Sobel Edge Detection Methods in creating the Canny-Sobel Edge Detection.

Figure 5. Applying Edge Detection

Figure 5(a) shows a road before being processed. Figure 5(b) shows the road after being processed with Canny Edge Detection. Figure 5(c) shows the road after being processed with Sobel Edge Detection. Figure 5(d) shows the road after being processed with the Canny-Sobel Edge Detection. Canny Edge Detection was applied then Sobel Edge Detection was applied to achieve the Canny-Sobel Processed Image. Figure 6. Density Calculation

In figure 6(a) a copy of the selected image was made. In figure 6(b) Canny-Sobel Edge Detection was applied. In figure 6(c) a red background image was prepared. A predefined polygon model was used to crop the road from the image. In figure 6(d) the polygon model was pasted onto the red background. The image was cropped in the maximum width and height of the polygon model, giving a rectangle. The images of the roads were often not parallel with the vertical. There were irrelevant data in the cropped image due to roads not always forming a rectangle. In figure 6(e) the road were colored black and the edges with white. The area occupied by the cars was calculated by scanning pixel by pixel per row from the left until a white pixel was reached. If a white pixel was found, a white pixel was searched from the right this time. Once a white pixel was found from the right, all pixels between the two white pixels were converted to white. This process was repeated until all rows in the image had been scanned. The area of white pixels was divided over the entire area excluding the red portions. To determine the

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traffic density. After the traffic density were taken, the information were stored in the database together with the date, time and location. A model of the intersections was created by using information regarding their phases. In CITOM’s fixed-plan system, the cycle time is 200 seconds. The time allotted for P. Del Rosario is 130 seconds while Pelaez and Junquera are allotted 70 seconds each. As a result, weights were assigned to each phase by getting the ratio of the time allotted for the phases. P. Del Rosario phase received a weight of 13 while Pelaez and Junquera phases received a weight of 7 each. The formula for time per phase is as follows:

Where: – Time for phase n in the intersection – Maximum time (240 seconds) – Weighted percentage of phase n – Weight of phase n – Average lane density of the phase

Table 1. System Testing Results Case Scenario Load another map Load our map Load Background Picture Background image zoom > 400 Background image zoom <0

intersection IV. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS System Testing System testing was conducted to check any possible bugs and its performance as a whole. Table 1 shows that loading maps as well as background pictures did not show any problems. Various user errors regarding the background image zoom level, render grid, signal cycle time, timeline zoom, cars per hour, simulation speed, and simulation steps were automatically corrected.

Pass / Fail

Load map with all functionalities

Actual Outcome Map loads with limited functionalities Map loads with all functionalities

Load picture

Picture loads

Pass

Map loads

Auto adjust to 400 Auto adjust to 1

Render grid to > 100

Auto adjust to 100

Render grid to < 1

Auto adjust to 1

Signal Cycle time to > 240

Auto adjust to 240

Signal Cycle time to < 10

Auto adjust to 10

Timeline zoom to > 20

Auto adjust to 20

Timeline zoom to < 1

Auto adjust to 1

– Sum of weights of the phases in the intersection – Sum of weighted percentages in the

Expected outcome

Cars/hr to > 100,000

Auto adjust to 100,000

Simulation Speed to > 10

Auto adjust to 10

Simulation Speed to < 1

Auto adjust to 1

Sim steps to > 30

Auto adjust to 30

Sim steps to <1

Auto adjust to 1

The spin edit will have a value of 400 The spin edit will have a value of 1 The spin edit will have a value of 100 The spin edit will have a value of 1 The spin edit will have a value of 240 The spin edit will have a value of 10 The spin edit will have a value of 20 The spin edit will have a value of 1 The spin edit will have a value of 100,000 The spin edit will have a value of 10 The spin edit will have a value of 1 The spin edit will have a value of 30 The spin edit will have a value of 1

Pass

Duran, E. J., Aclon, M. J., Chu, K. C . and Lim, E. J.

Motorist Survey Results Table 2. Motorist Survey Question

Yes

Are you aware that there are underground detectors that help manage traffic?

Are you aware that some of these detectors are broken?

53.3

46.7

Do you think that these broken detectors present a problem with traffic management?

3.3

96.7

Do you think that our proposed system is a solution to the broken detectors?

100

Do you think that the proposed system is necessary to alleviate traffic congestion?

3.3

96.7

Do you think that the proposed system is beneficial to motorists like you?

Do you think that the proposed system is practical or feasible to use?

6.7

93.3

Would you like to have such a system implemented?

100

aware that some of the detectors were broken. As a whole, 53.3% of the motorists surveyed revealed that they were not aware that there were broken traffic detectors. Also, 96.7% of those surveyed thought that these broken detectors presented a problem with traffic management. 100% of motorists surveyed agreed that the proposed system is a solution to the broken detectors and that such a system is beneficial. Also, they like to have such a system implemented. An insignificant percentage (3.3% and 6.7%, respectively) of motorists interviewed said that the system is unnecessary and impractical. Figure 7. Motorist Survey

CITOM SURVEY RESULTS Table 3. CITOM Survey Interpretation

Rating 0

100

According to surveys conducted for the motorists, 30% of them were not aware that there were underground detectors that helped manage traffic. Out of those who knew that there were underground detectors, 33% of them were not

Interpretation

1.00-1.80

Not Acceptable

1.81-2.60 2.61-3.40

Slightly Acceptable Moderately Acceptable

3.41-4.20 4.21-5.00

Very Acceptable Completely Acceptable

The CITOM surveys used a 5-point rating system, where 5 is the highest possible rating. A mean rating of 1.00 to 1.80 is interpreted as not acceptable. A mean rating of 1.81 to 2.60 is interpreted as slightly acceptable. A mean rating of 2.61 to 3.40 is interpreted as moderately acceptable. A mean rating of 3.41 to 4.20 is interpreted as very acceptable. A mean rating of 4.21 to 5.00 is interpreted as completely acceptable.

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78 Table 4. CITOM Survey: Functionality Question The system models the intersections of P. Del RosarioPelaez and P. Del Rosario-Junquera The image analysis module creates an accurate analysis of the image The traffic density module creates an accurate report of the traffic density The simulation models the fixed-time plan accurately The simulation models the proposed solution effectively

Raw Score

Mean Score

4. 7

Table 5. CITOM Survey: Usability Acceptability

Question

Raw Score

Mean Score

Acceptability

Completely Acceptable

The simulation has a display that is easy to understand

Very Acceptable

The system provides instructions for use

3.7

Very Acceptable

All system components are working properly

4.3

Completely Acceptable

The system does not slow down during simulation

4.3

Completely Acceptable

4.3

Completely Acceptable

4.3

Completely Acceptable

4.3

Completely Acceptable

4.3

Completely Acceptable

Accordingtosurveys with the CITOM technical personnel, functionality had a mean rating of 4.4. This is interpreted as completely acceptable. The system’s model of the intersections of P. Del Rosario-Pelaez and P. Del Rosario-Junquera had a mean rating of 4.7, which is interpreted as completely acceptable. The image analysis module was given a mean rating of 4.3, which is interpreted as completely acceptable. The traffic density module was given a mean rating of 4.3, which is interpreted as completely acceptable. The system’s model of the fixed-time plan was given a mean rating of 4.3, which is interpreted as completely acceptable. The system’s proposed solution had a mean rating of 4.3, which is interpreted as completely acceptable.

Usability had a mean rating of 4.075. The system’s display’s ease of understanding was rated 4, which is interpreted as very acceptable. The system’s instructions for use were rated 3.7, which is interpreted as very acceptable. The system components were rated 4.3, which is interpreted as completely acceptable. The system’s performance is also rated 4.3, which is interpreted as completely acceptable. Figure 9. CITOM Survey: Usability

Figure 8. CITOM Survey: Functionality

Overall, the system had a mean rating of 4.260, which is interpreted as completely acceptable. Summary Traffic congestion creates a waste of fuel. Managing traffic congestion would be beneficial. A traffic management system was developed by using a modified waterfall model. Data were

Duran, E. J., Aclon, M. J., Chu, K. C . and Lim, E. J.

gathered from CITOM as well as the GMT and Montesclaros buildings. The image pre-processor, traffic density analyzer, and traffic management simulator modules were developed. The system was evaluated by CITOM personnel and motorists with high ratings. IV. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION The P. Del Rosario-Pelaez and P. Del RosarioJunquera intersections were successfully modeled. The phases were modeled to create the traffic flow situation. The existing traffic system was modeled successfully. The fixed-time system used by the intersections due to broken detectors was modeled. The image analyzer based on traffic density was developed. Traffic density were determined after analyzing the image. The traffic density information per phase was stored in a database which contained the date, time, location, and density of the various processed images. The system was tested and evaluated by CITOM personnel and motorists. The system is to be implemented from the surveys conducted with the motorists and CITOM personnel. The user interface will improve if it will be tested in a larger scale. Further studies shall be conducted to systems that will enhance traffic light time management and aid in the decision for road modifications. For implementation, an overhead camera must be used. High-end infrastructure will speed up image analysis. Lower image resolution will speed up analysis. Having more image snapshots for traffic density calculation per cycle will give a better management rather than one snapshot per cycle. Originality Index: Similarity Index: Paper ID:

92 % 8% 384599913

Grammarly:

Checked

REFERENCES Al-Alawi, R. (2009).Web-based intelligent traffic management system. Proceedings of the World

Congress on Engineering and Computer Science, 1(1). 504-507 Coffman, E. G., Jr., Elphick, M. J., & Shoshani, A. (1971). System deadlocks. ACM Computing Surveys, 3(2), 67–78. Crandall, J. (2007). Who invented the traffic light? Retrieved April 2, 2012 from http://johncrandall. suite101.com/who-invented-the-traffic-light-a18158 Green, B. (2002). Canny edge detection tutorial. Retrieved October 1, 2012 from http://dasl.mem.drexel.edu/ alumni/bGreen/www.pages.drexel.edu/_weg22/can_ tut.html Henning, J. (2009). Common rating scales to use when writing questions. Retrieved October 15, 2012 from http://blog.vovici.com/blog/bid/18261/CommonRating-Scales-to-Use-when-Writing-Questions Jaisingh, L. (2006). Statistics for the Utterly Confused. New York City: McGraw-Hill. Li, X., Han, J., Lee, J., & Gonzalez, H. (2007). Traffic density-based discovery of hot routes in road Networks. In Papadias, D., Zhang, D., & Kollios G. (Eds.), SSTD 2007, LNCS 4605 (pp. 441–459). New York: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. Martin, A., & Tosunoglu, S. (1997). Image processing techniques for machine vision. Retrieved March 22, 2012 from http://www.eng.fiu.edu/mme/robotics/ elib/am_st_fiu_ppr_2000.pdf Munassar, N. M. A., & Govardhan, A. (2010). Acomparison between five models of software engineering. IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, 7(5), 94-101. National Statistics Coordination Board (2006). Cebu province has the most number of registered motor vehicles in the Philippines. Retrieved April 1, 2012 from http://www.nscb.gov.ph/factsheet/pdf06/ fs8_06.asp National Statistics Coordination Board (2010). Rail, water, land and air transportation Statistics 2002-2009. Retrieved April 1, 2012 from http://www.nscb.gov. ph/secstat/d_trans.asp Ozkurt, C., & Camci, F. (2009). Automatic traffic density estimation and vehicle classification for traffic surveillance systems using neural networks. Mathematical and Computational Applications, 114(3), 187-196. R.A. 4136 of 1964. Land Transportation and Traffic Code. Robinson-Mosher, A., & Egner, B. (2009). Learning traffic light control policies. [lecture notes] CS229, Machine Learning, Autumn 2013. Stanford University. Siyal, M., & Fathy, M. (1995). Real-time measurement of traffic queue parameters by using image processing techniques. IEE Proceedings – Visual Image Processing and its Applications, 142(5), 297-303. Van Kitwijk, R. T. (2008). Multi-agent look-ahead traffic-

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adaptive control. TRAIL Thesis Series T2008/3. Netherlands: The TRAIL Research School. Vergel, K. (2007). EST case study: Cebu City. Presentation made at the National Conference on Environmentally Sustainable Transport, December, 11, 2007 in Manila.

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Psychological impact of Social Networking Sites: A Psychological Theory Charita B. Lasala Regina P. Galigao Jufil F. Boquecosa College of Arts and Sciences University of the Visayas chati30_lasala@yahoo.com.ph Submitted: August 5, 2013

Accepted: November 10, 2013

ABSTRACT The preponderance of social networking sites such as Facebook, Youtube and others, have altered the way in which people interact socially in the real world. In fact, much more can be said about the impact of these modern technologies on the basic structure of human personality: the id, ego, and super-ego. The paper proposes a psychosological theory that modifies Sigmund Freud’s (1923) basic relationships and interactions of the id, ego and super-ego in his Psycho-analytic Theory. It is claimed that an individual’s engagement with virtual reality (social networking) portends a segregation of the super-ego from the id and ego. In a virtual world, social interactions are not constrained by societal norms and standards (super-ego) so that the tendency is for the id (instincts and drives) to merge with the ego (what is real) and they become indistinguishable. The sociological implications of this theory are also explored in this paper. Keywords: psychoanalytical theory, psychosocial theory, id, ego, super-ego I. INTRODUCTION Prior to the dawn of modern computers and the worldwide web, Freud’s (1923) psychoanalytic theory served as a cornerstone of psychology and the analysis of the structure of human personality. Freud believed that personality has three structures: the id, the ego and the super-ego. The id is the structure of personality that consists of instincts. It is totally unconscious and has no contact with reality. The ego is the structure that concerns with reality and is considered as the “reasoning” and “decisionmaking” part of personality. Both the id and the ego have no morality, an aspect of the personality taken care of by the superego. The superego is often referred to as the conscience. The rapid and accelerated developments in

information technology have changed the way in which people do things, pervading all aspects of life. The invention of social networking sites (SNS) such as Facebook, Twitter, Yahoo Mail and others, paved the way for a virtual human interaction cutting across geographic, time, race, and socioeconomic boundaries. Thus, human civilization is now characterized as a civilization living in two worlds: the real world and the virtual world. This state-of-affairs is very much different from the world perceived by Freud (1923) and Jung (1948). Consequently, it is not surprising that personality theories were crafted and developed when the world was a simpler world, has to be refined and enhanced to explain what modern human beings are experiencing. In cyberspace, Boyd and Ellison (2007)

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claimed that SNS offer rich naturalistic behavioral data confirming an earlier claim by Wellman and colleagues (1996) that using SNS gives people access to maintain their existing connections and meeting new people. Bargh and colleagues (2002, 2004) spoke of the positive effect of SNS to people with low mental and emotional well-being. Ellison (2007) averred that virtual relations do not necessarily take people away from their real world. As a matter of fact, it can be used to bring back relationships and preserve people who want to be in contact with each other regardless of changes. While these authors proclaim the positive benefits one derives from SNS, other authors have found the downside of the phenomenon. Benezes (2010) said that engagement of oneself with SNS is a great way to let users direct themselves and show the world their real selves. This statement is both accurate and revealing: that something more profound yet unobtrusive is happening in the personality structure of a person. This paper aims to deduce this phenomenon. II. THEORY FORMULATION AND THE PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY This section is focused on the formulation of the psychological theory. Pew, as mentioned by Kiss (2011), claims that genuine emotional support and well-being are provided by online social networks and these include advice, information, and companionship. It was found out that the use of a well- established system in measuring the well-being of a certain individual who uses the internet has practically provided them with significant emotional support. Facebook is found to be the most particular among the social networks and that its users were able to establish and form closer relationships and bonds. Further, the study has revealed that the user’s regular online activities’ over the site have made them more trusting of others than non-Facebook users. Moreover, the SNS offer the individuals such as the students, professionals and other who go

online the opportunity to create a positive selfimage. For them to be seen by others the way they wanted to be, they create profiles emphasizing the best qualities in them. With this activities going online greatly show that one cares about his/her reputation. In the journal The British Psychological Society (2013), Behavior and Information Technology has found out that a person’s psychological wellbeing can be constructively influenced through strong use of the social networking site. In addition, the study found an interaction between Facebook and psychological well-being measures. The study advocates that students who are experiencing low self-esteem or those who are not even gratified with their lives at present can take advantage from making greater use of Facebook and its capability to bond them to others. Axiom 1: Online social network tools can be of help to individuals who have low psychological well-being. The capacity to bring evocative and meaningful bonds to people who might be shunned as outcasts is one of social networking’s paramount profits. These SNS can be a virtuous way to sort connections with people having the same interests and goals. The SNS can be a very good outlet not only in making connections but also in meeting people that an individual may not have the chance of experiencing before. People on social networking sites are into sharing about what interests them, like news on current events, lifestyle, fashion, and even about people. For individuals who go online and share those interests, or for those who just wanted to stay updated, they can read stories on the site and share them with their own circle of friends and/ or acquaintances. In a study cited by Novotney (2012) in Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking (2010), lonely adolescents go online in order to meet new friends. The study manifests the significant impact of online communication

Lasala, C . B., Galigao, R. P. and Boquecosa, J. F.

especially to those individuals who have claimed loneliness as the reason why they go online. Further, the study has revealed that the most frequently shared topics are more personal and intimate compared to those individuals who never reported that they are lonely. Moreover, these teens have also indicated that online communication is more frequent because of the notion that in their online world, they do not feel any shame and that they can share and talk more freely happily and that they can dare to say anything. Wellman, et.al (1996) on the otherhandstated SNS strong linkages have helped in preserving relationships regardless of the frequency on the movement of an individual from one offline community to another, notwithstanding the geographical locations. Steinfield, et. al (2009) have catalogued that social capital generates limitless networks of these three: strong, weak and long-term ties. It can be noted too that the use of social networks are becoming more non-exclusive. It has also been found to lower obstacles and it has allowed people to retain bonds effortlessly. Furthermore, Steinfield, et al. (2009) established that the more an individual uses SNS, the grander expanse of social capital he will have. In short social networking expands the horizons of what sort of contacts people can make in their lives. Axiom 2: The use of social networking sites gives people an access to maintain existing connections or meet new people. On the bases of Axioms 1 and 2, we deduced that: Proposition 1: SNS enhances a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s confidence and psychological well-being making him more socially active. The rise of the internet usage and the ever evolving technology that brought about the existence of these SNS and social capitals brought

about one of its greatest benefits and that is the ability of bringing meaningful rapports to people who might otherwise be eschewed as outsiders. The study of Daria J. Kuss and Mark D. Griffiths (2011) indicated the chief use of Social Networking Sites for social tenacities. It is mostly associated with maintaining recognized offline networks. Moreover, SNS are used for social enrichment by those identified as extraverts and as social compensation for those who are identified as introverts. The findings have greatly left an impression related to usage, low conscientiousness and narcisstic tendencies. Nguyen, et.al. (2012) believed that the social networking sites are the merging of emotions among people within a social network and that it has potentially resulted in the happening of an unprecedented event in the real world. Axiom 3: Rich sources of naturalistic behavioral data are provided by social network sites. Steinfield, et.al (2009) revealed in his study that these SNS have managed to get online support actions from the offline world. Further, they have revealed that both social networks and social capital also backed the impression that the new surge of virtual interaction is not actually taking away the people from the real world. These SNSs have helped maintain, create, and strengthen new ties thus permitting the social groups to be more closely bonded, contribute and give back to their respective networks. The interactions online via social networking sites do not necessarily remove people from their real world. These interactions have further maintained and sustained relationships as individual change or transfer from one community to another. This use of technology keeps them in contact with each other more often. Further, Steinfield, et. al (2009) noted that a well bonded, bridged and maintained social capitals help people make a close, loose, or longterm relationships. These were attested in the

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surveys and when their benefits are looked into and considered, the connections they produce are tremendous. Brenan (2010) cited Ellison’s (2007) that individuals who make use of SNS craft more social capital order to preserve social connections from the past. These so-called sustained social capitals do not only maintain relationships but also congeal temporary acquaintanceships. In addition, offline interactions can maintain relationships once online relationship ends. This impression supports the idea that virtual interactions compliment and do not unavoidably replace the face-to-face interaction. Strong, weak and long-term ties are the boundless networks that the social capital builds with the use of the SNS. Recently, networks are becoming non-exclusive and because of this, it has lowered the barriers and has allowed more people to stay connected and maintain their ties. On the other hand, social capitals have broadened networks and have provided individuals with countless contact to people and resources be it in their respective workplace or within their respective circles. Brenan (2010) further stressed that SNS positively takes part in the development of these connections. The increase in social capitals has greatly emphasized (1) the idea of what is offline to online; (2) what does it show despite the rising of the new technologies; and that the rise of these networks is not reducing the face-toface interaction. The existence of SNSs and social capitals do not only create, support and strengthen offline ties. These SNS serve not as a menace to the total loss of the old-style social connections; it actually compliments and upholds them with the use of the state-of-the-art technology. Axiom 4: Virtual interactions do not necessarily remove people from their real world. Thus, we claim that:

Proposition 2: SNS and the real world are almost identical to the user. In the new age, SNS are considered as virtual societies, wherein the users are given the freedom to create their individual public profiles, correlate with actual friends, and meet new acquaintances based on the interests they share. These SNSs are web-based amenities that permit personalities to: (1) produce an unrestricted or semi-restricted profile within a constrained system, (2) express to other users with whom they have shared a connection with, and (3) see and go over their list of networks and acquaintances within the system. It is in these conventional groups where the focus is centered rather than on making new connections. To wit, these SNS offer entities a lot of opportunities not only in interacting and media sharing but also in adopting the worldwide web alongside its characteristics and the framework of its specific structure (Kuss & Griffiths, 2011). As Ellison (2007) has cited, these social networking sites create social capital that is not a supplementary of direct interaction because this social capital permits individual to showcase themselves. It also gives the individuals opportunity to articulate, establish and maintain influences with others. Keeping in contact with family through the phone or even over email presents a challenge, however, these social networking sites have allowed the individual to share their day to day life in a secure but public forum, which other members of the family (who may be in the other parts of the world) can watch and experience. Putnam’s (2000), views have portrayed that the social capitals’ bond echoes stronger family ties and other relationships. These are ties formed within families and friends who are in the better position to give support emotionally especially when sources are scarce and rare. On the other hand, Novotney (2012) in her study quoted Jeffrey Hancock saying, “Unlike a mirror, which reminds us of who we really are

Lasala, C . B., Galigao, R. P. and Boquecosa, J. F.

and may have a negative effect on self-esteem if that image does not match our ideal, Facebook can show a positive version of ourselves… it is not a deceptive version of self but it’s a positive one.” The internet and other new forms of network communication have amplified reality and text messaging and that it includes issues that are related to protection, confidentiality, and network formation. Axiom 5: Social networking site (SNSs) is the sum of the resources, actual or virtual. These axioms lead to: Proposition 3: In the long term, the user derives the same satisfaction in the virtual and real worlds but since SNS occupies most of his time, the virtual world becomes the real world. In sum, we deduce the following Psychological Theory: Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of the Psychological Theory

III. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY Evolution of the structure of personality from the classic psychoanalytic theory of Freud (1923) to the information age portends a separation of the superego from the id and the ego as illustrated in the diagram. The emergence of a virtual world induced by the pervasiveness of social networking sites (SNS) creates “netizens” or real people interacting in cyberspace where traditional norms

and standards of behavior are virtually nonexistent. The so-called conscience or superego is no longer felt while the id (human instincts) and the ego (real self) combine in a seamless border. The more time spent by people in this virtual world, the more they develop confidence and a sense of psychological well-being driven by the id and the ego. The virtual world is a world without restraints where everyone exercises unbridled freedom of expression. IV. SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS The pervasiveness of SNS not only enhances the person’s confidence and psychological wellbeing, it also makes him more socially active and since SNS lodges more of the user’s time, the virtual world becomes the user’s real world. People in the virtual world can be aggressive and expressive but they can be the exact opposite in the real world. Many will find the restraints of the superego in the real world as oppressive and thus, find comfort and freedom in the virtual world. Social interactions in the virtual world are practically without responsibility and selfaccountability. People feel safer in this context: no reprisals and no commitments in a virtual Hedonism. In the real world where societal norms are present and where conscience prevails, people are more guarded and more circumspect. The net effect is that the real world social circle of an individual shrinks while his virtual social circle expands. Since the virtual world has very little or no restraints, the concept of societal outcasts has no immediate meaning. Psychopaths and deviants are devoid of meaningful interpretation and, for lack of appropriate terms, are referred to as “cyber bullies”. They are not considered criminals in the real-world but they are treated as disturbing annoyances. Only when psychopathic or deviant behaviors manifest in the real world do societal laws apply. The notions of equality and equity pervade in the virtual world. Here, there are no ranks, authority, power and domination. The virtual

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world equalizes the rich and the poor; the powerful and the oppressed; the intelligent and the dull. In fact, it is precisely this characteristic of the virtual world which makes it very attractive for most people. Benezes (2010) succinctly describes this as “being who you are and what you are.” In the virtual world, an action neither conforms nor follows prevailing norms. It takes place when norms are absent or unclear as Park (1921) laconically refers it to social processes and events that does not reflect existing social structures and laws but emerged in a spontaneous way. Alfred Schutz’s social phenomenology argued that people depend upon language and the “stock of knowledge” that they have accumulated to enable social interaction. For him, people both create social reality and are constrained by the pre-existing social and cultural structures that are created by their predecessors. Originality Index: Similarity Index: Paper ID: Grammarly:

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V. REFERENCES Bargh, J. A., & McKenna, K. Y. A (2004). The internet and social life. Annual Review of Psychology, 55(1), 573590. Bargh, J. A., McKenna, K. Y. A., & Fitzsimons, G. M. (2002). Can you see the real me? Activation and expression of the “true self” on the Internet. Journal of Social Issues, 58(1), 33-48. Benezes, S. (2010). Expressing yourself via Facebook: My high school journalism. Boyd, D., & Ellison, N. B. (2007). Social network sites: Definition, history, and scholarship. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13(1), 210-230. Brenan, E. (2010). Offline to online through social capital. [Lecture material]. Unpublished manuscript, Sociology 022, Bowdoin Online Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007). The Benefits of Facebook Friends: Social Capital and College Students’ Use of Online Social Network Sites. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12(4), 1143-1168.

Ellison, N., Heine, R., & Gibbs, J. (2006). Managing impressions online: Self-presentation processes in the online dating environment. Journal of ComputerMediated Communication, 11 (2), 415-441. Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id. SE, 19, 1-66. Jung, C. G. (1948). In Collected Works (1969), Volume 8. Princeton: Priceton University Press. Kuss, D. J. (2011). Are social networks really boosting our sense of personal well-being? Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2011). Excessive online social networking: Can adolescents become addicted to Facebook? Education and Health, 29(4), 68-71. Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2012). Online social networking and addiction: A review of the psychological literature. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 8(9), 3528-3552. Nguyen, N. P., Yan, G., Thai, M. T., & Eidenbenz, S. (2012). Containment of viral spread in online social networks. WEBSCI. Novotney, A. (2012). R U friends 4 real? Psychologists are learning more about how teen friendships are changed by social networking and text messaging. American Psychological Association, 43(2), 62. Park, R. E., & Burgess, E. W. (1921). Introduction to the Science of Sociology. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Putnam, R. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York: Simon and Schuster. Schutz, A. (1970). Alfred Schutz on Phenomenology and Social Relations (Wagner, H. R., Trans.). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Steinfield, C., DiMicco, J. M., Ellison, N. B., & Lampe, C. (2009). Bowling online: Social networking and socialc within the organization. Proceedings of the Community & Technology, Fourth International Conference on Communities and Technologies, 245254. Wellman, B., Salaff, J., Dimitrova, D., Garton, L., Gulia, M., & Haythornthwaite, C. (1996). Computer networks as social networks: Collaborative work, telework, and virtual community. Annual Review of Sociology, 22(1), 213-238.

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Determinants of human immunodeficiency virus prevalence Tonette M. Villanueva1 Melvin R. de Castro1 Brian A. Vasquez2 College of Nursing1 University of San Jose-Recoletos1 Center for Research and Development 2 University of the Visayas2 crpd@uv.edu.ph; brianquez@gmail.com Republished from: Villanueva, T. M., de Castro, M. R., &Vasquez, B. A. (2013).Social, economic, political and quality of life across human immunodeficiency virus. Recoletos Multidsciplinary Research Journal, 1(1), 29-40. (inprint)

ABSTRACT Human Immunodeficiency Virus prevalence was predicted using cluster analysis technique. A retrospective design was employed. We deployed surrogate measures for social, economic, political and quality of life. Data mining strategies were trailed to gather data. Factors that affect HIV prevalence were represented with surrogate measures by brainstorming activity. Data were taken from world reports from reliable sources. Using an algorithm, data were analyzed using MiniTab software: partitioning, centroid-based, hierarchical and density based methods. This article introduced three contending models on the interplay of the factors towards its influence on HIV prevalence. It culminates with the integration of a holistic model, which can provide a theoretical basis in predicting HIV prevalence. An integrative model was elevated from its substantial form to a more formal application. From HIV prevalence to communicable disease prevalence, this provides a more wide application. Keywords: social, economic, political, quality of life, HIV prevalence I. INTRODUCTION The increase prevalence and incidence rate of human-immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are highly linked to socioeconomic status (SES) as evidenced by many public health researchers (Fortson, 2008). HIV epidemic is one of the greatest challenges in the nation’s health and development (Bärnighausen, Hosegood, Timaeus & Newell, 2007). It is a noted threat to the safety of the community. Various measures were adopted among nations to stem the spread of this debilitating virus. Consequently, it affects the patients and the family’s psycho-social wellbeing (Ingram & Hutchinson, 1999; Ji, Li li, Lin & Sun, 2007).

According to UNAIDS (2011), a total of 34 million (31.4 million–35.9 million) different races and ethnic minorities were affected with HIV. As of 2011, there were 2.5 million (2.2 million–2.8 million) people newly infected cases. In 2010, 2.7 million of new cases were found. Moreover, 25 countries have 50 % or greater drop of new cases since 2001. As of 2011, recent infections among children were noted, 43 % decreased in 2003, and 24 % lower than 2009. Many private organizations such as United Nations, WHO and other public sectors continually aid the underdeveloped countries in: (1) health promotion; and (2) prevention of viral transmission. There are also countries with good governance

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(education, jobs & employment) that promotes superior quality of life to its citizens (Brenner, n.d.). Quality of life programs has a strong emphasis on health programs. Literature reveals the complexity in the relationship between SES and HIV (Mumah, 2011). Some literature claimed that SES indicators are diverse and wider in scope than HIV (Wojcicki, 2004). Identifying a specific area in SES may be difficult to pinpoint. This may range from: (1) employment (Fujishiro & Gong (2010); (2) literacy (Fujishiro & Gong (2010); (3) tourism (Farsari & Postacos, 1999); and (4) growth development per capita (Europian Commission DG Environment, 2006). There are even more variables available that wefailed to enumerate. In our study, we apportioned SES into its more specific components: (1) social; and (2) economic. After scrutinizing the enumeration, we agreed to add the following indicators: (1) political factor represented by government policy, specifically health expenditure (Schieber & Poullier, 1989; Schieber, 1990); and (2) quality of life measured by the human development index (UNDP, 2012) and congestion, expressed in land area per person (Thomas, Veary & Mahlangu, 2011). These have potential roles to play in the prevalence rate. Though, studies were done on some of the listed measures, there was no attempt to lump them up for cluster analysis. II. THE SUDY Conceptual Framework In this study, GDP per capita (current US$) and tourist arrival are identified as indicators for economic factor. As cited in Hervé Boulhol, Alain de Serres and Margit Molnar (2008), GDP is widely utilized for its simplicity and flexibility. It is an empirical framework to assess the influence of economic geography determinants augmented with human capital (Solow, 1956). This helps explain differences across countries in income levels and growth patterns. Tourist arrival is another economic indicator according to the Economic Research Organization at the University of Hawaii (n.d.). We identified this

because tourist expenditures are straightforward conditions of gauging inputs to economic movement. Personally, we believe that, aside from its economic influence, it also has theoretical association with HIV prevalence. Health expenditure can increase the health of individuals. This government spending can make life better. We consider health expenditure to represent government policy. We deliberately link this to represent the political factor. In the article of TanuKulkarni (2012), Rudiger Krech, Director, Department of Ethics and Social Determinants of Health, at the World Health Organisation (WHO), believed that improving access to health care is necessary. Matthew Morgan (2008) identified literacy rate and the unemployment rate as indicators for social factor. That being literate and employed are both good measurement of how educated people are; however, we do not subscribe on this idea. UNESCO (2006) defined literacy as knowing how to read and write. It is a good measure of how they are able to communicate – necessary in formal and informal social dynamics. Employment rate is a good measure of those who are receiving money for living which is indispensable to fuel filial and social dynamics. “Wealth is evidently not the good we are seeking; for it is merely useful and for the sake of something else.” -Aristotle in Nicomachean Ethics The Human Development Index delivers amalgamated measure of three breaths: (1) life expectancy; (2) adult literacy and enrolment (primary to tertiary); and (3) purchasing power parity and income. Although not an all-inclusive measure of human development but it provides a more expanded coverage for viewing human progress, complex relationship, income and wellbeing (Human Development Indicator, 2006). “Development can be seen… as a process of expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy.” -AmartyaSen, 1999

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There is minimal attention in assessing the relationship between prevalence rates to spatial consideration (Thomas, Vearay & Mahlangu, 2011). We are interested in determining such association. In this study, congestion is measured as total land area over the total number of population. We believed that when a geographical area is more congested, the higher the prevalence rate of HIV. Collectively, we expect the probability of interaction between and/or among factors or variables in the prevalence of HIV. Furthermore, this needs to be established with the data. The Problem The purpose of the study is to understand and develop formal theory concerning factors associated with the prevalence of HIV using worldwide data extracted from data mining. Factors include economic, social, political and quality of life.

III. DESIGN AND METHODS We employed retrospective design (Polit& Beck, 2008) where predictors of HIV prevalence were identified. Factors are picked as indicators of HIV prevalence. These were identified through a brain storming exercise (Padua, 2013) and aided by multiple literature review to mine data. A cyclical process between brainstorming and data mining activities was done. The following factors were identified: (1) economic; (2) social; (3) political; and (4) quality of life. Economic factor is measured by: (1) GDP; and (2) tourism. Social factor by: (1) literacy; and (2) unemployment. Political factor by health expenditure, while the quality of life by: (1) human development index; and (2) congestion. Databases were explored to gather information for analysis:

Table 1.Worldwide Databases for Analysis.

Factors

Economic

Social

Political

Variables

Databases

- GDP per capita (current US$)

- World Bank Data Base (2011)

- Tourist Arrival - Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above)

- CIA World Fact Book (2009) - World Bank Data Base (2010)

- Unemployment, total (% of total labor force)

- World Bank Data Base (2010)

- Health expenditure per capita (current US$)

- World Bank Data Base (2010)

- Human development index Quality of Life - Congestion in sq km/person (total land area/total population) Dependent Prevalence of HIV, total (% of population ages 15-49)

- United Nation Development Program (2011) - World Bank Data Base (2011) Database - World Bank Data Base (2011)

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Basing from the World Bank Report, 213 countries were initially identified. Elimination process was done purposively. A country with lacking entry in any of the indicators was eliminated. From 213 countries, 45 were retained in the roster for analysis. Data Analysis The data was subjected for cluster analysis using Minitab Statistical Software Release 13.20. Cluster analysis is defined as a process of grouping a set of variables into classes of similar objects (Han & Kamber, 2006). Algorithm analysis was an amalgamation of partitioning, centroid-based, hierarchical and density-based methods. This facilitated in the development of the model. Conceptualization was founded from the: (1) tabular presentation of the variables visĂ -vis to three clusters for numerical analysis; and (2) dendrogram for a more visual analysis. The number of clusters was predetermined. To present a more visual representation of the dendrogram, we rerun the data in IBM-SPSS Version 20.

After understanding the interaction of the different factors/variables. Models were formulated to demonstrate the processes involved. Initially, 3 competing substantive theories were created. These substantive theories were collapsed, and a more formal one was crafted. Substantive theory is framed for a specific area of social concern while formal theory is shaped for a broad or general application (Glor, 2008; Advanced Qualitative Research, 2010). Finally, an alternative conceptualization was presented to provide a different lens to the phenomenon. IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This research study utilized the most recent database available in analyzing the factors associated with HIV prevalence rate, specifically: (1) gross development product (GDP); (2) tourism; (3) health expenditure; (4) unemployment; (5) literacy rate; (6) human development index; and (7) total land area per person in worldwide scope. The identified countries were clustered accordingly and findings revealed in the table as shown.

Table 2. Analysis of Variables Using Three Clusters.

Variables

Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

Grand Centroid

Prevalence rate

0.2902

0.4000

0.5000

0.3067

GDP per capita

28924.3659

42377.0000

38719.3333

29876.3111

Unemployment

8.7000

9.3000

12.7000

8.9800

Literacy rate

97.1780

99.0000

98.3667

97.2978

Total land area per person

0.0371

0.0100

0.0167

0.0351

Tourist arrival Health expenditure Human development index

6746219.5122

7.676400E+07 5.010033E+07

1.119244E+07

2498.7561

4691.0000

4831.0000

2702.9556

0.8298

0.8800

0.8867

0.8347

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As shown in Table 2, clusters 2 and 3 remarkably entails high HIV prevalence rate of 0.4000 and 0.5000, compared to cluster 1 with below the grand centroid of 0.3067. Those clusters with high prevalence rate are those with high GDP. Surprisingly, the clusters with high GDP showed high unemployment rate despite high human development index. To provide a more comprehensive discussion in the findings of the study, we formulated three dynamic models in analyzing the variables mentioned. These models serve as framework tool in examining the evidences behind the HIV prevalence rate worldwide. According to Fawcett (2005), conceptual model provides a coherent, unified and orderly way of envisioning related events or processes relevant to a discipline. It simply processes the variables why and how it affects the others. These models are shown in graphical presentation. Model 1

The first model stressed that economics directly influence the quality of life among highly develop countries. Nations with high economic stability were capable of influencing oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s quality of life. However, this does not directly affect social dimensions as manifested by high unemployment rate of clusters 1 (9.3) and 2 (12.7). Still, quality of life is directly associated with the social factor and government policy. While both latter enumerations indirectly affect each other. Xu (2012) claims that economic growth

intensify human development of workforce capacity along with opportunities for their efficient use, it provides better job opportunities, creates an enabling environment for businesses growth and supports better democracy. High level of GDP among progressive countries expects elevated HDI. It is expected that the former has a vast contributory factor to the latter. Though, it is also projected that high economy increases employment rate, there is no direct relationship between the two factors which demonstrate incongruence of expectations. Increase in the unemployment rate may still be possible due to other elements. Relating it to HIV prevalence, the augmented HDI specifically technological and medical advancement could somehow attract foreigners (migrants and tourists) for it increases the power of health confidence while in the area (Hicks & Streeten, 1979). Although migrants has extensive health screening, this is not strictly implemented among tourists which can be a possible human vector of HIV (Australian Government Department of Immigration and Citizenship, 2012). Though extensive screening is done among migrants, this is not an assurance that they cannot become vectors, considering: (1) window period (European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, 2011); and (2) HIV related activities after extensive screening (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012). Positioning the other influences of unemployment as mentioned above, influx of migrants, sometimes masked as tourists for entry level, compete with the available job positions (Jordan, 2009; Somerville & Sumption, 2009; Jens, Hiscox & Margalit, 2011a, b, c). This is being mitigated with the locals dependence to the government due to the financial support it gives to the unemployed (Beach & Tyrrell, 2012). This further retains the problem of unemployment. In high GDP and HDI countries,

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government support among the unemployed is well positioned. Locals have the tendency to become dependent to the government (Handley, 2011). These scenarios may pose to the increase in HIV prevalence rate. Unemployed locals, with nothing to do, has high chances of engaging in: (1) sexual activities brought about by boredom (Gana, Trouillet, Martin, & Toffart, 2001; Chaney & Chang, 2005); (2) prostitution for work; and (3) cross cutting through sharing of needles (Hurley, Jolley & Kaldor, 1997) â&#x20AC;&#x201C; considering drug related activities are high among unemployed. The enumeration contributes to the increase prevalence rate. In addition, outsourcing such as BPO industries were channeled to developing countries like India (BBC, 2003; Hossain & AsSaber, 2008), Philippines and China which delimits the possible options for work. Government policy is indirectly associated with the social factor. We argue that the society subtly influence policy making. This predominantly refers to parameters, philosophies, regulation and undertakings that assume the living circumstances favorable to social benefit. Policy is focused on those aspects of the society that are essential and the measures by which it can be delivered (Newburn, 2012; Malcolm Wiener Center, 2006).

The second model is similar to the first model with a slight deviation. In this model, an indirect relationship is assumed between the economic factor and social factor. A more comprehensive discussion of this segment is presented in model 3. Unlike the previous two models, the last model identified economics as a major factor affecting the utility of the government policy whereby social dimensions is influenced by it and indirectly interrelated to economics. As Gerdtham, Sogaard, Anderson and Johnson (1992) claimed in their studies indicate that health care systems contribute significantly to health care expenditure variation in different countries. These are evident in the findings of our data in first world countries like USA, Spain, Italy and France as being clustered as 2 and 3 that endowed high health expenditure in an attempt to curb the high HIV prevalence rate of 0.40 and 0.50 respectively as compared to other countries with low prevalence rate. Model 3

Model 2

Furthermore, due to their high GDP, the allocation for health services and programs are also high. Kanavos and Mossialos (1999) cited empirical researches that supported our claim. These studies reported significant causality and relationship between health spending and gross domestic product (GDP). Certainly, health funding is central to public health planning and clinical practice as Evans and Pritchard (2000) asserted. This is also true in the study of Hitiris and Posnett

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(1992) that further highlighted the importance of GDP as a determinant of health spending, with estimated income elasticity at or around unity. Clearly, both GDP and health expenditure is interrelated in most first world countries. Schieber and Poullier (1989) and Schieber (1990) determined that USAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s health spending continues to widen the gap in other countries. These findings resembled that as gross domestic product continually grows, the health expenditure also increases relatively to the needs of their country. The health expenditure gap between and among first world countries to others continuously widen remarkably in the period of time depending on the consequence of gross domestic product. As evidenced the findings of our study, clusters 2 and 3 significantly almost doubled the health expenditure with 4691.0 and 4831.0 compared in other countries that supported the previous claims. It was observed that the increase in HIV prevalence may result from increase GDP brought about by high health expenditure in first world countries. This high health expenditure allocated by the government helped to increase the chance of screening HIV positive individual. The screening facilities and HIV specialist doctors are upgraded and highly trained. Thus, the HIV screening in countries with high GDP is highly functional and observed compared to developing countries with low HIV screened individual. In addition to economic growth linking to government policy, the increased tourism relatively affects the increase health care expenditure among countries with high gross development product. De Arellano (2007) found out that patients from USA and other developed countries continues to increase rapidly as the result of medical tourism, which attracts foreigners with the aim to acquire health care services. This resulted to emphasize highly technological driven tertiary care for foreigners. In relation to our

study, clusters 2 and 3 with high tourist arrival of 76 million and 50 million per year, considerably affect the health care expenditure to increase. On the other hand, government policy attributes to social dimensions brought about by the increase economic growth and it is indirectly associated with each other. According to Truffer, Keehan, Smith, Cylus, Siskos and Poisal (2012), unemployment and economic recession are the factors that affect health spending during 20092019. The high prevalence rate affects the social dimension particularly the employability of an individual. As the findings suggested, clusters 2 and 3 with high prevalence rate marginally affected the increased unemployment of 9.30 and 12.70, and productivity among HIV positive individual. This is greatly supported on the studies of Arndt and Lewis (2005) that the HIV positive individual may experience declining labor productivity due to signs and symptoms as manifested. The social dimensions affect the quality of life as evidenced in the literacy and employment rates towards human development index. Despite high human development index in first world countries, the literacy and unemployment rates are also high. This happened when high human development index evidently attracts people in highly industrialized countries wherein competition is present. When there is competition brought about by certain higher degree of qualifications and the locals also compete to the foreign workers. We have estimated that true disease incidence is hard to retrieve since national surveillance systems have poor monitoring and reporting of HIV incidence. In some countries like Philippines, there is no law that dictates us to check randomly HIV status among the people; as well as, some people doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t undergo HIV testing due to fear of diagnosis. Considering all models as usable representation of reality, this integrative model collapsed each component and aggregates a

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holistic interrelationship between economics, social, government policy and quality of life. These factors are part of the package, which constantly affect directly or indirectly to each other. The aggregate effect in the formulation of these factors leads to the prevalence rate of HIV. If you notice, the dependent variable is elevated into its more general form. We decided to elevate our substantive theory into a more formal theory to widen its scope. Integrated Model

From an Alternative Lens. Interestingly, it is not expected that increase GDP can be equated to increase the prevalence as stated by the epidemiological theory. If the data we are utilizing is the actual representation of objective reality, then our theory refutes the previous one. However, if the epidemiological theory is more logical to use, then the prevalence rate may not be the actual reality. Considering that countries with increased GDP have increased heath expenditures, it is logical to note that: (1) access to screening technology is available; and (2) programs for HIV promotion and prevention are established. This means that HIV cases in increased GDP countries are well-documented than those in decreased GDP. This argument brings us back to the idea that the HIV cases in high GDP might not be the actual number.

V. CONCLUSION The aggregate effect of economic, social, government policy and quality of life primed the prevalence rate of communicable diseases. The shared interactions are the pull and push factors. Controlling the problem requires operant changes in each of the factors. This can only be achieved with good government policies that will help reshape the other factors. Although transformation of each requires ample time to accommodate new health actions, reforming and restructuring will only push-through if the government is serious in controlling this deleterious health phenomenon. Knowing that the interaction of economic, quality of life, governance and social forum serve to determine the prevalence of communicable diseases globally, their continued persistence may therefore be attributed to the failure to address the key issues surrounding each of these causative factors. On the whole, governments of various countries have not seen successful in addressing core poverty issues (economic) which translate into quality of life. Poverty breeds many societal ills including, but not limited to, a tacit acceptance of prostitution as a way of life and a means of livelihood. Such social acceptance of an otherwise unacceptable practice in more affluent nations further aggravate a loose, sense of socially acceptable behavior such as multiple partners, same-sex relationships and others. On one hand, government policies and religious dogmas deter the spread of (sexually) communicable diseases, social norms and acceptable behavior are often functions of the quality of life and economic stability of the nation. Thus, prevalence of (sexually) communicable diseases can only be minimized if a holistic consideration of all four (4) main drivers of their spread is made.

Villanueva, de Castro and Vasquez

Figure 1.The Dendogramusing Average Linkage between Groups.

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Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2008) Nursing research: generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice (8thEd.). Philadelphia, PA: LippincottWilliams&Wilkins. Saber, S. A., & Hossain, K. (2008). Call centres and their role in E-governance: A developing country perspective. Journal of Community Informatics, 4(3). Schieber, G. (1990). Health expenditures in major industrialized countries, 1960-1987. Health Care Financing Review, 11, 159-167. Schieber, G. J., & Poullier, J. P. (1989). Overview of internationalcomparisonsofhealthcareexpenditures. Health Care Financial Review, Special Number 1-7. PMID: 10313431 Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. New York: Anchor Books. Solow, R. M. (1956). A contribution to the theory of economic growth. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 70(1), 65-94. Somerville, W., & Sumption, M. (2009). Immigration in the United Kingdom: The recession and beyond. Retrieved February 18, 2013 from http://www.migrationpolicy.org/ pubs/immigration-in-the-uk-the-recession-and-beyond.pdf Thomas, L., Vearey, J., & Mahlangu, P. (2011). Making a difference to health in slums: an HIV and African perspective. The Lancet, 377(9777), 1571-1572. Truffer, C. J., Keehan, S., Smith, S., Cylus, J., Sisko, A., Poisal, J. A., Lizonitz, J., & Clemens, M. K. (2012). Health spending projections through 2019: The recessions’ impact continues. Health Affairs, 29(3), 522-529. doi: 10.1377/hlthaff.2009.1074. UNAIDS (2011). UNAIDS world AIDS day report 2012. Retrieved February 18, 2012 from http://www. unaids.org/en/resources/campaigns/20121120_ globalreport2012/ UNDP (2006). Human development report 2006. Retrieved February 18, 2012 from http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/ HDR06-complete.pdf UNDP (2012/2011). International human development indicators. Retrieved February 18, 2013 from http:// hdrstats.undp.org/en/indicators/103106.html UNESCO (2006). Understanding of literacy. In Education for all global report 2006. Retrieved February 18, 2013 from http://www.unesco.org/education/ GMR2006/full/chapt6_eng.pdf Wojcicki, J. M. (2004). Socioeconomic status as a risk factor for HIV infection in women in east, central and southern Africa: A systematic review. Journal of Biosocial Sciences, 37(1), 1-36. doi:10.1017/ S002193200400653 World Bank (201). Land area (sq. km). Retrieved February 18, 2013 from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ AG.LND.TOTL.K2 World Bank (201). Population, total. Retrieved February 18, 2013 from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ SP.POP.TOTL World Bank (201). Prevalence of HIV, total (% of population ages 15-49). Retrieved February 18, 2013 from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DYN. AIDS.ZS

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UV Journal of Research 2013

Sensitivity of humanity on valuing life Regina P. Galigao Brenda M. Catadman Ephraim A. Vasquez College of Arts and Sciences University of the Visayas reginpgaligao@yahoo.com Submitted: February 22, 2013

Accepted: July 4, 2013

ABSTRACT This study aims to discover the intensity of values appeciation. Data are mined using internet databases and subjected to cluster analysis. Around 79 countries were sampled to determine values to the: (1) family; (2) environment; (3) work; (4) home finances; (5) morale; and (6) national identity. Religion was also considered for the analysis to determine direct or indirect relationship with the other variables. The study identified 3 models in valuing life: (1) Ideal model (person-oriented); (2) Transactional model (material-oriented/economic-oriented); and (3) Passing and Asocial model (egocentric). Further, it reveals that the family has the major role in cultivating values. It is the milieu that stands as the individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s first community, school and government. This is then translated to other human transactions. Keywords: Valuing, family, environment, work, home, morale, identity I. INTRODUCTION This study explored the worldviews of human kind on the value of life. This attempted to establish the link between values to family, environment, work, home finances, morale and national identity. Furthermore, it abstracted the influence of religious affiliation to the formation of valuing. The researchers initially commenced with these variables as components for the substantive framework that served as a tentative theoretical jumpstart in analyzing the phenomenon. This tentative conjectural structure was then deduced statistically and a more theoretical induction further substantiated its components. This retroductive process allowed a more exhaustive depiction of reality (Vasquez, 2013). Although there are philosophical paradigms making an effort to elucidate this reality, this phenomenon remains empirically understudied. This brought the researchers to undertake this

exploration to identify theoretical possibilities by analyzing cluster groups. The theoretical induction wasgroundedfromnumericaldatabasessurrogating the variables identified earlier. Since the researchers do not have any a priori conceptualization for group membership, cluster analysis technique allowed exploration to the inter-relatedness of variables identified. Classification of cases into subgroups allowed the researchers to identify characteristics that helped in the exploration of concepts that attempts to explain the sensitivity of humanity on valuing life. Philosophy Home (2013) defined the standards of good and evil governing the individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s behavior. Thisisreferredtoasmoralvalues. Moreover,synergic inputs of society, government, religion and self may affect the morals of an individual. This brings as to expect changes in the philosophy of a person when there are modifications in the laws and morals of the society. This feasibly explains the sensational divide

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when there are revisions on government policies that are incongruent to the existing morals of the community. The article also mentioned that the best source of moral values is religion. To give a clear example, divergence of viewpoints regarding the implementation of the RH Bill in the Philippines may be attributed to the dominant religious group of the country (Peracullo, 2012). Philosophical arguments claimed different valid points that maybe influenced by several factors on valuing life. Religion Religion matters a lot on how an individual responds. Determining which is right or wrong is contingent to how it is understood, most of the time dictated by religion. The recognition between what is veracious or erroneous is then translated to one’s choice preference. All other factors that may influence human choice may also be predisposed directly or indirectly by religion. The synergic experiential learning inputs (amalgamation of all factors) determine the person’s decisions (Vasquez, 2013). The choice brings to either ominous or favorable outcomes. Societal divide maybe an indicator that each unit in the community are aware of what is currently going on in the community. Each side is just trying to protect their turf usually positioned on what is important to them. One must avoid ethnocentrism by labeling one group as right and the other as wrong. Each one must respect the diversity (Leininger & McFarland, 2005), for each has their own unique experiential awareness. The diversity of perspective may help everyone to appreciate the dynamics of human existence, including how we value our life. Awareness of what is happening around us can be moved higher to discernment. Discernment is not beyond the ability to decide between what is right and wrong (MacArthur, 2013). Rather, it is the process of making careful distinctions in our thinking about truth and reality. Orthodox. The first seven ecumenical councils defined “Orthodox” as the right belief (Fairchild, 2013). This was adopted in order to signify the true faith that defines beliefs and practices. It is claimed that Orthodox Christianity is the traditional doctrine

of early Christians. It is claimed to be fully preserved without any deviation. Believers strongly ascertain that this is the only true and right believing Christian faith. Protestant. Westby (2013) has mentioned in his study that Protestant ethic is identified as work ethic which was also defined as the code of morals based on the principle of thrift, discipline, hard work and individualism. These qualities were encouraged by the Protestant religion (especially on those denominations trusting in the tenets of Calvinism). Catholics. Durkheim, Weber and Marx (n.d.), Catholics, strongly believed that life does not end with death. It is supposed that the bodily form of human is where soul leaves and journeys to heaven, purgatory or hell. It has been the doctrine of the Roman Catholic that there is always life after death. Among Christian, life does not end with death. Furthermore, it is believe that when the soul leaves its bodily form, the place where God wants everyone to be destined is Heaven. The place in which those who have sinned against God stay for a short time and somehow cleansed their sins is Purgatory. Persons who have not lived God’s life are punished in Hell. Eventually, Roman Catholic people are taught to behave dogmatically to their teaching. This includes loving God and fellow human beings by following the ways of Christ. This is believed to be guided by the Holy Spirit talking in our conscience. Changes in the Religion as Reference. Religion is an essential allusion masked in culture and location. However, the current dominion of international affairs widens the scope for reference. With new information coming in, another perspective may arise (Vasquez, 2013). It is then speculated that in time, the appeal and influence of religion on the modern mind would lessen. Family Although it may be influenced by religion, the family is another factor that molds valuing. Nam (2004) generally regarded it as a major social institution. It is the focus of much of the person’s social activity. As a socially constructed concept, it is modified as a communal unit created by blood, marriage or adoption. It is distinguished as either fissionable (parents and children) or stretched

Galigao, R. P., Catadman, B. M. and Vasquez, E. A.

(encompassing other relatives). Family is considered to be the basic cell of the society (Afryka, 2013). This conjecture believes that the foundation of appreciation of life adheres to what has been practiced in the family. Families who conscientiously practice their religion affect their children’s foresight. For example in Islam, the identity nurtured among their young is not mainly focused on the acquisition of knowledge, but rather on the socio-political and moral aspects (Akhtar, 2010). It is understood that knowledge is just an ordinary information which requires the believers to act based on what they have faith in and commit themselves in the attainment of Islamic aims. In short, the theory of knowledge is not just a theory of epistemology. It is an amalgamation of knowledge, insight and social activity. National Identity and Being with Nature Another factor attributed to the valuing of life is national identity. According to David (1997), it is also influenced by several factors including the country of origin or residence, ethnicity, religious affiliation and even notions towards national affinity. Moreover, he claimed that a strong connection to nationalism implies the roots of loyalty to the tribe or family. Affiliation with religious denomination is again repeatedly mentioned but now with the soupçon of political movement. Both are identified as an important ingredient transcribed in the history of any region. National identity can be abstracted to the concept of patriotism which is imperative to the valuing of human life. Primoratz (2009) defined patriotism as the love of and identification with one’s motherland. It is a special concern for the country and its compatriots. This also includes being with the living things and the earth. The word “patriot” is defined as “one who loves loyally and zealously supports one’s own realm. Therefore, patriotism is not only boxed with the concept of national identity but also being with one’s environment. Multiple influences on values The term “value” has a wide range of usage in philosophy and science. Edel (1953) indicated that all attitudes for/or against anything a man does is “values”. He identified components of values and

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these are the following: preferences and avoidances, desire and aversion objects, pleasure and pain tendencies, goals, ideals, interests, and disinterests, right or wrong, good or evil, beautiful and ugly, useful and useless, approvals and disapprovals, criteria and standard of judgments and so forth. Felce (2007) reflected a scientific concept embracing a wide range of target groups and populations that is increasingly used as the model of Quality of Life. This integrates objective and subjective indicators of individual values across a broad range of life domains. This is categorized in six areas: physical, material, social, productive, emotional and civil well-being. Values have social and economic implications. Socially, “values” is ultimately good, proper or desirable attributes essential for existence. Economically, it is the degree to which objects are desired. It is measured by how much one is willing to give. The researchers believe that composition of what value is may vary according to the person’s reliance to his environment. A series of regression analyses conducted by Leung & Leung (1992) reflected that life satisfaction is dominated by the relationship with parents. However, this study only covered the social component. This current undertaking will shelter other factors that may be good predictors of valuing life. Considering all the literature cited above, this study aims to determine how each influences shape the formation of valuing life. Particularly, this aimed to determine the significant role of the family, environment, work, home finances, morale and national identity. II. THE STUDY This study aims to discover the intensity of values appreciation across continents. The researchers considered family and religion as the surrogate measurement of values. Using cluster analysis, the following dependent variables were analyzed: environment, work, home finances, morale, and national identity. These enumerations are the surrogate measurement of valuing life. They are measured statistically using cluster analysis. Religion, as a categorical variable, is then identified

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after clustering to aid analysis. To do so, 79 countries were sampled for analysis. The sampling frame attempted to prove that valuing one’s life may differ considering the different localities and culture. Data for analysis were mined from internet sites. Romesburg (2004) defined “cluster analysis” was a generic name for a variety of mathematical methods, numbering in the hundreds which can be used to find out which objects in a set are similar. “Data mining is a multidisciplinary field, drawingworkfrom areas including database technology, machine learning, statistics, pattern recognition, information retrieval, neural networks, knowledge-based system, artificial intelligence, high-performance computing, and data visualization” (Han & Kamber, 2006). III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Initially, the researchers commence in a substantive theory considering values to family, religion, environment, work, home finances, morale and national identity. These variables are believed to be influences that shape the formation of valuing life. Although the researcher know that each factor influence the phenomenon, less is known about the dynamics when the factors are considered collectively. The tentative conceptualization is summarized in figure 1.

To facilitate inductive descriptions of this reality, numerical databases were analyzed. This then helped in the formulation of additional models that provided more description to the initial framework. Table 1. Factors affecting the sensitivity of humanity on valuing life. Variables Family Environment Work Home Morale

Cluster 1 91.43 7.96 43.05 27.03 35.95

Cluster 2 92.84 9.90 48.39 25.85 59.20

Cluster 3 88.32 6.73 43.80 25.35 39.62

Identify

61.27

78.83

30.85

* Religion is identified after clustering After analyzing the table above, the researchers identified three models: (1) ideal: (2) transaction; and (3) passive-asocial. Model 1. The Ideal Model.

Figure 1. Sensitivity of Humanity on Valuing Life Theory: The tentative conceptualization.

If you try to focus your attention to the results of cluster 2, you will arrive in this conceptualization. The increased regard to family also increased all other components except home finances. This means that the individual values life in terms of social relation but neutral to the economic aspect. In this model, social relation is surrogated by the family, social environment, work place, moral responsibility and national identity. The family as the first school of the individual teaches the basic

Galigao, R. P., Catadman, B. M. and Vasquez, E. A.

knowledge of relationships (Vasquez, 2009) – that is being practiced within the individual’s turf and translated in other communal environments (e.g. work and community). They find meaning in anything that is societal in nature. They tend to be more sensitive to affinitive responsibilities. The family is also the first government of the individual (Vasquez, 2009). This means that the family teaches the basic laws of life – like being good in school, workplace, community and country. This allows the shaping of the individual’s morality – the introjection of parental doctrines translated in social setting (Hall, Lindzey & Campbell, 1998). Neutrality to the economic aspect does not mean it is not recognized. It is only less prioritized, secondary to the social component. The individual still needs to have stable economic resources to sustain the family and fund social responsibilities. For example, the family needs to buy food and pay taxes. This is demonstrated in the high regard to work. One needs to do hard work to sustain. This is the individual’s motivation to provide for the self and family thru labor and effort (The Sidhevairs, 2013). Model 2. The Transactional Model.

stability is more valued – working hard to provide. Alternatively, involvements to familial affairs by some are only highlighted when there is expectancy of economic return. This economic aspiration of stability, either real or imagined, allows them to see values as an economic enterprise. Since the motivation is more economic in nature, morality is compromised. This sad reality is being justified with the notion of familial support thru economic stability (the end justifying the means). The familial regard only focuses on sustenance but less affective. Familiar responsibilities may not be exhibited to accommodate the desire to look for means. Since familial responsibilities are not maximized, it is also expected that social responsibilities are less prioritized. Although economic valuing is high, they value work as transactional. They work as required, but they do not involve themselves passionately. They only deliver what is expected from them and the amount of work is based on their pay. At worst, they expect more than what they can actually give. There is also neutral regard to national identity and environment. The domino effect brought about by the neutral affective training in the family cascades to the other factors. This group only engages in transactions when they expect economic gain. Model 3. The Passive and Asocial Model

This model represents the reality in cluster 1. The group depicts neutrality to family. However, this must not be interpreted as a mere neutral regard, but a compromised condition to support existence. One needs to provide to the self and the family. Economic

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This model is best seen in cluster 3. Mason 2010) identified three levels defining the meaning to human life. Two of these are legitimate (may be represented by clusters 1 and 2) and the other one is misguided (best depicted in cluster 3). The first legitimate meaning of human life conferred the care for something more than the simple satisfaction of personal desires. The second refers to those satisfactions coming from living with others and acting in the world. This includes the memories and anticipations of daily life, as well as the things with familial and social significance. The third cluster represents the lower form of valuing life. When there is low regards to family, automatically, there is also low regards to the environment, (both physical and social) and national identity. However, regards to work is neutral. It also expected that one needs to work in order to survive. When we surrogate all the variables as part of the affective-social domain, we can identify

that people in cluster 3 are the robotic type. They function without the heart. What is paradoxically surprising is that they emulate neutral moral regard. Scrutinizing it carefully allows us to implicate that that this type of people has to get along with the norms of society not because they wanted to comply. They observe them because they want to avoid potential communal problems that may arise in the future. The same dynamics is observed in the workplace. To avoid potential conflict with workmates, they put on a mask to show that they are neutrally involved. This is a strategy to avoid work related conflicts. Clustered Countries with the Dominant Religions. The countries in cluster 1 are dominated by Muslims. Cluster 2 are dominated by Roman Catholics while cluster 3 by Roman Catholics and Orthodox. Isolating the dominant religion as the clustering variable, it is inferred that Religion does not have a bearing in all of the characteristics

Table 2. Dominant Religions per Cluster.

Cluster 1

Cluster 2

Cluster 3

8 – Muslim

11 – Roman Catholic

6 – Roman Catholic

8 – Muslim

9 – Orthodox

4 – Protestant

4 – Muslim

2 – Buddhist

2 - Christian

2 – Christian

1 – Hindu

1 – Buddhist

1 – Jewish

1 – Protestant

1 – Patriarchate 1 – Orthodox 1 – Angelican 1 – Irreligious * Intentionally did not enumerate the countries

Galigao, R. P., Catadman, B. M. and Vasquez, E. A.

described in each model. Some of the description on the teachings of the dominant religion did not coincide with the descriptions in the model. With the diversity of religion, all teaches universal truths and realities interpreted in different ways. The plurality still converges when we talk about valuing life. There is a universal philosophy. The differences identified in the model can be attributed to other factors. It was observed that countries in cluster 1 have bipolar distribution in terms of economic stability. Either condition, model 2 can still explain the phenomenon. Rich countries increase the likelihood for competition. There is money in these countries, but they need to work. Protecting financial stability in home requires one to work transactionally. Poor countries in the other hand push its citizen to keep-up with the financial demands of the family. This becomes a motivator for survival. In all the models, cluster 2 may be influenced by religion. In Roman Catholicism, the teaching of familial closeness is entrenched to all aspects of human life. The teaching of denial to material object does not necessarily mean not obtaining them. They are also needed for survival but not the primary focus. In Islam, they are taught to balance all aspects of humanity (Akhtar, 2010). Unique to the characteristics of cluster 3 is individualism. The focus of the self may influence their dealings with others. IV. CONCLUSION How a person value life is influenced most by the family. The family as the first, community, school and government teaches the child’s moral values. It is a milieu that facilitates a person’s formative years. How one is nurtured in the family directs their dealings to the social and physical environment. It also influences the person’s dealings in the work place, formation of morale, economic valuing and national identity. There are 3 general variations in how human race value life: 1. valuing life that is centered by social motivation (person-oriented);

2. 3.

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economically motivated valuing (materialistic); and dissociative affect that focuses valuing to the self (egocentric).

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REFERENCES Afryka, M. (2013). Concept of family in Africa. Retrieved April 4, 2013 http.//mojaafryka.weebly.com/concept offamily.html. Akhtar, S. (n.d.). The Islamic concept of knowledge. Retrieved April 4, 2013. http://www.al-islam,org.al. tawhid Allen, B. (n.d.). Patriotism. Kyoto Journal. Retrieved April 4, 2013 http://kyoto.journal.org/thejournal/nature/ patriotism. Durkheim, E., Weber M., & Marx K. (n.d.). Sociological theories of religion. Retrieved April 4, 2013 from http://www.cliffsnotes.com/sciences/sociology/ religion/sociological-theories-of-religion Edel, A. (1953). Concept of value in Contemporary Philosophical Value Theory. Philosophy of Science, 20(1), 198-207. English-Online (n.d.). Article or essay. The Roman Catholic Church. Retrieved April 4, 2013. http:// www.english-onlineatreligionroman-catholic-church/ roman.catholic.htm Fairchild, M. (2013). Eastern Orthodox church belief and practices. Retrieved April 4, 2013. http://christianity. about.com/od/easternordoxology/a/orthodoxblags. html Felce, D. (2007). Defining and applying the concept of quality of life. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 41(2), 126-135. Hall, C. S., Lindzey, G., & Campbell, J. B. (1998). Theories of Personality (4th ed.). Canada:Joh Wiley & Sons, Inc. Han, J., & Kamber, M. (2006). Data mining concepts and techniques (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Elsevier Inc. Leung, J., & Leung, K. (1992). Life-satisfaction, selfconcept, and relationship with parents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 21(6), 653-665. Leininger, M., & McFarland, M. R. (2005). Transcultural nursing: concepts, theories, research & practice (3rd Ed. – International Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical Publishing Division. Mason, J. (2010). Talking philosophy. Retrieved April 8, 2013. http://blog.talkingphilosophy.com/?p=1569 Nam, C. (2004). The concept of life: Demographic and genealogical perspectives. Retrieved April 4, 201

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www.ncsociology.org/sociationtoday/v22/family.htm Peracullo, J. C. (2012). A Filipino feminist perspectiveon the RH Bill debate. Social Development Research Center-DLSU Occasional Paper Series, 2(b), 1-15. Romesburg, C. (2004). Cluster analysis for researchers. North Carolina: Lulu Press. The Sidhevairs (2013). Industriousness. Retrieved April 8, 2013 at https://www.sidhevair.org/Industriousness. html Vasquez, B. A. (2009). Culture-based health care practices among Cebuanos in the rural and urban areas. (Unpublished masteral thesis). University of the Visayas, Cebu City, Philippines. Vasquez, B. A. (2013). Different ways of discovering truth and reality: A choice preference theory. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Cebu Normal University, Cebu City, Philippines. Westby, D. (2013). Protestant ethic. Retrieved April 4, 2013 at http://mbsoft.com/believe/txn/protestant.html

UV Journal of Research 2013

Contributory factors and prevalent causes of medication errors among nurses in Cebu City Joel B. Serad Center for Research and Development University of the Visayas joelserad@gmail.com Submitted: March 21, 2012

Accepted: July 29, 2013

ABSTRACT Theresearcher determined the contributoryfactors and prevalent causes of medication errors among nurses in Cebu City. The increasing incidence of medication errors nowadays prompted the researcher to explore the different factors and causes of this healthcare concern. This is something of value since it served as a basis in formulating a plan of preventive measures. This study utilized a quantitative correlational research with a descriptive qualitative method. Basically, there were 100 nurses who participated in the study. These nurses were chosen based on a specified criteria and data collection was conducted on these participants who came from different tertiary public and private hospitals in Cebu City. With the help of SSPS, the findings of this study revealed that the topmost common contributory factors of medication error are high workload, stress and level of tiredness, communication problem, and working environment while topmost common prevalent causes are illegible physicianâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s order, computing the wrong dose, and not identifying the right patient. Further, it revealed that generally the most of the items from the contributory factors and prevalent causes of medication errors do not have significant relationships with each other. This study was inspired by the Human Error theory by James Reason. It explained that mistakes or errors are human-nature. In this study, a proposed preventive measure was formulated to help combat the occurrence of medication errors. These measures include professional and systemic reforms. These reforms aimed to change not only the person but the whole system or organization, as well. Keywords: contributory factors, prevalent causes, medication errors, nurses, Cebu City, preventive measures I. INTRODUCTION Medication errors continually rise in practice â&#x20AC;&#x201C; just as when patients thought nurses could help them, it is when nurses intentionally or unintentionally put them at risk instead. According to the National Coordinating Council for Medication Error Reporting and Prevention (2009):

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Medication error is any preventable event that may cause or lead to inappropriate medication use or patient harm while the medication is in the control of the healthcare professional, the patient, or the consumer. Such events may be related to professional practice, health care products, procedures, and

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Robert Naylor (2002) claimed that many people, including those in the health care professions, considered medication error commission as uniquely unpleasant subject and something that should not be discussed. Aside from involving additional human and financial costs to the patients, their families, and the healthcare systems (Glavin, 2010; The Medication Errors Panel, 2007; The Institute of Medicine Committee on the Quality of Health Care in America, 1999; Pinilla, Murillo, Carrasco & Humet, 2006; Naylor, 2002), it also induces demoralizing effects on the reputation (Cook & Hoas, 2009; Simpson & Knox, 2009; Interdisciplinary Conference, 2008; Naylor, 2002) that grounds severe damage to trust and confidence (Jacobs, 2004; Selbst, 2003; Naylor, 2002) among health care providers. Medication errors can occur at any setting, anytime. The contributory factors and prevalent causes may vary in each reported case. Informal conversations done with some nurses revealed that medication errors commonly happen during their “busy” days, while others told the researcher that they commonly occur as a result of knowledge deficiency with certain medications and of miscommunication or misinterpretation of physician’s order. Moreover, the researcher observed that nurses in some busy hospitals are highly prone to committing medication errors. In fact, in one of these hospitals, a nurse mistakenly administered an IV drug by bolus instead of giving it at a slow rate. In another instance, a student nurse happened to give a suppository orally, not rectally instead. Still another surprising event was when a certain drug order was mistakenly read as 20 mg to be given once daily, when the drug is only available in 2 mg tablets once daily. The nurse prepared 10 tablets and gave them all to the patient. However, the error was later discovered.

And though the incidence of medication errors is kept to a minimum, it is inevitable for nurses to explore on possible effective ways to help combat such problem. In the Philippines, the issue on medication error is one important concern that nurses are significantly paying attention to. Although oftentimes unreported or unrecognized, medication errors have become a competitive challenge of pharmacovigilance, that is, safe drug use and administration. The outcomes of lowlevel errors may not pose immediate harm to clients but eventually, high- level errors can result in severe complications to the client, even death. Given this, nurses are placed on the primer of prevention and management of this clinical and social problem. With this information, the researcher was driven to look into the contributory factors and prevalent causes of medication errors as identified by nurses in Cebu City. The researcher believed that this study was worth pursuing because, in a way, the output would become an eye opener for nurses in different health care facilities. By knowing the factors and causes of medication errors, a set of recommendations can be established with the end-goal of improving client care outcomes and patient safety across all health care settings. II. THE STUDY Research Problem This study determined the contributory factors and prevalent causes of medication errors among nurses in Cebu City for the period of January to December 2010 as basis for preventive measures. Specifically it sought to answer the following queries: (1) What were the contributory factors affecting medication errors among nurses in Cebu City in terms of organizational and individual; (2) What were the prevalent causes of medication errors among nurses in Cebu City in terms of preparation and administration; (3) What were the top three contributory factors and prevalent causes of

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medication errors among nurses in Cebu City; (4) Was there a significant relationship between the contributory factors and prevalent causes of medication errors among nurses in Cebu City; and (5) What recommendations were proposed based on the findings of the study? Review of Related Literature Margolin (2010) presented a creditable, persistent determination to decrease patient harm caused by medication errors, the health care profession has recognized a number of grounds predominant in many avoidable medication inaccuracies. Systemic problems are a major factor in preventable medication errors. Systemic issues include: (1) physical factors such as poor noise, lighting, color, temperature and chaotic layout and design organization factors such as time pressure, stress, fatigue, work overload, and lack of privacy (Margolin, 2010; Chaudhury & Mahmood, 2007; Anjali, 2006); (2) errors of fatigue or distraction caused by pressure on pharmacists and pharmacy technicians (Margolin, 2010; Anderson & Townsend, 2010, National Association of Pharmacy Regulatory Authorities, 2009; Institute for Safe Medication Practices, 2009; Gianutsos, 2008); and (3) higher volume of drug preparation than can be safely performed (Margolin, 2010; Blackburn, 2010). Some of the worst errors occur when (Margolin, 2010): (1) patient’s chart is not read and interpreted well (Roy, Gupta & Srivastava, 2006; Lisby, Nielsen & Mainz, 2005); (2) professionals failed to assess clients allergies to drugs (Jones & Como, 2003); (3) drugs are administered to wrong patients (Institute for Safe Medication Practices, 2011); (4) excessive drug dosage for the patient’s age, weight and condition are administered (Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 2011); (5) handwritten orders and prescriptions by the physician may be misinterpreted by the pharmacist and nurses (Jain & Rastogi, 2009; Glabman, 2005; Hellwege, 2000; Bruner & Kasdan, 2001); (6) drugs with similar names may result in a deadly erroneous drug administration (Nordenberg, 2010; Taneja

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& Wiegmann, 2004); and (7) miscommunication and misunderstanding between health care professionals is another major cause of medication errors (Rosenfield, 2009; Khowaja, Nizar, Merchant, Dias, Bustamante-Gavino& Malik, 2008; Patel, 2004). Rosenfield (2009) stressed that doctors must take reasonable care in correctly and accurately writing prescriptions and staff must similarly confirm medication types and dosages when in doubt. In a study conducted by Lambert and colleagues (2010), audial perception experiment in spoken medication errors in the United States was undertaken to measure the influence of similarity, familiarity, background noise and other factors on health care professionals and laypersons’ ability to identify spoken drug names. Objectively measurable properties of drug names were used to predict confusability, and it was found that: (1) accuracy increased significantly as the signal-to-noise ratio increased, as subjective familiarity with the name increased and as the national prescribing frequency of the name increased; (2) similarity among clinicians to other drug names reduced identification accuracy, especially when the neighboring names were frequently prescribed; (3) when names were substituted for another, the substituted name was almost always a more frequently prescribed drug. Maurer’s dissertation (2010) found that medication administration is often carried out under chaotic and stressful circumstances and is probably the highest risk activity a nurse performs – it can be minor or lead to devastating effects for the patient and also for the nurses’ career. Furthermore, five topmost causes of medication errors were identified: (1) interruptions during medication pass; (2) short nurse staffing; (3) nurses caring for high acuity patients; (4) nurses working more than 12 hours in one shift; and (5) nurse knowledge of medication being administered. In a literature review study conducted by Alanko and colleagues (2007), findings revealed that both organizational and individual factors

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contributed to medication errors. Developing and improving the physical environment, error reporting, and medication management protocols were emphasized, and methods to prevent medication errors were drafted to counteract: (1) high workload, communication breakdowns, unsuitable working environment, distractions and interruptions, and similar medication products; and (2) nursesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; inability to follow protocol, inadequate knowledge of medications and personal qualities of the nurse. In the study of Mayo & Duncan (2004), several facilities depend on nurses in determining probable errors â&#x20AC;&#x201C; so that they can bring them to the attention prior to its occurrence to the appropriate person. Errors were attributed to: (1) illegibility of written orders; (2) dispensing errors; (3) calculation errors; (4) monitoring errors; and (5) administration errors. These were attributed to distraction, tiredness, and exhaustion. Less than half believed that all drug errors should be reported and reasons for not reporting include: (1) fear of manager; and (2) peer reactions. Theoretical Framework This study was anchored on the Human Error theory by James Reason. This theory had been vital in the management of simple and complex errors in the healthcare delivery system. Based on the premise of this theory, humans are highly

responsible for mistakes occurring imminently in the clinical setting while at the same time providing professional care to their clients inside the facility. Numerous notions are necessary to cognize the etiology of medication errors. Decisions taken by the authority in any institution, while well thought out and considered being correct at the time, can be unfitting and, therefore, potentiate unpredictable problems within the system. This has a direct bearing on how misfortunes develop. These can become inherent in the workplace and influence the environments in which we work and the tasks which we are carrying out. The probability of increased danger will likely occur when it creates weaknesses in the task and environmental conditions (influencing factors, but also known as contributory factors). Individual factors were those factors which affect the performance of nurses whose actions may have an effect on the delivery of safe and effective care to patients and hence the likelihood of service delivery problem (SDP) occurring. Many factors may contribute to a single SDP. He devised a specific contributory factors framework based upon significant observation and research into the influencing and causative factors contributing to the occurrence of clinical errors. Among them are educational, personal and emotional factors. Medication errors may lead to inexcusable

Figure 1.Human Errors in Medication Administration.

Serad, J. B.

or negligent outcomes that may cause patient injury. These medication errors can occur at whatever point in a nurse’s work time. Several factors have also been identified by the Philippine Colleges of Physicians (2007) as causes of medication errors. These errors may arise from doctors’, nurses’, pharmacists’ or even patients’ shortcomings. From their point of view to a nurse’s responsibilities, medication may occur from causes arising through drug preparation and administration. These inevitably include those that violate most particularly the rights of medication administration. Identified causes have been significant to include those from mistaken patients, wrong calculations and dilutions, administering in one site instead of another, faulty withdrawing of liquid medicines, wrong rates, illegible physician’s handwriting, confusion with drugs of similar names, and under timing or over timing medication administration. These causes have all been linked to the problems of medication errors and mismanagement. III. METHODOLOGY This study involved a quantitative correlational design with qualitative analysis in order to determine complementary strengths with regard to the findings of the study. The participants of the study were nurses in Cebu City: charge nurses, medication nurses, staff nurses, and nurse preceptees. These participants were chosen because they were the ones directly involved in the care of the clients admitted in the medical facility. The researcher utilized power analysis to come up with 100 nurses gathered through the use of quota sampling. Ten key informants from the pool were identified purposively for multiple individual interviews. The study was conducted within Cebu City. The researcher conveniently utilized nurses from different public and private tertiary hospitals in the city. No particular hospital name was singledout in this study in order to establish anonymity and confidentiality. Hence as quoted by Polit and Beck (2004):

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“Anonymity is the protection of participants in a study such that even the researcher cannot link individuals with information provided”. The instrument used for this data collection was a researcher-made-multiple-response questionnaire based on the application of Human Error theory by James Reason and onfindingsfrom related literature and studies. It was validated by 3 experts and reliability was determined. It contained a checklist of possible contributory factors and prevalent causes of medication errors. Each participant was given the questionnaire for the quantitative part. The answers acquired from the participants were then organized, collated and analyzed to generate findings. Data were processed in SPSS version 20 using the following statistical treatments: simple percentage; ranking system; and chi square with Cramer’s v to determine the existence and strength of relationship of the contributory factors and prevalent causes of medication errors. A semi-structured schedule interview guide was also prepared to gather qualitative information concerning the issue at hand. Consent was taken prior to each interview. Verbatim transcription of the audiotaped interviews was done. Recordings were then destroyed after transcriptions were rechecked. Information was indexed to convert data into smaller and more manageable units. IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION After a thorough collation, interpretation and analysis of data gathered, the following were the findings of this undertaking: Profile. There were 45 staff nurses, 24 medication nurses, 17 charge nurses, and 14 volunteer nurses who were able to answer the instrument in the study. These nurses were those who work primarily in the clinical settings and who were directly in contact with their patients during medication administration and use.

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Organizational Contributory Factors. Among the organizational contributory factors of medication errors, higher workload ranked first with 86% of the responses. This is followed by communication problem and working environment both with 67% of the responses. Distraction and interruptions during medication pass garnered 53% while medication product problems had 40% of the responses. The findings implied that when nurses are assigned too many tasks to do, they tend to lose focus on proper medication preparation and administration and thus most likely could commit medication errors.

Drug Preparation. In terms of preparation, medication errors were greatly caused by illegible physician’s order. It garnered 75% of the responses. Not at far from the first one was computing the wrong dose with 72%. Following were drug name confusion, 41%; inappropriate dilution, 38%; and drug withdrawing error, 29%. As observed, the last three causes did not attain one-half of the responses. The findings implied that it is necessary to validate and double-check physicians’ medication orders to make certain that what was transcribed in the order sheet are congruent with what nurses should prepare.

“Kung daghan kaayu ug pasyente ug trabahu-un, mawad-ankag focus ug concentration so mas prone jud ka masayup”. (If we have many patients and workload, we lose focus and concentration, making us more prone to errors)

“Makalagut usahay ang mga doctors, bati pag batasan, bati pajud agi. Pareha sa ilangnawng, ang ilang orders di jud masabtan.”(Some doctors are irritating; their handwriting is the same as their attitude. Their orders can hardly be understood, just as how they look).

Individual Factors. For the individual factors, stress/level of tiredness came first with 78% of the responses. This is followed by inadequate medication knowledge at 67%, then inability to follow protocol with 55% of the responses. Lack of work experience garnered 42% low morale had 40% of the responses. The findings implied that medication errors commonly happens when nurses do not have enough energy and disposition to carry out all assigned tasks because of tired or stressed out with work.

Medication Administration. For the errors arising from medication administration, the most prevalent cause was not identifying the right patient, accounting for 67% of responses. All other causes did not attain one-half of the responses. They include wrong administration time, 45%; inappropriate site, 44%; regulating at wrong rate, 42%; and interchanging routes, 35%. The findings implied that nurses should follow the fundamental rights of medication administration to prevent administering drugs to wrong clients and thus prevent unwanted events.

“There were times when we were required to work four straight nights (graveyard shift) and it was really terrible, very tiring and stressful. You can really feel that your mind drifts. That’s when your start committing errors.” “Kung kapuy, natural di jud ka katarung ug huna-huna, saputun pa jud ka”. (If you’re tired, naturally you can’t think well, you’ll even get irritated).

“There was this nurse who injected the oxytocin to the baby, instead of giving it to the mother. It was terrible, good thing, nothing happened to the baby. That was one medication error I can’t forget when I was a student.” Ranked Factors. Among all factors (organizational and individual), higher workload was seen as the most contributory to medication errors. It constitutes 86% from the responses.

Serad, J. B.

This is followed by stress and level of tiredness with 78% and finally communication problem and working environment with 67% of the responses. From among the causes, illegible physician’s handwriting emerged as most prevalent. It received 75% of the participant’s responses. This is followed by computing the wrong dose with 72% and finally, not identifying the right patient at 67%. This made up the top three prevalent causes of medication errors among nurses. Correlations. The following contributory factors and prevalent causes were significantly correlated with varying degrees or strength of correlations: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Working environment and drug name confusion (moderate); Distraction/interruption and drug withdrawing error (moderate); Distraction/interruption and not identifying the right patient (strong); Inadequate medication knowledge and wrong adm’n. time (mod. strong); Stress/level of tiredness and inappropriate site (strong); Lack of work experience and drug name confusion (moderate); Lack of work experience and regulating at wrong rate (moderate); Low morale and inappropriate dilution (weak).

All other contributory factors and prevalent causes did not have a significant relationship with each other. Discussion Beginning staff nurses are nurse generalists. This means that they are expected to perform all nursing responsibilities under acceptable conditions. This implies that staff nursing is a lot broader in perspective. Meanwhile, medication and charge nursing are more specific nursing functions. As compared to the number of staff nurses, this implies that more nurses are given general assignments instead of more precise and

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detailed ones. Voluntary nursing on the other hand may comprise any of the three earlier mentioned. However, in this study, less number applied for them since most of the volunteer nurses generally were not as exposed or experienced as compared to staff, medication, and charge nurses. Shortage in RN staffing accounts most of the medication errors. Although there is surplus of unemployed RNS. It is inevitable, in fact, that some nurses give up their jobs because they are not well compensated with the burden of loads that they carry. This problem, although highly modifiable, has placed nurses in a dilemma of whether to prioritize themselves or their patients. Because once they rest, no one will care for their patients. And if they don’t as well, in as much as they want to render safe care, they will really have a higher tendency to commit medication errors. When there are too many patients to cover, the increased amount of drug administration is at risk (Margolin, 2010; Blackburn, 2010). This will eventually lead to: (1) erroneous interpretation of patient’s chart, doctor’s order and prescriptions (Roy, Gupta & Srivastava, 2006; Lisby, Nielsen & Mainz, 2005;); (2) inadequate drug-clientallergy assessment (Jones & Como, 2003); drugs administration to wrong patients (Institute for Safe Medication Practices, 2011); and (4) wrong drug dosage calculation based from the clients characteristics (Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 2011). Workload, as defined by Patterson, Cook & Render (2002), is the perception of task demands by a human agent that depends on performance criteria, task structure, task duration, and the complexity and variability of task demands, among other factors (Huey & Wickens, 1993). There are notable strategies to eliminate or reduce the adverse effects of high workloads. Desmond, Woods & Patterson (in press) identified the following: (1) trading accuracy for speed; (2) reducing performance criteria; (3) shedding tasks; (4) deferring tasks; and (5) recruiting resources from other personnel. When a person is bombarded with too many

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stimuli, the body suffers exhaustion, and vital functions diminish. This explained why nurse who were stressed and tired but were forced to work often experience higher threats of committing medication errors. Physiologically, when a person is tired, the brain is metabolically deprived, making it function less accurately so cognition is altered and alertness is not maintained. According to Anderson and colleagues (2006), poor communication, improper acquisition, use and monitoring of drug delivery may also lead to medication errors. Some delivery systems have inherent flaws that increase the error risk. Environmental factors that can promote medication errors include inadequate lighting, clustered and noisy work environments, and distractions during drug preparation or administration: color, temperature and chaotic layout (Margolin, 2010; Chaudhury & Mahmood, 2007; Anjali, 2006), Medication errors can result when there is a miscommunication or misunderstanding of drug orders. These errors may be due to: (1) poor handwriting (Jain & Rastogi, 2009; Glabman, 2005; Hellwege, 2000; Nordenberg, 2000; Bruner & Kasdan, 2001); (2) confusion between drugs with similar names (Nordenberg, 2010; Taneja & Wiegmann, 2004); and (3) misuse of zeroes and decimal points, confusion of metric and other dosing units, and inappropriate abbreviations (Nordenberg, 2000). Doctors must take reasonable care in correctly and accurately writing prescriptions and staff must similarly confirm medication types and dosages when in doubt. Medication errors can also occur when doctors take an incomplete medical history from a patient. For example, the doctor might not know about the patient’s allergies, any other medications the patient is taking, previous diagnoses, and lab results. Nursing homes should help treating physicians by ensuring that they provide the physician with accurate medical charts (Rosenfield, 2009). Nurses should be especially careful when reading doctor’s orders. Doctors on their part should also be responsible enough to make

written orders clear and legible. Although busy and inattentive, doctors and nurses should take a while to contemplate on their medication accountabilities and obligations. Further, there is a need for nurses to review their computation tasks before they eventually venture into medication administration. They must also be honest and open to other nurses when in doubt about written orders and dosages. Identifying the patient ahead of medication administration should be strictly observed. The researcher believed that this is the most sensitive among all other factors and causes since it could immediately result to adverse responses by the patient. Many ways have been identified to identify the patient. The nurse is responsible for ensuring that the drug is given to the right patient. In finality, all rights of medication should always be observed. In the end, nurses are expected to be empathetic. But where should this virtue go if a nurse erroneously administers a drug to another patient? What if the patient was his kin? This issue implied that nurses should take a moment asking the patient’s name before administering medications. Prudent nurses should be accountable to their actions. The wrong patient could die with this error, hence, an alarming situation in the healthcare industry nowadays. It should be a standard operating procedure, a part of routine, an obligation to every nurse to review his patient before administering any drug or medication. V. CONCLUSION Based from the findings of this study, the researcherconcludedthathigherworkload,stress/ level of tiredness, communication problem, and working environment were most contributory to medication errors. Also, the researcher concluded that illegible physician’s order, wrong dosage computation, and not identifying the right patient were the most prevalent causes of medication errors. Further, it was also concluded that in general, the contributory factors and prevalent causes of medication errors were not significantly

Serad, J. B.

related to each other. This gave way to the notion that each of the variable was highly unique from each other and that they were greatly dispensable entities. In other words, one variable can exist even without the others. And the variables generally were independent and existential. Furthermore, as supported by James Reason in his theory, medication errors were results of human doings that may have started as “just nothing” which eventually progressed to even more serious issues or concerns. On this note, the researcher finally concluded that preventive measures should need to be imposed (or implemented) in order to prevent further patient injury by reducing the incidence of medication errors through a modification or elimination of the contributory factors and prevalent causes. VI. RECOMMENDATIONS The researcher concluded that the errors in our midst: I. Systemic reforms: involve modifications of organizational factors 1. Staffing should be clearly and appropriately computed and planned. 2. Shifting of schedule should be done in a consistent and regular basis. 3. Ventilation, adequate lighting, and quiet environment are reinforced. 4. Open and effective communication between and among health care providers should be established and maintained. 5. Protocols should be strictly followed. An evaluation of the adherence and compliance to the protocols should be implemented and maintained. 6. Drug product labeling and packaging should be clear and protected. II. Professional reforms: involve personal change in behavior and attitude 1. Review the “rights of medication administration”. 2. When in doubt about certain drugs, take time to ask or inquire.

115 3. 4. 5. 6.

Do not assume information, illegible orders should be clarified. Adequate rest and sleep should be maintained. Take a break from work. Experience is the best teacher. Learn while practicing and performing. Socialization among fellow nurses should be encouraged in the unit.

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REFERENCES Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (2001). Reducing and preventing adverse drug events to decrease hospital costs. AHRQ Publication: Research in Action. 1(20). Retrieved April 15, 2012, from http://www.ahrq.gov/ qual/aderia/aderia.htm#CannotBePredicted Alanko, K. & Nyholm, L. (2007). Oops! Another medication error: A literature review of contributing factors and methods to prevent medication errors. Undergraduate thesis, Helsingin Ammattikorkeakoulu Stadia, Helsinki Polytechnic, Health Care and Social Services. Anderson, P. & Townsend, T. (2010). Medication errors: Don’t let them happen to you. American Nurse Today, (5) 3, 23-28. Anderson, P., & Townsend, T. (2010). Medication errors: Don’t let them happen to you. American Nurse Today, 5(3), 23-27. Blackburn, J. (2010). A technician’s role optimizing patient safety and minimizing medication errors: A Knowledge Based Course for Technicians, ACPE No. 0096-9999-10-072-H05-T. Retrieved April 15, 2012, from https://secure.jdeducation.com/JDCourseMaterial/ K-MedErrors%20SINGLE.pdf Bruner, A. & Kasdan, M.L. (2001). Handwriting errors: Harmful, wasteful and preventable. Retrieved April 15, 2012, from http://www.kyma.org/uploads/file/patient_ safety/physicians/harmful_wasteful_and_preventable. pdf Chaudhury, H. & Mahmood, A. (2007). Effects of environmental design on reducing nursing and medication errors. The Center for Health Design, 6-20. Retrieved April 15, 2012, from http://www.healthdesign. org/sites/default/files/effect_of_environmental_design_ on_reducing_nursing_and_medication_errors_in_ac_ settings-exec_sum.pdf Cook, A. F. & Hoas, H. (2009). Ethics conflicts in rural communities: Recognizing and disclosing medical errors. Handbook for rural health care ethics: A practical guide for professionals (pp. 231-253). England: University Press of New England.

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Desmond, P.A., Woods, D. D. & Patterson, E.S. (2001). How unexpected events produce an escalation of cognitive and coordinative demands. In Hancock, P. A. & Desmond, P. A. (Eds.), Stress, Workload and Fatigue (pp. 290-304). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Gianutsos, G. (2008). Identifying factors that cause pharmacy errors. (Faculty Research, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain). US Pharmacist, Postgraduate Healthcare Education, LLC: 430-000-08-024-H03-P; 430-000-08-024-H03-T. Retrieved April 15, 2012, from http://www.uspharmacist.com/continuing_education/ ceviewtest/lessonid/105916/ Glabman, M. (2005). Death by handwriting. Trustee: The Journal for Hospital Governing Boards, 58 (9), 29-32. Glavin, R. J. (2010). Drug errors: Consequences, mechanisms, and avoidance. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 105 (1), 76-82. Hellwege, J. (January 1, 2000). Doctorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s bad handwriting caused fatal prescription mix-up. Trial Magazine. Retrieved April 15, 2012, from http://www.highbeam. com/doc/1G1-59035902.html Huey, B. M. & Wickens, C. D. (1993). Workload transition: Implications for individual and team performance. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Institute for Safe Medication Practice (2011, March 10). Oops, sorry, wrong patient! A patient verification is needed everywhere, not just at the bedside. Retrieved April 15, 2012, from http://www.ismp.org/newsletters/ acutecare/articles/20110310.asp Institute for Safe Medication Practices (2009). Improving medication safety in community pharmacy: Assessing risk and opportunities for change. Retrieved April 15, 2012, from http://141.109.38.4/resources/ISMP-US%20 Assess%20Err%20Manual.pdf Interdisciplinary Conference (2008). Optimizing the medication use process. Improving clinical, operational and financial performance. Retrieved April 15, 2012, from http://www.carefusion.com/pdf/Center_for_ Safety/InvitedConferences/OptimizingConfProcedings. pdf Jacobs,A. K. (2004). Rebuilding an enduring trust in medicine. A global mandate: Presidential address. American Heart Association Scientific Sessions 2004. Jainz, A. & Rastogi, P. (2009). Doctor, is your writing legible? Indian Journal of Medical Ethics, 6 (1), 42. Jones, T.A. & Como, J.A. (2003). Assessment of medication errors that involved drug allergies at a university hospital. Pharmacotherapy, 23 (7), 855-860. Khowaja, K., Nizar, R., Merchant, R. J., Dias, J., BustamanteGavino, I. & Malik, A. (2008). A systematic approach of tracking and reporting medication errors at a tertiary care university hospital, Karachi, Pakistan. Journal of Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management, 4 (4), 673679. Lambert, B. L., Dickey, L. W., Fisher, W. M., Gibbons, R. D., Lin, S-J, Luce, P. A., McLennan, C. T., Senders, J. W., & Yu, C. T. (2010). Listen carefully: The risk of error in spoken medication errors. Social Science and Medicine, 70 (8), 1599-1608. Lisby, M., Nielsen, L. P., & Mainz, J. (2005). Errors in the medication process: frequency, type, and potential clinical consequences. International Journal for Quality

in Health Care, 17 (1), 15-22. doi: 10.1093/intqhc/ mzi015 Margolin, K. (2010). Principal causes of medication errors. Boston, Massachusetts. Maurer, M. J. (2010). Nursesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perceptions and experiences with medication errors. Doctoral dissertation, University of Toledo. Retrieved from ProQuest LLC. (UMI 3423235). Mayo, A. M. & Duncan, D. (2004). Nurse perceptions of medication errors: What we need to know for patient safety. Journal of Nursing Care Quality, 19 (3), 209207. Medication Errors Panel Report (2007). Prescription for improving patient safety: Addressing medication errors. A report from The Medication Errors Panel Pursuant to California Senate Concurrent Resolution 49 (2005). National Association of Pharmacy Regulatory Authorities (2009). Minimizing medication errors. National Council for Medication Error Reporting and Prevention (2009). Consumer education for safe medication use. Naylor, R. (2002). Medication errors: Lessons for education and health care. BMJ Publishing Group LTD. Naylor, R. (2002). Medication errors: Lessons for education and healthcare. Padstow, Cornwall: TJ International Ltd. Nordenberg, T. (2010, June 21). Make No Mistake: Medical Errors Can Be Deadly Serious. Dangerous Drugs and Drug Abuse in the News. Patel, R. B. (2004). Reduction in medication errors in hospitals. Philippine Colleges of Physicians (2007). Finding ways to prevent medication error. Paper presented to the Philippine Colleges of Physicians 41st Annual Convention. Pinilla. J., Murillo, C., Carrasco, G., & Humet, C. (2006). Case-control analysis of the financial cost of medication errors in hospitalized patients. The European Journal of Health Economics, 7 (1), 66-71. Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2008). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice. Philadelphia: Lippincott William & Wilkins. Roy, V., Gupta, P., & Srivastava, S. (2006). Medication errors: Causes and prevention. Health Administrator, 19 (1), 60-64. Selbst, S. M. (2003). The difficult duty of disclosing medical errors. Contemporary Pediatrics. Simpson, K. R., & Knox, E. (2009). Oxytocin as a high-alert medication: Implications for perinatal patient safety. The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing, 23 (1), 8-15. Srivastava, S., Roy, V., & Gupta, P. (2005). Medication errors; Causes and prevention. Health Admnistrator. 19(1), 6064. Taneja, N., & Weigmann, D. A. (2004). The role of perception in medication errors: Implications for non-technological interventions. Medical Journal Armed Forces India, 60, 172-176. The Institute of Medicine Committee on the Quality of Health Care in America (1999). To err is human: Building a safer health system. National Academy of Science.

UV Journal of Research 2013

Purchasing and control strategies: Economic order quantities of oligopolistic medium-scale enterprises Dutchque Van E. Dato-on College of Business Administration University of the Visayas dutchque.van@gmail.com Submitted: January 17, 2013

Accepted: July 11, 2013

ABSTRACT Medium-scale enterprises have developed overtime and have performed a critical role in driving a countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s industrial transformation in most developed countries. A hardware establishment is a superb example of medium-scale endeavor. In the Philippines, particularly in Cebu City, the identified economic potentials of mediumscale enterprises slowly relegated due to challenges and constraints of a highly competitive oligopolistic market, product and demand variability including variances in purchasing strategies and internal control systems of most industries. One representation is Alliance Hardware, Inc. which desires to attain a 100% service level but the management has no idea as to the cost implications of the possible actions that they will take. This study intends to develop an appropriate inventory system so as to increase the companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s service level that will specifically cater to their needs as well as the needs of their customers. The research looks into establishing a standard reorder point and order quantity that will help the medium-scale hardware enterprises minimize inventory costs while minimizing or eliminating the presence of stock outs. Specifically, the study aims to optimize the service level using inventory management principles taking into account the companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s purchasing and internal control strategies in an oligopolistic environment. I analyzed all the data gathered and interpreted using industrial, operations and project management tools. Also, concepts such as reorder point, economic order quantity, safety stocks and service level were used. The computed standard reorder point and economic order quantity served as the basis for comparison in determining whether there is an improvement in the actual service level of Alliance Hardware, Inc. which serves as a good representation of a medium-scale venture. Finally, I then formulated solutions and alternatives that would help the company improve their inventory operations, thus, an increase in their level of customer service. Using the standard economic order quantity and reorder point that I have computed based on the data gathered would imply yearly savings of Php 838,355.10 for the company which is an enormous cutback on expenses especially for medium-scale enterprises in general. Keywords: inventory, reorder point, service level, stock outs

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I. INTRODUCTION Medium-scale enterprises contribute to the conception of wealth, employment and income generation, both in rural and urban areas, thus, ensuring a more reasonable income distribution. They also provide the economy with a constant supply of ideas, skills, and innovations necessary to promote competition and the efficient allocation of limited resources. A hardware establishment is an excellent example of medium-scale endeavour. Characteristics include carrying out a network that includes over a hundred competitors in the market, employability rate of 60% having employing around over 100 where products sold are purchased by the company from other sources mostly in bulk and are stored in two or more warehouses. Moreover, a noted business asset size of around Php15M to Php100M yearly. Alliance Hardware, Inc. (AHI) is located strategically in Cebu City, so it attracts a high number of customers. Also, the company has already developed strong business relationships with contractors and small hardware establishments outside the city. It is necessary for them to be able to cater the demands of their clients; otherwise, these clients would opt to go to the hardwareâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s competitors for their hardware needs. The management wants to determine their current service level and how they can optimize it so that they could further strategically plan on investing on expansion. In the year 2009, the company was able to record the highest stock out percentage of 3.85% of the annual sales amounting to Php 4,149,614.90. If this problem continues, customers of the hardware would decrease, which would then affect sales and profit. The major problem that AHI encounters is the stock out of their merchandise. They are sometimes unable to provide for the demand requirements of some customers because they are already out of stock. This problem may lead to other problems such as dissatisfied customers and loss of sales. It is, therefore, very important for the management to be able to easily monitor their

inventory. Predictable patterns of product use and sale can be determined by tracking inventory on a regular basis. The management can then base their ordering process on such predictions. They should be able to know which items to order, how much of these items to order, and when to order them, thus, under stock of inventory is minimized. According to Tersine (1993), the two key factors considered essential for an effective inventory management is the proper control over inventory stock and the need of managers to assess the appropriate service level, which entails cost. Levels of inventory should be carefully scheduled in order to balance the carrying cost of inventory and the cost of implementing acceptable levels of customer service. Effective inventory management is a prime determining factor of a highly operative and efficient organization. Martin (2006) pointed out that inventories serve several functions to an organization. The most fundamental function includes meeting anticipated customer demand and most importantly to protect against stock out. Thus, it is crucial for the management to establish a track of its inventory system and to make decisions on when is the perfect time to reorder and how much of the items to order. Furthermore, it is stated that for the management to be effective, it must have a reliable system to keep track of inventory on order and on hand, a dependable demand forecast that includes the signal of the possible forecast error, knowledge of lead times including its variability effects, realistic estimates of inventory holding costs, shortage and ordering costs and a superior classification system of inventory items (Stevenson, 2011). In actual, the demand requirement at any given time frame is uncertain, and when this happens, a natural question is, â&#x20AC;&#x153;At what level should the inventory be before the management of the hardware store could place an order?â&#x20AC;? The inventory level at which an order should be placed is referred to as the reorder point. Krajewski and Ritzman (2009) stated that the fundamental method of reorder point calculation involved the computation of the lead time and the daily usage rate. However, in real life situations, lead times and usage rates

Dato-on, D.V.E.

come in uncertainties. On circumstances where the demand rate and/or lead time vary, the reorder level should be at a level high enough to provide to the demand requirements during lead time and also to provide a measure of safety stock at some point in order to partially neutralize the degree of uncertainty. Stevenson (2011) also mentioned that once the reorder point has been settled, it can proceed in ordering the quantity to: (1) minimize the total annual ordering cost; and (2) carry the cost of inventory. In order to determine the most efficient order size for the company as well as finding a solution on the right amount to order while minimizing other inventory related costs, the economic order quantity should be established. Harris (1913) developed the economic order quantity (EOQ) formula which is the generally used method of computing the minimum annual cost for ordering and carrying an inventory. The EOQ computation assimilates the: (1) cost of placing an order; (2) the unit cost; (3) the yearly sales rate; and (4) the carrying cost of inventory. The EOQ calculation may look moderately simple. However, the job of determining the exact data inputs to precisely denote the inventory as well as the operations is a bit daunting task. Overstated ordering and carrying costs are typical errors made in calculating for the EOQ. Piasecki (2011) identified two factors that influence the resulting EOQ which are: (1) Ordering Costs and (2) Carrying Costs. Ordering Costs are also identified as the purchase cost generally called the set up cost. It represents the totality of the fixed costs that are acquired each time an item is ordered. These costs are primarily linked with physical activities required to process the order. Carrying Costs are also called the holding costs. This refers to the cost related with having inventory on hand. It is mainly made up of the costs accompanying with the storage cost and the inventory investment. Martin (2006) stated that the primary components of carrying costs were (1) energy or cost of electricity; (2) space; (3) taxes; (4) material handling/storage equipment; (5) insurance; and (6) manpower. Stevenson (2011) established that the annual total cost (TC) associated

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with carrying and ordering inventory when Q units are ordered each time is: TC= Annual Carrying Cost + Annual Ordering Cost In computing the total cost formula, Greene (1997) identified the three steps that should be taken into account. First, test the formula. The company should test the software design and system set up, run the program and then physically checks the results using items that are representative of the variations of the inventory. Second, results should be projected. It is essential to run a simulation to determine the overall short-term and long-term effects that the EOQ control and calculation will have on the warehouse space, operations and cash flows. If the projection shows a dropping level of inventory and an increasing order frequency, the process changes should be able to handle the increased activity. Lastly, EOQ should be maintained. It is encouraged that the values for Ordering Cost and Carrying Cost should be evaluated at least once per year. A manager must cautiously weigh the cost of carrying safety stock in contrary to the reduction in stock out risk that it provides because holding safety stocks incurs additional expenses. Bragg (2011) stresses out that the customer service level is inversely proportional to the risk of stock out because as the risk of stock out decreases, the companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s customer service level increases. Service level relies directly on managementâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s judgment. This is a target for the proportion of demand that is met directly from stock or, the maximum acceptable probability that a demand cannot be met from stock. Typically an organization will specify a service level of 95%, suggesting that it will meet 95% of demand from stock, but will not meet the remaining 5% of the demand. In practice, there are several ways of measuring the service level, with common options including percentage of orders totally satisfied from stock, percentage of units demanded that are delivered from stock, percentage of units demanded that are delivered on time and the percentage of time there is stock available. The percentage units

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demanded that are met from stock is the most obvious measure of service level. This is particularly useful in organizations like retail shops and hardware stores where each customer generally demands a single unit, so it also represents the percentage satisfied customer. Landvater (1997) believed that the way to get a higher service level is to hold more safety stock, but the critical factor in setting the amount of safety stock is variation of lead time. If there is little variation, we only need low safety stock. If there is wide variation, we need extremely high safety stocks to get a high service level. In principle, widely varying demand would need an infinite safety stock to ensure a service level of 100%, but getting anywhere close to this can become prohibitively expensive. Often, they set different levels that reflect an item’s importance, but the choice of service is a decision made by managers. They must: (1) assess all information available; and (2) choose an appropriate service level (Muller, 2011). Segregation of materials for selective control, called the A-B-C approach, is an essential tool for inventory management. A-B-C analysis is a simple and generally used method that is based on Pareto’s “80-20” law. The most universal style or method is to compute the demand in units then calculate the entire usage value at cost for every item (total cost of salesmultipliedbytherequiredunits)foraparticular period in the future. The A-B-C approach measures the cost significance of each item. “A” or high-valued items would be under the tightest control and the responsibility of the most experienced personnel. “B” or medium-valued items would be less tightly controlled. “C” items would be under simple physical controls such as the two-bin system with safety stocks. The plan provides impressive savings in materials costs. The A-B-C approach concentrates on items that need utmost importance or value. Because it is not practical to give equal attention to all items in inventory, stock items are classified and ranked on the basis of their descending importance based upon annual peso value of each item, thus providing a proportional value analysis. Also, the AB-C list recommends what items to focus on to

control most of the inventory investment (Usry & Matz, 2009). Forecasts form the basis for many management decisions. In particular, sales forecasts help the company to plan how much of the items could possibly sell or not. Thus, forecasts are crucial in keeping the inventory minimal. Martin (2006) clearly stated that with more accurate organization’s forecasts, the better equipped it will be to take advantage of future opportunities and reduce potential risks. A valuable strategy can be to work to develop short-term forecasts. Better short-term forecasts will not only enhance profits through: (1) lower inventory levels; (2) fewer shortages; and (3) improved customer service levels; but, will also enhance forecasting credibility throughout the organization. According to Greene (1997), maintaining accurate and updated information on the price items, fluctuating demand requirements, and other variables can have a substantial impact on forecast accuracy. The company wants to attain a 100% service level, but they are undecided on what to do because theydo not knowthe cost implications of the possible actions they will take. With this study, I would help Alliance Hardware, Inc. to develop an appropriate inventory system so as to increase their service level that will specifically cater to their needs and the needs of their customers, taking into consideration factors such as demand requirements, lead time and other inventory costs that will affect the reorder point and order quantity. II. THE STUDY The study intends to evaluate the current inventory system of the establishment particularly on the purchasing strategies and internal control system with the end view of proposing recommendations to have a more efficient and systematic inventory system. Specifically, it aims to answer the following questions: (1) What inventory system does the establishment normally adopt in keeping track of their inventory? (a) How does this enterprise classify its inventory in terms of criticality? (b) How

Dato-on, D.V.E.

do they meet anticipated customer demand? and (c) How is the ordering system done? (2) At what point should the establishment reorder for new stocks to reduce or eliminate stock out? (3) How much stocks should be ordered at reorder point? (4) What alternatives can be suggested in order to improve the service of the hardware store? III. METHODOLOGY This study made use of quantitative and applied method of research as various inventory management techniques and computations were utilized. I chose Alliance Hardware, Inc. as a representation of a medium-scale enterprise that wanted to pursue expansion strategies by primarily obtaining a desired 100% service level or at least improving its current service level near to its desired state. Assumptions made on the study include: (1) only one item is involved; (2) annual demand requirements of each item are known; (3) demand is stretched evenly throughout the year, and (4) a 1% stock out adjustment is assumed to represent those recorded unserved items. The 1% stock out adjustment represents those items that were not provided by the sales staff to their customer by the time the customer requests for a certain item and no stock was available for sale. Failure to record some of these unserved items will be difficult to obtain thus the stock out adjustment was made. The data gathering and other research procedures needed to complete this study was conducted at the main office situated at Legaspi corner Lapu-Lapu St., Cebu City and its warehouse is located at the Reclamation Area, Cebu City. The main office has an estimated area of 1,000 sq. feet while the warehouse has a total area of 3,600 sq. feet. Othersourcesofdataneededtofacilitatetheflow of the study include: (1) Price list -this is comprised of the list of all items sold and its corresponding unit price; (2) Sales Records - this contains sales records for each item. This was provided by the inventory manager and this will serve as the basis for the demand; (3) Journal - necessary information like the number of unserved items, history of customer complaints and other stock out related concerns

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were obtained from the hardware journal; (4) Purchase Order - information on the order quantity of the critical items from the different suppliers was acquired from the purchase order, (ordering details like the placement of order reflecting the date it was received which will constitute the lead time; due to the present unstructured inventory control system, sales records and journals for the recent 3 years); and (5) Interviews conducted - interviews were conducted to the general manager, inventory manager, accounting officer, warehouse officer and the sales personnel to gather other usable data. The important individuals who aided in obtaining valuable information needed for the study were: (1) General Manager, who supported in acquiring the needed data through her approval in doing actual observations inside the hardware and other data gathering procedures that were done. Also, she served as a guide in determining other important people to interview. (2) Inventory Manager, who provided the necessary data like the list of items sold including its unit price, associated costs incurred in ordering the inventory, associated costs incurred in holding the inventory and other vital information. Also, the inventory manager supplied the other essential historical data like sales of items during previous years and other needed statistics. Furthermore, the approximate number of unserved items and other stock out issues were provided. (3) Accounting Officer, who presented current internal control used by the organization. (4) Warehouse Officer who was interviewed regarding basic information about the warehouse, as well as the process involved in the receipt of the ordered items. (5) Sales personnel who shared their common problems encountered regarding stock out of items and how the inventories are classified and other relevant information. The data gathering started by evaluating the current inventory system of Alliance Hardware, Inc. through the interviews conducted, sales records and other data made available by the inventory manager and accounting officer. Also, necessary data in calculating the hardwareâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s holding cost, ordering cost and other costs associated in determining the reorder point and the appropriate order quantity

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were obtained through interviews and documents provided by the management. Interviews conducted to the key people and actual observation at the hardware aided in appropriately assessing the current inventory system. The data gathered was then analyzed and interpreted using industrial, operations and project management tools, particularly, forecasting and AB-C classification. I also focused on studying specific inventory management concepts such as reorder point, safety stock, service level and economic order quantity. Based from the historical data gathered, I forecasted the demand for 2012 using four different forecasting techniques, specifically, the moving average, weighted moving average, trend line analysis and exponential smoothing. The forecasting technique with the least mean absolute deviation for each family was then chosen as the forecast. The most common measure is the mean absolute deviation (MAD). The formula used to compute MAD is: MAD = Σ I Actual – Forecast I / n. After obtaining the forecast, I then classified the items from the most important to the least important using the A-B-C approach. This was done Figure 1. Input-Process-Output Flow.

by multiplying the forecasted annual demand with the corresponding unit price and setting a range for each classification. The class “A” items consisted of those items with an annual value greater than P700,000; class “B” items with an annual value ranging between P200,000 and P700,000; and class “C” items with an annual value of less than P200,000. Those classified as “A” and “B” items were regarded as the critical items in this study since these are the items which have a major effect on the sales and profit as proven by the Pareto analysis. After determining the critical items, the present ordering system, supplier information, and lead time for these items were then obtained. The data that was used as a basis for the present ordering system was that of the year 2011 since this was the most recent available data. These data were used to determine the appropriate timing of order and the level of safety stock. AHI is willing to hold in stock to increase service level, thus minimizing the occurrence of stock out. Once the appropriate timing of order is determined, it follows that a proper order quantity should also be established to minimize cost of inventory. To obtain the proper order quantity, I chose from the different order size models and selected the most appropriate one to apply, which was the economic order quantity model. For this

Dato-on, D.V.E.

model, it is necessary to identify the holding cost, ordering cost and other associated costs of inventory for the identified critical items. The computed reorder point and economic order quantity served as the basis for my comparison in determining whether there is an improvement in the actual service level. The present inventory process flow is shown in detail in Figure 2. It involves sales, ordering, receiving and documentation of the items delivered by the supplier. Ishikawa Diagram. I found the following pertinent observations that aided in identifying the causes that led to a low service as shown in Figure 3. Man. The inventory manager committed a mistake in updating inventory. She may have subtracted or added the wrong quantity. The warehouse officer failed to inspect ordered items. He included items that were not in acceptable condition. The purchaser issued the wrong purchase order. There is lack of supervision, coordination and verification. Inventory records do not match with actual inventory on hand. Method. There is no standard ROP and order size quantity. Hardware items are not classified. Some saleable items may not be available at the time the customer orders. IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Stock out and Service Level. The presence of stock out is one of the main problems encountered. The stock out values for 2009, 2010 and 2011 were obtained in the hardware journal and verified in the purchase order. Year 2009 had the highest percentage stock out of 3.85% amounting to Php 4,149,614.90. Values for 2010 and 2011 are shown in Table 1. An estimated adjustment of 1% was assumed for those unrecorded unserved items since these unrecorded unserved items are hard or impossible to determine. The established percentage stock out aided the researcher in assessing the current service level. The service level was computed by subtracting the percentage stock

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out values from 100%. Present Ordering System. The present ordering system is determined, and a sample from one supplier (Diagonal Steel, Manila) is shown in detail in Table 2. The data is based on the 2011 ordering from eight different suppliers of the identified critical items. The table presents the month that AHI ordered from the supplier and the corresponding amount of order. Also, the minimum order quantity is indicated. With the obtained data, the total annual orders were computed by summing up the individual orders. Also, the number of orders was determined. From these, the present order quantity (per order) was computed by dividing the total annual orders by the number of orders made per year. Present Inventory System. AHI, Inc. adapts the click sheet control. It involves the use of what is commonly called stock cards. In this method, the sales staff records the item to be withdrawn from inventory and deducts it to the outstanding stocks on either a card or sheet of paper. The recorded information is then used for reorder purposes. Also, visual checking is done to determine if additional inventory is required. However, currently, this is conducted on an irregular basis. Forecasting. Forecasts are extremely important inputs in the business because it helps managers to foresee the future. Currently, AHI predicts future demand through judgment and experience in formulating forecasts. This is a simple, qualitative technique to use but introduces a higher degree of inaccuracy. It is, therefore, essential for the company to take a more proactive approach to forecasting, that is to provide quantitative measures in an effort to explicitly categorize inducing factors and to incorporate this into equations that could be used for predictive purposes. Such techniques like moving average, weighted moving average, exponential smoothing and trend-line analysis could provide higher measures of accuracy than just plain judgment of future values.

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Table 1. Service Level Determination.

Year

Total Sales (Php)

Stock out (Php)

Recorded % Stock out

Adjustment

% Stock out

Service Level

2009

107,823,971.37

4,149,614.90

3.85

4.85

95.15

2010

126,642,162.20

2,884,958.65

2.28

3.28

96.72

2011

149,160,141.39

3,906,259.05

2.62

3.62

96.38

Figure 2. Detailed Process Flow of Alliance Hardware, Inc.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Present Inventory Management System.

Dato-on, D.V.E.

125

Figure 3. Ishikawa Diagram

Table 2. Present Ordering System of AHI.

MOQ: 50 units

LT= 10D

LT= 12D

LT= 9D

LT= 11D

LT= 12D

BI Pipe 1" BI Pipe 1 1/4" BI Pipe 1 1/2" BI Pipe 2"

Feb 450 500 300 550

Apr 500 550 300 350

May 400 550 250 550

Jul 550 550 350 450

Sep 550 600 450 400

Nov 500 500 350 350

I then used such quantitative forecasting techniques to predict future demand. For Weighted Moving Average, 50% weight was allotted for year 2010, 30% for 2009 and 20% for 2008. For Exponential Smoothing, three alpha values were applied, that is, 0.05, 0.28 and 0.50. The technique that gives the lowest mean absolute deviation (MAD) was chosen. Classification System. It would be unrealistic to devote equal attention to each of the items sold at Alliance Hardware, Inc. The present system

Total Orders

# of orders

POQ

2950 3250 2000 2650

6 6 6 6

492 542 333 442

employed by the company in classifying their hardware items is only based on experience. Items that seem to be saleable for the past years are believed to be the most critical without considering the cost of that particular item. However, they failed to consider that some items may not be fast moving but have greater value since they have higher selling price. A more reasonable approach would be to allocate control efforts according to the relative importance of various items in inventory, that is, with the use of a widely known approach called the

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A-B-C classification system. The A-B-C approach was used to determine the value or cost significance of each item sold. The annual value of the item is equivalent to the product of the demand and its corresponding selling price. Class “A” or high-value items, which have an annual value greater than Php 700,000.00, are under the tightest control, class “B” are those items with an annual value that range from Php 200,000.00 to Php 700,000.00 while class “C” items, which have an annual value of less than Php 200,000.00, are under simple physical control. The critical items, which constitute both class “A” and class “B” items, served as the core of the study. Pareto Principle. The value of the critical items equal to Php 106,345,221.04, which is 85.49% of the total annual value. Applying the Pareto principle proves the significance of giving utmost priority to having an appropriate inventory of these items in order to eliminate or reduce the presence of stock out. Table 3 shows the annual values of the critical items with respect to the total annual value. Table 3. Pareto Analysis. Annual Value (Php)

Percentage

Critical Items

Total

106,345,221.04

124,395,755.46

85.49%

Demand and Lead Time Variability. The timing of order is influenced by both demand and lead time. The management has an idea as to the variability of demand and lead time of their hardware items, but they fail to counter it with the right amount of safety stock. It is important to have reasonable estimates of the amount and timing of demand especially that Inventories are used to satisfy demand requirements. Also, it is crucial for the company to know the length of time it takes for orders to be delivered. In addition, AHI needs to know the extent to which demand and lead time might vary. The greater variability in either demand or lead time, the greater the amount of safety stock that will be needed to achieve the desired service level.

However, the management should not disregard the fact that it is expensive to hold stocks. Ordering System. The present ordering system of Alliance Hardware, Inc. is shown in Table 2. I have found out that there is no standard ordering method employed in AHI as validated by the interviews conducted. Furthermore, the company is unsure of the proper timing of order as they only make use of subjective means such as visual checking, physical checking and click sheet control in estimating when to reorder. These are reasonable methods but are somewhat inaccurate. These methods only notify the AHI personnel as to how much is their current supply but not about the right time to reorder. AHI did not use scientific or statistical computation as they are not knowledgeable with the different tools that will help them determine the right time to order and the most cost efficient amount to order. Service Level. AHI is experiencing stock out as reflected in Table 1. For the past years, stock out ranged from 2.9M to 4.2M. This high amount is indicative of AHi’s low service level. The company wants to attain a 100% service level, but currently, they are undecided on what to do because they do not know the cost implications of the possible actions they will take. Achieving a 100% service level is realistically hard and at the same time highly expensive. However, I made alternatives on how AHI could realize the closest service level to their desired level, with corresponding cost analysis. Reorder Point. The reorder point answers the problem on the appropriate timing to reorder the hardware items. When the available quantity of an item drops to the computed reorder point, the item is reordered. I have found out that Alliance Hardware, Inc. does not follow a standard reorder point. Considering this, I have computed for the reorder point at 96.38% given that the service level is maintained from that of 2010, which is the most recent service level determined based from the data treated. Then, reorder points at 98.00% and 99.98% were computed for the management

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Table 4. Cost â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Benefit Analysis of Increasing Service Level.

to have a comparison as to the cost that will be incurred in carrying additional inventory. It was then found out that increasing the service level to 98.00% would entail an additional cost of Php 60,529.25. Also, by increasing it to the optimum service level of 99.98%, additional cost of inventory amounts to Php 409,177.72. Furthermore, the stock out value if the service level will continue to be at 96.38% for 2011 is determined to be Php 4,503,126.3. It will be reduced to Php 2,487,915.10 and Php

24,879.15 if the service level is increased to 98.00% and 99.98% respectively. As a result, an opportunity gain of Php 2,015,211.20 and Php 4,478,247.15 is achieved as shown in Table 4. Economic Order Quantity. Having known when to reorder, I opted to establish a standard order quantity for Alliance Hardware, Inc. that would help them minimize their cost of inventory. To calculate for the economic order quantity, the ordering and holding cost were first determined. Then, the economic order quantity computed was

Figure 4. Internal Control for Purchase of Hardware Items.

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computed. A comparison of AHIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s present order quantity with the computed economic order quantity was established. It was found out that if AHI follows the standard economic order quantity, they can save approximately Php 838,355.10 in a year, which is a huge amount of money. Inventory Control System Used. I focused on the three basic questions in inventory control: (1) what items to keep in stock, (2) when to place the order and (3) how much to order. Having posed these questions, I sought to find answers by evaluating AHIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s way of assessing demand whether it is independent or dependent. It was then found out that at AHI, the demand for an item is independent of the demand for any other item. Solutions and Alternatives. In view of the findings, I have come up with some solutions and alternatives. A decision matrix shown in Figure 5 is provided for AHI management as to the possible options it can take, considering that a standard ROP and EOQ has already been determined. Alternative 1: Using Present Manual Inventory Monitoring Method. AHI has the option of adapting the computed reorder point and economic order quantity while using the present system of manual inventory monitoring method. This alternative would still make use of the click sheet or stock cards to monitor inventory, but the management would already know when and how much to order.

Figure 5. Solutions and Alternative.

Adapting the computed reorder point and economic order quantity to the present inventory system would improve the service level by minimizing or eliminating the occurrence of stock out. The advantage of this option is that the staff at AHI are already used to this kind of manual monitoring set-up. However, since they will still be using a manual inventory monitoring system, problems like lost stock cards, mismatched inventory records and physical inventory, and tedious paper works and filings will continue to occur. With regards to the standard reorder point, the cost implication would depend on the service level the management wants. The higher the service level, the higher the cost would be since this corresponds to the cost of carrying additional stocks. The cost implication in maintaining the service level at 96.38% is Php 435,810.59. Increasing the service level from 96.38% to 98.00% would entail an additional cost of Php 60,529.25 on top of Php 435,810.59, while from 96.38% to 99.98%, the additional cost is Php 409,177.72. The advantage is that there is an opportunity gain of Php 2,015,211.20 and Php 4,478,247.15, which is by far larger than the cost of additional inventory. With regards to using the economic order quantity in ordering, the advantage is that the company will gain savings of Php 838,355.10 yearly as compared with the present ordering system.

Dato-on, D.V.E.

Alternative 2: Using Inventory Tracker for Excel. Alliance Hardware, Inc. has the option of adapting the computed reorder point and economic order quantity using the Inventory Tracker for Excel. The Inventory Tracker for Excel permits small and medium-scale business owners and inventory management professionals to track inventory and view automatic alerts when it is already necessary to reorder. The key features of the Inventory Tracker for Excel is its unique ability to pre-determine reorder and tolerance levels and its easy customization. For instance, when units in stock are within 15% (or whatever percentage is defined) of the pre-determined reorder level, the status field turns yellow and indicates “reorder needed”. The status field turns green and indicates “in stock” when units in stock exceed your reorder tolerance level. When no units remain in stock, the status field turns red and indicates “out of stock”. These color-based alerts provide an easy way to distinguish products that need attention. It includes spreadsheets that supports 25,000-65,000 products and is very user-friendly even for anyone who only has basic knowledge in Excel. Adapting this option would enable the companyto track their inventory without difficulty and view automatic color-based alerts when it is necessary for the company to reorder. Also, it will help the company in minimizing the stock out of items since the authorized personnel assigned in monitoring inventory is alerted every time there is a need to reorder a particular item. Adapting the standard ROP with the Inventory Tracker eliminates the subjective way of reordering. This option would entail the computerization of Alliance Hardware, Inc.’s inventory system and purchase of the Inventory Tracker for Excel software. Management should transfer all the files from the click sheet or stock cards, journal, etc. to the computer. This is somehow related to Alternative 1 but, the advantage is that, it would eliminate problems such as lost stock cards, and errors in recording transactions since the tracking of inventory is already through Excel.

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Employing the Inventory Tracker for Excel would involve the same financial implications with regards to ROP and EOQ as that of Alternative 1, but with an additional expense in acquiring the computers and the necessary software including training and cost of maintenance personnel. AHI would need a minimum of 3 computers to implement this option. Each Inventory Tracker for Excel software costs Php 1,890.00. Also, the inventory manager should undergo training for basic excel functions. This is estimated to be around Php 5,000.00. Cost of maintenance is approximately Php 3,000.00 every month. Estimating Php 30,000.00 for each computer set, total cost of implementing this alternative amounts to Php 136,670.00. Alternative 3: Using Web-based Inventory Manager Software. Another alternative for AHI is to adapt the computed reorder point and economic order quantity using a web-based inventory manager such as Golden Web Inventory System. Golden Web Inventory System (GWIS) is speedy and is considered high-performance inventory management software with functions such as item tracking, inventory control, optimal stocks assurance, and increased productivity. GWIS is a known desktop application, utilizing XML technology, which allows remote computers to synchronize and share information. The software computes real-time on hand, allocated and available stock levels when invoices are being entered. AHI could also choose to use this software with their invoices, purchase orders, several types of management reports, etc. They can even directly connect to some of their suppliers through the internet. This option would necessitate the automation of AHI’s inventory system. Web-based inventory management would make it easy to keep their inventory accurate from any location. The webbased inventory management solution software supports multiple users, inventory transaction logging and enables the company to manage inventory in multiple locations. As soon as the purchase and sales transactions are entered by the

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sales staff, the inventory management software application offers the capabilities to choose the location of the warehouse that will accept or fulfil the order. Inventory reports allow the staff to view information about the total available inventory. This software would allow the company to track their inventory on a real-time basis. This would align the inventory control from the main office with that of the warehouse. If inventory is deducted from the warehouse, the system will automatically determine the number of deductions and this deduction will be reflected on the system. The system can be accessed both from the main office and warehouse. This option minimizes paper works and mismatched physical inventory and inventory records. Using the webbased inventory manager software would improve the operations of the company. This would imply a high service level because the hardware can immediately serve the needs of their customers. Using the web-based inventory manager would involve the same financial implications with regards to ROP and EOQ as that of Alternative 1, but it entails a higher additional expense for the company for the reason that AHI will need to buy the computers and the needed software at the same time pay for the internet connection and other related fees in installing

the software. Each software costs Php 14,000.00 and system installation charge totals to Php 10,000.00 inclusive of the professional fee and all cables and wires needed for the installation. A two half day formal training for the sales personnel is conducted to orient them and make them familiarize with the basic functions and features of the new system. The two half day training is estimated to be around Php 5,000.00, inclusive of the speaker, snacks, and all the training materials needed. A programmer from an outside agency is hired to perform monthly maintenance and is paid Php 3,000.00 per month. Considering that AHI needs a minimum of three computers to implement this option, and each computer set costs Php 30,000.00, the total cost of implementing this alternative amounts to Php 194,988.00. For the internet connection, the company can subscribe to the on-going telephone and internet connection package offered by telephone companies, such as the Plan 999 of PLDT My DSL. Payback Period. Payback measures the time it will take to recoup in the form in the expected cash flows, the net initial investment of the project. The payback of each of the alternatives is shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Payback Period of Alternatives.

Alternative

Cost of

(at 99.98% service level)

Implementation

1.Use present Manual Inventory Monitoring Method

Php 0.00

Php 339,089.12

No payback

2. Use inventory Tracker for Excel

Php 136,670.00

Php 339,089.12

0.40

3.Use Web-Based Inventory Manager Software

Php 194,988.00

Php 339,089.12

0.58

Monthly Savings

Payback (in months)

Dato-on, D.V.E.

All of the alternatives generate the same monthly savings, but with Alternative 1, problems like loss of stock cards, mismatch of physical inventory with records and tedious paper works and filing will still continue to occur. On the other hand, Alternative 3 entails a higher cost of implementation but, AHI would be more competitive in the global market. Proposals The ultimate goal for this research is to optimize the service level of medium-scale enterprise in order to minimize or eliminate the occurrence of stock out. This is by providing them with the proper timing of order and the order quantity that would minimize inventory costs. With the alternatives presented, I highly recommend the following: (1) AHI should establish accurate forecasts to take advantage of the varying demand requirements and lessen probable risks. Also, the company should maintain accurate and updated information on customer demand, lead time variability of the orders, prices and other variables that have significant impacts on the forecast accuracy. (2) AHI should adopt Alternative 3, which is to incorporate the standard reorder point and economic order quantity using the Golden Web Inventory System (GWIS). This alternative would provide the company with substantial opportunity both for implementing the standard reorder point and economic order quantity. Also, tracking of inventory would be easier since the system is automated and functions in real-time condition. This means that every time inventory is deducted and added from the main office or warehouse, the system will automatically determine the number of deductions and additions that will be reflected on the system. This alternative would enable the company to keep a more accurate inventory from any location since it supports multi-user capabilities at multiple locations. Also, this is considered a one-time big time investment considering that this would help AHI be more competitive just like any large-scale hardware

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establishments like Built-It. Furthermore, the system provides automatic alerts whenreordering is necessary and adjustable tolerance levels can be configured upon managementâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s decision. Lastly, this alternative promotes a paperless environment which eliminates tedious paper works and filings thereby improving operation, thus, improving the service level of the company. (3) To ensure the success of this alternative, proper orientation of the employees should be done. It is important that management discuss with their employees the new automated webbased inventory system, its advantages and how it affects their work. Accountability of inventory and its management is very crucial and should only be assigned to someone who understands the system and has undergone training. Moreover, the inventory manager should be educated in the computation of the standard reorder point and economic order quantity so that these values can be kept accurate and up-to-date. Estimates of the holding cost and ordering cost should be reviewed periodically and updated as necessary. Also, variability in demand and lead time should constantly be considered. (4) To ensure that the demand and lead variability can be addressed, medium-scale enterprise should ensure that production and lead time decisions of their suppliers should be effectively delegated to cost centers that easily generates time to produce an order with proper freight schedule estimates to reduce congestion delays of deliveries. (5) In order to maximize the economic order quantity computed, medium-scale enterprises should examine whether to pursue product standardization. However, it is still best to ensure the purchase products to strategic alliances or to an appropriate number of suppliers of desired relationships. With the computed EOQ and ROP, strategic cost management is applied through the realization of cost savings of Php 838,355.10 in a year. (6) The company could also improve their system by having a more efficient internal control

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system. The current internal control allows room for mistakes such as issuance of wrong purchase orders and mismatched inventory since there is minimal communication with the different sections of the company. To remedy this, I recommend a more open communication line between sections or divisions. Also, it is important that copies of the documents like purchase orders and invoices be provided to the proper individuals for verification and confirmation purposes so as to eliminate the said problems. (7) That future researchers conducting a similar field of study consider other reasonable estimates in calculating inventory related costs. (8) Finally, a more thorough analysis regarding space requirements should be conducted. V. CONCLUSION I came into a conclusion that the cost of achieving Alliance Hardware, Inc.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s desired service level, which is at 99.98% amounting to Php 409,177.72, is lesser than the total possible stock out amount if they remain at their current service level at 96.38% which is Php4,503,126.30. Therefore, Alliance Hardware, Inc. should really consider improving their service level. Moreover, I can ascertain that additional stocks caused by the increase in the service level would still be accommodated in their warehouse considering that from actual observation, the warehouse can still hold inventory even if current inventory is doubled. Lastly, using the standard economic order quantity would imply yearly savings of Php 838,355.10 for the company.

Originality Index: Similarity Index:

97 % 3%

Paper ID:

346458940

Grammarly:

Checked

REFERENCES Bragg, S. V. (2011). Inventory best practices. N.Y.: Wiley. Greene, J. H. (1997). Production and inventory control handbook. N.Y.: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Harris, F. W. (1913). How many parts to make at once. Retrieved November 21, 2012 from http://userhome. brooklyn.cuny.edu/irudowsky/CIS10.31/articles/ EOQModelOriginalPaper.pdf Krajewski, L. J., & Ritzman, L. P. (2009). Operations management: Strategy and analysis. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Landvater, D. V. (1997). World class production and inventory management. N.Y.: Wiley Muller, M. (2011). Essentials of inventory management. N.Y.: Wiley Piasecki, D. J. (2011). Inventory management explained: A focus on forecasting, lot sizing, safety stocks and ordering systems. Retrieved October 11, 2012 from http://www.inventoryexplained.com Stevenson, W. J. (2011). Operations management. N.Y.: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Tersine, R. J. (1993). Principles of inventory management and materials management. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Usry, M. F., & Matz, A. (2009). Cost accounting: Planning and control. Canada: Thomson Southwestern.

UV Journal of Research 2013

Contemporary nursing care based on Watson’s theory Resty L. Picardo Salina A. Loquellano College of Nursing University of the Visayas restypicardo@hotmail.com Submitted: March 21, 2012

Accepted: February 1, 2013

ABSTRACT The study utilized a descriptive, correlational design. A purposive criterion sampling was employed using a paper and pen questionnaire based on the theory by Jean Watson on her ten carative factors. The study attempted to answer the level of care rendered by the nurses towards their patients and if there was a noteworthy association among the level of care rendered by the nurses and the patient’s demographic profile (age and gender) and nurse’s profile (gender; and hospital classification). As to the Level of Care Rendered by the Nurses Towards their Patients, the computed mean reveal an interpretation of very good. Patient’s profile and the level of care did not yield a significant relationship. There was a noteworthy association among the level of care and nurse’s gender (p = 0.012) on the area where the nurse practices loving kindness and composure inside framework of caring awareness towards patients. The level of care and the hospital classification findings revealed significant relationship on two items (p = 0.020 and .048). The level of care in terms of the nurse assisting with basic needs, with an intentional caring consciousness, administering “human care essentials”, which potentiate alignment of mind, body, spirit, wholeness, and unity of being in all aspects of care; tending to both the embodied spirit and evolving spiritual emergence are better experienced by patients in government hospitals. Based on the findings Cebuano nurses were very good in their nursing care towards their patients. Keywords: contemporary nursing care, Jean Watson, Theory of Human Caring, carative factors, level of care

I. INTRODUCTION All over the world, healthcare practitioners are exposing themselves to the risk of dehumanizing patient care. Sometimes, they become like robots, a programmed machine, unattached, and depersonal with their lives, work and relationship. A daily practice that helps transcends them from a position where nursing is viewed as “just a job”, to that of a fulfilling vocation or profession. Just

like change, it is the only thing that is constant. Over time, nursing care has evolved as technology does. One very big question in the present times is: Are patient’s still getting the nursing care that they are supposed to receive? Nurses must exert a conscious effort to preserve caring as the core of nursing profession within their clinical and/or research practice. Ideally, Jean Watson’s Caring Theory (1979) can

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be viewed as pivotal to this objective. It embodies the prototype of what an idyllic nurse should be. Watson mentioned that the key essentials of her theory are the: (1) carative features; (2) transpersonal caring affiliation; and (3) the caring incident or moment. She believes that the practice of caring is the most essential idea of nursing. It is the unifying focus for practice (Vanguard Health Systems, 2010). The intention of the research is to construct a superior thought and application of the theory of Jean Watson to the recent nursing care. Based on a reflection of the researchers’ experiences last year, the one of the researchers for instance, has assumed the role of a patient for a time. It was observed that the nurse-client relationship has greatly changed. Over time the nurseclient interaction has diminished and nurses are plainly just doing their job and not feeling for their patients. This situation correlated to the importance of Watson’s Caring Theory and preserving human dignity. Giving courage to patient when their position is gloomy can be moderately overpowering and a sense of contentment to fill the emptiness of the one who cares and satisfaction to the one being cared for. It is also the intention of the researchers to determine if nursing care has really changed over time and up to what extent is the change with Watson’s Theory as a baseline. Fundamentally, reawakening and reliving Watson’s Caring Theory is a tribute to nurses to find meaning in their work. A drive that donates to the manner they realize themselves jobwise. Caring permits nurses to labor with a sense of desire rather than a responsibility. Nurses must admit reality and accept challenge to change patient’s perception regarding current nursepatient approach. The Researchers were very confident that this undertaking will be a fruitful one. With the Researchers determination, experience in research and perseverance, this research is going to bring out a relevant finding on caring. The study attempted to answer the level of care rendered by the nurses towards their patients and if there

was a noteworthy association among the level of care rendered by the nurses and the patient’s demographic profile (age and gender) and nurse’s profile (gender; and hospital classification). The study is anchored on the theory of human caring proposed by an American nursing scholar Dr. Jean Watson, (1979). The Theory of Human Caring highlights the humanistic facets of nursing in mixture with methodical knowledge. Watson intended the theory to transport importance and emphasis to nursing as a different health profession. “Caring as an essential field in nursing conveys physical acts but embraces the mind-body-spirit as it reclaims the embodied spirit as its focus of attention”. In further writings, nursing was defined by her as “a human science of people and human health-illness that are mediated by professional, personal, scientific, esthetics, and ethical human care transactions” (Octaviano & Balita, 2008). Watson mentioned in her theory the carative factors, the transpersonal caring relationship, caring occasion or the caring moments, and the seven basic assumptions as the main features of her theory. Watson visions the carative features as a leader for the central of nursing. She customs the word carative to compare with conservative medicine’s curative features. Her carative features endeavor to “honor human dimensions of nursing work and the inner life world and the subjective experiences of the people we serve” (Tomey, 2008). In summary, the carative features are composed of ten elements. First is the creation of humanistic and altruistic scheme of values. Second is the instilling faith and hope. Third is the refinement of thoughtfulness to self and others. Fourth is the creation of helping, trusting and human caring connection. Fifth is the advancement and recognition of the manifestation of affirmative and undesirable feelings. Sixth is the systematic usage of artistic

Picardo, R. L. and Loquellano, S. A.

problem-solving caring method. Seventh is the advancement of transpersonal teaching and learning. Eighth is the providing for a helpful, shielding and curative mental, physical, societal and spiritual atmosphere. Ninth is the support with fulfillment of human needs? And lastly, the allowance for existential and phenomenological spiritual powers (Marriner-Tomey, 2010). With the dynamism of the nursing profession and the desire to improve the standards of care, Watson’s carative factors evolved into caritas processes which possess a greater spiritual dimension with mixed love and care (MarrinerTomey, 2010). The subsequent are translations of the carative factors hooked on clinical caritas processes; first, accept unselfish values and runthrough loving kindness with self and others. Second, instilling belief and optimism and honor others. Third, be thoughtful to self and others by cultivation of personal beliefs as well as practices. Fourth, improve helping-trustingcaring affiliation. Fifth, encourage and consent affirmative and undesirable feelings as you can genuinely listen to an alternative story. Sixth, use artistic scientific problem-solving means for caring and decision making. Seventh, share teaching and learning that answers the individual needs and understanding approaches. Eighth, make a healing atmosphere for physical and spiritual human needs. Ninth, assist with basic physical, emotional, and spiritual human needs. And lastly being exposed to unknown and permit miracles to arrive (Marriner-Tomey, 2010). Her second element, the transpersonal caring relationship labels in what way a nurse go past an unprejudiced valuation and shows more concern toward the subjective and deeper meaning of the client towards the his/her own healthcare situations. It lives up to its goal of shielding, improving and conserving the person’s self-esteem, totality and inner synchronization (Marriner-Tomey, 2010). The third concept defines what a caring occasion really is. Watson expressed that, caring incident is instant (crucial pointing space and

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time) when a nurse and person arise together in such a way that a moment for a mortal loving is generated (Watson, 1999). Not basically an objective for the favored for, Watson asserts that the nurse has to be cognizant of her private mindfulness and trustworthy existence when in a caring instant with the client. The circumstance develops “transpersonal” when it tolerates for the existence of the essence of both. Then, the incident of the instant inflates the borders of candidness that has the aptitude to inflate human competencies” (Marriner-Tomey, 2010). Watson suggests seven expectations about the discipline of caring. The essential expectations of caring can be efficiently established and practiced only interpersonally. Caring comprises of carative features that produces the gratification of definite human needs, effective caring encourages health and personal or family development. Caring retorts admit the person not only as he/she is now but as what he/she may turn out to be. A caring atmosphere is one that suggests the expansion of possibilities while permitting the person to select the best act for himself/herself at a given time. Caring is more “healthogenic” than curing. A discipline of caring is harmonizing to the discipline of curing and the practice of caring is vital to nursing (Duqette & Cara, 2000). The applications of Watson’s Theory of human caring approves the professional individuality within a framework where humanistic ideals are regularly interrogated and tested (Duqette & Cara, 2000). It is explained that men become ill twice as frequently as women, though women incline to be extra worried about their healthiness. It is however not conclusive that those men always seek admission. This finding affirms the findings of the inaugural 2008 Deloitte Survey of Health Care Consumers (2008). A comprehensive online poll of more than 3,000 participants, revealed substantive differences in how women and men select, finance and manage their own health care. The survey results for men indicate they are less likely to be admitted to a hospital for treatments. The survey further revealed that women are more

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likely to be admitted to hospital for treatments. This will explain why there are more women hospitalized which concurs the result of the study. The international code of ethics for nurses reaffirms that nurses give health services and care to the person, families and the community and synchronize such services with linked groups unrestricted by oldness, gender, skin color, belief, cultural origin, disease/disability or sickness, nationality, political inclination, race, or socioeconomic status (Marriner-Tomey, 2010). More similarly with the study it was found out that the quality of nursing care is unaffected by the age or gender of the patient. It comes to show that nurses in the study are nondiscriminatory. The Philippines has been a primer in providing manpowerâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;nurses in the United States. Primarily for the very reason that Filipino nurses have been known to have commitment towards their vocation/profession. Nurses from the Philippines are not only compassionate but they are also hardworking and trustworthy. These are the essential qualities that health care institutions are searching for in nurses. With the demands for nurses in the United States, there is no cause not to carry on hiring nurses from overseas (Abbariao, 2008). Filipino nurses are no doubt one of the best health care providers globally. Filipinos culturally genuinely care about people (Davis, 2010). Filipino nurses have been known to be hardworking. A warm and caring worker, who is intensely devoted and steadfast to his/her work (Philippine Overseas Employment Administration, 2005). Filipino nurses are exceptional for they acquire quality knowledge, a respectable and assisting heart and a very hardworking personality. These traits cannot be taught nor be acquired through schooling or by plainly studying in a state of the art facility or institutions. This explains why nurses in the Philippines are world class professionals (Sikat ang Pinoy, 2010). Filipino nurses would pursue assistance from these government hospitals since fees are not collected. Private hospitals are situated in key cities all over the nation with tertiary hospitals

that are up-to-date in medical technologies. On the other hand, private hospitals are further costly (Allianz Worldwide Care, 2011). The study revealed that there were more patients admitted in the public hospital than in private. This is so because private hospitals in the Philippines are more expensive compared to government hospitals. Thus, people would opt to avail the services in the government hospitals. Comparing private hospitals to public hospitals, the former have a greater average value of total assets: more items of costly medical facilities, more manpower, and more doctors (regulatory for hospital beds, urban position, insurance system, and university association). Public and private hospitals statistically enjoy similar total staffing. However, private hospitals have proportionally greater support staff and minimal medical professionals. Mortality rates for non-government, non-profit and for-profit hospitals are statistically the same from those of government hospitals of same size, accreditation level and patient mix (Eggleston, Lu, Li, Wang, Yang & Zhang, 2009). Both private and public health care facilities are present in the Philippines. Majority of public hospitals deliver quality healthcare equally similar to the way private hospitals deliver. The only difference is basically in the availability of facilities. Many of the public hospitals in the Philippines are not furnished with the newest machineries in medicine. However, majority of the Filipinos go to these hospitals because charges are for free (Castro, 2009). The outcomes gave an impression of the standpoints of Bangladeshi patients on the superiority of service in three kinds of hospitals. The superiority of service in private hospitals scored better than that in the public hospitals, hospital matters which are tangible like cleanliness, utilities and drug availability. In general, the overall quality of service was better in the foreign hospitals compared to that in the private hospitals in Bangladesh in all factors, even the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;perceived costâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; factor (Siddiqui & Khandaker, 2007).

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Disadvantages include increased number of workload, less supplies and equipment making their practice in demand but at the same time making them very resourceful. Fewer budgets to purchase supplies affect the quality of care provided by government nurses (Nursetogether, 2008). Filipinos generally pursue advice from public hospitals because services are for free. Private hospitals are situated in key cities all over the nation and there are tertiary hospitals that have the newest medical facilities. However, private hospitals are more costly (Allianz Worldwide Care, 2011).

to the respondents that lasted for three weeks (January 2011). Descriptive statistical treatment was used to interpret and analyze the data gathered. As an output of the study, a guide to patient care was proposed. Statistical treatments used in the study were frequency distribution and simple percentage. Weighted mean was also used to determine the perceptions and functional ability of the respondents. Chi Square, test of independence was used to determine the association among the client and nurse profile as against the level of nursing care received by the patients. Cramer’s V was used to test the strength of correlations.

II. THE STUDY The study utilized a quantitative, nonexperimental, correlational design. The study was conducted within the vicinity of Cebu, namely: Vicente Sotto Memorial Medical Center and Vicente Gullas Memorial Hospital, both classified as Tertiary Hospitals in Cebu City, Philippines, accredited by Philhealth. The respondents of the study were those who have been recently hospitalized individuals and were admitted for two weeks and more from the bracket of adolescent group (12 years old to 18 years old) up to late adulthood or the maturity period (65 years old and above).The sampling technique that was used in the study was purposive criterion sampling. The research instrument used was a paper and pen questionnaire. The researcher-made questionnaire was based on the theory by Jean Watson on her ten carative factors which were content validated. The questionnaire was made up of two parts. Part one would deal about the profile of the respondents, while part two would deal with the level of nursing care received by the respondents. Since the study was Cebubased, an expert was consulted to translate the questionnaire into the language spoken by Cebuanos—Bisaya. Content validation of the tool was made and respondents were identified from the different hospitalsin Cebu. Questionnaires weredistributed

III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION The following were the pertinent findings of the study: As to the profile of the respondents, majority of the respondents belong to the young adult group or the 19 – 40 years old with a 55 percent sharing in the total population. As to the gender, there were 51 females at 51 percent and 49 males at 49 percent. As to the nurses’ profile and hospital classification, there were 59 female nurses who took care of the respondents while there were 41 male nurses who attended the patients. The number shows that there were more female nurses employed in different hospitals than male nurses. There were 65 respondents from the government hospital and 35 respondents from the private hospital. The respective means of the areas covered on the ten carative factors revealed an interpretation of very good. The data imply that Filipino nurses are very good when it comes to taking care of patients. This is consistent with the statement published that the Philippines is one of the sources of manpower—nurses for the United States. For the very reason, nurses coming from the Philippines possess the character of being steadfast to their vocation. Aside from being compassionate, they are also diligent and trustworthy – which are the key qualities that health care institutions are considering for in nurses (Abbariao, 2008).

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Table 1. Level of Care Rendered by Nurses Towards their Clients, N=100. Question

Mean

Interpretation

The nurse practices loving compassion and composure within context of caring consciousness towards patients.

3.93

Very Good

The nurse is genuinely present-day, and enabling and satisfying the profound faith structure and independent life realm of oneself and the client.

3.74

Very Good

The nurse cultivates own spiritual acts and transpersonal self, going past ego self, opens with kindness and compassion.

3.80

Very Good

The nurse develops and sustains a helping and trusting, genuine caring association.

3.75

Very Good

Being available to, and helpful of, the communication of affirmative and undesirable feelings as a link with a profounder spirit of ego and the client.

3.67

Very Good

Inventive usage of self and all methods of knowing as fragment of the caring course; to participate in the art of caring and healing acts.

3.91

Very Good

Participating in authentic teaching and learning experience that joins to union of being and meaning, trying to halt inside others’ casings of position.

3.61

Very Good

Creating healing environment at all levels (physical as well as nonphysical), subtle environment of energy and awareness, whereby totality, attractiveness, coziness, self-esteem, and peacetime are enhanced.

3.55

Very Good

Supporting with simple needs, with a deliberate caring awareness, ordering ”human care essentials”, which enhance placement of mind, body, spirit, totality, and unison of being in all parts of care; nursing to both the personified spirit and changing spiritual development.

3.81

Very Good

Open and attends to spiritual and mysterious and existential magnitudes of own life and death; soul repair for self and the client.

3.54

Very Good

3.731

Very Good

TOTAL GRAND MEAN

On the next table, all the p-values were greater than 0.05 and therefore to be interpreted as not significant which means also that the null hypothesis was not to be rejected. It implies that age has no bearing to the level of care received

by the respondents from the nurses. This furthermore implies that no matter what the gender of the patient is, the level of care rendered by the nurse does not change. Significantly, this would also imply that nurses working in the

Picardo, R. L. and Loquellano, S. A.

hospitals do not look at gender as a hindrance in providing quality nursing care when utilizing the ten carative factors. It is to be noted that the international Code of Ethics intended for nurses reaffirms that nurses give services to the person, families and the community and harmonize services with linked groups regardless of oldness,

139

skin color, belief, cultural origin, disease/disability or sickness, sex, nationality, political inclination, race or socioeconomic status (Marriner-Tomey, 2010). On the relationship between the level of care and the nurses’ gender, item one has a p value of 0.012 which was less than 0.05 it means that there was a noteworthy association among

Table 2. Relationship Between the Level of Care and the Patient`s Age, N=100. Question

Chi Value

Cramer’s Strength V Value

p-value

Interpretation

Decision

The nurse practices loving kindness and composure inside framework of caring awareness 180.487 towards patients.

.881

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.672

—

The nurse is genuinely present-day, and enabling and satisfying the profound faith structure and 172.615 independent life realm of oneself and the client.

.946

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.657

—

The nurse cultivates own spiritual acts and transpersonal self, going past ego self, opens with 196.702 kindness and compassion.

.630

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.701

—

The nurse develops and sustains a helping and trusting, genuine caring association.

191.327

.728

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.692

—

Being available to, and helpful of, the communication of affirmative and undesirable feelings as a link with a profounder spirit of ego and the client.

206.464

.439

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.718

—

Inventive usage of self and all methods of knowing as fragment of the caring course; to participate in 165.966 the art of caring and healing acts.

.976

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.644

—

Participating in authentic teaching and learning experience that joins to union of being and 175.099 meaning, trying to halt inside others’ casings of position.

.929

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.662

—

Creating healing environment at all levels (physical as well as non-physical), subtle environment of energy and awareness, whereby 217.271 totality, attractiveness, coziness, self-esteem, and peacetime are enhanced.

.249

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.737

—

153.987

.462

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.716

—

Open and attends to spiritual and mysterious and existential magnitudes of own life and death; soul 203.921 repair for self and the client.

.488

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.714

—

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Table 3. Relationship Between the Level of Care and the Patient`s Gender. N=100.

Question The nurse practices loving kindness and equanimity within context of caring consciousness towards patients. The nurse is authentically present, and enabling and sustaining the deep belief system and subjective life world of self and the one-being-cared-for. The nurse cultivates one’s own spiritual practices and transpersonal self, going beyond ego self, opens to others with sensitivity and compassion. The nurse develops and sustains a helping-trusting, authentic caring relationship. Being present to, and supportive of, the expression of positive and negative feelings as a connection with deeper spirit of self and the one-being-cared-for. Creative use of self and all ways of knowing as part of the caring process; to engage in artistry of caring-healing practices. Engaging in genuine teachinglearning experience that attends to unity of being and meaning, attempting to stay within others’ frames of reference. Creating healing environment at all levels (physical as well as nonphysical), subtle environment of energy and consciousness, whereby wholeness, beauty, comfort, dignity, and peace are potentiated. Assisting with basic needs, with an intentional caring consciousness, administering ”human care essentials”, which potentiate alignment of mind, body, spirit, wholeness, and unity of being in all aspects of care; tending to both the embodied spirit and evolving spiritual emergence. Open and attends to spiritualmysterious and existential dimensions of one’s own lifedeath; soul care for self and the one-being-cared-for. @0.05 significance level

Chi Value

p-value

Cramer’s V

Interpretation

Decision

.163

Strength -

2.645

.619

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

5.108

.276

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.226

2.649

.618

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.163

2.242

.691

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.150

4.087

.394

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.202

5.070

.280

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.225

2.955

.565

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.172

5.698

.223

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.239

1.823

.610

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.135

5.102

.277

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.226

Picardo, R. L. and Loquellano, S. A.

141

Table 4. Relationship Between the Level of Care and the Nurse’s Gender. N=100.

Question The nurse practices loving kindness and equanimity within context of caring consciousness towards patients. The nurse is authentically present, and enabling and sustaining the deep belief system and subjective life world of self and the one-beingcared-for. The nurse cultivates one’s own spiritual practices and transpersonal self, going beyond ego self, opens to others with sensitivity and compassion. The nurse develops and sustains a helping-trusting, authentic caring relationship. Being present to, and supportive of, the expression of positive and negative feelings as a connection with deeper spirit of self and the onebeing-cared-for. Creative use of self and all ways of knowing as part of the caring process; to engage in artistry of caring-healing practices. Engaging in genuine teachinglearning experience that attends to unity of being and meaning, attempting to stay within others’ frames of reference. Creating healing environment at all levels (physical as well as nonphysical), subtle environment of energy and consciousness, whereby wholeness, beauty, comfort, dignity, and peace are potentiated. Assisting with basic needs, with an intentional caring consciousness, administering ”human care essentials”, which potentiate alignment of mind, body, spirit, wholeness, and unity of being in all aspects of care; tending to both the embodied spirit and evolving spiritual emergence. Open and attends to spiritualmysterious and existential dimensions of one’s own life-death; soul care for self and the one-beingcared-for. @0.05 significance level

Cramer’s V Value

Chi Value

p-value

Interpretation

Decision

12.807

.012

Significant

Do not Accept Ho

.358

3.059

.548

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.175

3.659

.454

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.191

4.280

.369

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.207

2.966

.564

Not Significant

Do not Accept Ho

.172

2.872

.579

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.169

4.622

.328

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.215

2.477

.649

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.157

2.359

.501

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.154

6.933

.139

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.263

Strength Very Strong

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Table 5. Relationship Between the Level of Care and the Hospital Classification. N=100.

Question The nurse practices loving kindness and equanimity within context of caring consciousness towards patients. The nurse is authentically present, and enabling and sustaining the deep belief system and subjective life world of self and the one-beingcared-for. The nurse cultivates one’s own spiritual practices and transpersonal self, going beyond ego self, opens to others with sensitivity and compassion. The nurse develops and sustains a helping-trusting, authentic caring relationship. Being present to, and supportive of, the expression of positive and negative feelings as a connection with deeper spirit of self and the onebeing-cared-for. Creative use of self and all ways of knowing as part of the caring process; to engage in artistry of caring-healing practices. Engaging in genuine teachinglearning experience that attends to unity of being and meaning, attempting to stay within others’ frames of reference. Creating healing environment at all levels (physical as well as nonphysical), subtle environment of energy and consciousness, whereby wholeness, beauty, comfort, dignity, and peace are potentiated. Assisting with basic needs, with an intentional caring consciousness, administering ”human care essentials”, which potentiate alignment of mind, body, spirit, wholeness, and unity of being in all aspects of care; tending to both the embodied spirit and evolving spiritual emergence. Open and attends to spiritualmysterious and existential dimensions of one’s own life-death; soul care for self and the one-beingcared-for. @0.05 significance level

Cramer’s V Value

Chi Value

P Value

Interpretation

Decision

11.656

.020

Significant

Do not accept Ho

.341

1.686

.793

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.130

1.745

.783

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.132

4.912

.296

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.222

2.184

.702

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.148

1.687

.793

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.130

4.035

.401

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.201

5.843

.211

Not Significant

Do not reject Ho

.242

7.924

.048

Do not accept Ho

.281

2.779

.596

Do not reject Ho

.167

Significant

Not Significant

Strength Very Strong

Very Strong

Picardo, R. L. and Loquellano, S. A.

the level of care and the patient’s demographic profile regarding the nurse’s gender on the area where the nurse practices loving kindness and composure inside framework of caring awareness towards patients. While in items 2 to 10 all the pvalues were greater than 0.05 which was interpreted as having no significant relationship between the level of care in questions 2 to 10 and the nurse’s gender. The male gender is better in terms of providing loving kindness and composure inside the framework of caring awareness. On the relationship between the level of care and the hospital classification findings revealed that both items 1 and 9 have a significant relationship with the hospital classification. Consequently for both items the Cramer’s V values established a strong relationship. Collectively all the remaining items have an interpretation of having no significant relationship despite bearing a Cramer’s V value that had a strength of either moderate or strong relationship because the chi value failed to establish a significant relationship. The level of care in terms of the nurse assisting with basic needs, with an intentional caring consciousness, administering “human care essentials”, which potentiate alignment of mind, body, spirit, wholeness, and unity of being in all aspects of care; tending to both the embodied spirit and evolving spiritual emergence are better experienced by patients in government hospitals. The significant and strong relationship established between the hospital classification and the level of care implies that one is better over the other. Upon determination of the mean scores both hospital classification, it revealed that private hospitals and on item 1 is greater than that of the government hospitals. This data imply that the level of care in terms of the nurse practicing loving kindness and composure inside the framework of caring awareness towards patients in private hospitals is better compared to government hospitals.

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IV. CONCLUSION Utilizing the Watsonian paradigm, Filipino Nurses were able to practice loving compassion and composure within the context of caring consciousness towards patients. They are genuinely present-day, and enabling and satisfying the independent life realm of oneself and the client. They are able to improve one’s spiritual practices and deal clients with sympathy and compassion. Further, they were able to exhibit at all times and supports both negative and positive feelings of the one being-cared-for. Moreover, the art of caring-healing practices with the use of therapeutic self are practiced by nurses. The nurse develops and sustains a helping, trusting and genuine caring association. They are also able to exhibit inventive usage of self and all methods of knowing as fragment of the caring and healing course. They also participate in authentic teaching and learning experience that joins the union of being and meaning, trying to halt inside others’ casings of position. Other capabilities of the nurses includes: (1) creating a healing environment at all levels (physical as well as non-physical) - subtle environment of energy and awareness, whereby totality, attractiveness, coziness, self-esteem, and peacetime are enhanced; (2) supporting with simple needs - a deliberate caring awareness, ordering “human care essentials” which enhance placement of mind, body, spirit, totality and unison of being in all parts of care; (3) nursing to both the personified spirit and changing spiritual development; and lastly (4) to spiritual, mysterious and existential magnitudes of own life and death - soul repair for self and the client.

Originality Index: Similarity Index:

98 % 2%

Paper ID: Grammarly:

341979993 Checked

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REFERENCES Abbariao (2008, April 10). Overseas nurse recruitment firms Philippines. Retrieved on March 1, 2011 at http://www. abbariao.com/blogroll/overseas-nurse-recruitmentfirms-philippines-2/#more-131 Allianz Worldwide Care (2011). Healthcare in the Philippines. Retrieved on March 1, 2011 at http://www. allianzworldwidecare.com/healthcare-in-the-philippines Castro, J. M. (2009). Health care in the Philippines. Retrieved on March 2, 2011 at http://www. expatforum.com/ articles/health/health-care-in-the-philippines.html. Davis, P. F. (2010). Filipino nurses: Filipino nurses, best health care workers in the world. Retrieved on March 1, 2011 at http://paulfdavis.wordpress. com/2010/07/30/ filipino-nurses-filipino-nurses-best-health-care-workersin-the-world/ Duquette, A., & Cara, C. (2000). Le caring et la santé de l’infirmière. L’infirmière Canadienne, 1(2), 10-11. Eggleston, K., Lu, M., Li, C., Wang, J., Yang, Z., Zhang, J. (2009). Comparing public and private hospitals in China: Evidence from Guangdong. BMC Health Services Research, 10(76) doi:10.1186/1472-6963-10-76 Nursetogether (2008). Difference between working in a government and private hospital in the Philippines. Retrieved March 1, 2011 from http://www.nurse together. com/Forums/tabid/56/aft/1397/ Default.aspx Octaviano, E. F. & Balita, C. E. (2008). Theoretical foundations of nursing: The Philippine perspective. Philippines: Ultimate Learning Series. Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (2005). The Filipino workers: Moving the world today. Retrieved on March 1, 2011 at http://www.poea.gov.ph/about/moving. htm Siddiqui, N. & Katrinli, A., Atabay, G., Gunay, G., Cangarli, B. G. (2009) Service quality in health care: A challenge for both public and private hospitals. European Journal of Management, 9(2), Retrieved March 2, 2010 from http://www.freepatentsonline.com/article/EuropeanJournal-Management/208535151.html Sikat ang Pinoy (2010). Filipino nurses. Retrieved on March 1, 2011 from http://kahitsino.org/filipino-nurses/ Tomey, M. A. (2008). Guide to nursing management and leadership (8th ed.). Mosby, Elsevier, Inc. Vanguard Health Systems, (2010). Retrieved October 1, 2010 from http://innovativecaremodels.com/ uploads/File/ caring%20model/Overview%20JW%20Theory.pdf Watson, J. (1979). Nursing: The philosophy and science of caring. Boston: Little Brown. Watson, J. (1999). Postmodern nursing and beyond. Toronto, Canada: Churchill Livingston

UV Journal of Research 2013

Variation in well-being across Law Enforcement Agencies Queen Heneylour S. Relatorres Jonalyn G. Nalzaro Jerome P. Napao Ian O. Lavares College of Criminal Justice Education University of the Visayas rqueenheneyhour@yahoo.com Submitted: October 15, 2013

Accepted: December 15, 2013

ABSTRACT The study looks into the difference in the well-being of officers in various Law-Enforcement Agencies in terms of salary, workplace, opportunities and recruitment processes. The LawEnforcement Agencies are: the Philippine National Police, the Bureau of Jail Management and Penology, and the Bureau of Fire Protection in Cebu City. The rationale for this study is motivated by the observation that more aspirants want to be accommodated in the PNP, then in the other terms of agencies. More over because of the overwhelming number of aspirants to the PNP who cannot be accommodated in terms of the quota, many Criminologygraduatesendupbecomingsecurityguard.Resultsrevealedthattheattraction of the Philippine National Police (PNP) as a job destination for graduates of Criminology stems from the better well-being perceptions for the agency. In particular, there are better opportunities for promotion and benefits at PNP than at the BFP and the BJMP and, likewise, for the number and frequency of recruitment in the agency. These positive wellbeing dimensions are reinforced by the fact that in terms of workload and work pressure, the three agencies have equally high ratings. In other words, for the same level of work and stress, the PNP offers better opportunities for the growth and development than the other two agencies. Keywords: law enforcement agency, promotion, opportunities, well-being I. INTRODUCTION The study looks into the difference in the wellbeing of officers in various Law-Enforcement Agencies in terms of salary, workplace, opportunities and recruitment processes. The Law-Enforcement Agencies are: the Philippine National Police, the Bureau of Jail Management and Penology, and the Bureau of Fire Protection in Cebu City. The rationale for this study is motivated by the observation that more aspirants want to

be accommodated in the PNP, then in the other terms of agencies. Moreover, the overwhelming number of aspirants to the PNP who cannot be accommodated in terms of the quota displaced, many Criminology graduates and some end up becoming security guard. Gupton et al. (2011) claimed that being a police officer can be an incredibly stressful job. In the different Law Enforcement Agencies, the levels of stress experienced by the officers are

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UV Journal of Research

distinctly differentiated which may account for the differential levels of aspirants to the different service units. However, Axelrod (2011) averred that while stress is certainly a factor, other considerations such as promotion benefits and turn-over are also appropriate consideration. A preponderance of papers have dealt with salaries received by Law Enforcement Agencies with different objectives. Standardization of salaries to minimize/eliminate criminal activities in the rows, have been studied and implemented in the Philippines (National Security Policy, 2011-2016); to improve the well-being of Law enforcement Officer (Axelrod, 2011). While these studies have identified critical factors to the well-being of Law Enforcement Officers, it is not clear which ones tend to differentiate across the various agencies. In this paper, we refer to well-being as a combination of the factors salary, workplace, opportunities and recruitment processes (Chiu, 2013; Ciaran, 2013). II. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK The study is anchored on the premise that variations in the Well-Being of Law-Enforcers are predicated on their work-place assignments. This is illustrated below:

The place of assignment of the individual Law-Enforcement officers determines his/her well-being. For the reason, we surmise that this accounts for the observations that most aspirants prefer the Philippine National Police over the other two agencies of the Bureau of Fire Protection and the Bureau of Jail Management and Penology.

Police officers are firstâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;line emergency workers who investigate crime, patrol communities and respond to accidents. Working condition vary greatly based on factors such as location, staffing levels and the number of incident reports. Police work often proves to be both physically and mentally demanding, especially compared to most other jobs. Police officers typically work on full-time basis, and schedule often included long daily shifts. Accidents and crimes can occur at any hour of the day or night, and officers at poorly staffed departments often have to work overtime. Many departments assign overtime based on seniority, which means rookie officers often have to work overnight shifts and weekend. According to FBI (2010), 15.5 percent of assaults on police officers occur during the night shift hours between midnight and 2am. Long working hours also can prove disruptive to a police officerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s personal life. Some police officers are assigned to patrol certain districts of a city while others are officebased but investigate specific types of crime such as homicide or sexual assaults. Border patrol agents are required to patrol deserts, mountains and coastal areas. Natural hazards such as rock falls, avalanches and storms can make this type of work particularly treacherous. Additionally, detectives and border agents often are required to travel long distances at short notice to investigate crime. III. FUNCTIONS Philippine National Police (Plaza, 2013): 1. Enforce all laws and ordinance relative to the protection of lives and properties; 2. Maintain peace and order and take all necessary steps to ensure public safety; 3. Investigate and prevent crimes, affect the arrest of criminal offenders, bring offenders to justice and assist in their prosecution; 4. Exercise the general powers to make arrest, search and seizure in accordance with the Constitution and pertinent laws; 5. Detain an arrested person for a period not

Relatorres, Q. H., Nalzaro, J. G., Napao, J. P. and Lavares, I. O.

6. 7.

beyond what is prescribed by law, informing the person so detained of all his rights under the Constitution; Issue licenses for the possession of firearms and explosives in accordance with law; Supervise and control the training and operations of security agencies and issue licenses to operate security agencies, and to security guards and private detectives for the practice of their professions; and Perform such other duties and exercise all other functions as may be provided by law.

Bureau of Jail Management and Penology (2010): 1. Formulate policies and guidelines in the administration of all district, city, and municipal jails nationwide; 2. Implement strong security measures for the control of inmates; 3. Provide for the basic needs of inmates; 4. Conduct activities for the development of inmates; 5. Improve jail facilities; and 6. Promote the general welfare and development of personnel. BJMP is mandated to direct, supervise and control the administration and operation of all district, city and municipal jails nationwide with pronged tasks of safekeeping and development of inmates. Bureau of Fire Protection (RA 6975): 1. Enforcement of the fire Code of the Philippines; o Process and review of buildings plans, and o Strictly implement fire safety inspection of buildings, establishments, structures and facilities covered by the governing law. 2. Fire Safety Awareness Campaigned; and 3. Enhancement of Fire safety Inspection

o o

147

Conduct Fire safety and prevention seminar workshops, and Attend programs organized by fire safety inspectors in different seminars and lectures related to fire safety and prevention.

IV. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY The study made use of the descriptivecomparative research design. Twenty-five (25) randomly chosen respondents from each of the Law-Enforcement agencies in Cebu City were requested and provide information on the dimension of well-Being considered. Well-Being Instrument. The well-being instrument was constructed by the researcher and pilot tested earlier prior to the actual conduct of the survey. Each item in the instrument can be answered on a three-point scale: (1) none, (2) low, and (3) high. Data Treatment. The data generated were treated using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) for comparative purposes. V. RESULTS The summarized information are provided for in that appendix of this study. Work Place/Environment. Workplace was perceived to be neither high nor low by the respondents in terms of both workloads and work pressure. Opportunities. Opportunities for promotion and benefits were, however, uniformly rated as low by the respondents as a group. Recruitment Process. In terms of the recruitment process, respondents averred that both the number and frequency are low. Comparison across Agencies. Analysis of variance revealed that significant differences in the well-being dimensions across agencies are noted for the following: opportunities for promotion (f = 21.00); benefits (f = 21.00); recruitment in terms of numbers (f = 91.00) and recruitment in terms of frequency (f = 91.00).

UV Journal of Research

148 VI. DISCUSSION •

•

In the well-being dimensions where significant differences are noted, those in the Philippine National Police have consistently rated the specific items as high in sharp contrast with those coming from the Bureau of Fire Protection and Bureau of Jail Management and Penology who rated the items low. From these observations, we surmise that the opportunities for promotion and benefits are significantly better at the Philippine National Police than in the Bureau of Fire Protection and the Bureau of Jail Management and Penology together. The same could be said of the status of recruitment where the number of new recruits is higher at the PNP than in both BJMP and BFP. Moreover, recruitment at the PNP occurs significantly more frequently in former agency. All these information provide a decent picture for the Philippine National Police as an employment destination: same work load and pressure with the BJMP and BFP but with better opportunities for promotion and benefits and better recruitment in terms of both number and frequency.

VII. CONCLUSION The attraction of the Philippine National Police (PNP) as a job destination for graduates of Criminology stems from the better well-being perceptions for the agency. In particular, there are better opportunities for promotion and benefits at PNP than at the BFP and the BJMP and, likewise, for the number and frequency of recruitment in the agency. These positive wellbeing dimensions are reinforced by the fact that in terms of workload and work pressure, the three agencies have equally high ratings. In other words, for the same level of work and stress, the PNP offers better opportunities for the growth and development than the other two agencies.

Originality Index: Similarity Index: Paper ID:

99 % 1% 341980057

Grammarly:

Checked

REFERENCES Bureau of Jail Management and Penology (2007). BJMP Manual. Bureau of Jail Management and Penology (2010). BJMP Mandate and Function. Chiu, P. D. (2013). Short people need not apply for police: Firefighting jobs. GMA Network News. Nation. Ciaran, J. (2013). Police Officer Working Conditions. Houston Chronicle. Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2010). Uniform Crime Report: Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted. Washington, DC, USA: Department of Justice. Gupton, H. M., Axelrod, E., Cornell, L., Curran, S. F., Hood, C. J., Kelly, J., & Moss, J. (2011). Support and Sustain: Psychological Intervention for Law Enforcement Personnel. The Police Chief, 11(1), 9297. Plaza, E. (2012). Mission, vision and function. Philippine National Police. Police Region Office 11. Republic Act 8551 Act of 1998. Philippine National Police Reform and Reorganization Act of 1998. Republic Act 8965 Act of 1990. Department of the Interior and Local Government Act of 1990. Republic of the Philippines (2011). National Security Policy 2011-2016: Securing the gains of democracy. Manila, Philippines: Bureau Printing.

Relatorres, Q. H., Nalzaro, J. G., Napao, J. P. and Lavares, I. O.

149

Table 1. Opportunities

Opportunity Binefits 2 3 N=

Count 9 6 15

Percent 60.00 40.00 100.00

Table 2. Organization/Recruitment Numbers

Recruitment Numbers 2.0 2.5 3.0 N=

Count 9 1 5 15

Percent 60.00 6.67 33.33 100

Count 9 1 5 15

Percent 60.00 6.67 33.33 100

Table 3. Organization/ Recruitment Frequency

Recruitment Frequency 2.0 2.5 3.0 N= Table 4. Mean Salary

Variable

Mean

Median

TrMean

StDev

SE Mean

Minimum

Maximum

Salary

16585

17000

16251

2803

724

14000

23513

Mean Square

0.067 0.300 0.367

0.22

0.804

Mean Square

0.267 0.267 0.534

1.00

0.397

Mean Square

1.4000 0.0667

21.00

0.000

Table 5. Work Loads

Source Agency Error Total

Degrees of Freedom 2 12 14

Sum of Squares 0.133 3.600 3.733

Degrees of Freedom 2 12 14

Sum of Squares O.533 3.200 3.733

Table 6. Work Hours

Source Agency Error Total

Table 7. Opportunity/Promotion

Source Agency Error Total

Degrees of Freedom 2 12 14

Sum of Squares 2.8000 0.8000 3.6000

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Table 8. Opportunity/Benefits

Source Agency Error Total

Degrees of Freedom 2 12 14

Sum of Squares 2.8000 0.8000 3.6000

Mean Square

1.4000 0.0667

21.00 `

0.000

91.00

0.000

91.00

0.000

Table 9. Recruitment Numbers

Source

Degrees of Freedom

Sum of Squares

Mean Squares

Agency Error Total

2 12 14

3.0333 0.2000 3.2333

1.5167 0.0167

Sum of Squares 3.0333 0.2000 3.2333

Mean Squares 1.5167 0.0167

Table 10. Recruitment Frequency

Source Agency Error Total

Degrees of Freedom 2 12 14

Table 11. Work Load

Agency 1 2 3 All

2 3 3 3 3 2 2 8 8

3 2 2 2 2 3 3 7 7

All 5 5 5 5 5 5 15 15

Chi-Square =0.536 , Degrees of Freedom =2, P-Value =0.765 6 cells with expected counts less than 5.0 Table 12. Work Place

Agency 1 2 3 All

2 4 4 2 2 2 2 8 8

3 1 1 3 3 3 3 7 7

Chi-Square = 2.143, Degrees of Freedom = 2, P-Value= 0.343 6 cells with expected counts less than 5.0

All 5 5 5 5 5 5 15 15

Relatorres, Q. H., Nalzaro, J. G., Napao, J. P. and Lavares, I. O.

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Table 13. Opportunity/Promotion

2 4 4 5 5 0 0 9 9

1 2 3 All

3 1 1 0 0 5 5 6 6

All 5 5 5 5 5 5 15 15

Chi-Square = 11.667, Degrees of Freedom = P-Value = 0.003 6 cells with expected counts less than 5.0 Table 14. Opportunity/ Benefit

2 5 5 4 4 0 0 9 9

1 2 3 All

3 0 0 1 1 5 5 6 6

All 5 5 5 5 5 5 15 15

Chi-Square =11.667, Degrees of freedom = 2, P-Value = 0.003 6 cells with expected counts less than 5.0 Table 15. Recruitment Numbers

1 2 3 All

2.0 5 5 4 4 0 0 9 9

2.5 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

3.0 0 0 0 0 5 5 5 5

Chi-Square = 16.667, Degrees of Freedom = 4 3 cells with expected counts less than 1.0 Chi-Square approximation probably invalid 9 cells with expected counts less than 5.0

All 5 5 5 5 5 5 15 15

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Table 16. Recruitment Frequency

1 2 3 All

2.0

2.5

3.0

All

5 5 4 4 0 0 9 9

0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

0 0 0 0 5 5 5 5

5 5 5 5 5 5 15 15

Chi-Square = 16.667, Degrees of Freedom = 4 3 cells with expected counts less than 1.0 Chi-Square approximation probably invalid 9 cells with counts less than 5.0

UV Journal of Research 2013

Implementation of the National Competency-Based Teacher Standards in the UV-College of Teacher Education Nerissa S. Lopez College of Education University of the Visayas nerissalopez@rocketmail.com Submitted: March 21, 2012

Accepted: July 22, 2013

ABSTRACT The study determined whether the student teachers have achieved the expected competencies required by the new curriculum in teacher education. The National Competency-Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS) explicitly lay down the set of behaviors, attitude and skills that each student teacher must possess. Using a researcher-made questionnaire, this study assessed the competencies of the student teachers in comparison with the standard skills embodied in the NCBTS using a researcher-made questionnaire. All the 38 student-teachers who enrolled during the 1st semester of 2011 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2012 and 22 mentors of the University of the Visayas Laboratory School- Main Campus were involved in thestudy.Boththestudentteachersandthementorshadanorientationbeforeansweringthe questionnaires. Results are analyzed using descriptive statistics for the level of competency and Pearson coefficient to determine the significant relationship of competency level and student performance. The student teachers perceived themselves as highly competent as classroom teachers and this confirmed by the mentors. Mentors perceived the student teachers as very competent in almost all aspects of the seven NCBTS skills. They were best in professional growth and development and in social regard for learning. However, they lie low in community organizing or building linkages and understanding the diverse learning abilities of students. Likewise, though competent enough, the student teachers need to keep abreast with the recent trends in education. Student teaching performance was related to the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; learning environment, suggesting that when mentors provide a conducive environment, assistance and modeling, the student teachers would learn the teaching skills and proper behavior of an efficient and effective teacher. The curriculum has also enhanced the students teaching skills, which means that the program was useful for student teachers. Keywords: national competency-based teacher standards, curriculum, student teaching, student mentor, competency I. INTRODUCTION Teaching experiences of student teachers culminate during the student teaching program. They render on and off campus school-based experiences for a total of 480 hours.

The goal of the Student Teaching Program is to produce prospective teachers who observe and motivate students to learn right. It also aims to give opportunities for new educators to demonstrate instructional competence.

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The interns start their On-Campus Practice Teaching in our laboratory school for 250 hours. Since it is laboratory of life, it is imperative that continuous assessment and monitoring of their performance is sought. Part of the monitoring process is the mentorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s evaluation of each student teacher based on the evaluation instrument from the experiential learning book. As supervisor of the Student-Teaching program, assessments and evaluations are done before sending them for off-campus exposure. There should be consistent implementation of the Memorandum of Agreement on Supervision while student teachers

are actively engaged in teaching. Societal changes and technological development challenged the teaching profession. It is necessary that the teacher education must fill the gap between needs and expectations of the learners. Therefore, it is imperative that both new and experienced teachers must work collaboratively. The Department of Education vows to commit in providing a quality system of public education. It gives schools with teachers who can help students develop, their knowledge, skills, and attitude for them to function effectively in a rapidly changing society (DepEd, 2006).

Figure 1. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework.

Lopez, N. S.

The National Competency – Based Teachers Standards is a set of competencies that is anchored upon the core values of Filipino teachers and on the principle for effective-teaching and learning. NCBTS defines the different dimensions of effective teaching. Effective teaching means being able to help all types of students learn the different learning goals in the curriculum. As stated, Philippines Schools have teachers who are committed and accountable for providing classroom instruction with high regard for student learning outcomes. Teachers are committed to the well-being of the students and communities they serve, considering their cultural diversity, group aspirations, and educational value. There are seven domains representing the desired features of the teaching- learning process. These domains are composed of performance indicators that reflect the quality of a teacher’s performance (TEC, DepEd & CHED, 2007). Domain 1: Social Regard for Learning. Social regard for learning emphasizes that an ideal teacher should possess positive values and that they should be role models in the pursuit of learning and the effort to learn. Domain 2: Learning Environment. Learning environment shows the necessity of providing for social and psychological physical environment to all students. Considering their individual differences in learning, they can participate in the different learning activities and work towards attaining high standards of learning. Domain 3: Diversity of Learners. Diversity of Learners emphasizes the ideal that teachers can facilitate the learning process in diverse types of learners. Teachers should first recognize and respect individual differences, use knowledge about students’ to design diverse sets of learning activities and ensure that all students can attain appropriate learning goals. Domain 4: Curriculum. Curriculum refers to all elements of the teaching-learning process that works to help students attain high standards of learning and in-depth knowledge of the curricular goals and objectives. Teacher’s knowledge of the subject matter, teaching-learning approaches

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methods and activities, instructional materials and learning resources constitute the elements of the curriculum. Domain 5: Planning, Assessing and Reporting. Planning, assessing and reporting focus on the use of assessment data to revise teaching-learning plans and integration of formative assessment procedures in the plan. Domain 6: Community Linkages. Community linkages focus on the meaningful link of experiences and aspirations of the students in their homes and communities. Teachers’ efforts are directed at strengthening the links between school and community activities, particularly in attaining curricular objectives. Domain 7: Personal Growth & Professional Development. Personal growth and professional development emphasize the teacher’s high personal regard for professional development and continuous improvement as teachers. The Mentoring Spirit. It is said that the young generation these days distrust the future and feel pessimistic about their careers and financial well-being. Suicide has increased and that even children at six or seven years old are depressed about being raped and of polluted environment. We read of some gangs leaders destroying whole neighborhoods. In truth, some of these young toughs are gifted but misdirected influences. They possess many of the same attributes of power as corporate misdirected influences. They have a charismatic knack for attracting followers, and enviable persuasive skills. They can articulate what it takes to endure within their milieu. Although gang leaders may lead impressionable disciples astray, they provide their followers with something that the wider mainstream community does not: a mentoring relationship (Shea, 1992; Conner & Pokora, 2007). Mentors are wise and trusted advisers. They are significant persons who play different roles in differing degrees for a different length of time to another person. They are experienced individuals who are willing to share their knowledge with those who are less experienced through relationship of mutual trust. They provide

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encouragement by sharing enthusiasm for his job (Clutterback, 1991a&b). They help others achieve their potentials (Shea, 1992). They are behind every successful person. They care about the growth and development of someone, somewhere and somehow (Kaye, 2000). According to Sinetar (1998), “we need the mentor’s spirit: an unseen, affirming influence, and positive energy... the heart’s posture pervading healthy relationships in every family, classroom, organization and town...the almost anything that deepens our sense of the sacred or our understanding or transmits a kind of gladness about life itself.” This is precisely what is envisioned to happen – mentoring relationship that is fostered between the young and the seasoned teacher in order to facilitate the transmission of values, culture tradition on one hand, and on the other, to make use of modern means in keeping with the advancement of technology and the needs of a knowledge-based society. The kind of teacher you become is a large extent influenced by how you view teaching profession (Zulueta, 2006). Teaching has always been thought of as one of the noblest professions; and a teacher, likewise, one of the noblest human beings. It is believed that an individual possessed with a noble heart, will be willing to assume a great responsibility to society. This responsibilities include tha (1) development of good citizens; (2) the inculcation in and cultivation of the mind, the heart, and the soul of the youth; and (3) the love of beauty, goodness and truth. The school is very much alive when the teachers are dynamic, alert and zealous of their teaching, research, and service functions. The teacher performs a tremendous task. In order to articulate the philosophy, vision and mission of the school in relation to the changing needs of the immediate community that it serves and the society in general, of which it is an integral part. The teacher is not just a cog in the wheel; he is the wheel in the total complex of the educational system. He is the central figure in the school

system, not-withstanding the pupils/students. He can give flesh to the noble aspirations of the pupils/students, translate into the commodity and transform values and attitudes into functional attributes. The final semester of teacher education is mostly devoted to practice teaching. It is considered as the most important phase of teacher development. The student teacher begins to shed his student status and ways, and transforms himself toward becoming a teacher. Student teaching is a whole day schoolbased experience. It is supervised by a competent cooperating teacher (CT) and student teaching supervisor (STS). The first objective of student teaching is to provide the opportunity for acquisition and demonstration of instructional competence with beginning professional educators. The student teaching experience has been carefully designed to be as realistic and as actual teaching. Student teachers are placed in schools with carefully selected and qualified cooperating teachers. Essential to student teaching is supervision which is the mutual responsibility of the cooperating teacher and the student supervisor. Teaching as a noble profession involves the processing of individuals hoping to transform them into totally developed caring human beings and useful citizens. With a goal as important as this, the teacher is expected not only to work devotedly and patiently but to comfort himself as well into the very image that he wants his learners to emulate. Thus, what the teacher teaches, he learns himself. Likewise, teaching intends to achieve an understanding of its dynamics both inside and outside the classroom suitable for all instructional levels. It also aims to develop the skill in observing and analyzing teacher roles and behavior that provide direction and guidance towards learning efficiency. Teaching is a complex process in the sense that learning, as its objective, is a decision that the learner makes himself. Without the learner’s full involvement in the teaching- learning process, all

Lopez, N. S.

teaching futile; thus, the most important learning principle: “Learning is a self-activity” by Dewey as cited by Atienza, S. M., Garibay, R. G., & Ramos, M. F. (2007). For teaching to become successful, the teacher should apply at the right time all the appropriate scientific teaching-learning theories and principles, and use true and tried methods, while at the same time be able to innovate as the teacher sees it fit to the teaching-learning process of the learner’s nature and needs. The ability of the teacher to interpret correctly and apply appropriate theories and principles makes a teaching a science. On the other hand, the teacher’s ability to translate them into effective teaching methods makes teaching an art. Thus, the cliché: “Teaching is both a science and an art.” Mentor is a Process and a Partnership. It is a process because it goes through stages and a partnership becauseit takes a mentor anda mentee to be engaged in the relationship of supporting and encouraging each other… a relationship where honesty, trust and confidentiality are established… a supportive mentor is assisting an inexperienced mentee to grow and develop. According to Clutterback (1991a&b), a mentor is a wise and trusted adviser; a significant person who played a role on different times in differing degrees for different length of time to another person. An experienced individual who is willing to share his knowledge with others who are less experienced in relationship of mutual trust; provides encouragement by sharing enthusiasm for his job; a person who helps others to achieve their potentials; behind every successful person and cares about the growth and development of someone, somewhere and somehow. In this paper, mentoring is addressed to the unique school setting, where the mentors can also be called learning mentors. They possess key skills and competencies for teaching and learning, counseling, networking, facilitating, and developing their mentees or co-teachers and also their students. The mentors are generally older, more experienced and respected persons. They prevent set-backs in learning and help co-teachers

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move forward. They help prevent absenteeism, dropping out from teaching, or low performance. It is said that behind every successful person, there is someone, somewhere, somehow who cares about his/her growth and development. This person is the mentor. Mentoring is helping and supporting teachers to organize their own learning to have maximum development of their own skills enhance their performance and enable them to achieve their goal in life. Mentoring is used to meet the challenge of ever-increasing need to learn new things in new ways. This is to emphasize the fact that learning is a continuous and life-long process. In the mentoring process, the mentor and the mentee/teacher enter into a partnership, plan for success. The mentor supports and encourages learning and development to happen to the mentee who in turn will make it happen to their students. Mentoring is an on-going opportunity to reinforce and apply learning. This is a special kind of relationship between the mentor and the mentee. The mentor is available at the various stage of the personal and professional life of a mentee, from the start and possibly into retirement. A mentor is a significant person who played a role on different times, in different degrees, for a different length of time to a mentee. A mentor provides encouragement by sharing his/her enthusiasm for work so that the mentee can reach his potential. Being an experienced person the mentor is willing to share the mentee his/ her knowledge and skills as well as her values in life. The goal of this mentor is to help build the mentees’ self-confidence, self-awareness and selfesteem. The mentor should possess personal qualities such as objectivity, honesty, credibility, helpfulness, wisdom and firmness. He/she is a guidance provider, good parent, case worker, learning facilitator, and special agent of change. Professionally, the mentor should have the ability to engage constructively with a wide range of people from different social or ethnic

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background. He/she has the ability to listen and identify potential barriers to learning and jointly engage with the mentees varied strategies to overcome these barriers. He/she sees mentoring as long as long-term activity designed to achieve set goals and not a quick fix. A mentor has proven track record of working with people and the ability to recognize their needs and problem. He/she has the ability to assess people and plan appropriate responses by tapping resources in the community. He/she has experienced working effectively with public and private sectors. To sum up the mentor has the following personal qualities; wise and kind, role model, willing to help, objective and credible, honest and positive, and firm yet flexible. The professional skills of the mentors are: a desire to help people gain insights into how to think; a proven track record of working with others and the ability to recognize their needs and problems; ability to work with others and of different social and ethnic background; and command the confidence of all sectors; ability to assess and plan appropriate responses by tapping other source; ability to work effectively by networking with the public and private sectors; ability to see mentoring as a long-term activity designed to achieve set goals and not quick fix. What is the role of the mentee and the mentor? The relationship that develops between mentor and mentee is vital to the effectiveness of their work together. When all parties in relationship know what is expected of them, the mentorship develops into an effective and supportive process. The mentee should be opentoideaofreceiving input from the mentor. In the relationship, the mentee must view his/her mentor in pursuing effectiveness and fulfillment. Mentees must also be willing to spend time to work with someone else. Finally, the mentee must see his/her role as that of a learner, a lifelong learner. The mentor on the other hand must act as a guide, supporter, friend advocate and role model. Being a supporter, mentors need to accept their

mentees as they are. Mentors must see that the mentee are not their alter ego and they have to accept them as the mentees. What is then the benefit of mentoring? Mentoring promotes self-learning and encourages the mentees to reflect on the wide range of learning opportunities available to attain their personal and professional goals. The mentees assess the opportunities about learning and developing themselves at their own pace, thus contributing much to their morale. Mentoring improves the capacity of the mentees to deal with change. It gives them a greater sense of determination to succeed by looking at change as healthy way of meeting lifeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s challenge and problems. Mentees are not afraid to try out new things or methods because the mentor is there to help, support and guide them. Mentoring is a sustainable framework which can be reviewed regularly by the mentor and the mentees. Doing this generates confidence and trust with each other as the challenges and problems come their way. Sharing of small successes inspires them. Mentoring increaseseffectivecommunication. The frequent contact of the mentor and the mentees to discuss problems and issues in order to achieve their goals requires that they improve their listening and asking questions, guiding and leading skills. Mentoring introduces a culture of selfdevelopment. The mentor motivates, encourages and supports mentees to think for themselves, grow in confidence and take responsibility for today and tomorrow. One of the important domains is learning the many facets of diversity. As humans, we are deeply influenced by the cultural socialization we experienced and our attitudes and behavior reflect the values we were taught. As educators, we work in institutions that are dedicated to educating each individual child and also helping all children learn to live together. As developing professional, you know that children are best understood in the context of their families, and that you pledge to adhere to a

Lopez, N. S.

code of ethical conduct to respect the dignity and worth of each family. The components of culture like race and ethnicity, gender, language, abilities, religion or spirituality, age, social class, status, or income and temperament challenge teachers in their relationships with the children and families. II. METHODS AND PROCEDURES The study aimed to determine the level of competency of the student teachers in the implementation of the National CompetencyBased Teacher Standard and correlate these competencies with their studentteaching program rating. Both the students and the mentors’ ratings were used in the analysis. This study is a quantitative research using the descriptive correlational design. It was conducted in the College of Education at the University of the Visayas main campus located in Cebu City. All the thirty eight student teachers who enrolled during the 1st semester of 2011-2012 and 22 mentors of the UV laboratory school were involved in the

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study. Data were gathered personally by the researcher, using the researcher-made questionnaire based from the seven domains of teaching and learning as outlined in the National Competency – Based Teacher Standard. Both the students and the mentors were grouped, had an orientation and answered the questionnaires. Results were analyzed using the mean for the level of competency and Pearson coefficient of correlation for the bivariate analysis. III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The competencies of the student teachers in each of the seven NCBTS Domains are presented in the next seven tables. The domain on social regard includes the different criteria such as implementation of school policies and procedures, personal qualities such as punctuality, personal appearance, behavior, and utilization of various learning experiences. This is shown in table 1.

Table 1. Student Teachers’ Competencies in NCBTS Domain on Social Regard for Learning.

CRITERIA 1. Implements school

policies and procedures 2. Demonstrates punctuality 3. Maintains appropriate appearance 4. Is careful about the effect of one’s behaviour on students 5. Makes use of various learning experiences and resources. Average

MENTEE

MENTOR

Mean

Description

Mean

Description

4.08

Very Competent

3.77

Very Competent

4.26

Highly Competent

3.31

Competent

4.17

Very Competent

4.08

Very Competent

3.95

Very Competent

4.15

Very Competent

3.78

Very Competent

3.46

Very Competent

4.04

Very Competent

3.75

Very Competent

Legend: 4.21 – 5.00 Highly Competent;3.41 – 4.20 Very Competent;2.61 – 3.40 Competent;1.00 – 1.80 Not Competent

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Table 2 showed the average mean of every competent where both the mentees and the mentor perceive the same. However, there are areas where mentees feel they are already highly competent on encouraging learners to ask questions but the mentors perceived otherwise. It was also noted that both mentee and mentor perceived that gender fair opportunities for learning were provided and that the mentee felt highly competent on this.

Likewise, mentors felt that the mentees were also highly competent. Moreover, their criteria could also be given emphasis namely handling behavior problems promptly and quickly and with due respect to children’s rights: encouraging free expression of ideas from children and taking measures to minimize anxiety. In other words, for mentee to be able to encourage learners to ask questions they must also be adopt in the art of questioning and must

Table 2. Student Teachers’ Competencies in NCBTS Domain on Learning Environment. CRITERIA

1. Promotes courtesy and respect for different learners.

MENTEE Mean Description 4.30

2. Provides gender-fair opportunities for

learning. 3. Recognizes that every learner has strengths. 4. Maintains a safe and orderly classroom free from distractions. 5. Arranges challenging activities in a given physical environment.

4.47

3.87

6. Encourages learners to ask questions.

4.28

Highly Competent Highly Competent Highly Competent Highly Competent

MENTOR Mean Description 3.85 4.23

Very Competent Highly Competent

4.15

Highly Competent

4.15

Very Competent

3.54

Very Competent

4.48

Highly Competent

3.38

Competent

3.98

Very Competent

3.54

Very Competent

3.91

Very Competent

3.62

Very Competent

Very Competent Highly Competent

3.31

Competent

3.62

Very Competent

3.62

Very Competent

3.62

Very Competent

3.62

Very Competent

3.54

Very Competent

3.46

Very Competent

4.28

7. Provides learners with a variety of learning experiences.

8. Provides varied enrichment activities to nurture the desire for further learning.

9. Communicates and maintains high

standards for learning performance.

3.86

10. Handles behavior problems quickly and

4.26 with due respect to children’s’ right. 11. Gives timely feedback to reinforce 4.04 appropriate learners; behavior 12. Guides individual learners to the development of appropriate moral, social 3.97 and learning behavior.

13. Communicates and enforces school

policies and procedures for appropriate 3.78 learner behavior. 14. Encourages free expression of ideas from 4.23 students. 15. Creates a stress free environment 3.69

16. Takes measures to minimize anxiety and fear of the teacher and/or the subject.

Average Legend:

Highly Competent Very Competent

3.84

Very Competent

3.31

Competent

4.01

Very Competent

3.61

Very Competent

4.21 – 5.00 Highly Competent;3.41 – 4.20 Very Competent;2.61 – 3.40 Competent;1.00 – 1.80 Not Competent

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Table 3. Student Teachers’ Competencies in NCBTS Domain on Diversity of Learners.

MENTEE Mean

Description

MENTOR Mean

Description

4.08

Very Competent

3.54

Very Competent

4.19

Very Competent

3.69

Very Competent

3. Establishes goals that define appropriate expectations for all learners.

3.93

Very Competent

3.46

Very Competent

Paces lessons appropriate expectations for all learners.

3.71

Very Competent

3.54

Very Competent

Initiates learning approaches for learners whose needs have not been met by usual approaches.

4.43

Highly Competent

3.54

Very Competent

Recognizes multi-cultural background of learners when providing learning opportunities.

3.89

Very Competent

3.62

Very Competent

Adopts strategies to address needs of differently-abled students.

4.15

Very Competent

3.62

Very Competent

Makes appropriate adjustments for learners of different socio-economic backgrounds.

4.21

Highly Competent

3.62

Very Competent

4.07

Very Competent

3.58

Very Competent

CRITERIA 1. Obtains information on the learning styles, multiple intelligences and needs of learners. 2. Designs or selects learning experiences suited to different kind of learners.

Average

Legend: 4.21 – 5.00 Highly Competent;3.41 – 4.20 Very Competent;2.61 – 3.40 Competent;1.00 – 1.80 Not Competent

have broad knowledge of the subject matter. They must use individual and cooperative learning strategies to improve learner’s capacity for higher learning. Table 3 revealed an average means of 4.07 and 3.58 both very competent from mentees’ self-evaluation and mentors evaluation of the mentee. However, there is a difference on initiating other learning approaches for learners whose needs have not been met by needed approaches. This means mentees feel

they are already highly competent that they have many approaches already to enter to individual needs but the mentor felt they still need to learn more approaches. Likewise, making adjustments for learners with different socio-economic backgrounds as well as those differently-abled students is also rated highly competent by the mentees; however, mentors still believe a room for improvement on this aspect. This implies that the student teachers have already acquired basic skills in dealing

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with diversified learners but has to do more bases on mentorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s assessment. The domain or Curriculum is composed of the teaching-learning process that works in

convergence to help students attain standards of learning and understanding of the curricular goals and objectives

Table 4. Student Teachers Competencies in NCBTS Domain on Curriculum. CRITERIA

MENTEE

MENTOR

Mean

Description

Mean

Description

Delivers accurate and updated content knowledge using appropriate methodologies, and strategies.

3.80

Very Competent

3.77

Very Competent

Integrates language, literacy and quantitative skill

3.80

Very Competent

3.69

Very Competent

Explains learning goals, instructional procedures and content clearly and accurately to students.

3.85

Very Competent

3.69

Very Competent

Links the current content with past and future lessons.

3.93

Very Competent

3.62

Very Competent

Alights with lesson objectives the teaching methods, learning activities, and instructional materials. Creates situation that encourage learners to use high order thinking skills. Engages and sunshine learnerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interest in the subject by making content meaningful t them.

4.19

Very Competent

3.85

Very Competent

4.00

Very Competent

3.62

Very Competent

4.09

Very Competent

3.08

Competent

4.00

Very Competent

3.77

Very Competent

3.85

Very Competent

3.85

Very Competent

4.00

Very Competent

3.78

Very Competent

6. 7.

Sets appropriate learning goals Integrates relevant scholarly works and ideas to enrich the lesson as needed. 10. Understands the learning goals.

8. 9.

11. Establishes routines and procedures to maximize instructional time. 12. Plans lessons to fit available instructional objectives. 13. Translates learning competencies to instructional objectives.

14. Selects, prepares and utilizes

technology appropriate to the learners and the learning objectives.

15. Provides activities and uses materials which fit the learners learning styles, goals, and culture.

3.91 3.65 4.15 4.15 4.04 3.82

Very Competent Very Competent Very Competent Very Competent Very Competent Very Competent

4.10

Very Competent

3.62

Very Competent

4.17

Very Competent

3.85

Very Competent

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cont. Table 4. Student Teachers Competencies in NCBTS Domain on Curriculum

16. Utilizes information derived from

assessment to improve teaching and learning.

17. Provides activities and uses materials

which involve students in meaningful learning.

3.84

Very Competent

3.54

4.26

High Competent

3.54

Very Competent

18. Designs and utilizes teaching methods that take into account the learning process. 19. Cultivate good study habits through appropriate activities and projects.

3.93

Very Competent

3.23

Competent

3.89

Very Competent

2.92

Competent

3.74

Very Competent

2.92

Competent

3.93

Very Competent

3.61

Very Competent

20. Utilizes Information and Communication Technology to enhance teaching and learning. Average

Legend: 4.21 – 5.00 Highly Competent;3.41 – 4.20 Very Competent;2.61 – 3.40 Competent;1.00 – 1.80 Not Competent

These four elements which include the teacher’s knowledge of subject matter, teachinglearning approaches and activities instructional materials and learning resources. The profile is shown in table 4. Table 4 on curriculum has an average mean of 3.93 and 3.61 which is described as very competent. Both mentee and mentor perceived the same thing. For the mentee’s self-evaluation the highest criterion has a weighted average of 4.76 which is highly competent. The mentees believed that they have provided activities and the uses materials which involve students in meaningful learning: however, to integrate relevant scholars’ works and ideas to enrich the lesson as needed got the lowest mark but still they are very competent. The mentor on the other hand felt that the mentee needs to cultivate good study habit through appropriate activities and project and that ICT has to be utilized to enhance teaching and learning. This implies that although the result is very competent the mentee has to do something more.

They have to master the subject matter, improve classroom management or facilitation skills, enhanced teaching methods and strategies. The domain of Planning, Assessing and Reporting refers to the aligned use of assessment planning activities and assessing them to ensure that learning has taken place to its maximum level. This domain particularly focuses on the utilization of assessment data to improve the instructional use of technology enhancing the learning process. In the table 5, the mentees believe that the instructional plan they prepared were very competently implemented with the mean of 4.15. Their weakness is conducting regular meetings with parents and learners. The mentor on the other hand believed that the mentees were only competent in identifying teachinglearning difficulties and possible causes so that appropriate action can be addressed too. Likewise, teacher/mentors believed that

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conducting regular meetings with parents and involving them to participate in school otherwise has to be strengthened. This implies that mentees have not thoroughly practiced the home-school

relationship techniques which and believe could be strengthened if laboratory schools will give the mentees chances to organize parent meetings and conferences.

Table 5. Student Teachers’ Competence in NCBTS Domain on Planning, Assessing and Reporting.

CRITERIA 1. Shows proofs of instructional planning 2.

Implements instructional plan

Demonstrates ability to cope with varied teaching milieu. Prepares formative and summative tests in line with the curriculum. Employs non-traditional assessment result to improve teaching and learning.

6. Interprets and uses assessment results to improve teaching and learning. Identifies teaching-learning difficulties and possible causes and takes appropriate action to address them. 8. Uses tools for assessing authentic learning. 9. Provides timely and accurate feedback to learners to reflect on and monitor their own learning growth. 10. Keeps accurate records of grades/performance levels of learners. 11. Conduct regular meetings with learners and parents to report learners. 12. Involves parents to participate in school activities that promote learning.

MENTEES

Mean

4.00 4.15 3.96

MENTOR

Mean 3.77 3.69 3.62

Description Very Competent Very Competent Very Competent

3.85

Very Competent

3.62

Very Competent

3.63

Very Competent

3.69

Very Competent

3.93

Very Competent

3.69

Very Competent

3.80

Very Competent

3.31

Competent

3.96

Very Competent

3.62

Very Competent

3.87

Very Competent

3.77

Very Competent

3.96

Very Competent

3.77

Very Competent

3.28

Competent

3.54

Very Competent

3.46

Very Competent

3.62

Very Competent

3.82

Very Competent

3.64

Very Competent

Average

Description Very Competent Very Competent Very Competent

Legend: 4.21 – 5.00 Highly Competent;3.41 – 4.20 Very Competent;2.61 – 3.40 Competent;1.00 – 1.80 Not Competent

Lopez, N. S.

The domain or community linkages, prepare mentees for meaningful learning experiences geared towards community involvement. School activities must be the focus on strengthening our linkage with the community. The profile is shown in table 6. Table 6 showed that both mentees and mentors have mean averages of 3.78 and 3.56 respectively which means very competent. It is evident that student teachers encourage students to apply what were learned in the

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classroom learning to the community and home in particular. However, though very competent as per mentees evaluation they need to publicize school events and achievements. The mentors, on the other hand, rated the mentees competent only in their participation of community activities that promote learning which implies that exposure to community activities must be strengthened. More community involvement activities must be done.

Table 6. Student Teachers’ Competencies in NCBTS Domain on Community Linkages.

CRITERIA

MENTEES Mean

Description

Mean

Description

3.80

Very Competent

3.62

Very Competent

3.82

Very Competent

3.62

Very Competent

3.67

Very Competent

3.23

Very Competent

3.54

Very Competent

3.77

Very Competent

4.08

Very Competent

3.46

Very Competent

3.78

Very Competent

3.56

Very Competent

1. Involves community in

sharing accountability for learner 2. Uses community resources

(human, material) to support learning. 3. Participates in community

activities that promote learning. 4. Uses community networks to

publicize school events and achievements. 5. Encourages students to apply

classroom learning to the community. Average

MENTOR

Legend: 4.21 – 5.00 Highly Competent;3.41 – 4.20 Very Competent;2.61 – 3.40 Competent;1.00 – 1.80 Not Competent

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Table 7. Student Teachers’ Competencies in NCBTS Domain on Personal Growth and Professional Development.

CRITERIA

MENTEES

MENTOR

Mean

Description

Mean

Description

1. Maintains stature and behavior that upholds the dignity of teaching.

4.17

Very Competent

3.92

Very Competent

2. Allocates time for personal and professional development.

3.93

Very Competent

3.92

Very Competent

3. Articulates and demonstrates one’s personal philosophy of teaching.

3.98

Very Competent

3.92

Very Competent

4. Keeps abreast with recent developments in education.

3.50

Very Competent

3.77

Very Competent

5. Links with other institutions and organizations for sharing best practices.

3.52

Very Competent

3.62

6. Reflects on the quality of his/ her own teaching.

3.78

Very Competent

4.00

7. Improves teaching performance based on feedback from the mentor, students, peers, superiors, and others.

4.24

8. Accepts personal accountability to learners’ achievement and performance.

4.04

Very Competent

3.92

Very Competent

9. Uses self-evaluation to recognize and enhance ones’ strengths and correct ones’ weaknesses.

4.17

Very Competent

3.77

Very Competent

Average

3.92

Very Competent

3.87

Very Competent

Highly Competent

4.08

Very Competent Very Competent Very Competent

Legend: 4.21 – 5.00 Highly Competent;3.41 – 4.20 Very Competent;2.61 – 3.40 Competent;1.00 – 1.80 Not Competent

Table 7 showed that the mentees perceived themselves as highly competent in improving teaching performance based on the feedback from the mentors, students, peers, and supervisor. This

is strengthened by the mentor’s rating that the student teachers were very competent enough; the student teachers need to keep abreast with the recent trends in education.

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Table 8. Summary of Student and Teachers NCBTS Ratings.

CRITERIA

MENTEES Mean

1. Social Regard for Learning

4.04

2. Learning Environment

4.01

3. Diversity of Learners

4.07

4. Curriculum

3.93

5. Planning, Assessing and Reporting

3.82

6. Community Linkages

3.78

7. Personal Growth and Professional Development

3.92

Average

3.94

Description Very Competent Very Competent Very Competent Very Competent Very Competent Very Competent

MENTOR Mean

3.61

Description Very Competent Very Competent

3.58

Competent

3.75

3.61 3.64

Very Competent Very Competent

3.56

Competent

Very Competent

3.85

Very Competent

3.66

Very Competent

Legend: 4.21 – 5.00 Highly Competent;3.41 – 4.20 Very Competent;2.61 – 3.40 Competent;1.00 – 1.80 Not Competent

The summary table reveals that in general, students have higher self-ratings than their mentors. To determine if the ranking of domains between the two groups were correlated, the rank correlation (rho) coefficient was computed. The rho coefficient of 0.072 with p-value of .886 means that the ranking of the student’s ratings did not jibe with those of the teachers. For the students they were most competent in diversity of learners and social regard for learning and very low in community linkages and planning and assessing. The mentors ranked the student teachers first in personal growth and professional development and low in social regard for learning and community linkages. Correlation Between Students Rating In NCBTS And Student Teaching Performance. Students’ self-rating was correlated with their ratings in student teaching with the assumption that those with high NCBTS ratings in student teaching with the assumption that those with high NCBTS ratings would also have good

teaching performance. As shown in table 9, only the learning environment domain revealed a significant correlation between the two ratings. This suggests that student teachers who can create a stress free learning environment for the students where students are free to express themselves and interact with each other were rated also highly by the mentors in their teaching performance. The higher the NCBTS ratings, the higher also the teaching performance ratings of the student teachers. In all the six NCBTS domains has no bearing on their teaching performance. This may imply that students may rate themselves highly, yet their mentors may not be satisfied of how they teach in the classrooms or their performance in the community. This may also imply that the mentors expect one thing, they were doing another thing. This shows that students who have a high rating in NCBTS in the six domains may or may not have good teaching performance.

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Table 9. Correlation of Students Rating on the NCBTS Domains and Student Teaching Performance. Student Teaching Performance and NCBTS

r-value

p-value

Remarks

Social Regard for Learning

.24

.25

Accept null hypotheses

Learning Environment

.49

.01

Reject null hypotheses

Diversity of Learners

.18

.38

Accept null hypotheses

Curriculum

.32

.11

Accept null hypotheses

.07

.72

Accept null hypotheses

.04

.85

Accept null hypotheses

.15

.47

Accept null hypotheses

5. 6. 7.

Planning, Assessing and Reporting Community Linkages Personal Growth and Professional Development

Legend:

Shapiro-Wilk Test: a. Student Teaching Performance (p=0.11) b. Social Regard for Learning (p=0.06) c. Learning Envronment (p=0.08) d. Curriculum (p=o.13) e. Planning, assessment and reporting (p=0.06) f. Community linkages (p=0.12) g. personal growth and professional development (p=0.011)

The findings may lead to conclude that the expectations in the NCBTS for the student teachers were not the same expectations of the mentors. The good rating in the NCBTS is not a guarantee to have good ratings in student teaching.

Correlation between Teachers Rating On NCBTS Domains and Student Teaching Performance. It was also hypothesized that the teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ratings in NCBTS has a bearing on the student teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; teaching performance.

Table 10. Teachers Rating on the NCBTS Domains and Student Teaching Performance. Student Teaching Performance and NCBTS

r-value

p-value

Remarks

Social Regard for Learning

.24

.72

Accept null hypotheses

2. 3.

Learning Environment

.49*

.005

Reject null hypotheses

Diversity of Learners

.19

.18

Accept null hypotheses

Curriculum

.32*

.05

Accept null hypotheses

.07

.72

Accept null hypotheses

.04

.85

Accept null hypotheses

.15

.47

Accept null hypotheses

5. 6. 7.

Planning, Assessing and Reporting Community Linkages Personal Growth and Professional Development

Legend:

Lopez, N. S.

The correlation results show that only two domainshavesignificantcorrelation with teachers performance, the learning environment and the curriculum. This would confirm the previous results of the student teachers NCBTS rating. The teaching competence of the student teachers was influenced by how much they created a conducive and liberal learning environment in the classroom where students are actually learning and excited about what they are learning. Teachers’ rating in curriculum under NCBTS has a bearing on the student teachers’ teaching competency. The knowledge the students teachers have about the subject matter they are teaching, as well as how they relate real life situations to the activities, and how they input recent insights about the subject would matter in their teaching. The other five domains in NCBTS are not correlated with the students teaching competency. Those with good linkages, better professional growth and high recognition of the diverse learners, may either be good or not so good teachers. Their knowledge and skills in these five domains does not necessarily contribute to their teaching competency. Thus, it can be said that the NCBTS skills may not help student teachers to become competent teachers. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Student Teaching Program. This study identified the strengths and weaknesses of the student teaching program of the University of the Visayas specifically the on-campus experience as perceived by both mentors and mentees. Below is the list of their perceptions: A. Top three strengths as perceived by the Student Teachers 1. Student teachers are trained in all aspects during on-campus teaching 2. Self – esteem and self-confidence are developed 3. The community is benefited from this program B. Top three strengths as perceived by the mentors 1. Actual real life experiences are enhanced 2. The community is benefited from this

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program Self – esteem and self-confidence are developed C. Top three weaknesses as perceived by both the Student Teachers and Mentors 1. No provision for return demo after off – campus 2. No provision for mock interviews for application purposes 3. Lacks provision for seminars and workshops The list shows that both mentors and mentees have the same perceptions except on the first strength. The student teachers found that the experience has taught them to enhance their skills in all aspects while the mentors believed that the experience has exposed the students to real life situations. Both are enhancers to students experiences. What the respondents wanted was a return demonstrations by the students after their offcampus experiences. Thiswould show the skills and behavior they have acquired from outside schools. Most of all, because they want to land a job, they needed mock interviews that would assist them in their job application, which should be part of the student teaching experiences. Most of all, they want to have seminars or trainings to enhance what they have learned in the course work. They need certificates of attendance to trainings as added features of their application portfolio. 3.

IV. CONCLUSION Student teaching enhances the education quality, through real life learning experience. The expectations of the NCBTS for a student teacher were partially parallel to the expectations of the mentors. Thus, student teaching performance did not jive with the NCBTS performance, although the student teachers were competent in both areas. There is a need for mentors to be aware of the NCBTS skills to realign the assessment of the two variables. Student teaching performance can be enhanced if student teachers have developed content knowledge of the subject matter facilitated by the guidance of a extremely

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conscientious and concerned mentor in a highly conducive learning environment. A student who actually has adept content knowledge, student teachers cannot expound the lesson, cannot make the lesson interesting, cannot ask thought provoking questions, cannot critically allow students to express ideas and can never make the teaching-learning process enjoyable and fruitful. The teacher mentor has a significant role in modeling a conducive learning environment. How she prepares the learning environment has considerable impact on the student teachers’ experiences and performance. V. RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings, it is recommended that student teachers must be given examination on the content knowledge of the subjects in the elementary or high school level on both content and pedagogy. The selection of student teacher mentors should not be undermined because they do not just teach basic education students, but the student teachers as well. To enhance students’ knowledge and skills, seminars or trainings may be conducted to make them more competent. Most of all, a student teaching supervisor is needed to supervised them and facilitate their on and off campus activities and even professional activities as mock interviews or return demonstration after of the off-campus exposure. Originality Index: Similarity Index: Paper ID: Grammarly:

93 % 7% 346467633 Checked

REFERENCES Atienza, S. M., Garibay, R. G., & Ramos, M. F. (2007). Student teaching worktext (Revised Edition). Philippines: Rex Bookstore. Clutterback, D. (1991a). Mentoring and coaching: The roles and practices. Retrieved on January 20, 2012 at http://www/hrajournal.com Clutterbuck, D. (1991b). Everyone needs a mentor: Fostering talent in your organization (2nd ed). London:

Institute of Personnel Management. Conner, M. & Pokora, J. (2007). Coaching and mentoring at work. Berkshire, England: McGraw Hill House. DepEd (2006). National competency-based teacher standards (NCBTS) A professional development guide for Filipino teachers. Retrieved on February 12, 2012 at http://prime.deped.gov. ph/wp-content/uploads/ downloads/2011/09/ 22June_POPULAR VERSIONFINAL.pdf Kaye, C. (2000). 12 Manage: the Executive Fast Track Mentoring. Retrieved on January 4, 2012 at http:// www.12manage.com Shea, M. (1992). London deanery coaching and mentoring. Retrieved on February 12, 2012 at https://mentee. londondeanery.ac.uk/ Sinetar, M. (1998). The mentor’s spirit: Life lessons on leadership and the art of encouragement. New York: T St. Martin’s Griffin. (TEC), Department of eacher Education Council Education (DepEd) and Commission on Higher Education (CHED). (2007). Experiential learning course handbook. Zulueta, F. M., & Sevilla, Z. V. (2006). Principles and methods of teaching. Philippines: National Bookstore.

UV Journal of Research 2013

Perceptions on illness among terminally ill clients Resty L. Picardo Evelyn G. Base College of Nursing University of the Visayas restypicardo@hotmail.com Submitted: March 21, 2012

Accepted: January 4, 2013

ABSTRACT The study utilized a correlational design. It was conducted in the Hemodialysis Center and Cancer Center of Vicente Sotto Memorial Medical Center. A total of 40 terminally ill clients were the respondents of the study selected through a purposive sampling. The data from a paper and pen questionnaire were statistically treated using the simple percentage, chi-square, and Cramerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s V. The demographic profile and perceptions of terminally ill clients towards their illness were correlated. Generally the patients have positive perception about their illness which implies that despite the terminal experienced by the respondents, they are still positive about their perceptions on their illness. The younger patients are more positive than the older ones on feeling that they are the same person as they were before their illness and on feeling that their illness experience has made them a better or stronger person. All the other areas of concerned reveal that whether young or old there is no difference. Gender reveals no bearing on being negative or positive about being terminally ill. Patients with less educational attainment are more positive about their illness. The service worker, shop and market sales worker have more positive outlook on their illness over the other types of occupation. Terminally ill patients who have been suffering for over 60 months feel more positive about their illness compared to those with shorter experience. Patients with medical diagnosis of colon cancer reveal more positive perceptions as compared to all the other terminal illness cases. The partially positive perceptions among terminally ill clients which emerged in the study strongly affirms the Symbolic Interactionism Theory. The profiles among these terminally ill clients had greatly affect their perception on illness. Keywords: terminal illness, cancer, end stage renal disease I. INTRODUCTION Nothing is as devastating as when a person is being told to be having a terminal sickness or illness. Terminal illness as defined is a term made popular in the 20th century to label a lively and malignant disorder that has no cure or adequate treatment. This term is more frequently used for

advanced diseases like cancer or advanced disease of the heart. In general, it specifies an illness that will end the life of the person affected (Glare et al., 2003). A client struck by the illness may be denoted as a terminal client or terminally ill (McAdam, Stotts, Padilla & Puntillo, 2005; Petrie, Weinman, Sharpe, Buckley, 1996; Schmit,

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2005; Weinman & Petrie, 1997). Mostly, a client is hailed to be terminally ill if the life expectancy is assessed to be less than six months or so, under the supposition that the illness will run its usual course. The six-month customary is subjective, and best accessible approximations of prolonged existence may be wrong. Consequently, though a given client may correctly measured as terminal, this does not guarantee however that the client will expire within six months period. In the same manner, a client with a slowly continuing illness, such as AIDS, may not be labelled as terminally ill for the reason that the best estimations of prolonged existence is higher than six months. However this does not guarantee that the patient will not die unexpectedly early. In common, physicians somewhat miscalculate survival so that, for example, a client who is likely to survive for almost six weeks would probably expire about four weeks (Glare et al., 2003). Filipinos are identified as simple and happy individuals. This is shown by the fact that majority of Filipinos dearly love to rejoice for any reason even with less available resources. The cheerful nature of Filipinos may amaze and strike the outsider as an absence of seriousness but once a person knows about the Filipino culture, one would comprehend that joyfulness is a fragment of the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s culture and values (Philippines Travel Guide, 2010). A lot of things have been mentioned about how happy Filipinos are as a population, notwithstanding poverty, natural and man-made calamities and disasters, political confusion and economic adversity. Tracing back a few years ago, the country ranked sixth in the World Values Survey, as the only Asian to be included in the top ten for subjective happiness (Caruncho, 2008). It is then the reason of the researcher to prove this aspect of being happy people, if this has a bearing on their perceptions to being affected with terminal illness. In the many years of being a nurse, the researchers had been witnesses to the battles that clients go through from the sufferings of a simple illness to a

terminal one. The assumption of a sick role is one major struggle that everyone has to overcome. A variety of reactions had been observed. Some clients are so negative about it that they want to end their lives at that point. There are also some clients who are so positive that they take it so lightly and accept the situation wholeheartedly at the instance without question. The reactions had been so varied, undistinguishable and in extremes. It is therefore the intention of the researchers to determine how optimism or pessimism plays around among clients when confronted with a terminal illness. The researchers are nevertheless with interest and determination to make this study. With experience and commitment, this undertaking will be a means to help these clients. The researchers intend to determine the profiles and the perceptions on their illness and determine the relationship between the two. II. THE STUDY A non-experimental, quantitative, correlational research design was utilized. The study was conducted in Vicente Sotto Memorial Medical Center, Hemodialysis and Cancer Center. Respondents were identified using a purposive sampling design and there were 40 terminally ill clients serving as respondents, 20 came from the cancer center and 20 from the hemodialysis center. Respondents were made to answer a preâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;tested tool. The study was piloted to determine the profiles of terminally ill clients. It was also aimed at determining the perception on their illness. Further it was also designed to determine the relationship between the profiles and perception on their illness. The following statistical treatments were utilized in the study to derive the findings: simple percentage, chisquare, and Cramerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s V. III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION The following major findings were evident after the collection, processing and statistical treatment.

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Table 1. Respondent’s Profile, N=40.

PROFILE

FREQUENCY

(%)

18 – 35 years old 36 – 55 years old 56 years old and above

1 32 7

2.50 80.00 17.50

Male Female

13 27

32.50 67.50

None Elementary High School Vocational College Undergraduate College Graduate Post Baccalaureate

1 14 9 3 3 7 3

2.50 35.00 22.50 7.50 7.50 17.5 7.5

7 6 2

17.50 15.00 5.00

35.00

9 2

22.50 5.00

2 8 26 4

5.00 20.00 65.00 10.00

11 3 2 13 7 1 2 1

27.50 7.50 5.00 32.50 17.50 2.50 5.00 2.50

AGE

GENDER EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION

OCCUPATION Professional, Technical and Related works Clerical Work Service Worker, Shop & Market Sales Worker Agriculture, Animal husbandry, Forestry worker, Fisherman Housewife Retirees DURATION OF ILLNESS 1-3 months 4-12 months 13-60 months Over 60 months MEDICAL DIAGNOSIS Breast Cancer Cervical Cancer Colon Cancer Chronic Renal Failure End Stage Renal Failure Liver Cancer Lung Cancer Thyroid Cancer

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For age, majority of the respondents were in the middle and older adulthood ranging from 36 years old and above. There were 7 over 56 years old (17.50 Table 2. Perceptions on Illness, N=40.

Respondent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 Mean Score

Scores 20 18 21 22 18 21 17 13 19 22 21 19 20 20 19 20 20 20 21 23 15 22 21 24 19 21 18 21 18 21 21 20 20 20 16 21 19 19 19 21 19.75

Interpretation Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Negative Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive Partially Positive

Legend: 23.25 – 32.00 - Positive perception; 15.50 – 23.24 - Partially positive; 7.75 – 15.49 - Partially negative; 1.00 – 7.75 - Negative perception.

percent) and only one (2.50 percent) belongs to 18 to 35 years old. For gender, the study was dominated by 27 (67.50 percent) females. There were 13 (32.50 percent) males. As to educational attainment, 14 (35.00 percent) were at elementary level, 9 (22.50 percent) were high school, 7 (17.5) college graduate, 3 (7.50 percent) each for vocational, college undergraduate and post baccalaureate and 1 (2.50 percent) for no educational attainment. Majority of the respondents’ source of income were from being agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry worker and fisherman. There were 9 as housewives (22.50 percent), 7 (17.50 percent) were professional, technical and related workers, 6 (15.00 percent) were clerical workers while 2 (5.00 percent) were for each of the service workers, shop & market sales workers and the retirees. Table 2 shows that majority of the respondents’ perception were interpreted as partially positive. This means that the respondents are hopeful that things may improve though it will never be the same as it was before. On the other hand, only one of the respondents perceived their illness as negative and only one also viewed it as positive. The mean score revealed a figure of 19.75 which was interpreted as partially positive. The data imply that despite the terminal illness experienced by the respondents, they are still positive about their perceptions on their illness. The respondents feel that their illness is something they will recover from. They are also partially positive that when they feel that their illness is serious but I will be able toreturn to life as it was before my illness. They are also partially positive on the following areas being evaluated: I feel my illness has changed my life permanently so it will never be as good again; I feel that I have made a complete recovery from my illness; I feel that I am the same person as I was before my illness; I feel that my relationships with other people have not been negatively affected by my illness; I feel that my illness experience has made me a better or stronger person; and I feel my illness has permanently interfered with my achievement of the most important goals I have set for myself.

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Table 3. Relationship between Age and Perception on Illness, N=40.

Question Source: Measurement Tools in Patient Education I feel that my illness is something I will never recover from.

Chi Value

p-value

Cramerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s V Value

Strength

.725

.710

.660

.695

.775

Very Strong

Not Significant

Do not reject the null hypothesis

.665

Significant

Do not accept the null hypothesis

.781

Very Strong

Not Significant

Do not reject the null hypothesis

.671

Not Significant

Do not reject the null hypothesis

.701

Interpretation

63.115

.119

Not Significant

60.512

.170

Not Significant

52.343

.422

Not Significant

I feel that I have made a complete recovery from my illness.

36.609

.269

Not Significant

I feel that I am the same person as I was before my illness.

72.165

.027

Significant

I feel my illness is serious but I will be able to return to life as it was before my illness I feel my illness has changed my life permanently so it will never be as good again.

I feel that my relationships with other people have not been negatively affected by my illness. I feel that my illness experience has made me a better or stronger person. I feel my illness has permanently interfered with my achievement of the most important goals I have set for myself. TOTAL

53.146

48.828

52.705

191.492

.392

.048

.408

.124

Decision Do not reject the null hypothesis Do not reject the null hypothesis Do not reject the null hypothesis Do not reject the null hypothesis Do not accept the null hypothesis

@ .05 significance level

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Table 3 demonstrates the relationship between respondents’ age and their perception on their illness. All p-values of items 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8 were above the significance level of .05, thus the null hypothesis was accepted. On items 5 and 7, the pvalues were lower than the significance level, thus, the null hypotheses wer rejected signifying a significant relationship. The strength of the relationship is very strong since the Cramer`s V value is high.

In the current times, people are expected to live longerascomparedtothosewholivedinthepast,just like our ancestors. To cite an example in the United Kingdom, the average life of women is 82 years old, while men live up to 78 years. It is a known fact that as people age, people become more susceptible to illnesses which includes: Alzheimer’s Disease and other forms of dementia, stroke, osteoporosis, heart diseases and cancer. A background of these diseases is vital when caring for these clients.

Table 4. Relationship Between Gender and Perception on Illness, N=40. Question Source: Measurement Tools in Patient Education I feel that my illness is something I will never recover from.

Chi Value

p-value

Interpretation

2.795

.424

Not Significant

1.376

.711

Not Significant

4.184

.242

Not Significant

I feel that I have made a complete recovery from my illness.

0.484

.785

Not Significant

I feel that I am the same person as I was before my illness.

4.935

.177

Not Significant

I feel that my relationships with other people have not been negatively affected by my illness.

4.500

.212

Not Significant

I feel that my illness experience has made me a better or stronger person.

0.767

.682

Not Significant

I feel my illness is serious but I will be able to return to life as it was before my illness I feel my illness has changed my life permanently so it will never be as good again.

Decision Do not reject the null hypothesis Do not reject the null hypothesis Do not reject the null hypothesis Do not reject the null hypothesis Do not reject the null hypothesis Do not reject the null hypothesis Do not reject the null hypothesis

I feel my illness has permanently interfered with my achievement of the most important goals I have set for myself.

2.341

.505

Not Significant

Do not reject the null hypothesis

TOTAL

11.853

.295

Not Significant

Do not reject the null hypothesis

Cramer’s V Value

Strength

.264

.185

.323

.110

.351

Very Strong

.335

.138

Very Strong

.245

.551

@ .05 significance level

Picardo, R. P. and Base, E. G.

On the relationship between respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC; age and perception on illness, p-values on items 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8, were above the significance level, thus the null hypotheses were accepted. On items 5 and 7, the p-values were lower than the significance level, thus, the null hypotheses were rejected, signifying a significant relationship. The strength of the relationship is very strong since the Cramer`s V value is high. The data imply that the respondents aging from 18 - 35 years old were more positive than the older age groups on feeling that they are the same person as they were before their illness

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and on feeling that their illness experience has made them a better or stronger person. All the other areas of concern revealed that whether young or old there is no difference in their illness perception. Relationship between gender and perception on illness among terminal ill clients. The p-value of all items were greater than the significance level, thus the null hypotheses were accepted. The data imply that whether male or female, the gender of the clients do not have bearing on being negative or positive about being a terminally ill.

Table 5. Relationship between Educational Qualification and Perception on Illness, N=40. Question Source: Measurement Tools in Patient Education

p-value

Interpretation

Decision

Cramerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s V Value

Strength

.511

Not Significant

Do not reject the null hypothesis

.378

35.306

.009

Significant

Do not accept the null hypothesis

.542

Very Strong

32.202

.021

Significant

Do not accept the null hypothesis

.518

Very Strong

I feel that I have made a complete recovery from my illness.

31.175

.002

Significant

Do not accept the null hypothesis

.624

Very Strong

I feel that I am the same person as I was before my illness.

36.960

.005

Significant

Do not accept the null hypothesis

.555

Very Strong

I feel that my relationships with other people have not been negatively affected by my illness.

42.138

.001

Significant

Do not accept the null hypothesis

.593

Very Strong

I feel that my illness experience has made me a better or stronger person.

30.375

.002

Significant

Do not accept the null hypothesis

.616

Very Strong

I feel my illness has permanently interfered with my achievement of the most important goals I have set for myself.

19.596

.356

Not Significant

Do not reject the null hypothesis

.409

TOTAL

93.176

.004

Significant

Do not accept the null hypothesis

.631

Very Strong

I feel that my illness is something I will never recover from. I feel my illness is serious but I will be able to return to life as it was before my illness I feel my illness has changed my life permanently so it will never be as good again.

Chi Value 17.172

@ .05 significance level

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On the relationship between educational attainment and perception on illness, the null hypotheses were accepted for items 1, 3 and 8. For items 2, 4, 5, 6 and 7 since the p-values were lower than the significance level, this would signify that the null hypotheses were rejected. Further, the strength of the relationship is very strong since the Cramer`s V value is high. It shows that patients with no educational attainment had

a more positive view on their illness compared to the other group of patients. The data imply that the person with no educational attainment is the person appearing to be more positive about his illness. Patients without educational attainment seem to appear to be positive on areas where: I feel my illness is serious but I will be able to return to life as it was before my illness; I feel my illness has changed my life permanently so it will

Table 6. Relationship between Occupation and Perception on Illness, N=40. Question Source: Measurement Tools in Patient Education

Chi Value

p-value

Interpretation

21.808

.113

Not Significant

36.519

.001

Significant

27.554

.025

Significant

I feel that I have made a complete recovery from my illness.

18.881

.042

Significant

I feel that I am the same person as I was before my illness.

36.775

.001

Significant

I feel that my relationships with other people have not been negatively affected by my illness.

29.671

.013

Significant

I feel that my illness experience has made me a better or stronger person.

35.936

I feel my illness has permanently interfered with my achievement of the most important goals I have set for myself.

22.628

TOTAL

68.092

.000

Significant

Decision Do not reject the null hypothesis Do not accept the null hypothesis Do not accept the null hypothesis Do not accept the null hypothesis Do not accept the null hypothesis Do not accept the null hypothesis Do not accept the null hypothesis

Cramerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s V Value

Strength

.426

.552

Very Strong

.479

Very Strong

.486

Very Strong

.554

Very Strong

.497

Very Strong

.670

Very Strong

.092

Not Significant

Do not reject the null hypothesis

.440

.045

Significant

Do not accept the null hypothesis

.591

Very Strong

@ .05 significance level

Picardo, R. P. and Base, E. G.

never be as good again; I feel that I have made a complete recovery from my illness; I feel that I am the same person as I was before my illness; I feel that my relationships with other people have not been negatively affected by my illness; I feel that my illness experience has made me a better or stronger person; and I feel my illness has permanently interfered with my achievement of the most important goals I have set for myself.

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Relationship between duration of the illness and perception on illness. As shown, only items 2 and 5 had p-values lower than the significance level thus the null hypotheses were rejected. A majority of the items had an interpretation of not having a significant relationship specifically items 1, 3, 4, 6, 7 and 8 and thus the null hypotheses were accepted. The strength of the relationship is very strong since the Cramer`s V value is high.

Table 7. Relationship between Duration of Illness and Perception on Illness, N=40. Question Source: Measurement Tools in Patient Education

Chi Value

p-value

Interpretation

Decision

Cramerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s V Value

Strength

Do not reject the null hypothesis

.356

I feel that my illness is something I will never recover from.

15.167

.086

Not Significant

I feel my illness is serious but I will be able to return to life as it was before my illness

26.856

.001

Significant

Do not accept the null hypothesis

.473

Very Strong

I feel my illness has changed my life permanently so it will never be as good again.

10.473

.314

Not Significant

Do not reject the null hypothesis

.295

I feel that I have made a complete recovery from my illness.

10.462

.106

Not Significant

Do not reject the null hypothesis

.362

I feel that I am the same person as I was before my illness.

24.911

.003

Significant

Do not accept the null hypothesis

.456

Very Strong

I feel that my relationships with other people have not been negatively affected by my illness.

12.628

.180

Not Significant

Do not reject the null hypothesis

.324

I feel that my illness experience has made me a better or stronger person.

6.564

.405

Not Significant

Do not reject the null hypothesis

.286

.151

Not Significant

Do not reject the null hypothesis

.583

Significant

Do not accept the null hypothesis

.758

Very Strong

I feel my illness has permanently interfered with my achievement of the most important goals I have set for myself. TOTAL

13.256

67.171

.000

@ .05 significance level

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Moreover, clients who were already diagnosed over 60 months were already able to accept and adjust things on their life thus they had a more positive perception than those who were just recently diagnosed with a terminal illness (Yuet, Alexander & Chun, 2008). The data imply that the terminally ill patients who have been suffering from the terminal illness for over 60 months feel more positive about their illness compared to those with shorter duration of the illness.

The over 60 months were more positive on the following areas: I feel my illness is serious but I will be able to return to life as it was before my illness; and I feel that I am the same person as I was before my illness. Overall the p-value also revealed a significant relationship (0.000), where the Cramerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s V value establishes a very strong relationship between duration of illness and perception on illness.

Table 8. Relationship between Medical Diagnosis and Perception on Illness, N=40. Question Source: Measurement Tools in Patient Education I feel that my illness is something I will never recover from. I feel my illness is serious but I will be able to return to life as it was before my illness I feel my illness has changed my life permanently so it will never be as good again. I feel that I have made a complete recovery from my illness. I feel that I am the same person as I was before my illness.

Chi Value

p-value

Interpretation

Decision

Cramerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s V Value

Strength

Do not reject the null hypothesis

.389

.619

Very Strong

.508

18.172

.638

Not Significant

45.929

.001

Significant

30.927

.075

Not Significant

18.477

.186

Not Significant

Do not reject the null hypothesis

.481

Significant

Do not accept the null hypothesis

.725

Very Strong

.503

.527

.351

.565

63.131

.000

I feel that my relationships with other people have not been negatively affected by my illness.

30.324

.086

Not Significant

I feel that my illness experience has made me a better or stronger person.

22.210

.074

Not Significant

Do not accept the null hypothesis Do not reject the null hypothesis

Do not reject the null hypothesis Do not reject the null hypothesis

I feel my illness has permanently interfered with my achievement of the most important goals I have set for myself.

14.434

.700

Not Significant

Do not reject the null hypothesis

TOTAL

74.711

.096

Not Significant

Do not reject the null hypothesis

@.05 significance level

Picardo, R. P. and Base, E. G.

Relationship between medical diagnosis and perception on illness. Items 2 and 5 had pvalues lower than the significance level. This implies that the null hypotheses were rejected. Therefore, this confirms a significant relationship between the medical diagnosis and the perception on illness. On the other hand, all the other items had no significant relationship since the p-values were higher than the significance level. Thus,the null hypotheses were accepted. Further, among the respondents, those with medical diagnosis of colon cancer revealed a more positive perceptions about the illness on the area of: I feel my illness is serious but I will be able to return to life as it was before my illness and I feel that I am the same person as I was before my illness, as compared to all the other terminal illness cases. IV. CONCLUSION As stated in Herbert Blumer’s theory of Symbolic Interactionism, it emphasized that human beings are best understood in relation to their environment. As the core theory used in the study, it is thus true that individuals are best understood relative to their milieu and that terminally ill clients act toward people and things (their illness) according to the meanings that they have pre-arranged to those people or things (their illness) (Nelson, 1998). The partially positive perceptions among terminally ill clients which emerged in the study strongly affirmed the Symbolic Interactionism Theory. The researchers further conclude that the profiles among these terminally ill clients had greatly affect their perception on illness. Therefore a nursing intervention plan was devised to address these results of the research. Originality Index: Similarity Index:

99 % 1%

Paper ID: Grammarly:

341980057 Checked

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REFERENCES Caruncho, E. S. (2008). Are Filipinos really happy? Retrieved on November 2, 2010 at http://www. mysinchew. com/node /13865 Glare, P., Virik, K., Jones, M., Hudson, M., Eychmuller, S., Simes, J., & Christakis, M. (2003). A systematic review of physicians’ survival predictions in terminally ill cancer patients. British Medical Journal, 327(7408), 195-198. McAdam, J. L., Stotts, N., Padilla, G., & Puntillo, K. (2005). Attitudes of critically ill Filipino patients and their families toward advance directives. American Journal of Critical Care, 14(1), 17-25. Nelson, L. D. (1998). Herbert Blumer’s Symbolic Interactionism. [Lecture notes]. Retrieved March 10, 2008 from Comm 3210: Human Communication Theory, University of Colorado at Boulder: http:// www.colorado.edu/Communication/meta-discourses/ Papers/App_Papers/Nelson.htm Petrie, K. J., Weinman, J., Sharpe, N., Buckley, J. (1996). Role of patients view of their illness in predicting return to work and functioning after myocardial infarction: Longitudinal study. British Medical Journal. 312(7040), 1191-1194. Philippine Travel Guide (2010). Filipino – A simple and happy people. Retrieved On November 2, 2010 at http://www.philippines.com/filipinos.html. Redman, B. K. (2003). Measurement tools in patient education (2nd ed.). New York: Springer Publishing Company Inc. Schmit, K. (2005). Nursing implications for treating “kanser” in Filipino patients: Filipino practices and beliefs. Journal of Hospice and Palliative Nursing, 7(6), 345-353. Weinman, J., & Petrie, K. J. (1997). Illness perception: A new paradigm for psychosomatics. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, (42) 2, 113-116. Yuet, L. M., Alexander, M., & Chun, C. J. P. (2008). Coping and psychosocial adjustment of Chinese patients with COPD. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 39(4), 383-395.

UV Journal of Research 2013

Politico-economic influence and social outcome of English language among Filipinos: An autoethnography Brian A. Vasquez Center for Research and Development University of the Visayas crpd@uv.edu.ph; brianquez@gmail.com Submitted: March 21, 2012

Accepted:December 14, 2012

Earlier versions of this paper: Vasquez, BA (2012, April). Effects of English-centered curriculum among bilingual and multilingual Filipino students: An autoethnography, Paper presented at the 6th Aletheia University International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Cross-cultural Studies, Taiwan, p. 97-107. Vasquez, BA (2012, July Reprint). Effects of English-centered curriculum among bilingual and multilingual Filipino students: An autoethnography, Foreign Language Teaching and Crosscultural Studies, Taiwan, p. 306-322. (ISSN 1998-4669.)

ABSTRACT Deeply rooted with the influence of the American culture to Philippine Education, most curricula are centered on the English language as the medium of instruction. Until today, most of the classes are taught in English while inconspicuously discourage the use of the lingua franca during discussions and even within school premises. The culture of reverse ethnocentricity in communication is motivated by the assumed status symbol in the community. This autoethnographic study analyzed the positive and ill effects of English-centered curriculum among bilingual and multilingual Filipino students. Noble consequences include: (1) considerably comprehensible to good command of the International language; (2) prodigious chances of employability in foreign countries; and (3) tourism, education and business attraction. Proficiency in the English language as a status symbol has unfavorable effects which include: (1) poor mastery of the lingua franca both in oral and written communication; (2) perceiving the lingua franca as a second-class language; (3) stereotypes and inferiority among non-English and poor-English speaker; (4) challenged cultural identity; and (5) threatened nationalism and patriotism. Keywords: autoethnography, bilingual/multilingual, culture, English, Filipino â&#x20AC;&#x153;For many years, invasion and conquest have been major forces in bringing different language speaking groups in contact. When languages come in contact, three principle outcomes are possible: (1) a population may decide to continue using their native language

for all functions; (2) choose to use the newly introduced language instead of the native language in all functions; or (3) choose to use the native language in some domains and the additional language in others.â&#x20AC;? (Sharon Clampitt-Dunlap, 1995).

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I. INTRODUCTION The third millennium brought us to the issue of globalization which leads us to learn English to be competent (Engram & Sasaki, 2003). Marcos Fleury (2011) claimed that: (1) English is spoken by more people than any other language, after Chinese-Mandarin; and (2) English is the international language in almost all aspects, if not all. Currently, almost all non-English speaking nations are trying to make their people learn English as their second language. In the Philippines, though an etymologicallyengineered (Clampitt-Dunlap, 1995) Filipino is the national official language and each region has its own lingua franca (official auxiliary), English is the official medium of instruction (Lewis, 2009; Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines, 1987). McFarland (1993) identified about 120 to 175 languages contingent to the means of classification. Four of which have no known identified speakers. We Filipinos are known to be good in English which makes us in-demand in the global market. Though there are plenty of advantages in learning English, I have observed that there are also disadvantages. Thus, it is the intention of this undertaking to explore and analyze these based from my personal experiences and observations. II. ATHEORETICAL STANCE My study followed an atheoretical stance. A priori were suspended prior to the actual data collection (Polit & Beck, 2008). Literature review and identification of theoretical framework were done after data were gathered. An inductive process was tracked as summarized in the schematic diagram below (Berg, 2001): Figure 1. Inductive Research Process.

III. METHOD This is an autoethnography (Maréchal, 2010) of my life as a: (1) multilingual student; and (2) teacher for bilingual and multilingual students. I was also doing content analysis of relevant narrative materials to analyze and substantiate my observations and experiences. Sampling. I am sampling my personal experiences in this study. There is no term utilized in sampling auto narrative studies – thus, I will coin the word “autosampling” which I define as “purposively sampling personal experiences of the researcher himself that is substantial to the domain of inquiry”. My experiences were chronicled to position my observations in a clearer context. Furthermore, 18 books, 31 journal articles, 9 news articles, 4 blogs, 1 thesis, 2 government documents, 2 documents from international institutions, 1 class notes, and 1 conference paper were sampled to confirm my claims and to provide parallel evidence to my experiences, observation and assertions. IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Demographics. The 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines declares that the national language of the Philippines is Filipino and for tenacities of formal instruction and universal communication, English. The Department of Education, Culture and Sports promulgated Bilingualism Policy thru its Department Order No. 52, s.1987. “Bilingual Education aims at the achievement of competence in both Filipino and English at the national level, through the teaching of both languages and their use as media of instruction at all levels.” (DECS order No. 52, s. 1987). The goals were to: (1) enhance learning by amalgamating bilingualism or multilingualism to attain quality education; (2) propagate Filipino as

Vasquez, B. A.

the language of literacy; (3) promote the growth of Filipino as a philological emblem of unanimity and personality of the country; and (4) to cultivate and elaborate Filipino as a language of scholarly discourse. The Philippines has a simple literacy rate of 93.4% with a functional literacy rate of 84.1% (Republic of the Philippines National Statistics Office of the, 2009; United Nations Development Programme, 2009) and that it is about equal for both gender (Central Intelligence Agency, 2009). My Autoethnography as a Student. I was cultured in a prestigious private primary and secondary education in Cebu City where English is emphasized as the mode of instruction. Speaking the dialect is highly discouraged. Every time I speak my native tongue, I am obliged to pay 25 centavos per word for noncompliance to the English Zone Campaign of the institution. This is one of the double standards I have observed in the Philippine Education System. Educators ostentatiously emphasize nationalism and patriotism, but they are confusing the learners by discouraging them to speak their lingua franca. All the while in my young years, I thought it was the best and the only acceptable language to use and inferiority begin to sink into my system. I began to compare my English competency to others and became more vigilant not to commit errors to avoid mortification from peers. Later on, I was consumed by the system and became one of them. I begin to acknowledge errors from peers and begin to laugh at their mistakes. This is a classic example on how the English language mandated by political structure (Sankoff, 2001) ill-marked the social structure. English as a medium of instruction, had contributed to class identification (Weinreich, 1953). On the other hand, this system had improved my English proficiency. I begin to attain confidence while speaking the English language. However, these confidences have two sides: (1) I was able to communicate efficiently; and (2) it exalted a regal status symbol in me. Eladio C. Dioko (2007) claimed that it is precisely disgraceful that the language of the

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child, which the child is very much comfortable, the language of his mind and heart, has only become an auxiliary medium of instruction. He further claimed that it may unintentionally propel an erroneous signal to the child: the awareness that his identity is not adequate because the very hallmark of his origin, his own language, is reckoned inadequate. Though we speak English in school and everyone is expected to be very good at it, I have observed that, for most of us, English comprehension skill is not so good. We may understand what we hear and read cursorily, but not really to the extent of capturing its perfect essence. I think my experience is further explained by Dioko (2007). He stressed that in some Philippine classroom where English is the sole mode of instruction, dual task for the learner will occur: (1) learning the new language as it is – already a difficult work in itself; and (2) learning the concepts and skills in the target lesson. As far as my recollection is concerned, I stepped into the classroom where straight English instructions were given – and I admit, I encountered difficulties. Dioko was right, it is necessary for the learner to learn English first before they are expected to learn the lessons: “Such is the scenario today in Philippines schools-elementary schools, especially. As the child steps into the classrooms for the first time, he is immediately confronted with a language which is not his home language. His teacher begins talking to him in a strange tongue. And he is made to learn to read words and registers with unfamiliar sounds. One can just imagine the feeling of inadequacy the child feels. Lifted from the friendly environment of the home, his alienation is at once made consummate with the introduction of a foreign medium of learning. Thus starts his blundering years of classroom work where lessons are half- learned and learning is half-baked.” (Dioko, 2007)

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This is also the case in speaking and reading the lingua franca. Since there is no formal training for the native tongue, we cannot speak and read it perfectly. In fact, we tend to mix both English and Cebuano-Visaya or even with Filipino-Tagalog when we socially and academically communicate. This greatly shows that, even though we learn two or more languages, we fail to master at least one. I am just afraid that in the near future, the Philippines may be like: (1) Singapore who speak so many languages but have not perfected even one: effects of bilingualism (Oha, Uwajeh, Daniel & Iyere, 2010; Valdés, 2005); or (2) Taiwan whose youngsters have difficulty in speaking or understanding Taiwanese Hokkien, the tongue of their parents (Talk: Taiwanese Hokkien, 2012): “I’m not sure how correct this is, but, from my understanding and from what my Taiwanese friends and family tell me, the new generation (teens to mid-twenties, I believe) typically don’t speak Taiwanese anymore. It’s come down to the point that most of the kids these days only understand it, but can’t speak it. Or people who can speak fluently only speak it to older people who speak Taiwanese. So, I’m not sure about that statistic about 70 percent of the Taiwanese population speak Taiwanese is correct – or rather, I guess it’s close enough to correct, but ... perhaps some mention that culture-wise, Taiwanese, as a language, isn’t as pertinent to the new generation as it is towards the older generation would be appreciated.” Language competition may have caused this phenomenon. In the study of Wang and Minette (2005), they presented the idea that language invasion may lead to the endangerment and maintenance trepidations of the lingua franca (Mufwene, 2004). The aim towards language universality may correspond to loss of linguistic diversity. My experience was far out from what J. Aleta R. Villanueva and Ani Rosa S. Almario’s

(2008) claim in their study. They clinched that bilingual classrooms do more than just preserve national identity by the propagation of Filipino, it also result in numerous benefits on the part of the learner. Benefits highlighted more on students’ performance in class during examinations (Lindholm-Leary, 2005). The language switch-code exposures allow them to be more analytical (Cloud, Genesse & Hamayan, 2000). They further stressed that educators and educational researchers should endeavor to work towards making bilingual learning systematic and effective. My Autoethnography as an Educator. When I was a novice lecturer in my university teaching sophomores, I delivered my lecture in straight English. I have noticed that some of my students had a hard time catching up my inputs. I noticed my students’: (1) blank stares during lectures; (2) meager interaction in class; (3) pitiable recital in class activities; and (4) poor performance during examinations. Then I recognized that there is a problem in learning the concepts in straight English. I made a quick assessment and realized that most of my students come from a provincial public school where English instruction is not so good. Because of that, I modified my teaching strategy by allowing them to express in Cebuano-Visaya or in any language they are more comfortable. After that, I instructed them to try expressing it in English to enhance their skills. I have noticed that students: (1) were more able to explain their opinion; (2) began to interact with each other thru an intellectual debate; and (3) improved their academic performance. With this strategy, learning was much more effective. The strategy I have done was supported by Bernardo and Gaerlan (2011). They claimed that bilinguals and multilinguals tend to develop interesting cognitive learning processes: Bialystok and colleagues established in their researches that bilinguals and multilinguals have heightened their executive control skills (Bialystok, 2007; Bialystok, Craik, & Luk, 2008; Emmorey, Luk, Pyers, & Bialystok, 2008; Martin-Rhee & Bialystok,

Vasquez, B. A.

2008) and perform better in enormous learning processes like non-verbal problem solving activities (Bialystok 2010; Bialystok & Majumder, 1998) compared to monolinguals. The executive control skills mentioned have 8 pillars according to Cox (2007): (1) initiation (getting started); (2) flexibility (allow the changing of channels and gears); (3) attention (responsiveness to needs and details); (4) organization (putting things in order) (5) planning (putting activities in sequence and facilitating to work); (6) working memory (benefits of recollection); (7) self-awareness (recognition and utility of skills and limitations); and (8) regulating emotions (control of the self). These were all related to selective-discerning attention that is very important in learning and performing multifarious tasks. Also cited by Bernardo and Gaerlan (2011) was the study conducted by Blot, Zarate and Paulus (2003). It explained why bilinguals and multilinguals functioned better from monolinguals. It was framed that language codes are highly cerebral processes that allowed them to cultivate an exceptional rational process. When they were instructed to switch languages, students were: (1) stimulated to generate more insights; and (2) allowed to gain a stretch of information for knowledge exemplifications; obtainable from the different language encryptions. Bernardo (2005) pointed that the competency to communicate in two or more languages is an essential resource in the learning system. Aside from increasing access to skills, Carol Benson (2004), in her research, concluded that the superiority of mother tongue-based bilingual instruction in basic education increases by means of interaction and integration of prior knowledge and experiences in the classroom that result in new learning. She further explained that bilingual education was made by conventionally relegated students in the progression of: (1) being literate in the acquainted language; (2) obtaining access to communication and literacy skills in the second or third language; (3) establishing a culture that respects language diversity, which is appreciated

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and respected by formal school; (4) feeling proud and comfortable in the learning environment; (5) being able and even encouraged to demonstrate their learning; (6) engaging in personal learning; (7) devouring the audacity to interrogate and interact in class; (8) appearing in class and taking a respectable chance of success; and (9) not being taken advantage of. Some of these findings by Benson were observed by me when I modified my strategy from mono to multilingualism. Choosing the language inside the classroom is a very fundamental choice. Eladio C. Dioko (2007) pointed in his paper that if students do not understand what the teacher is saying or what he reads in his books, learning does not occur. He further claimed that the best medium of instruction should be the learner’s own lingua franca. If the lingua franca is used: (1) learning is facilitated because concepts and ideas are readily understood; and (2) there is direct recognition of meaning. Observed Effects of English Instruction to the Society. Graduates in Philippine Education have the competency in English language since it is emphasized in the instruction. This contributed in the great demand of employability in foreign countries. “November 25, 2011 – Hong Kong nationals still prefer hiring Filipino workers because they know how to speak the English ...” (GMA News, 2011) “Americans favor Filipino workers because we (Filipinos) can understand them (Americans) and they (Filipinos) speak English,” said Loreto Soriano (Jimenez, 2006) Sankoff (2001) claimed that language contact has economic implications. English proficiency among Filipinos opened the doors for business attraction in the country. Foreign investors primarily choose the Philippines as one of the best choices for education, outsourcing and

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tourism. This observation is similar to the claims of Abrams and Strogartz (2003) that language adoption is proportional to its economic benefits accumulated by using the language. This invites more frequency of learners to attain that benefit. “Outsourcing workers from the Philippines has been considered as one of the best options for any foreign companies ... The Philippines remain as a top BPO destination for the estimated $150-billion business process outsourcing industry ... reason why foreign companies choose Filipino workers is because our ability to speak and understand English. There is no doubt about it. Filipino workers could really communicate with the English language. Although, some are not that fluent, but foreigners can actually understand what they are trying to say.” (Jenna, 2010) “CEBU CITY, March 20, 2012 — A Japanese English language learning center based in Cebu will hire this year at least 2,000 more Filipino teachers to address the online demand for Japanese students who want to learn to speak English as a second language ... Urabe said that nine out of 10 Japanese would prefer having a Filipino teacher than native English speakers like Americans.” (Garcia-Yap,2012) Because of these beneficial enumerations, it may have cultured an archetype of arrogance masked in an extolled status symbol which has detrimental effects. I observed that most Filipinos: (1) have poor mastery of the lingua franca; and (2) treat the lingua franca as a second-class language. Furthermore, those who are proficient in English antagonize poor and non-English speakers. Aside from the economic implications, Sankoff (2001) claimed that language contact has political implications. I am personally convinced that the political prescription of using English as the medium of instruction in the Philippines had subconsciously nurtured class stratification. English being used as a standard of instruction amalgamated with the prominence of being

economically-preferred human resource may unconsciously contribute to identify a class of supremacy over poor English speakers. This further integrated a relative social pressure (Thomason & Kaufman, 1988). This form of divide is expressed in social stratification (Labov, 1972) as an explicit form of language dominance. Abrams and Strogartz (2003) claimed that the lingua franca and the invading language socially compete with each other. The competition is proportional to its position, which is determined as a measure of prestige and economic benefits. Munat (2005) argued that when an invading language occupies a certain milieu, it violates that society. It produces a persistent sentiment of inferiority complex and powerlessness. When English was politically enforced as a medium of instruction, it reduced the lingua franca for informal communication that unconsciously signaled its declassification. Guy (1988), Giles and Powsland (1975) claimed that language determines social class. How we speak defines our social identity (Ellis, 1967; Smedley & Bayton, 1978; Triandis & Triandis, 1960; Dienstbier, 1972) and partialities transpire based on the social class’ expectation (Lambert, Hodgson, Gardner & Fillenbaum, 1960; Ryan & Sebastian, 1980). Studies reveal that the presence of the outgroup language activates cognitive elements associated with that language (Higgins, 1990) and people may hold differential outlooks pertaining to that language-based social classification (Maass, Milesi, Zabbini & Stahlberg, 1995). Dogged as asuperlative language, unconscious communal actions to the high-class use of English (Hornblower, 1995; Padilla et al., 1991) taint cultural pride and esteem (Tajfel, 1972). It should be noted that the use of lingua franca contributes to self and social categorization (Glies, Taylor & Bourhis, 1977). The unconscious alienation to it leads to identity shift and class labeling. This initiated inferiority among those being alienated and challenged the cultural identity of both proficient and the non-proficient threatening nationalism, patriotism, regionalism and cultural

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heritage. We must realize that our own lingua franca defines our group membership (Eastman, 1985; Louw-Potgierter &Giles, 1987). “... In previous press interviews where the Pacman (Manny Pacquiao, the Philippines pride in international boxing) spoke, always without an interpreter, he would find himself grammatically challenged and his fight assessments always appeared simple-minded as though the English words that would articulate his actual deep insights were beyond his reach. In contrast, whenever the Mexican fighters spoke, with interpreters, they seemed toexpress more depth in their analysis. I always wondered why the Pacman didn’t just speak in Tagalog and have an interpreter translate his words ...” (Rodis, 2008) “Dozens, if not hundreds of Filipino blogs, commented overnight on Janina’s selection (as Miss Philippines 2008) with most making fun of Janina’s accent and poor grammar. Many questioned how she could possibly win the world title when she can’t speak English properly. But if anyone of these blog commentators ever watched any of those beauty pageants, they would note that the questions were always posed to the Spanishspeaking contestants in English, translated by interpreters into Spanish, and the Spanish answers then translated into English. The translated answers showed their poise and articulation, which account for why so many South American beauty queens have won these contests.” (Rodis, 2008) Munat (2005) pointed out that proficiency in English can be dangerous since it can lead to elitism. The examples enumerated above simply boosted English as the sine qua non. Although we recognize that the use of English is essential for globalization, we must also recognize that it may lead to inequality. Scenarios in Other Countries. Other countries had also experienced the same ordeal.

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In Finland, English language had troubled the academia (YLE, 2013). The French believed that English invasion threatens more than the Nazi’s (Samuel, 2010). Spanish purists acknowledged the considerable problems (Caitlin, 2012). Chinese believed that English invasion must be stopped to avoid substantial destruction to their pure language (Moore, 2010). V. CONCLUSION The English language invasion in the Philippines: (1) is initially induced thru the historical invasion of the Americans; (2) is sustained thru the synergy of political and economic influence; and (3) had produced positive and negative social outcomes. Political influence that sustained the English language invasion is the new weaponry for the modern conquerors. It is operated as a tool for power and its acquisition as a measure of elitism. The monetary equivalence of English proficiency in human resource for economic utility is seen as a motivator (influence) and product (outcome). The association of efficacious accounts marked preeminent group taxonomy, a form of divide. Although positive effects like global proficiency and its monetary equivalence are domineering, negative effects pertaining to socio-cultural identity may also progress. There are always two sides of a coin — just like learning English as a second language. Inasmuch as it brings avenue for global competitiveness in diverse facets, it may also unintentionally taint personal and social identity. The mother tongue can be a very effective tool in education. Speaking the mother-tongue need not contradict national educational objectives. I strongly agree with the move of the Department of Education thru DepEd Order No. 74 signed by Secretary Jesli A. Lapus on July 14, 2009 institutionalizing mother tonguebased Multilingual Education (MLE). “While proficiency in a foreign language is commendable, especially in this era of globalization, the value of a foreign language should not be gained by

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Measures to strengthen cultural identity must be emphasized among Filipino learners.

Inasmuch as learning English is encouraged for global competitiveness, the lingua franca must be preserved with intentionality and pride. Strong cultural identity exercises must be integrated side-by-side with learning English proficiency. Learners must also be equipped with selfawareness techniques to refrain from language related superiority or inferiority complexes.

Figure 2. Influence-Effect of Language Contact Model.

Figure 3. Distribution of Languages in the Philippines.

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Originality Index: Similarity Index: Paper ID:

98 % 2% 353071273

Grammarly:

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Republic of the Philippines. Moore, M. (2010, March 15). Chinese language damaged by invasion of English words. The Telegraph. Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/ worldnews/asia/china/7441934/Chinese-languagedamaged-by-invasion-of-English-words.html Mufwene, S. (2004). Language birth and death. Annual Review in Anthropology, 33, 201-222. Munat, J. (2005). English as a vehicular language: A case of globalization of linguistic imperialism? In Isaacs, A. K. (Ed.), Languages and identities in cultural perspective (pp. 143-154). Lungarno Pacinotti: Edizioni Plus – Università di Pisa. Oha, A. C., Uwajeh, M. J. C., Daniel, I. O., & Iyere. T. (2010). Introduction to sociolinguistics. Nigeria: National Open University. Padilla, A. M, Lindholm, K. J., Chen, A., Durán, R., Hakuta, K., Lambert, W. et al. (1991). The English-only movement: Myths, reality, and implications for psychology. American Psychologist, 46, 120-130. Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2008). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/ Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Republic of the Philippines. National Statistics Office. (October 2009). Quickstat as of October 2009. Retrieved January 23, 2012 from http://www.census. gov.ph/data/quickstat/qs0909tb.pdf Rodis, R. (2008, March 25). English psychosis. Inquirer, Global Networking. Retrieved http://globalnation. inquirer.net/mindfeeds/mindfeeds/view/20080325126283/English-Psychosis Ryan, E. B., & Sebastian, R. J. (1980). The effects of speech style and social class background on social judgments of speakers. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19, 229-233. Samuel, H. (2010, January 9). English invasion threatens French language more than Nazi’s did. The Telegraph. Retrieved from http://www.telegraph. co.uk/news/world news/europe/france/6952462/ English-invasion- threatensFrench-language-morethan-Nazis-did.html Sankoff, G. (2001). Lingusitic outcomes of language contact. In Trudgill, P., Chambers J., & SchillingEstes, N. (Eds.), Handbook of sociolingusitics (pp. 638-668). Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Smeadley, J. W., & Bayton, J. A. (1978). Evaluation raceclass stereotypes by race and perceived class of subject. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 530-535. Tajfel, H. (1972). Experiments in a vacuum. In Israel, J., & Tajfel, H. (Eds.), The contextual of social psychology: A critical assessment. London: Academic Press. Talk:Taiwanese Hokkien (2012). Retrieved January 23, 2012 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk%3A Taiwanese_HokkienThomason, S., & Kaufman, T. (1988). Language contact, creolization, and genetic linguistics. Berkeley: University of California Press. Triandis, H. C., & Triandis, I. M. (1960). Face, social

Vasquez, B. A. class, religion and nationality as determinants of social distance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61, 110-118. United Nations Development Programme. (2009). Human Development Report 2009 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Overcoming barriers: Human mobility and development. (Palgrave Macmillan). ValdĂŠs, G. (2005). Bilingualism, heritage learners, and SLA research: Opportunities lost or seized? Modern Language Journal. 89(3), 410-426. Villanueva, A. J. R., & Almario, A. R. S. (2008). Dual language program models in Philippine progressive schools. Paper presented at the 2nd international conference on language development, language revitalization, and multilingual education in ethonolinguistic communitites, Bangkok, Thailand. VVP, GMA News (2011, November 25). Hong Kong employers still prefer Filipino workers. [Television broadcast]. GMA News. Wang, S. Y., & Minette, J. W. (2005). The invasion of language: Emergence, change and death. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 20(5), 263-269. Weinreich, U. (1953). Languages in contact: Findings and problems. Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1. YLE (2013, November 3). English-language invasion troubles Finnish academia. YLE-UUTISET. Retrieved from http://yle.fi/uutiset/english-language_invasion_ troubles_finnish_acadmia/653168

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The dynamics of barter trade among Cebuano farmers Zosima A. Pañares1 Agnes C. Sequiño2 Graduate School1 University of the Visayas1 College of Commerce2 University of San Jose-Recoletos2 zosimapanares@gmail.com Submitted: March 21, 2012

Accepted: February 5, 2013

ABSTRACT Barter is an old process of doing business in the olden times without the use of money. It is surprising to note that, during this age of technology and borderless commercialization, barter is still useful and is even used with technology. The study aimed to document the barter system used by Cebuano farmers to find out if this business process is still profitable. Moreover, both the economic and social implications are recorded in relation to Filipino culture. The findings revealed three types of barter: (1) goods with goods; (2) goods with service; and (3) extended barter system. Moreover, the farmers from northern and southern Cebu realized that the barter system was more profitable for them than selling their goods directly to consumers for money. Barter system revealed the peace-loving nature and generosity of Cebuanos. Keywords: barter, extended barter, business, entrepreneurship, economics I. INTRODUCTION A long time ago there was no money – no coins and no paper bills. Before money was invented people had to get their food, clothing and other needs by bartering things. Barter comes from a French word, barater, which means “to trade.” Barter is an exchange of goods you have, for goods you want to have (Online Museum Educators, 2001). Barter system was the only method wherein the economy of the primitive men depended on. After the development of economy, simple exchange of goods without the use of money was scarcely used because it has also its disadvantages. An individual who has goods to barter but nobody wanted them or the traders could not agree on what goods to barter, may

pose a problem on barter system. However, even with the aforementioned problems, bartering has also its benefits to the traders (Online Museum Educators, 2001). Most of the time, bartering was a good way of getting things. But sometimes, there were problems. What happened when you had something to trade, but nobody wanted it? What happened when the traders could not agree on what was a fair trade? People had to agree as to how many eggs would equal a sack of grain or how many fish were enough to trade for a pot. What if you had something to trade that almost everybody wanted? Then it was easy to make a trade! So with these problems people began to use certain objects as money. The evolution of currency was, therefore,

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one of the significant inventions in the history of mankind that changed the face of the economic world, though it was slow and a long process. This evolution passed through different stages, which in turn mark the different interesting phases of human civilization (Thakur, 2008). However, even with the use of money in the present times, people in the world, especially among farmers in rural areas still resort to barter system in order to dispose of their farm goods. Barter system has become global with the use of technology (Study Mode, 2012). Advertisements on what to trade and what they want in exchange are uploaded in the net. This is not only for large scale farmers but for every farmer who thinks that barter system is a better way of disposing goods rather than selling them directly in the markets. Barter in the present time has revolutionized the farmers all over the world. Bartering of farm goods is done not only between two farmers but through a barter center. Goods are already priced in order to estimate the goods to be bartered. There are already organizations, companies or personnel that take charge of the bartering. In some way, barter system is already institutionalized especially in other countries In the Philippines, during the ancient times, Filipinos usually used barter system for trading their products with those from other places (Coconuter, 2007). Sometimes shells and gold were used as exchange materials. Lately, in 1993, the government is initiating a barter system program for its coffee products with other products of big foreign markets, especially those in the Eastern European countries (Palacpac, 1993). This is done to increase coffee exports. Some of the products to be bartered with coffee are military equipment from Romania. My recent visit to farmlands in Cebu also revealed certain kind of barter system among farmers especially during harvest seasons. They also go out of their way to the city, to do barter of their goods, in exchange for anything they want. Some even do business with what they have bartered. With the above scenario, this study would

like to document how barter system is still done by farmers and what are its benefits over the direct selling method. Secondly, the study would like to find out what business strategy can be conceptualized using barter system that would lead to more profit for the farmers, thus making this a poverty alleviation program. The objectives of the study were to: (1) describe the barter chain and players; (2) determine the benefits of barter using estimate profit margin; and (3) propose a barter mechanism for farmers based on local worldwide barter systems. II. LITERATURE REVIEW Bartering According to Ware (2010) when times are tough, and prices of farm goods are low, it is an especially appropriate time to consider bartering. During these times, skipping the step of exchanging goods to cash and cash for what is needed, can lower overall outlay and make better use of resources. Moreover, it is just plain neighborly and community-building to trade things instead of formally purchasing or selling them. Many people who would not feel comfortable selling their carrots, at a farmersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; market, do feel fine exchanging them for garlic or onions with fellow small farmers. According to Ompang (2011), barter was the trading system used by the Mandaya tribes in the hinterlands of Davao Oriental, Philippines. Agriculture is the main industry and source of living. When abacca and coconut were abundant, the influx of foreign trading increased that paved way to cash economy. But even until this time, barter system is still exercised by the Mandaya farmers. Benefits of Bartering Barter is basically a personal activity of two persons. But when more people are doing barter, it is more than an individual action but may already influence the economic system. According to Stout (2012) it has various effects on the economy. People become less reliant on the job market because they can acquire goods and services without money. Moreover, bartering is

Pañares, Z. A. and Sequiño, A. C .

not very susceptible to inflation since no prices of commodities are involved except when bartering is based on money-based economy. Barter is a prosperous and gratifying way to do incremental business and improve cash flow (Yaffe, 2012). Bartering has a different dynamic in “supply and demand” and allows businesses to sell goods and services to cash-poor customers. It leads to less money credit because we can pay for some goods and services by bartering and Barter clubs lend their units. It creates micro-economic systems. It re-defines money and economics. Bartering is a philosophical challenge to moneybased economy (Stout, 2012). Barter is not considered for its economic conditions only. It is a ritual and an expression of friendship -- and it is a natural, deep-rooted part of our heritage and humanity. It: (1) builds community; (2) decreases outlay of cash; (3) increases business recognition; (4) builds a name for yourself; (5) gets your product out there; (6) generates potential customers; (7) links with other farmers; (8) finds out what are their demands; (9) decreases your overall expense for needed goods and services; (10) moves surplus goods; and (11) makes use of “downtime” (try bartering for needed things in winter and offering childcare or other services) (Ware, 2010). III. METHODOLOGY Method The case analysis was used to present the documentation of the barter practices of farmers classified according to the four types of barter system – goods to goods (GG), goods to service or vice versa (GS or SG), service to service (SS) and extended barter (EB). The unit of analysis is the type of barter system used by a farmer. Choice of places of study. The sources of information were farmers from three rural areas, Lamac, Pinamungajan (South Cebu), Guadalupe, Cebu City (Central Cebu), and Caputatan, Medellin (North Cebu). The interviews and observations were done between January and August 2010. The choice of these places was to cover areas in Cebu where farmers may have different perceptions

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and practices of bartering and assuming that at least a sample of the practices can be captured in each place. Lamac is a big rice growing barangay (village) where most farmers are tenants of landed people who are residing in the city. It is located about 65 kilometers from the city. Farmers can sell their farm products in three markets near the place which is about 5-16 kilometers away – in the town market of Pinamungajan, Toledo City and Lutupan – which can be reached through a jeepney ride. Barangay Guadalupe is part of Cebu City. Farmers are residing on the hilly sides, usually growing mangoes, but many are also into crop and vegetable farming. Their goods can be marketed in the big markets of Carbon, Taboan, and even in Malls located in the city proper. Caputatan is a barangay in the sugarland of Medellin, about 80 kilometers north of Cebu. Most of the farmers are working in the haciendas, but still many of them manage to grow crops and vegetables. They usually sell their farm goods in the town market only due to difficulty in transportation facilities. Research Informants. Farmers with experience in barter trade were selected through snowball sampling technique. A total of fourteen male informants were interviewed distributed as follows: Lamac – six informants, Guadalupe – four informants and Caputatan- four informants. The six informants from Lamac were all rice farmers aged 32-46, married and has been working in the farms for more than five years. The four informants from Guadalupe were all married and aged 40-53 and were root crop and mango growers. Three were mainly planting cassava (kamoteng kahoy), and one was a mango grower and trader. The farmers in Caputatan were all corn and vegetable growers. One was a widower and the three were married, aged 47-55. Eleven of the farmers were at high school levels, and three farmers were elementary undergraduates. Study protocol. Each place was visited twice especially for those farmers interviewed for the study. After introductions, the farmers were

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briefed on the purpose of the visit. These farmers (most often together with their wives) were asked questions and information were collected which included: (1) demography of the farmers in terms of their age, gender and education; (2) kind and amount of farm goods each farmer usually barters; (3) narratives on how the Figure 1. Map of Cebu.

bartering was done; (4) prevailing selling price of the goods; and (5) reasons why they resort to barter rather than selling. Some of the farmers were even interviewed in their farm sites during harvest time, and in stores where they bartered their goods.

Pañares, Z. A. and Sequiño, A. C .

Price portfolios and profit margins. Prevailing prices of goods were surveyed before the interviews were done. Transport costs and other expenses were considered as transaction costs. Farmers’ prices of their goods were the prices at the farm level. Profit margin is the difference between the selling profit calculated by subtracting farm prices and transaction costs from the selling price and the barter profit calculated by subtracting the farm prices and transaction cost from the prevailing price of the goods exchanged for the farm goods. Data Analysis. Responses from the informants were content analyzed as to the process of barter system, computation of the profit, the Filipino values embedded in the barter system. Themes would be deduced from the different barter systems. Data Mining Barter trade is done worldwide by farmers. This section presents the dynamics of bartering in different places obtained through data mining. England. In Cumbria, England, farmers have already created a website where they could post their goods to be bartered and what they want in exchange. Big seed-producer companies, like DuPont Co., has also invaded the world of barter in South America. Even the Swiss company, Bayer AG and BASF SE of Germany have increasingly turned to barter, accepting farm crops instead of cash (Ligi & Kolesnikova, 2009). Local farmers usually share labor especially in times of intense workload. However, recently many farmers have begun to ‘trade’ either their produce or their labor in a more proactive fashion. All aspects of the agricultural industry are accommodated, whether it is alive, dead, butchered, harvested or ready for retail sale. Labor and machinery are two of the most valuable assets anyone has to offer, and both can be idle when they really should be working (Ligi & Kolesnikova, 2009). Barter is the oldest form of reward for one’s hard work. Farmer’s barter widens the area of contact of local bartering communities by helping farmers and smallholders broaden their circle of

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acquaintances, helping them to search for items, or to barter items within a larger geographical area (Stout, 2009). United Kingdom. Country Smallholding (2009) reports that farmers and smallholders exchange goods and services through a free website. The bartering is as straightforward process. A user registers, posts their listing and telephone contact number, and waits. If their listing is still on the site after three weeks, Farmer’s Barter sends them an email to check if their item is still available or if it should be removed. The listings include seven categories: labor, horses/ ponies, live animals, machinery, animal feed, fowl and produce. One very important barter item is labor because it helps neighbor farmers to juggle busy and quieter periods. Moreover, smallholders cannot afford handy labor. The web barter process is mainly for smallholders. There are majority of them in the field now home-growing, either to avoid the credit crunch or to be more connected to the land. Some smallholders have a habit of over-producing thus bartering is more beneficial for them. In the future Farmer’s barter will continue to grow and also draw in farm shops that can benefit from knowing what surplus produce is available from farmers and smallholders. If the website becomes very busy and useful, the environment wins as well, because local produce is being shared without burning lots of food miles. Holland. Windunie (Dutch for wind union) is a collective of 230 wind turbine owners, most of whom are farmers who operate turbines as an extra source of income. All sell the energy they produce directly to consumers. When consumers buy sustainable energy, a bucket of clean water is thrown into the pool. More people buying energy from wind farmers means that slowly but surely, the pool clears up. The farmers get certificates detailing how much energy they have produced, and standard electricity meters calculate how much energy is consumed in a home. The latter is deducted from the former, and a customer’s annual energy bill specifies ‘their’ wind turbine’s identification number (Ligi & Kolesnikova, 2009).

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Siberia. In Siberia, farmers have too much grain and not enough cash for weed-killer. To solve the problem they employed the good oldfashioned barter. Sygenta, a chemical company agreed that a specific part of their harvest would be paid for the chemicals, and they would sell that forward on the future market. It was reported that most of the grain storage in the region are still filled with last year’s grain. So they have to find a way to sell or barter the grains to make room for the new crop (Ligi & Kolesnikova, 2009). Germany. The Swiss company and Germany’s Bayer AG and BASF SE are increasingly turning to barter, accepting crops instead of cash. Many farmers are into credit and payment is coming very slow. To minimize payment risk, these companies is considering cashless trades. They are expanding their barter system to other emerging markets where there is growth but not less liquidity. The company is even hiring people to be trained specifically in barter (Ligi & Kolesnikova, 2009). Russia. Localcompaniesin Russia already use barter. Difficulty in getting credit among farmers helps kindle interest in barter. Widespread use of bartering in the years happened before and after the Soviet Union’s collapse. However, the practice faded as free-market economic policies took hold. Today, Russia is the second-largest exporter of wheat. But recently, big companies of chemicals have returned to bartering chemicals with grains or soybeans from farmers which they believe can guarantee shipment at fixed prices and give farmers more liquidity and new opportunities. On their end, they could charge about 35 percent more on barter deals than on cash sales, reflecting the risks of price fluctuations (Ligi & Kolesnikova, 2009). Chitza, Zimbabwe. Chitsa residents has difficulty in transacting everyday business involving money after their dollar decreased its value and secondly, because the community is located in a far-flung rural area. Thus, the usual practice was to pay for goods and services in kind so bartering become a way of life (Kwenda, 2009). The use of foreign currencies has a negative effect

on the economy in the rural areas because rural folks have no access to foreign currency. But they have found a way to trade by bartering. As one of the folks said: “We accept this barter trade in the hope that whatever we get here will be exchanged for cash in town and give us an opportunity to restock our shops. There is nothing that we can do because these people just don’t have access to money. Otherwise we have to close the shops.” Most of the people in the rural areas are peasant farmers and depend on their crops for their living. Farmers milled their maize and pay the services with part of the milled maize. To have a trip to a nearby town Masvingo, the farmers are forced to pay 20It bucket of tomatoes which costs five times the fare to Masvingo. Farmers are helpless and resort to voluntarily give their produce in exchange of goods and services. Peasant farmers have no choice but to submit to the requirement of business people especially on transport business. Personal needs as bathing soap, bread, cooking oil or anything that are used in the household is exchanged with farm goods according to what the shop owner wants. So farmers have difficulty in their barter system. Because of this difficulty of access to money, services are exchanged with goods. A teacher who conducts tutorials or final lessons is paid with farm goods (Kwenda, 2009). United States of America. As reported by Stout (2009) barter is presently used in America among farmers. Food was a form of money in some earlier societies. People traded tobacco, salt, grain, fish, rice, olive oil, tea, with other edible goods. Someone would swap away some surplus home-grown vegetables for an auto repair. According to Stout (2009), barter among farmers can be done through the following ways: 1. Barter for someone’s garden produce. Many gardeners have surplus fruits and vegetables which they are willing to trade. 2. Barter with farmers during farmer’s market.

Pañares, Z. A. and Sequiño, A. C .

Bring things they might need and barter with their goods. Barter for goods and services for our vegetable garden. We can get fertilizer, a water-hose, irrigation pipes, a fence to protect the garden, a greenhouse, young plants froma nursery, agardening consultant — and a gardener, so that we don’t need to do the work ourselves. Barter for the use of land. At one barter club, a person offered one of his goats, in exchange for some pasture-land where the other goats could graze. (Refer to the chapter regarding bartering for real estate.) Land-owners might be happy to let us take their apples and walnuts and other foods that would otherwise rot and have to be cleaned up. We are bartering our labor for the food which the land-owner doesn’t want anyway. Barter for rental items. For example, if farmers don’t want to trade for the ownership of an apple press, we can barter to use one for a single day. We might also rent a food dehydrator, a tractor, a rototiller, a meat smoker, a ladder for fruit-picking, a fishing pole, or another device used for acquiring or processing food.

The data mining of barter system in different countries would show that barter system in the modern times is very beneficial to both farmers and traders. It made marketing of farm goods easier and it can build closer community relationship. Except for some places, like Zimbabwe, farmers were served and facilitated in disposing their produce and in obtaining what they wanted. The data would also reveal advantages on companies that supply farm requirements as chemicals and fertilizers. These companies are looking forward to barter trade in many countries as they have experienced the benefits of the practice.

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IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In the Philippines, particularly in Cebu, farmers are practicing barter. This study documented the experiences of Cebuano farmers in their bartering practices. Results of the study is presented by type of barter system as arbitrarily classified according to the experiences by the informants in different places. Goods to Goods Barter (GG). Goods to goods barter is exchanging farm goods with another farm goods or other goods. In Lamac, Mang Lucio (not his real name) has been into barter since 1960’s. Today he’s already 67 years old, but still is very active in rice farming. Every harvest season, he and other farmers would go to the rice fields early in the morning, bringing their “baon” (food for the whole day) for lunch and snacks. However, in 1960’s someone initiated to bring “shakoy” (mixture of flour, sugar and butter, formed into big sticks and deep fried) in the farm for snacks. She did not sell the shakoy but bartered one shakoy with 1 caltex (usual measure used in the rural area which is equivalent to ½ kilo) of unmilled rice. Then Mang Lucio said that after sometime, traders do not only bring shakoy but different food stuffs, drinks and cigarettes for barter as well. It is still practiced today, but farmers who have money to buy realized that it is to their disadvantage. For many years, they did not realize that they were at a losing end. An example below can explain the loss of the farmer of about 75%: 1 shakoy (in the market) = P 3.00 1 caltex of unmilled rice = P 8.00 “Dugay ra diay mi nga naalkanse. Pero wa lang mi makakita kay gutom na man. Lami na ikaon sa shakoy. Busa sayon ra mokabo lang dayon ug tipasi para ibayad. (We did not know that we were at a loss. We did not notice it because we were already hungry. It was so tempting to eat the shakoy. It is very easy to get a Caltex of unmilled rice from the pile to pay.)”

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This was also true with the other food stuffs and goods. However, Mang Lando expressed that they have good harvest before when fertilizers were cheaper and the irrigation system was good. Thus, they were just too happy to share their harvests. The six informants were one in saying that only few farmers are practicing barter presently, not because it is disadvantageous on their part but because there are already many traders who come and trade their goods. The farmers can choose to barter or get the goods for credit and pay later when they can sell their rice. Two farmers, Lucas and Luis, with produce of root crops or bananas usually barter their goods in the town during Christmas season. “Ang mga tawo mas mangihatagon kung panahonsa Pasko. Busa mayo nga pailisan lang kay sa ibaligya. Mas daghan ka ug madawat. (People are more generous during Christmas season. So, it is better to barter than to sell. We can receive more than the value of our farm goods.)” Many farmers imitated them. So during Christmas season, farmers can be seen in the town to barter their goods especially on market days. They can exchange their goods with clothing, personal goods, or even old kitchen wares which they needed. The Guadalupe and Caputatan farmers usually come to the city or in the town proper to trade their crops usually on Saturdays or Sundays when people do not have work. They go to a house and request the husband or wife not to buy their farm goods but exchanged them with used clothing, food stuffs or anything that they can be disposed of but still are useful. Mang Gardo from Guadalupe and his wife narrated that at the beginning, it was so difficult to convince people to barter their goods. But after so many persuasions some people submit to their idea and once you can find a suki (a regular customer) then it’s very easy to have the barter trade. Mang Gardo has experienced that every Christmas, they are well blessed with so many goods bartered with their one sack of sweet

potato or cassava. “Maikog unta mi kay daghan kayo ang giilis sa among usa ka sako nga kamoteng kahoy. Pero miingon sila nga daghan sad kuno sila’g nadawat nga grasya gikan sa Ginoo. Busa ila kining ipamahin sa uban. (We were ashamed to receive the goods because it was so much over than the value of our one sack of cassava. But they said that they also received so many blessings from God and they would like to share these to others.)” As of now, they have three suki in Beverly Hills (a subdivision of millionaires in Cebu City) that they usually bring farm goods regularly, whatever they can harvest. Mang Miguel also has experienced the same situation, but he usually brings mangoes to his suki. The other two farmers are still doing barter but only occasionally. They do not have suki but said that they usually go to stores and barter their bananas, vegetables and young coconuts with the food stuffs they are selling like dried fish, rice, and canned goods. Most often their barter partners are storeowners. For the Guadalupe farmers, there is more profit in barter than selling directly. Their one sack of cassava costs P140.00 only. But it is exchanged with used clothing, shoes, bags or anything that their suki would like to give. Most often, they are reimbursed of their transportation expenses especially Mang Miguel who’s bartering mangoes. Farmers in Caputatan seldom do barter but if they do, it’s because they wanted some things or goods. According to Mang Cardo, one time he really wanted to have a school bag for his son but they could not afford to buy one. He found a bag in a second hand store and requested the storekeeper that he will just exchange the bag with vegetables. The barter was done. According to him the bag cost about P100.00 but his vegetables cost less than P100.00. Another farmer, Mang Carlos was given a cap and sunglasses by a visitor. Although the visitor did not expect something in return, he gave the

Pañares, Z. A. and Sequiño, A. C .

latter vegetables from his farm. And this was the beginning of their barter trade. Every time this visitor would come, he would bring food stuffs for the children of Mang Carlos, as bread, cookies, rice and sometimes, even school materials. Mang Carlos always exchanges these with whatever he can give – most often young coconuts and bananas. The farmers alleged that most often what they received is higher in value than what they give. One time Mang Carlos computed his estimated profit when he bartered his 10 young coconuts worth P100.00 (prevailing price in Caputatan) and ½ kilo of dried fish worth P65.00 (prevailing price in Caputatan) with his visitor. What he received were 5 kilos of rice (P150.00), 5 cans of sardines (P60.00), bread and cookies (P60.00) and an umbrella (P100.00). So he has an estimated gain of 100% more than what he bartered. Mang Carding, vegetable farmer, was invited byafriendofhis mother-in-law to make a backyard vegetable garden. After a week’s work, he was given his pay reimbursement of the transport and a lot of goods for his family. The family said that he can bring his vegetables to the city once in a while and they would exchange it with goods. So once a month, Carding would trade his vegetables with his suki (regular customer) and bring home lots of goods for family use. He was so happy to bring home imported goods. “Nalipay gyud ko ug dako hasta akong pamilya kay kadto pa god mi makatilaw ug imported nga karnenorte ug kape. Unya daghan pa gyud kaao nga chocolates. Gawas sa ilang gihatag nga mga sinina ug coat. (Me and my family were so happy because this was the first time we tasted imported corned beef and coffee. There were also lots of chocolates aside from the clothing and coat.)” The goods to goods barter of farmers depict the Filipino culture of sharing, utang na loob (gratitude) and the value of pakikipagkapwa-tao (relating with people). This indigenous Filipino

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trait is the regard for the dignity of others and being with them. It consists of all levels of interaction with one’s fellowman in times of crisis, or celebrations. This is embodied in the concept of neighborliness like mutual visiting and exchange of food (Mckay, 2010). Goods to Service or Service to Goods Barter System. Bayanihan is one practice among farmers wherein farmers work or help in the harvest in other farms. In return, the farm owner would also do the same to those farmers who helped him work in the farm without counting the cost. Farmers do not think of equitable work before. Bayanihan connotes any instance when members of a community offer each other mutual support, regardless of their personal differences (Matthews, 1998). This barter of services is still practiced in the countryside particularly among farmers. According to Mang Luis of Lamac, in the olden times, barter of services was without counting the cost or price. Farmers were just willing to help one another especially to those who do not own carabaos for plowing their fields. After work, the community of farmers just enjoy the day in a tuba (local wine) store, drinking their tiredness away. Until the present time, Lamac farmers still practice barter of services but with minor modification. Services should be equitable between the bartering parties in terms of the number of days of work. If they could not repay in terms of equitable service, then the farm owner would pay them with farm goods or other goods equitable to the services. One farmer plows the field for weeks in order to be given a television set which he thought was of higher value than the worth of the daily compensation, Another farmer worked for days in exchange of fertilizers. Guadalupe farmers do not have barter of services because they usually have people to work for them in the mango farm. The small scale root crop farmers also have their family members to work in their farm. Caputatan farmers are usually tenants or workers in the sugar haciendas. Thus, they are paid by their landlords. But sometimes, instead

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of money, they would go to the store of the landlord and get goods equivalent to their pay. Hence there are times that they get credits and pay this with farm labor. Mang Carding thought that this is to their disadvantage because some of the goods are priced more than the other stores. They have no choice because they are not given money. They could be given money if the goods are not found in the store. The barter of services and goods shows the value for work and money. It simply shows that in the modern times there is limited free service even among Filipinos who are known for their bayanihan spirit. This change in perspective about bayanihan spirit clearly manifests that Cebuanos have become entrepreneurial â&#x20AC;&#x201C; business is business. Extended Barter Trade. Extended barter trade waspracticedby Mang Gido of Guadalupe. It isaform of barter that the bartered goods are not used personally or used in the household but are sold for profit. Just like the other farmers, Mang Gido has already suki in the city for the barter of his farm goods. One time, the exchange goods for his vegetables and sweet corn were all used clothing, bags and other personal things. Upon reaching home, his children and wife chose what they liked but still there were many things left. So he sold these to his neighbours at a very low price. All the exchanged goods were sold out with proceeds more than the cost of a sack of kamoteng kahoy. This was the beginning of his extended barter trade and his becoming an entrepreneur. Thus, he is now selling ukay-ukay (used clothing) through his barter trade. This time he has more profit. Extended barter was not practiced by farmers in Lamac and Caputatan. But Lamac farmers just share their goods with relatives or neighbours. The extended barter scheme has turned a farmer into an entrepreneur which gave the farmer a better profit for his farm goods. In the future, this practice can be a tool for marketing andbusiness. Themes. The barter of farm goods and services among Cebuano farmers revealed the nature and culture of Filipinos. By nature, Filipinos are peace loving people thus they never care to match the prices of what they give to the farmers with what they receive. Their happiness is in the giving to the farmers whom they think needed more than what they do. On the

other hand, the farmers who wanted to exchange the kindness of their barter partners were ever willing to bring something they can share. The practice of barter may have been done for profit, but beyond this objective lays the value of maintaining a good relationship. Most barters were not done by farmers to just anybody, but to familiar persons they have already known; thus barter seems to work out as exchanging of gifts. Hence, barter was not always used as a tool for marketing. It can now be used as atool to build strong relationships with friends or even relatives. V.CONCLUSION Barter is of great benefit to the farmers not only as a marketing tool but as a means to do service and build relationships. Since barter has survived and been revived in many places until this modern time, then it has its own share of advantages for the farmers. VI. RECOMMENDATIONS Barter is not only beneficial to farmers but for everyone who wants to exchange their goods with what they want. So the following are suggested for those who are interested to do barter: 1. List what you have and what you need. Post it in the internet or create your own barter place and place the announcement. 2. Make flyers and disseminate. Meet people and be known of what you want to do. Then encourage them also to do barter. 3. Organize a community barter center where one can exchange his goods immediately. 4. Invite farmers to bring their goods to the center and exchange them with what they want. 5. Having a farmersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; cooperative as a barter center could be the best model for bartering farm goods. VII. PROPOSED MODEL FOR BARTER SYSTEM FOR FARMERS This proposed model is conceptualized together with the wisdom of the farmer informants. It began with the question of what ifs. ď&#x192;&#x2DC; What if we involve cooperatives in the barter?

Pañares, Z. A. and Sequiño, A. C .

 

What if we invoke local government to assist farmers in thebarter? What if we encourage distributors of fertilizers and chemicals to come in as barter partners (just like in other countries)?

The proposed barter model shows that all of these entities that can help farmers produce better farm goods, store their goods and market their goods, are involved. Hence it is imperative that farmers form their own cooperatives so they could work as an organization and empower themselves to make transactions and interactions with other farmers and stakeholders. The model shows the simple flow of processes. Farm chemical and fertilizers which are needed for the plants can be availed by farmers through barter from companies or distributors. A contract between the two parties can ensure farmers of a ready supply of chemicals and fertilizers. When farmers have their produce, they can bring these in barter centers of the chemical or fertilizer companies instead of paying for the goods. When farmers have organized barter centers or own cooperatives, they can exchange their farmproducewithotherfood, goodsorgadgetsneeded in the household. These centers or coops can be organized with the assistance of the local government unit. The operation of these barter centers has to be legalized and institutionalized to give farmers security for overpricing. In exchange of their farm produce, farmers get what they need for their families which can be valued more than the prevailing retail market price. Figure 2. Barter Model for Farmers.

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REFERENCES Coconuter. (2007, November 08). The Philippines’ ancient culture. Message posted to http://coconuter.blogspot. com/2007/11/philippines-ancient-culture.html. Country Smallholding. (2009). New barter website for smallholders. Retrieved January 12, 2013 from http:// www.countrysmallholding.com/Editorial.aspx?br and=CSHOnline&category=CSHNews&story=SP ED30+Jun+2009+09%3A33%3A08%3A737&pa ge=2970#. Kwenda, S. (November 2, 2009). Zimbabwe: Far from the city’s money, villagers barter again. Inter Press Service News Agency. Retrieved on April 5, 2013 at http://www.ipsnews.net/2009/11/zimbabwe-farfrom-the-cityrsquos-money-villagers-barter-again/. Ligi, A. & Kolesnikova, M. (2009). Crops for chemicals barter gives farmers liquidity. Retrieved January 12, 2013 from http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pi d=newsarchive&sid=aPvS4KmysUvk. Matthews, L. (1998). Camp out: DIWA arts and the bayanihan spirit. The Drama Review: A Journal of Performance Studies, 42(4), 126-130. Mckay, S. (August, 2010). Philippine - Filipino values. Retrieved September 5, 2010 from http:// ezinearticles.com/?Philippine---Filipino-Values&id =3101614 Ompang, M. B. (2011). The Mandaya ethnic group. Subcommission on Cultural Communities and Traditional Arts. Retrieved January 12, 2013 from http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/ articles-on-c-n-a/article.php?igm=4&i=239 Online Museum Educators (2001). “Bartering for Goods”. Pieces of Science. (accessed July 30, 2009 from http://www.fi.edu/pieces/knox/ barter.htm,). Palacpac, O. S. (September, 1993). Philippine government begins the barter system. Tea & Coffee Trade Journal. Retrieved April 5, 2013 from http://www. thefreelibrary.com/Philippine+government+begins+t he_barter_system.-a014508982 Stout, J. (2012) The economic impact of bartering. Barter News. Retrieved January 12, 2013 from http://www. barternews.com/the_economic_impact_of_bartering. html) Stout, J. (June, 2009). Personal and business bartering. Retrieved September 9, 2010 from http://stout. mybravenet.com/publichtml/h Study Mode. (2012, 01). History of barter system. Retrieved January 21, 2013 from http://www.studymode.com/ essays/History-Of-Barter-System-900195.html.

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Thakur, R. (2008, Oct 30). Trading in currency future. [Powerpoint slides]. Retrieved from Slideshare Online: http://www.slideshare.net/thakurrohit/rohitthakur-ppt-on-currency-presentation. Ware, L. (2010). Small farms quide. Small Farm Newsletter. Accessed September 12, 2010 from http:// smallfarm.about.com/bio/Lauren-Ware-54582.htm Yaffe, M. A. (2012). Speaking from Experience. The Trade Street Journal, Published by Tradebank International, Inc. Retrieved January 12, 2013 from http://tradebank.com/files/2012/04/TSJ-SILVERANNIVERSARY-ISSUE.pdf

UV Journal of Research 2013

Cebuano nurses in non-nursing doctoral degrees Brian A. Vasquez Center for Research and Development University of the Visayas crpd@uv.edu.ph; brianquez@gmail.com Republished from: Vasquez, B. A. (2013). Cebuano nurses in non-nursing doctoral degrees. Journal of Institutional Research, South East Asia, 11(1), 42-57. (http://www.seaairweb.info/ journal/JIRSEA_v11_n1_2013.pdf#page=42)

ABSTRACT Historically, a number of famous nurses finished non-nursing doctoral programs. The melting of different body of knowledge into the paradigms of nursing helped into the development of its own innovative frameworks. Inasmuch as these learnt concepts borrowed and shared from other discipline helped in the development of nursing theories, there is a need to recognize that doctoral education for nursing should be in nursing science. In Cebu City, Philippines, it was observed that nurses were taking doctoral programs that are not in the mainstream of nursing. It was the intention of this research to explore the lived-in experiences of these nurses and the reasons behind their choices utilizing Collaiziâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s seven steps data analysis. Furthermore, it attempted to identify the weaknesses, demands and scenario of the doctoral nursing offering in the area. Results revealed that: (1) nurses are forced to take non-nursing programs because of inaccessibility; (2) only one nursing school is offering a doctoral program and Gerontology is the sole major; (3) they tend to look for alternative programs that is related to their field of interest; (4) less access to scholarships for schooling in other places; and (5) there is a conflict in matching specific nursing interest with the nonnursing programs they are taking. With the call for transformation and advancement in nursing and its practice, nurses must grow professionally by taking doctoral program in different nursing concentrations and not with other or related disciplines. Keywords: nursing education, doctoral nursing program, advance studies, professional growth in nursing I. INTRODUCTION Feeg and Nickitas (2011) claimed that there are less than one percent of nurses having doctoral degrees. This highlighted the critical need for doctorate prepared nurses that will educate future nurses. They are the workforces in generating evidence for practice that will meet the complex health needs of the clientele (Cronenwett, 2010). In America, some agencies advocate in

multiplying the number of doctorate prepared nurses that will be part of the pool of faculty and researchers (Institute of Medicine, 2010). In Asia, during the East Asian Forum on Nursing Scholars held last February 22 and 23, 2012 in Singapore, scholars conversed about the issue on advancing the doctoral nursing programs in East Asia. They significantly recognize its importance in contributing knowledge and evidence for the

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nursing profession. In the Philippines, this issue is not much talked about and much more in Cebu City. Currently, only few literature talks about taking doctoral nursing degrees in the country. With not enough literature, there is a need to document the phenomenon, as this can be a virtuous source of reference. The awareness required to deliver headship in the discipline of nursing is so multifaceted and swiftly moving that doctoral level education is necessary to prepare nurses in response to the emerging health care necessities (American Association of Colleges of Nursing, 2004). With this call for the transformation and advancement of nursing and its practice, nurses aspired to grow professionally by taking doctoral program in various nursing specializations. According to Romero (2011a), nurses with the highest educational attainment of a doctorate degree in nursing are prepared to be nurse scientists engaging massive knowledge in their field whether clinical, academe or administrative and most importantly research. Romero further added that they are expected to contribute in policy making and in shaping the healthcare system. However, the Philippine Nursing Act of 2002 (RA 9173) only requires a master’s degree from middle to top nursing management level. The only position requiring a doctoral degree in nursing is doctorate-nursing professorship. With the current demand in work and competition in the field of nursing, Filipino nurses are increasingly expected to ascend the highest nursing educational preparation. In Cebu City, Philippines, it was observed that nurses were taking doctoral programs that are not in the mainstream of nursing. Given this scenario, there is a conflict in matching specific nursing interest with the non-nursing programs they are taking. It is the intention of this research to explore the lived-in experiences of these nurses and the reasons behind their choices. Furthermore, it attempted to identify the weaknesses, demands and scenario of the doctoral nursing offerings in the area. Historically, a number of famous nurses

finished non-nursing doctoral programs. Faye Glenn Adbellah, Imogen King and Hildegard Peplau finished Doctor of Education, Jean Watson finished PhD in Educational Psychology and Counseling, Betty Neuman received a Doctoral Degree in Clinical Psychology, Patricia Benner received a PhD in Stress, Coping and Health, Sister Calista Roy finished PhD in Sociology (Tomey & Alligood, 2002), and Madeleine Leininger finished PhD in Cultural and Social Anthropology (George, 2002). The melting of different body of knowledge into the paradigms of Nursing helped into the development of its own innovative frameworks. According to Romero (2011a): “Nursing as a science has its goal of developing a body of knowledge to be used as basis for nursing practice in a variety of settings. Nursing knowledge, however, is not isolated or exclusive, but rather encompasses the selection, integration, and expansion of knowledge from nursing and other disciplines and the application of this knowledge to the understanding of health and illness and to the analysis and improvement of nursing practice.” Inasmuch as these learnt concepts borrowed and shared (Polit & Beck, 2008) from other discipline helped in the development of nursing theories, there is a necessity to be aware of that doctoral tutelage for nursing should be in nursing science (Tomey & Alligood, 2002) and not based from other-discipline. This will help differentiate nursing from other professions (Sitzman & Eichelberger, 2004). “Nursing theory defines and enriches the practice of nursing. It focuses attention on issues essential to providing care. It implies criteria with which to evaluate what nurses do. It presents concepts capable of supporting research most useful to nurses. Thereby it helps create knowledge unique to nursing, thus augmenting the status of nursing as a profession. In fostering research,

Vasquez, B. A.

nursing theory upholds nursing education, maintaining it on a par with other academic disciplines (Drwiega, n.d.).” The theory-building development was instigated in the late 1970’s (Winters & Lee, 2010). Insofar as nursing education targets principally to train competent nurses, it depends on theory. In structuring doctoral nursing education, nursing theory will be drawn from the essential elements of nursing, including the: (1) patient; (2) environment; (3) provision of nursing care; and (4) health. Elements in nursing education, according to NCSBN (2006), also focus on: (1) curriculum; (2) characteristics of faculty; and (3) program characteristics. Specifically, curriculum elements comprise clinical, didactic and interdisciplinary activities. Theory-based way of approaching the problems with which nurses typically deal structures the standard. In nursing’s journey as a profession, it needs a body of knowledge unique to itself from other discipline. Developing nursing theory and supporting theory-based research contributes to building that body of knowledge (Drwiega, n.d.). Romero (2011a) claimed that: “While there are different program and title offerings, it is a fact that doctoral study in nursing is built upon and expands the doctoral student’s knowledge acquired in baccalaureate and master’s degree programs in nursing. Doctoral nursing programs are based on nursing’s distinct body of knowledge, which can and must be verified using methods of scholarly inquiry — research. This prepares intellectual leaders with analytical skills to contribute to the development of nursing science. Students bring to doctoral study unique combinations of experiences, knowledge and capabilities that help facilitate an emphasizes on the interchange among clinical practice, research, and teaching based on the belief that research informs practice, practice informs research and both inform teaching.”

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In the Philippines, as cited by Romero (2011b), not numerous nurses, even nursing leaders hold a doctoral degree in nursing. There are a number of identified factors that was attributed to such phenomena. However, Romero further highlighted that the inadequate number of nursing schools offering a doctorate degree in nursing could be the prime factor. Herewith, many nurses have decided on to expand their scope by taking up alternative doctoral programs such as Doctor of Management, Doctor of Public Health, Doctor of Philosophy in Educational, Doctor of Psychology and Doctor of Education. There is a need to document the existing scenario of the doctoral nursing program in Cebu City. Documenting the sentiments of nurses on their felt need to expedite doctoral nursing offerings in the area must be transcribed. This literature will be useful for nursing leaders and nursing schools in their plan to improve and act on the current need for advance nursing education. This manuscript attempts to stimulate a fruitful action in revolutionizing doctoral nursing education in the area. Related to the concerns enumerated above, other relevant and debatable issues can be raised. What if nurses are taking doctoral degrees that are not specific for the nursing profession? Can this improve the poor percentage of nurses with doctorate degrees? Is it necessary to take vertical degrees in nursing? This paper does not attempt to answer any of these questions. But it will provide germane descriptions on nurses in Cebu city taking non-nursing doctorate degrees. These descriptions will stimulate insights that may indirectly provide answers to the questions that I enumerated, allowing the reader to formulate personal and subjective understanding on the current situation in the doctoral nursing education in Cebu city. II. DOMAIN OF INQUIRY The purpose of the study was to explore the lived-experiences of nurses taking non-nursing doctoral programs and the reasons behind their choices. Furthermore, it attempted to identify

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the weaknesses, demands and scenario of the doctoral nursing offering in the area. III. ATHEORETICAL STANCE I employed a naturalistic approach (Royse, 1999) and follow an atheoretical stance (theoretical framework in abeyance) vis-à-vis the phenomenon of interest. Utilizing a highly inductive process (Thomas, 2003; Schriver, 2001), I did not anchor my study in any frameworks and suspended a priori conceptualization (Luckerhoff & Guillemette, 2011), otherwise known as substantive theory – that might bias the collection and analysis of data (Polit & Beck, 2008). With this assumption, I also suspended the review of related literature and studies (Polit & Beck, 2008; Berg, 2001). Furthermore, since I am utilizing Descriptive Husserlian Phenomenology as a research tradition, I did not identify a theory that will support the study and neither did I interpret the results. Descriptive Phenomenology emphasized the description of data only without interpretation: letting the fact speak for itself or of knowledge independent from interpretation (McCance & Mcilfatrick, 2008). Literature review to support the claim may be done to substantiate the description of the phenomenon. However, for this study, I find difficulty in looking for available published articles on doctorate in nursing. IV. PHILOSOPHICAL STANCE I trailed the naturalistic paradigm observing the following assumptions (Creswell, 2007; Polit & Beck, 2008): (1) ontologically, reality is multiple and subjective relative to each actor and must be measured from the actor’s lenses – this means that I, as the main instrument, need to bracket out my personal interpretations (Walters, 1995; Paley, 1997; Ray, 1985); (2) epistemologically, I and the informants are dependent from each other where interaction is required to gather relevant information; (3) axiologically, values are inevitable and desired providing thick description; and (4) rhetorically, personalistic style of writing required reflexivity and

positioning of myself. This explains why I utilize the first person’s voice in this article to emphasize the positioning system. Webb (2009) in WileyBlackwell’s Writing for publication booklet, and the APA’s (2010) Publication manual, preferred the use of personal pronoun to circumvent vagueness particularly in describing activities. The directness in the approach of personal noun eludes puzzlement. The use of personal pronouns hitherto was uniquely for qualitative research (Polit & Beck, 2008), however contemporary journals advocate its use even with quantitative methodologies. V. METHOD Design. I followed the phenomenological tradition (Creswell, 2007). I trailed an inductive method (Berg, 2001). Instead of transforming it into operationally defined behavior, it described the phenomenon as experienced by the nurses taking non-nursing doctoral degrees. In descriptive Husserlian phenomenology (McCance & Mcilfatrick, 2008), authenticity is closeness to the phenomenon under investigation. It only focused on description and explanation (Ray, 1985). Phenomenological reduction (Annells, 1999) and bracketing (Wall, Glenn, Mitchinson & Poole, 2004) was deliberately observed. Sampling of Informants. The criterionbased purposive sample included 10 nurses from Cebu City taking non-doctoral nursing programs. Exclusion criteria in the sample were nurses who had taken doctoral units in nursing. Directions for the study and informed consent were obtained. Data saturation was reached with 10 informants and with my judgment, considering the concept of the researcher as the main instrument (Jackson, Daly & Davidson, 2008); I decided to stop recruiting to avoid data contamination. Each participant was asked to describe their experience as a nurse pursuing a non-nursing doctoral degree program in as much details as possible. Preliminary findings were validated and the final results were reviewed. Procedure. I obtained approval from the Research, Planning, Development Department

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of the University of the Visayas. Data collection extended for a year through personal interviews, group discussions, phone calls, chat rooms and emails. I interviewed each participant for 20-60 minutes and all interviews were tape-recorded. The interviews were transcribed and coded to manage the data systematically. Recorded interviews were destroyed after transcription. To avoid any possible bias, I tried to collect the data precisely from those participants yielding authentic data. Data were confirmed using different triangulation techniques. Trustworthiness was enhanced thru (Polit & Beck, 2008): (1) prolonged engagement; (2) persistent observation and reflection; (3) member checking from participants; and (4) audit trail by external experts. Spending a considerable amount of time with the informants until trust was gained ensured the authenticity of the data collected. Persistent observation and reflection ensured credibility and dependability of the data being gathered. Member checking from participants and audit trail by external experts ensured the confirmability of results. Asking the same question at different timepoints warranted time triangulation. Data saturation of a certain phenomenon from different informants enabled person triangulation. Interviews, observation and reflection were observed to facilitate method triangulation. Data Analysis. I utilized the Colaizzi’s (1978) approach by carefully questioning presuppositions about the phenomenon under investigation. I started by asking general leading questions and once such questions were answered, I then scrutinized and examined these presuppositions. The method for data analysis consisted of seven stages: (1) read and reread all the participants’ verbatim transcripts of the phenomena in order to acquire a feeling of them; (2) significant statements or phrases were extracted from the participants’ transcripts pertaining directly to the research phenomena; (3) formulated meanings were constructed

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from the significant statements; (4) formulated meanings were arranged into clusters and themes which evolved into emergent themes; (5) results were incorporated into a rich and exhaustive description of the lived-experience; (6) exhaustive description for the participants involved in the research were validated; and (7) any new or pertinent data obtained from the participants’ validation were incorporated and adapted to attain congruence with the lived experience of the participants studied. VI. RESULTS Profile of Doctoral Program in Nursing in the Area. Doctoral nursing program in Cebu City had just started recently with one graduate as of 2012. Only one school is offering the program Doctor of Science in Nursing with the major of Gerontology. There is no other school available in the area. However, in Region VII – Central Visayas, two other schools are offering doctoral nursing program namely: (1) Doctor of Philosophy, Major in Nursing; and (2) Doctor of Nursing Science. However, one must have to travel across water or by air to attend classes and finish the degree. Limited Offering. Testimonies of nurses taking non-doctoral nursing programs reported that there are only limited offerings for doctoral programs in nursing. In fact, there is only one school in Cebu City offering the program of Doctor of Science in Nursing, Major in Gerontology. Most nurses who wanted to pursue a doctoral degree were not interested with the major offered. Given this scenario, nurses opted to take doctoral programs that are more or less in line with their interest. Doctoral degree such as: (1) Doctor in Education, Major in Science Education; (2) Doctor in Management, Major in Human Resource Management; and (3) Doctor of Philosophy in Education, Major in Research and Evaluation. The enumerated majors were identified because these are in-line with their current practices and majors in their masteral degree. Parallelism in practice and verticalization of majors were issues identified by the informants. However, this undertaking is not feasible by the

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212 current situation in the area.

“… I wanted to take a doctoral degree in line with nursing leadership and management but there is no offering … I would rather take a doctoral degree in management than taking a major in Gerontology…” (DM HRM student) “… Had there been a doctoral degree in psychiatric nursing, I would gladly enroll in the program … But I am not very interested with the care for the elderly … I would rather choose a major second to my heart … nursing research is my second choice that is why I took up a major similar to it …” (PhD RE student) “… I am in nursing education for most of my life … since I am in the nursing academe – I am taking Doctor of Education … there is no doctoral program for nursing education major …” (EdD student) Though there are few offerings in the region, it was observed that there is only one doctoral nursing program in the city. There are only few in the region because there are only few qualified professors. In addition to that, the sole professor in the city is only a visiting professor from the northern part of the country. In order for one to take a doctoral degree that is aligned to nursing aside from Gerontology as a major, one has to be educated outside Cebu City (regionally, nationally or internationally). Most nurses cannot afford this considering the remuneration they are currently receiving. “… How I wish I can get a grant to get a doctoral degree in nursing in the field that I love… this remains a dream … after applying competitive-based international scholarship… the chances is more than super slim… after considering personal funding… the idea seems to be a joke… that would mean Iwill not eat at all just to get a degree…”

Nurses do not make much money in Cebu City compared to the remuneration nurses receive overseas. Educational grants are near to impossible and most grants, if not all, oblige grantees to be full time students – and nurses in the area cannot afford not to work since they have a family to support. Educational financial support is difficult especially when these nurses are using their personal funds. Nurses confided their interest to take doctoral degree in nursing when the privilege is at reach. However, matching their interest and specialization to non-nursing doctoral degree program that is readily available is the best option they can think of for the mean time. The Need to Take Non-Nursing Doctoral Degree. Though all of the informants are interested in taking a doctoral degree in nursing. Interest as a motivation in taking doctoral degree in nursing was constrained by internal and external factors that pushed them to take nonnursing doctoral programs. The following were identified push factors: Retention and Competition. Currently, the career of nursing education is very competitive. With the surplus of nurses, nursing schools are closing and some schools have very low enrolment. With this scenario, most schools had employee retrenchment. With the fear of being retrenched, a good number of nurse educators are currently taking a doctoral program for retention purposes. Educational qualification is usually the first criteria to be considered for retention. The priority is to take any doctoral degree. The area of concentration is just a secondary priority. Any doctoral degree is a need for survival. “There is a great need for continuing education … the competition is high and I should be ahead from the rest in order to survive ... the major does not matter … I should have a doctoral degree … whatever degree it is as long as its doctoral …” It is not only about competing for retention; it is also ammunition for the competitive world.

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In order for one to stay in the position, one must be equipped with the degree. For those who are aspiring for the position, one must be armed for the spot. “… because of my managerial position I need to have the doctoral degree in management … I need to be competitive … I need to stay in the position … I must be academically ahead from the rest … To stay in this competitive word one must be prepared … It would had been better if there is a doctoral degree for nursing administration and management …” (Dean) “… I am aspiring for a higher position … I need to have a doctoral degree in management … I was planning to take a doctoral degree for nursing administration and management … but it is not offered here in Cebu City” (aspiring Dean) This is not only the case for those nurses currently working. It was also observed that nurses who had never landed into a nursing job are currently taking graduate studies to be competitive. They are taking masteral and even doctoral degree to be ahead from the rest. “… I am an unemployed registered nurse… I have to take advance studies to widen my chances of getting hired…” Personal and Professional Growth. The doctoral program is a good avenue for professional growth experience: (1) familiarity with the important theories; (2) development of a set of research skills; and (3) relationships with professors and fellow doctoral students. “Even though I am not taking a doctoral program in nursing … the degree I am taking right now enriched my familiarity with diverse theoretical frameworks that can be adapted to the nursing discipline … my

213 exposure to different research methodologies and procedures is of great help … my mentors have outstanding inputs that can be applied to nursing … the exchanges of experience with my classmates are worth learning … However, it would had been better if the program I am currently taking is aligned to the nursing field since some applications discussed were really not related to nursing … the experiences and example were not in nursing, thus processing them were more difficult than when these things were nursing-related …”

In as much as there is a lot to learn in nonnursing doctoral program, nurses are still conveying the need to have aligned degrees in nursing to facilitate a better learning experience. When the program is into nursing, the doctoral student will be able to ground himself/herself to the program and will be able to apply these things effectively into practice. Career Pathing. Though most nurses are taking their doctoral program that is more or less nearer to their chosen nursing career paths, some nurses are realigning or preparing themselves to work outside of the nursing discipline. This is still related to the effects of the surplus of nurses in the country. Vacancies are no longer available and competitions are getting tougher. “With the trend now that most nursing schools are cutting off employees, I need to be prepared for the future… I need to have a fall back in my career... in case it would be difficult to land in a job in nursing … then maybe I can work in another field …” When other countries are experiencing shortage of nurses, the Philippines, especially in Cebu City is experiencing surplus of nurses. With this scenario, most nurses are realigning their career path either: (1) to land in a job; or (2) preparing to land in a non-nursing-related job in the near future. Few Scholarship for Doctoral Education Outside Cebu City. Solutions to take a doctoral

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degree in nursing can be solved when funding is available. However, funding nurses to study abroad or in any part of the Philippines is remotely possible. Nurses cannot identify scholarship programs. If any, it is highly competitive among nations.

institution the nurse is working. This hinders the nurse’s opportunity in seeing the broad outlook necessary for academic achievement. They cannot bring new ideas into their institution. Their inputs are limited since it is already existent in their institution. Therefore, advancements in both the institution and individual are compromised.

“I wanted to be educated outside of the country so that I can bring back things that I have learnt to my country. But applying for a scholarship is really difficult especially for a doctoral program in nursing… How I wish I had enough resources to support myself… It is really my dream… but not my priority… I have a family to feed…”

“… I am taking a non-nursing doctorate degree in the institution that I am working. I feel that I do not learn much and that things tackled about are those that I already know. What is new to learn? I am beginning to question myself …”

Nurses would rather work than grabbing the opportunity for scholarships since they have a family to feed. This is another reality considered by nurses. To get educated in a doctoral program in another country remains to be a dream and not a priority. Practicality and Convenience that Leads to In-breeding. Most nurse educators are taking the doctoral degree program offerings of their school for practical reasons. Most schools are giving free tuition fees for their employees. Most nurses are grabbing this opportunity for professional growth. But these nurses are forced to take the doctoral programs offered by the institution. They have to match their nursing interest with the most similar program offered.

Potential Danger in Taking Non-Nursing Doctoral Program. Though it is recognized that taking non-nursing theoretical preparations broadened and improved the practice of nursing, this can also lead to some perilous effects. Although it is also possible that solution to nursing concerns may be addressed by theories from other discipline, it is also equally conceivable that nurses may utilize solutions that are not germane to nursing. Directing answers to the problem may be masked by interventions that are not appropriate to nursing and eventually jeopardize the system. It is also possible that the demarcation between the shared (borrowed from other discipline) and the pure nursing concept may lead to an overlap of responsibilities. Overlapping of responsibilities that may eventually cause conflicts in the near future.

“Actually I do not have achoice; it is not offered in my school … so I just decided to enroll in a different program offered by my institution since we are given free tuition fee for 9 units per semester... I hope my school can offer a doctoral program in nursingsoon.”

“… I am not really sure if what I am taking right now is useful in nursing. Maybe not now … maybe in the near future … and maybe never …”

“I do not have a choice. If I have to enroll in another school … I have to pay the entire amount …” In-breeding is one of the disadvantages in taking a doctoral program offered by the

There are always two sides in every coin and there is no definite formula for each action. But this argument is necessary to provide awareness to certain possibilities. This will help remind nurses to be extra careful in their nursing career actions and decisions.

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“… One thing I have recognized in my decision is that nurses must take conscientious and deliberate time in choosing what to take for a doctorate degree… You might just regret the consequences and maybe you will realize that it was a waste of time, money and effort …” Reasons for the Constraints in Taking the Program. The following reasons were identified: (1) the need to have qualified professors; (2) majority of the schools are not interested to invest; (3) financial constraints; and (4) familial consideration. Need to Have Qualified Professors. The prime reason for the few offerings is brought about by the few qualified professors to teach doctoral courses in nursing. This need is identified among informants with the following expressed solutions: (1) inviting qualified professors to teach in the city; and (2) sending doctoral students to study in other places. Graduates of doctoral degree in nursing from any of these expressed solutions can contribute to the pool of qualified professors in the area. Either ways, institutions can potentially open doctoral nursing degrees. However, this alone cannot warrant its viability. In fact, solution number 1 was pioneered by one of the state universities in the area. However, there are only few takers due to the offering – nurses chose not to take Geriatrics as the Major. Hopefully, solution number 2 can be explored in the near future and/or solution number 1 can still be done with a more viable offering. “There are only few qualified professors and that is why there is only one offering…” Majority of the Schools are Not Interested to Invest. Schools are not interested in offering the program. Hiring qualified professors from outside Cebu and sending students abroad is an investment – it is currently not the priority. Viability of the program was one of the considerations for the disinterest. Currently, no studies were conducted to determine its viability.

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Though one school is interested to invest, they have a problem in recruiting qualified professors for the more appealing offering. “… With the current trend in the Philippines where there are pool of untapped nurses either displaced or unemployed, I think colleges and universities are not interested in opening doctorate programs in nursing… They are afraid if there are no takers… Education is business and school owners are also businessmen… I think you know what I mean…” Financial Constraints. Getting a degree outside Cebu is an option. But for most, this is not the priority due to financial reasons. Most of those interested have families to support. The need of the family is the top most priority and getting the doctoral degree is only secondary. Though getting a scholarship is an option, it is highly competitive. Most of the time, they do not get picked and the majority does not even get to try to apply. “… I am a mother with studying kids. I need to prioritize their needs…” “… I wanted to study abroad… It is sad that my resources cannot allow me to fulfill that dream. I also tried applying scholarships… it is also very sad that I do not get shortlisted…” Familial Consideration. Among Cebuanos, the family is a treasure. It is cogitated as very important and it is always prioritized. Aside from economic consideration, familial protection and preservation is highly embellished by being together. Studying away from home is a sacrifice. Most cannot afford to disharmonize a protected treasure not unless they get income out from it. Income itself is for the family. “… I am a mother with studying kids… I also need to be at their side. They are still growing and it is myresponsibility totake care of them.”

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UV Journal of Research “It is good to finish a doctorate degree. Here or abroad, it does not matter. This will give me an opportunity to climb up the ladder… this means more income for my family.”

Viability of Opening Doctoral Programs in Nursing. As previously reported, the interest of nurses in taking doctoral degree in nursing was constrained due to the limited offerings in the area. Multiple reasons were identified in the selection of the alternative. Though transferability (equivalent to generalizability in quantitative studies) of results can be claimed, not enough evidence can warrant statistical generalizability due to the weakness in sampling – just like any other qualitative researches. However, this does not mean that the results are of poor quality. The intention of this research is only to describe and provide a conceptual underpinning that can be utilized as a foundation in conducting a quantitative research with good statistical sampling representativeness. It is not the intention to prove statistically generalizable results. Furthermore, it was not the intention to determine the feasibility in opening doctoral nursing programs in the area. However, it is a noble jump-start in conducting highly methodological investigation with the objective of determining its viability. The possibility of opening other majors can only be realized if the four enumerated constraints can be addressed. Though the opened major in Gerontology is not an appetitive offering in the area, it is a good start to provide access to a doctoral degree in nursing. It was identified that there are only few takers and that they took the program because it was the only rational choice. Lucidly, the opening of the sole major is a: (1) good indicator that other majors can be offered in the near future; and (2) precursor in identifying the need of offering more desirable programs with good number of interested takers. VII. WRAPPING-UP Nurses confessed the need to open doctoral majors in nursing that are aligned to their

current career, practice and masteral majors. The deficiency of qualified professors and disinterest of investment among institutions constrained the opening of other majors. Furthermore, financial constraints, inaccessibility to scholarships and familial considerations hindered nurses to take offerings from other places. It is also sad to note that some nurses are slowly realigning their vocations to non-nursing career-paths. This is another issue that nursing leaders and the government should take into deliberate consideration. If this will pursue, their potentials will not be of use – adding them to the count of untapped human resource in nursing. Their capabilities could have been utilized to upgrade the current developing nursing system. VIII. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION The core phenomenon emanates the need to revolutionize doctoral nursing education in the region and in the country. This revolution does not only call for attaining personal interests but to uplift the standard of the profession beyond the need of the self. With the challenge for the development of needed highly developed competencies for progressively more complex clinical, faculty and leadership roles, nurses are challenged to enhance nursing knowledge to improve practice. Provision of an advanced educational credential for those who require advancedpracticeknowledgerequireseducational training and exposure aligned to their field and practice. With the call for transformation and advancement in nursing and its practice, nurses must grow professionally by taking doctoral program in different nursing concentrations and not with other or related disciplines. I will recommend that universities and nursing faculties must provide agendas to advocate in the advancement of doctoral nursing degreein the region and the country. This advocacy must focus on transforming the profession afar from individual welfares. Further studies will be conducted to: (1) validate the results utilizing quantitative research methodology with good sampling technique; and (2) identify the viability

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of opening other doctoral programs in nursing in the area. Nursing schools and associations should provide options and access to national and international scholarship grants to deserving candidates. Originality Index: Similarity Index: Paper ID: Grammarly:

90 % 10 % 341977258 Checked

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UV Journal of Research 2013

Review of Fractal and Fractal Derivatives in relation to the Physics of Fractals* Gibson “Gibby” Maglasang1 Jay M. Ontololan1 Mark S. Borres2 Adriano V. Patac3 College of Arts and Sciences1 Cebu Normal University1 College of Engineering2 University of San Jose Recoletos2 College of Engineering3 Surigao State College of Technology3 Submitted: October 1, 2013

Accepted: November 10, 2013

*Topic suggested by Dr. Roberto N. Padua, consultant, CNU, USJR and SSCT. Dr. Padua is currently developing the area of Fractal Statistics to support known results in Fractal Geometry.

ABSTRACT Fractional and fractal derivatives are both generalizations of the usual derivatives that consider derivatives of non-integer orders. Interest in these generalizations has been triggered by a resurgence of clamor to develop a mathematical tool to describe “roughness” in the spirit of Mandelbrot’s (1967) Fractal Geometry. Fractional derivatives take the analytic approach towards developing a rational order derivative while fractal derivatives follow a more concrete, albeit geometric approach to the same end. Since both approaches alleged to extend whole derivatives to rational derivatives, it is not surprising that confusion will arise over which generalization to use in practice. This paper attempts to highlight the connection between the various generalizations to fractional and fractal derivatives with the end-in-view of making these concepts useful in various Physics applications and to resolve some of the confusion that arise out of the fundamental philosophical differences in the derivation of fractional derivatives (non-local concept) and fractal derivatives (local concept). Keywords: fractional derivative, fractal derivative, fractional differential operators, fractal analysis I.NON-INTEGER ORDER OF DIFFERENTIATION L’Hospital (1695) wrote a letter to Leibnitz raising the possibility of a half derivative of the function f(x) = x to which the latter responded that “this could lead to a paradox for which the consequences may be useful in the future”. Leibnitz realized ab initio that there are various ways of generalizing the discrete operation of

differentiation to the continuous case which lead to non-equivalent results. To date, there are two (2) main streams of generalizations pursued by researchers: the purely analytical stream (Fractional Calculus) and the physical-geometric stream (Fractal Calculus) (West, Bologna & Grigolini, 2003; Miller & Ross, 1993; Hilfer, 2000). To illustrate the differences in results for the two

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approaches, the half derivative of f(x) = x are: (fractional derivative)

(fractal derivative with

2. scaled x)

(fractal derivative with both

3. variables scaled)

The half fractional derivative of f(x) does not represent a local operation i.e. it does not represent “slope” at a point, but differentiation over a range of values of x. On the other hand, the half fractal derivative of the same function re-scales either the independent variable both

) and applies the usual differentiation

on the re-scaled values. The latter approach is greatly influenced by the work of Mandelbrot (1967) in Fractal Geometry where description of the “roughness” of physical objects is the main focus. Recent developments in Fractional Calculus have demonstrated the intrinsic mathematical elegance of a purely analytic approach. For instance, the generalized differential operator defined by: 4. where , yields the usual differentiation for n = 1 and the usual integration for n = -1. Such elegant results pave the way for a re-examination of the various concepts in classical Calculus viz. the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Meanwhile, developments in Fractal Calculus have demonstrated a strong inclination toward practical applications of the concept of a real order derivatives in physics and the physical sciences. Chen et al. (2003) used Fractal Calculus in investigating anomalous diffusion; Pant et al. (2012) considered Fractal Calculus in the study of diffusivity in porous media; Danijela et al. (2013)

investigated Columbeau-generated stochastic processes through fractal derivatives. In a 2012 paper, Xiao-Jun Yang (2012) used the term Local Fractional Calculus (LFC) to denote Fractal Calculus for the development of a Local Fractional Fourier Analysis. He defines local fractional calculus as “dealing with everywhere continuous but nowhere differentiable functions in fractal spaces”. We note that Yang’s paper highlights the key difference between Fractional Calculus, on one hand, and Fractal Calculus on the other. The former is a non-local concept while the latter is a local one. In Fractional Calculus, we speak of differentiation over a range of values of x while in Fractal Calculus, we deal with differentiation at a point x. As a relatively young field of inquiry, there is bound to be a lot of confusion over the concepts of “fractional” and “fractal” derivatives because both deal with non-integer derivatives. The first concept is a purely analytic one while the latter has a strong geometric flavor. In fact, we propose to use the term “scaled calculus” for fractal calculus in order to reduce confusion with fractional calculus. The paper is organized as follows: Sections II and III deal with the development of fractional derivatives; Section IV derives fractal derivatives; Section V concludes with a series of simple applications of fractal calculus in Physics. With this paper, it is hoped that: (1) the differences, both in philosophy and use, of fractional and fractal derivatives are clarified, and (2) research interest in both developments will be further stimulated. II. GENERALIZATION TO FRACTIONAL DERIVATIVES BASED ON EXPONENTIAL AND POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS Consider the exponential function: 1.

f(x) = eax

whose kth derivative is:

Maglasang, G., Ontolan, J. M., Borres, M. S. and Patac, A. V.

whose kth derivative is :

A natural way to generalize to rational derivatives is to set k = q ε R+ to yield: 3.

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Any function that can be expressed as a linear sum of exponential functions can be differentiated in rational orders. In particular, since:

7. The Gamma function or generalized factorial can be used to make the result above applicable to any positive rational order of derivative. The Gamma function is : 8.

which allows us to write (7) as: 4. 9.

It follows that: 5.

The last result indicates that the fractional differential operator shifts the phase of the trigonometric function in fractional proportion. Thesamestatementcan be saidof the sinefunction. The approach using exponential functions as a way to generalize fractional derivatives appears to be satisfactory yet, L’Hospital wanted the “half derivative” of . There is no apparent representation of as an exponential function taking the form of (1). Note that f(x) = elog(x) is not the same as (1). The other way is to find the Fourier representation of the function (which is not defined over the entire interval) over some finite interval. However, ambiguities cannot be avoided here because of the choice of the finite interval. In other words, the fractional derivative obtained in this manner is neither unique nor local (i.e. whole derivatives are both unique and local). Instead of beginning with an exponential function, we can attempt to build fractional derivatives by considering the polynomial function:

with therecurrence relation the reflection relation

Replacing k with q ε Q+, we obtain the desired generalization. In response to Leibnitz, the half derivative of x now becomes: 10. since While we are used to thinking of the derivative of a constant to be equal to zero, the half-derivative of a constant is not zero but: 11.

which is not defined at x = 0. We point out that combining the two approaches lead to some curious results. For instance, we know that: 12. but 13.

and

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Results such as (13) are not rare and for which reason, Leibnitz was right in pointing out that generalization to rational order derivatives indeed lead to paradoxes. III. GENERALIZATION TO FRACTIONAL DERIVATIVES BASED ON A LIMIT DEFINITION We next examine yet another approach that is more basic than the derivations of fractional derivatives based on the exponential and polynomial functions. The definition of a positive integer derivative is based on:

For n = 1, we obtain the usual differential operator: 17. while for n = -1, we make use of the geometric series representation: 18. This gives: 19.

14. which can be repeated n times to yield: . 51 where nCj is the number of combinations of n objects taken j at a time. In order to generalize this formula when n is not a positive integer, we need to generalize in two directions: the binomial coefficients and the upper limit of the summation. Consider a function f(x) shown below :

Equation (16) gives the differential operator while (19) yields the integration operator in the limit as ε tends to zero. An algebraic expression for the Fundamental Theorem in Calculus can be obtained from (19) and (9) namely, that: “If k=-1,

, then for

) is the integral of

For example, if

, then

) =

Figure 1. Function f(x)

The upper limit of the summation in Equation (15) becomes:

where Given ε > 0, we move five equi-steps to the left to obtain the points x - 5ε, x - 4ε, ..., x – ε.. In general, let k be the number of such points , then x = kε. Define the ε- backward shift operator as: Bε(f(x) = f(x-ε). The general differential operator D is defined by: 16.

is usually zero, or

]

We then proceed to define the binomial coefficients in a way that does not require integer values of n. Note that:

which suggests that an alternative way of writing factorials for non-integer arguments be used. This

Maglasang, G., Ontolan, J. M., Borres, M. S. and Patac, A. V.

is facilitated by using the Gamma function (8). Doing so, we obtain:

20.

The general derivative depends on the value of the function f over the range from x0 to x and is therefore a non-local operation. We can see this from the fact that in the factor f(x-jε) in the summation, the argument ranges from x to zero as j ranges from j = 0 to j . Using (20), L’Hospital’s query to Leibnitz yields: 21. which is identical with (8). We therefore see that the generalized derivative obtained by the polynomial approach and that which is obtained by the limit approach give identical results. The utility of using the generalized limit approach over the polynomial approach is that the generalized limit approach allows us to find rational order derivatives even if the function is not expressible as a power series. Moreover, the polynomial approach does not give us any indication about the non-locality of the generalized derivative, that is, the dependence on the function over a range rather than on just a single point. IV. RECONCILING THE EXPONENTIAL APPROACH AND THE GENERALIZED LIMIT APPROACH TO FRACTIONAL DERIVATIVES In Section II, we pointed out the conflicting results when we took the half-derivative of ex using the exponential approach and the polynomial approach (or the generalized limit approach). The derivative of this function (including half derivatives) should yield the same function. Moreover, the function approaches 1 as x tends to zero. Yet , the half derivative of ex is:

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which goes to infinity as x goes to zero. How can we reconcile the two results? The answer lies on the fact that half-derivatives depend on the chosen range of differentiation. For instance,

and the only way for the derivative of the right – hand side to equal to the argument of the definite integral on the left-hand side is when ∞ which we have assumed tacitly. In other words, ranges of differentiation are important when we talk of fractional derivatives (derivatives over a range of values rather than derivative at a single point). If ∞, then we find that the upper limit of (22) simply becomes ∞ and hence, the half-derivative in (21) becomes ex also. V. FRACTAL DIMENSIONS, ROUGHNESS, FRACTAL CALCULUS AND FRACTIONAL CALCULUS The motivation for developing Fractional Calculus stemmed from a purely analytic question of L’Hospital (1695). Recent interest in fractal geometry and analysis, however, spawned yet another direction for generalizing the usual derivative. This direction is towards defining Fractal Derivatives as basis for describing data and geometric roughness. As such, we expect a relationship between fractal derivatives and fractal dimensions. What is not clear yet is the relationship between fractal derivatives and fractional derivatives. Fractal Derivative Let f(t) be a function. We define the qth fractal derivative of f(t) with respect to a fractal measure t as: (23)

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Note at once that while for fractional derivatives for fractal derivatives we have . This implies that

where T(.) is a functional of

(24)

derivative (22) below:

Comparing (24) and (20), we see that (24) cannot be expressed in terms of simple backshift operators. In particular, the half â&#x20AC;&#x201C; derivative of becomes: (25)

We can compare the fractal derivative of with its corresponding fractional . For reference, we reproduce

The corresponding fractal derivative is:

which differs from (21) by a factor of . A more general representation of a fractal derivative with respect to both f(t) and t is: For , the fractal derivative is generally greater than the fractional derivative. As

(26) Hence for f(t) = t with

, the fractional derivative tends to infinity while the fractal derivative tends to zero; both behaviors being inconsistent with the fractional derivative of using the exponential approach

(27) which coincides with

viz. f

behaviors of the derivatives

Observations:

of a) The fractal derivative

is always a function

of the fractional derivative

Figure 2. et

b) To avoid confusion, we change notation for fractal derivatives. Instead of writing write Likewise, instead of writing

for

Equation

, we (26).

for the qth fractional

derivative, we write A(q). The notation reflects the geometric nature of (26) while the notation highlights the analytic feature of the fractional derivative Equation (20) c) Statement (a) can be written as:

are shown below

The and

Maglasang, G., Ontolan, J. M., Borres, M. S. and Patac, A. V.

Figure 4. half fractional derivative

Figure 3. half fractal derivative

1 < t < 1.036

0 < t < .51

t 0.00169 0.00622 0.00636 0.02289 0.0237 0.02547 0.02599 0.02788 0.03151 0.50395

225

exp(t) 1.0017 1.0062 1.0064 1.0232 1.024 1.0258 1.0263 1.0283 1.032 1.6552

A(1/2) 13.77046 7.242892 7.164721 3.901294 3.84009 3.717008 3.683348 3.569347 3.381066 1.80922

G(0,1/2) 0.082358 0.158716 0.160515 0.309542 0.315223 0.327352 0.330845 0.343301 0.366268 2.225664

t 1.00019 1.00045 1.00645 1.01012 1.01249 1.01273 1.01772 1.02446 1.02761 1.03589

exp(t) 2.7188 2.7195 2.7359 2.7459 2.7524 2.7531 2.7669 2.7856 2.7944 2.8176

A(1/2) 2.502952 2.503464 2.515332 2.522633 2.527365 2.527845 2.537853 2.551465 2.557863 2.574793

exp(t) 7.3941 7.4651 7.4843 7.4887 7.503 7.6265 7.6451 7.6701 7.6941 7.7024

A(1/2) 5.86979 5.918051 5.931086 5.934082 5.943791 6.02734 6.03987 6.05677 6.072934 6.078538

G(0,1/2) 4.66774 4.6693 4.705406 4.727583 4.741942 4.743398 4.773732 4.814913 4.834241 4.885299

2 < t < 2.05

1.5 < t <1.55

exp(t)

A(1/2)

G(0,1/2)

1.50904

4.5224

3.83446

8.503707

1.5178 1.51835 1.51986 1.52179 1.52312 1.52507 1.52573 1.52706 1.53064

4.5622 4.5647 4.5716 4.5804 4.5865 4.5955 4.5985 4.6046 4.6211

3.863687 3.86553 3.870594 3.877077 3.881551 3.88812 3.890347 3.894837 3.90695

8.585542 8.590701 8.604875 8.623018 8.635538 8.653921 8.660149 8.672711 8.706595

t 2.00068 2.01024 2.01281 2.0134 2.01531 2.03163 2.03406 2.03733 2.04045 2.04153

G(0,1/2) 14.15103 14.28454 14.3206 14.32889 14.35575 14.58689 14.62156 14.66831 14.71304 14.72854

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In the neighborhood of zero, the analytic fractional derivative is larger than the geometric fractal derivative. As we move away from zero (somewhere near t = 0.50), the geometric fractal derivative dominates both the analytic fractional derivative and the fractional derivative obtained through the exponential approach. There appears to be some simple relationship that governs the behavior of the exponential fractional derivative (et) and the geometric fractal derivative. We performed a regression analysis using y = et and x = G(0,1/2). The results are shown below: Figure 5. Graph of x = G(0,1/2) versus y = exp(t)

The regression equation is exp(t) = 0.198 + 0.539 G(0,1/2) Predictor Coef SE Coef T P Constant 0.19798 0.01841 10.75 0.000 G(0,1/2) 0.539015 0.001241 434.33 0.000 S = 0.3696 R-Sq = 99.5% R-Sq(adj) = 99.5% That is, the exponential fractional derivative is about one-half of the geometric fractal derivative. The two plots of the other possible relationships between the three half-derivatives are shown below: Figure 6. Plot of x = A(1/2) and y = exp(t)

Figure 7. Plot of x = A(1/2) and y = G(0,1/2)

Note that Figures 5 and 6 are almost identical. This observation simply comes from the fact that the geometric fractal derivative (G(0,1/2)) and the fractional derivative obtained by the exponential approach (et) are linearly related.

VI. SOME APPLICATION OF FRACTAL DERIVATIVES Physical laws of diffusion that are based on a Euclidean medium cannot apply if in fact the media exhibit fractal properties. Some physical realizations of fractal media include water turbulence porous media and aquifers. In the latter case, the physical concepts of space and time have to be rescaled to, ( xr, tq ) where r, q are positive real numbers, in order to conform to the fractal nature of space-time. In this fractal space-time system, the notion of a velocity can be redefined as: 28. because the traditional definition of velocity is meaningless in a non-differentiable fractal spacetime. Fractal Linear Motion Linear motions involving the concepts of velocity and acceleration are fundamental in Physics. The usual distance traversed by a freefalling body after time t is: 29.

Maglasang, G., Ontolan, J. M., Borres, M. S. and Patac, A. V.

where g is assumed constant. Suppose that the space is fractal of dimension , then the velocity of the body at any constant t, becomes

30.

= Note that if the fractal dimension of

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equation obtained by transformation of variables. Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction As a third example, consider Fourier’s law (1822) (see Fourier, 1955) which states that “thermal conduction results into heat flux which is proportional to the magnitude of the temperature gradient and opposite to it in sign”. Thus, for a one-direction conduction process, this can be translated to:

is 31.

. However, if

is fragmented with, say,

=-(

)

which is slower than , as one would expect if one were travelling along a rough media e.g variable air resistance. Fick’s Second Law Anomalous Motion Consider the anomalous transport-diffusion process which is an alternative to Fick’s Second Law given by: 32.

where δ(x) is the Dirac delta function, and 0 < q < 2, 0 < r < 1. The fundamental solution to (32) can be obtained by the transformation t* = tq and x* = xr which transform (32) into the usual diffusion equation. The solution , of course, is given by: 33. which is the stretched normal (Gaussian) distribution. From this example, we learn that in order to deal with fractal space-time, it is necessary to know the fractal dimensions r and q of the space (x) and the time (t) respectively. The corresponding fractal derivatives can be calculated and the solution to a fractal differential

where c is the thermal conductivity constant, h x is the heat flux in W/m2 in the positive x direction and dT/dx is the (negative) temperature gradient (K/m) in the direction of the heat flow (usually, from hot to cold regions). Suppose now that the space (x) is fractal of dimension r while T is of fractal dimension q, then Fourier’s law translates to: 32. whose solution is obtained by the transformation x* = xr and T* = Tq. Equation (35) is the anomalous heat conduction equation. Other examples may be constructed where the use of fractal derivatives is examplified. The reader may wish to refer to Darcy’s law . Darcy’s law relates the instantaneous discharge rate through a porous medium and the viscosity of the fluid with pressure drop over a given distance. VII CONCLUSION While we have found a linear relationship between fractal derivatives (G(0,q)) and fractional derivatives through the exponential definition, much is still to be done in terms of relating analytic fractional derivatives (A(q)) and fractal derivatives (G(0,q)). A relationship between A(q) and G(0,q), if found, would be useful in terms of developing an entire theory of fractal calculus (as opposed to fractional calculus). A fractal calculus theory would, in turn, be useful in re-analyzing most of the laws in Physics e.g. quantum theory.

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The key to such an examination lies on the premise of a local versus non-local derivatives. Originality Index: Similarity Index: Paper ID: Grammarly:

97 % 3% 382621525 Checked

REFERENCES Fourier. J. (1955) The Analytical Theory of Heat. New York: Dover Publications. Hilfer R. (2000). Applications of Fractional Calculus in Physics. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. Pie. Ltd. Letters of Leibniz and Marquis de lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Hospital (1695). Mandelbrot, B. (1967). Fractals: The Geometry of nature. New York: Wiley Series. Miller, K. S., & Ross, B. (1993). An introduction to the Fractional Calculus and Fractional Differential Equations. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.. Padua, R. N., & Borres, M. S. (2013). From Fractal Geometry to Fractal Statistics. Recoletos Multidisciplinary Journal of Research, 1(1). Padua, R. N., Palompon, D. R., & Ontoy, D. S. (2012). Data roughness and Fractal Statistics. CNU Journal of Higher Education, 6(1), 87-101. Pant, L. M., Mitra, S. K., & Secanell, M. (2012). Absolute permeability and Knudsen diffusivity measurements in PEMFC gas diffusion layers and micro porous layers. Journal of Power Sources, 206(1), 153-160. West, B. J., Bologna, M., & Grigolini, P. (2003). Physics of Fractal Operators. New York: Springer-Verlag. Xiao-Jun Yang (2012). Local Fractional Fourier Analysis. Advances in Mechanical Engineering and Applications, 1(1), 12-16. Padua, R. N., & Borres, M. S. (2013). From Fractal Geometry to Fractal Statistics. Recoletos Multidisciplinary Journal of Research, 1(1). Padua, R. N., Palompon, D. R., & Ontoy, D. S. (2012). Data roughness and Fractal Statistics. CNU Journal of Higher Education, 6(1), 87-101. Pant, L. M., Mitra, S. K., & Secanell, M. (2012). Absolute permeability and Knudsen diffusivity measurements in PEMFC gas diffusion layers and micro porous layers. Journal of Power Sources, 206(1), 153-160. West, B. J., Bologna, M., & Grigolini, P. (2003). Physics of Fractal Operators. New York: Springer-Verlag. Xiao-Jun Yang (2012). Local Fractional Fourier Analysis. Advances in Mechanical Engineering and Applications, 1(1), 12-16.

UV Journal of Research 2013

Binaybayon: A dance composition Ildebrando Buot Graduate School Department University of the Visayas docilde@yahoo.com Submitted: October 18, 2013

Accepted: November 10, 2013

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to compose a dance for the Baybayanons (people of Baybay City, Leyte), with the aim of developing a video documentation based on the dance composition. The study utilized the descriptive design and ethnographic. Twenty-five were selected from the potential informants and 12 from the 25 approached where chosen purposively as key informants. As a largely farming and fishing community, the people always asked for the Blessed Immaculate Conception’s blessings to give them good harvests and bountiful catch. Since then, the Baybayanons offered a “Sidong” – which means a dance of veneration and thanksgiving as an expression of their fervent love, devotion and gratitude to the Blessed Mother. There were no basic steps being followed by the people. They danced according to what they feel. But more than thirty years had passed and this religious practice almost faded out and was no longer observed by many Baybayanons. It was in 2008 that the Baybay Tourism Investment and Promotion Office (BTIPO) officially revived the “Sidong” with its new name “Binaybayon”. The researcher being a member of the Festival Committee in Baybay, Festival Choreographer and Dance Director was commissioned by this office to compose dance steps that are authentic binaybay in character as a veneration and thanksgiving to the Blessed Immaculate Conception – The Patroness in Baybay for the new generation to learn and emulate. Keywords: binaybayon, dance composition, Baybay Tourism Investment and Promotion Office, Blessed Immaculate Conception I. INTRODUCTION With the introduction of Christianity in Baybay since its discovery as a settlement, the people had long venerated the Blessed Immaculate Conception. The Blessed Immaculate Conception was noted to have protected the people of Baybay from the ravages of World War II and natural calamities as cited by Sales (2005). It was due to the rapid modernization that the younger generation prefer for popular culture rather than the traditional one. It is like the indigenous dance of Bogo City, Cebu called

“Kuyayang” that is a dance for social occasions of the natives which was no longer practiced at present (Aviles, 2008). It is on this condition that Aviles felt the importance of reviving the dance for the Bogohanons especially the new generation to gain knowledge of their own culture. The researcher shared the same sentiments with Aviles because both Bogo City, Cebu and Baybay City, Leyte faced the same problem which brought about the rapid erosion of traditional dances. It is on this context that the researcher is motivated to conduct an indigenous dance

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research in Baybay City, Leyte depicting the ways of life of the Baybayanons, their beliefs, culture, practices, traditions, livelihood, and values in order to revive the lost part of the history of Baybay and bring it to the new generation.

II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK This study is anchored on the Theories of Cultural Universals and Cultural Transmission and supported by the Theory of Axiology and the Theory of Sociology.

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of the Theoretical Framework of the Study.

Buo, I.

The Theory of Cultural Universals of George Murdock, et.al. as cited by Schultz and Lavenda (2009) is defined as anything common that exist in every human culture on the planet yet varies from different culture to culture, such as values and modes of behavior. Folk dance is a great example of a cultural universal because it exists in every culture as form of expression, social interaction, or presented in a spiritual or performance setting. According to the World Health Organization (2009), the Theory of Cultural Transmission, which is the passing of new knowledge and traditions of culture from one generation to the next is very important. Transmission happens every day and all the time. Everything people do and say provides cultural transmission in all aspects of life. One example is the way the dance has formed all over the world, each with its own distinct way of interpretation formed by any such culture. Each, separate translation of the meaning of dance is an example of cultural transmission, passed from one culture to the next. These Cultural Theories strived to explain how Baybayanons relate to each other and/ or the surrounding environment. In addition, it examines the culture of Baybay and try to understand or predict how or why they react a certain way. “Binaybayon” could be an effective means of transmitting the beliefs, culture, practices, traditions, livelihoods and values of people from the past to the future generation. This study is supported by the Theory of Axiology and the Theory of Sociology. The Theory of Axiology of Rescher (2005) is the study of values or goodness, in its widest sense. It is either the collective term for ethics or aesthetics. Ethics investigates the concepts of “right and good” in individual and social conduct. Aesthetics studies the concepts of “beauty and harmony”. This study is so fitting in the sense that this study attempts to preserve the values of the people in the aesthetic form through the indigenous dance, “Binaybayon”. The Theory of Sociology of Ritzer (2007) which defined as a set of interrelated ideas that allows for the systematization of knowledge of the social world. This theory built on the Grand

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Theory and Everday Life Theory Orientations. The Grand Theory are attempts to deal with society as a whole to explain the structure of the system and the processes of change that produce what we call, human history. On the other hand, Everyday Life Theory focus on, sometimes mundane, human behavior in an attempt to explain individual action and interaction between individuals, as well as beliefs, attitudes and values within the context of groups and the broader social system. This theory looks at change in terms of development. Thus, the researcher will look into the Baybayanons ways of life – how they strengthen their beliefs, culture, practices, traditions, livelihood and values or how it deteriorates in some degrees. The researcher observed that in Baybay, more than thirty years had passed the “Sidong” – which means a dance of veneration and thanksgiving. It is an expression of Baybayanons fervent love, devotion and gratitude to the Blessed Immaculate Conception that almost faded out and was no longer observed. Anderson (1986) explained that dance is the most perishable form of Arts. It is forever in danger of vanishing. The researcher, as dance educator, is inspired in reviving the “Binaybayon” for it displays the peculiar way of life among Baybayanons. Statement of the Problem The purpose of this study was to compose a dance for the Baybayanons. The following specific questions were answered: 1. What are the ways of life of the people of Baybay City, Leyte based on the following: beliefs, culture, practices, traditions, livelihood, and values? 2. What dance can be composed based on the ways of life of the Baybayanons in terms of: title, meaning, place of origin, background, dance culture, dance classification, ethnolinguistic, and dance properties? 3. What dance steps can be transcribed using Francisca R. Aquino notation? 4. What musical score can be notated for the dance accompaniment?

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5. What video documentation can be developed based on the dance composition? III. METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES Research Method This study utilized the qualitative design and ethnographic approaches. This is descriptive in nature because this presents the present status and studied the origin and development of the Binaybayon Dance in Baybay City, Leyte. This ethnographic study aimed to gather an in-depth understanding of Baybayanon ways of life that included the what, why, and how it was developed and changed in time. Environment Thestudywas conductedin Baybay City, Leyte. It is a place nestled in between the mountains in the east and the sea in the west. It is known for its many waterfalls, rivers and creeks that flowed from its richly forested mountain range along the Leyte Central Cordilleras. With the abundance of water, farmers for many centuries had planted rice as a major crop along with coconut. The water that flows down to the sea brings nutrients that give fishermen along its shores bountiful fish catch. Baybay have a population of 110,000 with a land area of 46,050 hectares. The resources that were given by the bountiful waters from its mountain, land, rivers, and sea had sustained the people of Baybay since its discovery until at present. Informants and Sampling Procedure The key informants of the study were twelve elders from the City of Baybay who are sixty years old and above, chosen purposively from the twenty-five general informants. Research Instruments The main instrument used in this study was the researcher made interview guide that contains all the inquiries for the dance composition. Other documentation supplements were used in this study (ideo camera and digital camera for the recording of the dance steps and music).

Research Procedures The researcher asked a formal permission from the Office of the Mayor of Baybay City, Leyte to conduct this dance research. The researcher personally administered the interview by meeting the key informants in their respective homes. Proper instructions were given by the researcher to the key informants before the start of the interview. The researcher served as the scriber in this study by writing down all the responses of the key informants during the interview using the interview guide. Data Analysis After the interview, the researcher checked the key informantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s responses. To give in-depth analysis of the study, a quasi-statistic was employed by counting the number of words or phrases often mentioned from the interview. Data gathered were analyzed and interpreted in a descriptive narrative form. Other data gathered with the use of documented supplements were analyzed and interpreted. Recorded dance steps were analyzed and transcribed using the Aquinotation Method. Recorded music for the dance accompaniment was notated. IV. RESULTS Results from Ethnography A descriptive narrative analysis derived from the common answers or reactions among the key informants during the interview along with other data from the documentation supplements. 1. WAYS OF LIFE OF THE PEOPLE OF BAYBAY CITY, LEYTE 1.1 Beliefs. The Baybayanonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s conviction on something that is true is personalistic and explains the physical reality in a religious and metaphysical manner that leads them to believe the following: Veneration to the Blessed Immaculate Conception. Baybayanons are pious people. They venerated the Immaculate Conception especially that She is their Patroness. The whole month activities on December like the praying of the Holy

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Rosary, the sacrifices offered during the Perpetual Dawn Rosary mirrored the love, devotion and strong belief of the Baybayanons to the Blessed Virgin Mary. Catechism. Catechetical instructions penetrated in the public schools which help much the Baybayanons to gain knowledge in their belief thus strengthened their faith in God. Many Baybayanons especially the Senior Citizens volunteered to teach catechism in public schools both in Secondary and Elementary. 1.2 Culture. The Baybayanons set of shared attitude and manners are reflected in its culture as their common learned way of life: Moderate in Celebrating Special Occasions. Any special occasions like fiestas, Christmas and birthdays are celebrated moderately for food and wine. The meager budget is stretched beyond means to sustain the whole celebration. Due to the call for celebration, sometimes the head of the family is pushed to borrow money in order to defray the expenses. Giving High Regards to Politicians. Part of the Baybayanons culture is giving high regards to politicians. Whoever are elected and became prominent were given due respect and always been followed. 1.3 Practices. An established way of life for Baybayanons customary code of behavior especially on one that has developed through experience and knowledge. Hermana/Hermano Mayor During Fiesta. Baybayanons have a practice of Hermana/ Hermano Mayor during fiesta celebration. The Hermana Mayor who has a generous heart will share her blessings by letting the people to dine in their place. Reunions. An occasion for Baybayanons in getting together. It is an opportunity for clans, families, and classmates of reminiscing the shared moments or bonding. Bayanihan. Baybayanons have different practices of bayanihan like “ayon-ayon” or “tagbo” – these are Binaybay terms for bayanihan in farming. Farmers are helping one another in

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planting and harvesting their crops. They enjoy working with the company of their co-farmers. In this process cooperation and unity are being developed. With cooperation, completion of work is expedited. 1.4 Tradition. It is a long established pattern among Baybayanons to handing down beliefs, customs, folklores and information from one generation to another. Fiesta Celebration. Baybayanons celebrate fiesta in honor of the Patron Saint in their respective barangays. Community residents flock together in the chapel to recite the nine days novena. It strengthens the teamwork among the folks because every activity is participated by the residents. All Souls Day Celebration. Most Baybayanons who are working outside Baybay will usually come home to visit the tomb and offer prayers, light candles, and flowers to their deceased loved ones and relatives. Helping and Supporting Other Family Members. The elder member of the family who is earning extends support to the other members who are still studying help the other siblings when they finish. This is commonly observed among average and low economic groups. 1.5 Livelihood. The following are the Baybayanons occupations or means of living: Farming. It is the most important livelihood in Baybay being an agricultural community. The major crops are rice, corn, coconut, abaca, root crops, fruits and vegetables. Farm products are generally sold in the market especially during “tabo” days on Tuesdays and Saturdays. Some farmers are adopting already the modern technologies in farming – the use of chemicals and fertilizers in order to have a good harvest. Fishing. It is another source of livelihood for Baybayanons since Baybay is located on a coastal area. Fish vendors are observed to sell their fish at the sidewalk, making the place unsightly to visitors. Small-Scale Livelihood. Some barangay women are trained to engage in some small-

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scale livelihood like preparing local delicacies (“moron”,“lidgid”, “budbud”, “bingka” and “puto”) to meet the demands and necessity for the whole family, even just to make it through the day. “Pot-pot” Driving. Most common livelihood for the low average men in Baybay is “pot-pot” driving. The drivers painstakingly ignored the weather in order to sustain their living. 1.6 Values. These are the things and ideas that are considered good, important, special and desirable in life for the Baybayanons. Family Togetherness. Close family ties is evident among Baybayanons. They value the importance of family togetherness. Most children are somewhat encouraged to stay in the household or neighborhood even when they are married or having stable job for easy parental safeguard and access. Respect to Elders. Parents taught their children to respect the elders. They set as role models to the young like. They emphasize the kissing of hands and addressing of “manoy” or “manang”. Care of the Sick. Baybayanons have the heart to take care of the sick member in the family. They do their best to regain the health of their loved ones. Peace and Order. Baybayanons value peace and order. They are lovers of peace. That is why Baybay is a peaceful place. Cleanliness. It is very evident during Sundays that barangay officials conducted “pintakasi” – this refers to the bayanihan cleaning in the barangay that is participated by the residents. 2. DANCE COMPOSED BASED ON THE WAYS OF LIFE OF THE BAYBAYANONS 2.1 Title. “Binaybayon” 2.2 Meaning. A veneration and thanksgiving to the Blessed Immaculate Conception. 2.3 Place of Origin. Baybay City, Leyte 2.4 Background/Content. “Binaybayon” is usually danced during the fiesta celebration

of the City. It is a lively dance and has a great reverend to the Blessed Immaculate Conception - the Patroness in Baybay as seen in the dance figures as a manifestation and expression of the Baybayanons fervent love, devotion, and gratitude to the Blessed Mother. This faith will prevail from sunrise to sundown, from its early years to the present. 2.5 Dance Culture. The dance depicts a Lowland Christian Culture. 2.6 Dance Classification. It is classified as a Religious Folk Dance. 2.7 Ethnolinguistic. The natives of Baybay City are called Baybayanons, an ethnolinguistic group in the Province of Leyte. 2.8 Dance Costume. The costume of the dance reflects a Visayan Rural Culture: “Baro’t Saya” or “Kimona and Patadyong” for the girls; “Kamisa de Tsino” and loose trousers for the boys. The dancers will wear an appropriate footwear. 2.9 Dance Properties. The dancers each hold handkerchiefs, candles, and farm products that are used in the specified time during the performance as part of the dance properties. 3. DANCE STEPS TRANSCRIBED USING FRANCISCA R. AQUINO NOTATION OR AQUINOTATION METHOD The interpretation of dance movements were manifested by the respondents during the interactive interview and supported by viewing the recorded dance movements from the video camera. These movements can be transcribed using the Aquinotation Method. BASIC DANCE STEPS: a. Cross-Step. Music: 44 time. Counts: 1, 2, 3, 4. Cross the L (R) foot in front the R (L) foot........ct. 1 Step the R (L) foot sideward right (left) and Cross the L (R) foot in front the R (L) foot........ ct. 2 Put the weight on the L (R) foot at the end of the cross on the second count. This is done alternately to the right and left side..............cts. 3, 4

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b. Step – Close. Music 44time. Counts: 1, 2, 3, 4.

Step the R (L) foot forward.........................ct. 1 Step the L (R) foot close to the R (L) foot in first position..........................................ct. 2 and step R (L) foot backward......................ct. 3 Step the L (R) foot close to the R (L) foot in first position .........................................ct. 4 c. Step – Hop. Music 24time. Counts: 1, 2. Step R (L) foot forward .............................ct. 1 Hop on the same foot and raise the L (R) foot in rear...............................................ct. 2 d. Three – Step Turn with a Point. Music 44 time. Counts: 1, 2, 3, 4 Step the R (L) foot to second position..........ct. 1 Turn right (left) about................................ct. 2 Turn right (left) about................................ct. 3 And point the L(R) foot to the left(right)side ct. 4

HANDS MOVEMENT: a. Arms Obliquely Downward – both arms are 45 degrees angle downward or in inverted V position. b. Arms Obliquely Upward – both arms are 45 degrees angle above the head or in V position. c. Arms Sideward – arms are sideward in horizontal chest level. d. Hands Waving – both arms are above the head, palms facing forward, moving the wrist to the right and left directions alternately. e. “Kumintang” – moving the hands from the risk either in aclockwise or counterclockwise direction. f. Reverse T Position – arms are side horizontal, but elbows bent at right angles, forearms parallel to head, palms forward or facing inward, fist loosely closed. DANCE INSTRUCTIONS: “BINAYBAYON” KARATONG: Rolling for sixteen counts. DANCERS : Meet at the center in eight counts. Then put down the farm products in four counts. Dancers will go to their proper places in four counts.

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PROPERTY : Farm Products KARATONG: Preparatory Beats (cts. 1, 2, 3, 4) FIGURE I Music A a. Take cross-step to the right (cts. 1, 2, 3, 4), both arms overhead, palm facing upward, moving both arms in a circular clockwise movement............................................................ 1 M b. Repeat (a) to the left..............................................1 M c. Repeat (a) and (b)..................................................2 M d. Take three – step turn to the right (cts. 1, 2, 3), then point left foot to the side (ct. 4), arms sideward, chest level, and palm facing sideward...............................................................1 M e. Repeat (d) to the left..............................................1 M f. Step the right foot forward, both arms obliquely upward (cts. 1, 2); Step the right foot at the back, both arms obliquely downward (cts. 3, 4)..............................................................1 M g. Repeat (f) once......................................................1 M FIGURE II KARATONG : Rolling for four counts (cts. 1, 2, 3, 4). Preparatory beats (cts. 1, 2. 3. 4). PROPERTY : Dancers are holding handkerchiefs in both hands. Music B a. Starting with the right foot take four stepclose forward, with both arms holding handkerchiefs, place the left hand on the waist while the right arm overhead waving to the right and left alternately (cts. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8)........................2 M b. Take four steps turn to the right back in place, hands on the waist (cts. 1, 2, 3, 4)...........................1 M c. Take four step-close in place, both arms overhead waving to the right and left alternately (cts. 1, 2, 3. 4)......................................1 M d. Repeat (a), (b), and (c) to the left...................4 M e. Repeat (a), (b), and (c)...................................... 4 M f. Repeat (d)............................................................ 4 M KARATONG: Rolling for four counts. DANCERS : Will keep the handkerchiefs.

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FIGURE III Music A a. Step the right foot forward, Step the left foot close to the right foot in first position (cts. 1,2), Step the right foot backward, Step the left foot close to the right foot in first position (cts. 3, 4), Both arms chest level, bring the right arms overhead...............................................................1 M b. Repeat (a) to the left...................................1 M c. Repeat (a) and (b).............................................2 M d. Take four step-close in place, both arms overhead, palm facing upward moving both arms in a circular clockwise movements (cts. 1, 2, 3, 4).......................1 M e. Take four step-close in place, both arms sideward, palm facing upward moving both arms in an outward circular movements (cts. 1, 2, 3, 4).............1 M f. Repeat (d) and (e)................................................2 M KARATONG : Rolling for four counts. DANCERS : Are kneeling FIRST CHANT: VIVA MARIA! FIGURE IV Music B a. Arms folding on chest level, bring right arms obliquely overhead (cts. 1, 2, 3, 4), then bring the left arm obliquely overhead (cts. 5, 6, 7, 8)..........2 M b. Close hands together above the head (cts. 1, 2, 3, 4), then place hands chest level (cts. 5, 6) and bow the head (cts. 7, 8).....................2 M c. Hands folding on chest level, bring both arms obliquely downward (cts. 1, 2, 3, 4), then bring both arms sidewards (cts. 5, 6), and arms close overhead (cts. 7, 8).......................2 M d. Place both arms on chest level (cts. 1, 2, 3, 4) and bow down from the waist (cts. 5, 6, 7, 8)............2 M e. Repeat (a) and (b)............................................2 M f. Repeat (c) and (d)..............................................2 M FIGURE V KARATONG: Rolling for four counts.

PROPERTY : Dancers are holding candle in each hand. Music A a. Starting with the right foot take four stepclose, both hands holding a candle execute kumintang in reverse T position (cts. 1, 2, 3, 4).........................1 M b. Repeat (a) to the left...........................................1 M c. Repeat (a).............................................................1 M d. Take four steps turn to the left, arms in reverse T position (cts. 1, 2, 3, 4)............................1 M e. Repeat (a), (b), (c) and (d)...............................4 M KARATONG : Rolling for four counts. DANCERS : Will keep the candles. FIGURE VI Music B a. Take eight step-close in place, arms sideward with palm facing upward moving both arms in an outward circular movements (cts. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8).......................................2 M b. Take four step-close in place both arms waving overhead (cts. 1, 2, 3, 4).....................1 M c. Step right foot forward and bend knees both hands touch the ground (cts. 1, 2) then take a hop step with the right foot and clap both hands overhead (cts. 3, 4)............................1 M d. Repeat (a), (b) and (c) to the left....................4 M e. Repeat (a), (b) and (c)....................................4 M f. Repeat (d).............................................................4 M KARATONG : Rolling for four counts. SECOND CHANT: VIVA MARIA! REPEAT FIGURES I – VI WITH THE USE OF FARM PRODUCTS FOR OFFERING THIRD CHANT : “SALAMAT BIRHIN DE LA IMMACULADA CONCEPCION SA IMONG PANABANG UG PANALIPUD” KARATONG : Rolling for eight counts. Preparatory Beats (cts. 1, 2, 3, 4) EXIT Music A a. Take four step-close in place, hands holding a basket, bring arms overhead (cts. 1, 2, 3,

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b. c.

4)...........1 M Take four step-close in place, bring arms downward front (cts. 1, 2, 3, 4).......................1 M Repeat (a).............................................................1 M

DANCE ILLUSTRATIONS: Figure I.

Figure II.

Figure III.

d. e. f.

237 Repeat (b).............................................................1 M Repeat (a), (b), (c) and (d)................................4 M Take step-close forward both arms overhead............16 M

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Figure IV.

FigureV.

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4. MUSICAL SCORE NOTATED FOR THE DANCE ACCOMPANIMENT The music accompaniment of the dance is played in lively rhythm in 4/4 time signature. The music is divided into two parts: Music A and the Music B. Music A is played in unison while Music B is played in four parts simultaneously. The musical instruments used in playing the music are the following: • Bamboo Flutes – are used to play the melody. • Guitars and Ukuleles – are used to play the chords.

239 • •

Karatong, Patunggok, and Triangle – are used to play the rhythm. Rain-makers and Chimes – are used for the sound effects.

Some of the musical instruments used in the dance accompaniment are made up of bamboos like bamboo flute, karatong, patunggok and rain-maker because bamboos are widely grown in Baybay and the used of indigenous materials is highly promoted on this study.

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V. CONCLUSION Baybayanons had long venerated the Blessed Immaculate Conception with a strong conviction of being their protector from the natural calamities and bad elements. They had a great reverend to the Blessed Immaculate Conception as manifested in their beliefs through the praying of the Holy Rosary, the sacrifices offered by joining the Perpetual Dawn Rosary, and the affiliation of some Baybayanons to the Legion of Mary, Confraternity of our Lady of Lourdes, World Apostolate of Fatima (WAF) and Daughters of Mary Immaculate (DMI). “Binaybayon” is worthy of spiritual and cultural preservation, hence, it displays peculiar culture of Baybayanons as shown in the movements of the dance. VI. RECOMMENDATIONS Anchored on the findings of the study, the following are recommended: The “Binaybayon” should be preserved for it serves a strong identity and rich legacy to the Baybayanons through an endorsement by the Baybay Tourism Investment and Promotion Office (BTIPO) and duly approved by the Office of the City Mayor. The “Binaybayon” should be learned by the new generation by integrating the dance in the Physical Education classes both in Elementary and Secondary Schools through a Resolution endorsed by the Baybay Tourism Investment and Promotion (BTIPO) and duly approved by the Department of Education in the Division of Baybay. The “Binaybayon” being a Religious Folk Dance should be performed in the Church as a veneration and thanksgiving to the Blessed Immaculate Conception during the feast day in Baybay City, Leyte (every 27th day of December) through a Resolution endorsed by the Immaculate Conception Parish Pastoral Council and duly approved by the Immaculate Conception Parish Priest.

Originality Index: Similarity Index: Paper ID:

96 % 4% 384609910

Grammarly:

Checked

REFERENCES “Health and Human Rights”, World Health Organization http://www. who.int/hhr/HHRETH activities. pdf (pdf) Accessed June 2009. Anderson, J. (1986). Ballet and Modern Dance: A Concise History. Prince town New Jersey: A Dance Horizon Book. Andin, C. T. (1988). Teaching Physical Education in Philippine Schools. Manila: Rex Book Store. Aquino, F. R. (1948). Philippine Folk Dances. Manila: Kayumanggi Printing Press. Aviles, C. C. (2008). Kuyayang: Proposed Dance Literature. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Southwestern University, Cebu City. Basobas, M. (1961). A Study of Pangasinan Folk Dances. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Northern Educational Institute, Dagupan City. Beran, J. A. & Ravello, S. A. (1972). Physical Activities for the Filipina. Dumaguete City: Silliman University Press. Demonteverde, J. N. (2000). An Assessment of the Three Folk Dances, Panulo sa Baybayon, Regatones, and Pamulad sa Isda. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Southwestern University, Cebu City. Demonteverde, R. K. (2000). A Prototyped Manlambus Based on the Fisherfolks Thanksgiving Dance Patterned After the Traditional Fishing Activity. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Southwestern University, Cebu City. en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cultural_Anthropology/Print_version– Cached. Goquinco, L. O. (1988). Dance of the Philippines. Metro Manila: BenLor Publishing. Manuel, J. (1976). Philippine Folk Dances, Volume VI. Manila, Philippines. Noces, M. M. (1967). A Study of the Benguet Igorot Through Their Native Festivals And Dances. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Northern Educational Institute, Dagupan City. Padilla, A. C.( 1998). Physical Education, Health and Music. Manila: St. Augustine Publication, INC. Rescher, N. (2005). Value matters: Studies in axiology. Frankfurt: Ontos Verlag. ISBN 3-937202-67-6. Ritzer, G. (2007). Contemporary Sociological Theory and its Classical Roots: The Basic, Second Edition. St. Louis: McGraw-Hill. Schultz, E. A. & Lavenda, R. H. (2009). Cultural Anthropology: A Perspective on the Human Condition. New York: Oxford UP, Incorporated, page 79. Tolentino, F. R. & Ramos, P. (1927). Philippine Folk Dances and Games. New York: Silver Burdette and Company. Torralba, C. M. (1976). Philippine Folk Dances. Manila: Garcia Publishing House.

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