Didáctica del inglés I

ANTOLOGÍA

FACULTAD DE EDUCACIÓN DECANO Dr. Carlos Barriga Hernández DIRECTORA ACADÉMICA Dra. Elsa Barrientos Jiménez DIRECTOR ADMINISTRATIVO Prof. Enrique Pérez Zevallos PROGRAMA DE LICENCIATURA PARA PROFESORES SIN TÍTULO PEDAGÓGICO EN LENGUA EXTRANJERA DIRECTORA Mg. María Emperatriz Escalante López COMITÉ DIRECTIVO Dra. Edith Reyes de Rojas Lic. Walter Gutiérrez Gutiérrez Didáctica del Inglés I María Emperatriz Escalante López Serie: Textos para el Programa de Licenciatura para Profesores sin Título Pedagógico en Lengua Extranjera Primera edición Lima, octubre de 2009 ©

Programa de Licenciatura para Profesores sin Título Pedagógico en Lengua Extranjera Facultad de Educación, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos Av. Germán Amézaga s/n. Lima 1, Ciudad Universitaria UNMSM - Pabellón Administrativo de la Facultad de Educación - 2.º piso, oficina 203 Teléfono: 619-7000 anexos 3021, 3022 / E-mail: prog_idiomas_edu@unmsm.edu.pe Website: www.unmsm.edu.pe/educacion/licenciatura/index.htm

Diseño, diagramación e impresión: Centro de Producción Editorial e Imprenta de la UNMSM. Local principal: Jr. Paruro 119, Lima 1. Telf: 619-7000 anexos 6009 / Fax: 1004, 6016 Ciudad Universitaria: Av. Germán Amézaga s/n (ex puerta N.º 3) Rotonda del Pabellón de Letras, tlf. 619-7000 anexo 6015 E-mail: ventas.cepredim@gmail.com/ Página web: www.cepredim.com Este libro es propiedad del Programa de Licenciatura para Profesores sin Título Pedagógico en Lengua Extranjera de la Facultad de Educación de la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos. Ninguna parte de este libro puede ser reproducida o utilizada por cualquier medio, sea éste electrónico, mecánico o cualquier otro medio inventado, sin permiso por escrito del Programa.

INDEX Introduction

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Part 1: History of language teaching Objectives

9

Getting started.

Douglas Brown

10

Theoretical approaches to explaining second language learning Patsy Lightbown and Nina Spada

21

Theories of teaching in language teaching Jack C. Richards

36

The nature of approaches and methods in language teaching Jack Richards and Theodore Rodgers

45

A “methodical” history of language teaching Douglas Brown

61

Part 2: Curriculum development Objectives

101

Curriculum development in second language teaching Jack Richards

102

Approaches to evaluation Jack Richards

133

Propósitos de la educación básica regular al 2021 Ministerio de Educación

155

The syllabus Penny Ur

170

Part 3: Lesson planning Objectives

177

What does a lesson involve?

Penny Ur

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Programa de Licenciatura para Profesores sin TĂ­tulo PedagĂłgico en Lengua Extranjera

Planning lessons Jeremy Harmer

185

Planning principles Jeremy Harmer

199

Evaluating lesson effectiveness Penny Ur

218

Part 4: Assessment and evaluation Objectives

223

Testing Jeremy Harmer

224

Classroom-based assessment Geoff Brindley

236

Types of test elicitation techniques Penny Ur

253

Classroom tests Adrian Doff

259

Bibliography

265

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Didáctica del inglés I

INTRODUCTION This book is aimed at teachers of English in preparation. It is intended to provide a comprehensive picture of the basic topics related to language teaching as a foreign or second language.

The book has been divided into four parts.

Part one deals with the theories of language teaching. It seeks to provide a comprehensive account of major and minor trends in language teaching methods from the beginning of the twentieth century to the present.

Part two presents an overview of curriculum development process in language teaching.

Part three focuses on the lesson itself: what it is, how it may be most effectively organized, prepared and evaluated.

Part four focuses on reasons for testing students, what good tests are, test types, principles of classroom assessment and evaluation and presents some classroom techniques and tasks.

The topics that are presented in this anthology have been carefully selected and organized to facilitate the learning of the students. We hope that teachers and students will find the collection a useful resource for the understanding of current approaches and practices in the teaching of English as a second or foreign language. Finally, I should like to thanks all those who have contributed in different ways to this book.

Mg. María Escalante López

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DidĂĄctica del inglĂŠs I

PART ONE

History of language teaching

Objectives 1. To understand some of the theories that have been proposed for second language acquisition.

2. To classify the relationship between approach and method 3. To review the history of language teaching methods.

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GETTING STARTED* Douglas Brown So you’ve decided to be a language teacher! Welcome to a profession that will guarantee you more than your fair share of challenges, growth, joy, and fulfillment. Challenges await you at every turn in your professional path because the discipline of language teaching has only begun to solve some of the perplexing questions about how people learn foreign languages successfully. Opportunities for growth abound because, for as long as you continue to teach, you will never run out of new questions, new possibilities, new ways of looking at your students, and new ways of looking at yourself. The joy of teaching lies in the vicarious pleasure of witnessing your students’ attainment of broader and broader vistas of linguistic proficiency and in experiencing the communal bond that you have been instrumental in creating in your classroom. And, ultimately, few professions can offer the fulfillment of knowing that your seemingly insignificant work really can make a difference in a world in need of communication that transcends national borders and interests.

At present, all those lofty ideals notwithstanding, you may be a little apprehensive about what sort of a teacher you are going to be: What will it be like to be in front of a classroom full of expectant ears and eyes, hanging on my every word and action, ready and waiting to pounce on me if I make a false move? How will I develop the composure and poise that I’ve seen modeled by “master” teachers? Will I be able to take the sea of theoretical Information about second language acquisition that I have studied and by some miracle transform it into practical classroom applications? How do I plan a lesson? What do I do if my lesson plan falls apart? Where do I begin?

Before you ask any more questions, which might at this stage overwhelm you, sit back for a moment and tell yourself that you can indeed become a teacher who will fully meet the challenges ahead and who will grow in professional expertise, thereby opening the doors of joy and fulfillment. This textbook is designed to help you take that developmental journey one step at a time.

The first step in that journey is to come with me into a language classroom and observe what happens. Take special note, as the lesson unfolds, of each choice that the teacher makes: choices about how to begin the lesson, which activity will come next, how long to continue an activity, whom to call on, whether to correct a student, and so on. Everything a teacher says and does in the classroom is the result of conscious or subconscious choices among many alternatives. Many of these choices are —or should be— the result of a careful consideration of a host of under-lying principles of second language learning and teaching. *

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Brown, Douglas (2001). Teaching by principles. Longman. New York.

Didáctica del inglés I

A classroom observation The classroom we are about to enter is in a private language school in a metropolitan area in the US. Inside the classroom, a course in English as a Second Language (ESL)1 is taking place. The fifteen students in the course are relatively new arrivals. They come from several different countries. One or two of them have already managed to find employment; most are still searching. This is a beginning level class; students came into the class with minimal survival English proficiency. They are literate in their native languages.

Their goal in the class is to be able to use English to survive in the country and to find some sort of employment. They are highly motivated to learn.

The course is a “whole language” course integrating the four skills of speaking, listening, reading, and writing. The textbook for the course is Vistas: An Interactive Course in English (Brown 1992). At this stage, ten weeks into the course, the students have made good progress. They are able to engage in simple social conversations, make numerous practical requests, and negotiate uncomplicated business transactions (shopping, travel, etc.) and other routine daily uses of English.

The lesson we are about to observe is reasonably well planned, efficiently executed, and characteristic of current communicative language-teaching methodology. It is not, however, necessarily “perfect” (are there ever any perfect lessons?), so what you are about to see may have a few elements that you or others could take issue with. Please remember this as you read on and, if you wish, take note of aspects of the lesson that you might question; then compare these notes with the comments following the lesson description.

1. Ms. Miller, the teacher (hereafter “T”), begins the 50-minute class hour with some small-talk with the students (hereafter “Ss”), commenting on the weather, one S’s previous evening’s shopping attempts, etc.

2. She then asks the Ss to keep their textbooks closed and directs them to the chalkboard, where she has already written the following:

1

ELS is used in this book in two ways: (a) as a generic acronym to refer to instruction of English to speakers of other languages in any country under any circumstance, and (b) to refer to English as a Second Language taught in countries (such as the US, the UK, or India) where English is a major language of commerce and education, a language that students often hear outside the walls of their classroom. Most instances of reference in this book to “ESL” are in the generic sense. EFL (English as a Foreign Language) always refers specifically to English taught in countries (such as Japan, Egypt, or Venezuela) where English is not a major language of commerce and education.

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How often do you _________ ?

How often does he/she ________ ?

How often do they _________ ? always = all of the time usually = generally; most of the time often = frequently; much of the time sometimes = at times; every now and then seldom = not often; rarely never = not ever; none of the time 3. T calls on individual Ss and asks them questions about their lives. For example: How often do you come to class, Alberto?

Yoko, how often does Sook Mi drive to class?

Katherine, how often do you cook dinner? etc.

4. Ss respond with a few prompts and selected corrections from the T. In two or three cases, Ss make errors (e.g.,” She usually drive to school”) which T chooses not to correct.

5. After a few minutes of this conversation, T directs them to the meanings of the six adverbs of frequency listed on the board, explaining one or two of them further.

6. Ss are then directed to work in pairs and make up their own questions using the three “how often” question models on the board, and to respond appropriately, in complete sentences, using one of the six frequency adverbs. Before splitting Ss into pairs, T models some of the questions and responses that they have just gone over. During the pair work, T circulates and listens in, offering an occasional comment here and there.

7. Following the pair work, Ss are told to open their textbooks to Unit 8, page 98. Here they see the following passage accompanied by a picture of a secretary typing a letter:

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Didáctica del inglés I

Keiko is a secretary. She enjoys her work, and she always works hard. She is always on time for work. In fact, she is often early. She is never late, and she is never sick.

Keiko usually types letters and answers the telephone. She sometimes files and makes copies. She seldom makes mistakes when she types or files. She always answers the phone politely.

Keiko is intelligent, and she has a good sense of humor. She is never angry. Everybody in the office likes Keiko.

8. T directs Ss to the picture of Keiko and asks questions to establish the context: •

Who do you see in the picture?

•

Where is she?

•

What's she doing?

•

What's Keiko's occupation?

9. Ss are then encouraged to ask each other questions about the picture. After some silence, two Ss venture to ask questions: “What’s this?” (pointing to the typewriter) and “How much money she makes?” (other Ss laugh). T quickly moves on.

10. T then calls Ss’ attention to some vocabulary items in the passage: enjoys, in fact, early, late, sick, makes copies, makes mistakes, politely, intelligent, sense of humor, angry. T calls on Ss to attempt definitions or synonyms for each word. A couple of words —politely and sense of humor— are difficult to define. T clarifies these.

11. T reads the passage aloud twice. Ss listen.

12. Next, she makes statements, some right and some wrong, about Keiko and asks individuals to volunteer their response by saying either “That’s right” or “That’s wrong.”

If the information is wrong, Ss are told to give the correct information. For example: •

T: Keiko's a lawyer.

•

S1: That's wrong. She's a secretary.

•

T: She enjoys her work.

•

S2: That's right.

13. T next directs Ss’ attention to the next page of the textbook, on which an exercise is found:

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Programa de Licenciatura para Profesores sin Título Pedagógico en Lengua Extranjera

EXERCISE Read the paragraphs on page 98 again. Then choose the appropriate adverb of frequency 1. Keiko works hard.

2. She is on time for work.

never

seldom sometimes often

usually always

3. She is late or sick.

4. She is early for work.

5. She types letters.

6. She files.

7. She makes copies.

8. She makes mistakes when she types.

9. She answers the phone politely.

10. She is angry.

1. Keiko always work hard.

2. She is always on time for work

Now say the complete sentences.

3. __________

7.

______________

4. __________

8.

______________

5. __________

9.

______________

6. __________

10.

______________

14. T calls on a S to read aloud the directions, followed by other Ss reading aloud the ten sentences about Keiko.

15. T calls on two other Ss to do items 1 and 2 aloud. A third S is asked to do item 3 aloud. With item 1, the S mispronounces the word work (S pronounces it /wak/).

T models the correct pronunciation and has the S make several attempts at a correct pronunciation. She then turns to the class and says, “Class, listen and repeat: work.” Ss’ initial cacophonous attempts to respond in unison improve by the third or fourth repetition.

16. T tells Ss to write the responses to items 3-10 in their books, which they do in silence for a few minutes.

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Didáctica del inglés I

17. Individual Ss are called on to read their answers aloud. Other Ss are asked to make any corrections or to ask questions.

18. For item 5, one S says: “She types usually letters.” T explains that with the verb be, the frequency adverb usually follows the verb, but in affirmative statements with other verbs, the frequency adverb usually precedes the verb. T writes examples on the board: Keiko is always on time.

Keiko always works hard.

19. In the next exercise, the textbook shows six little scenes with frames of possible statements about each scene. For example, items 4 and 5 look like this:

4. Pravit is a mechanic

5. Marco is a security guard.

He is ____lazy.

He is ____ busy.

He _____ wears dirty clothes.

He ____ sits down.

He _____ works in a garage.

He ___

He ______fixes cars.

He ____ works alone.

does dangerous work.

20. T asks Ss to define or explain certain vocabulary words that may be difficult: tired, garage, security guard, dangerous.

21. T tells Ss to work in the same pairs as before and to use their imagination as they fill in the blanks with different adverbs. Again T circulates and offers assistance here and there, but most pairs seem quite able to do the activity without help from T. 22. T calls on pairs to say their responses aloud and, in some cases, to explain why they chose a particular adverb. Ss who had different adverbs are asked to say their responses and explain. Ss display quite a bit of pleasure in noting differences in their responses and in carrying out little mock arguments to support their conclusions (for

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Programa de Licenciatura para Profesores sin Título Pedagógico en Lengua Extranjera

example: “Marco is seldom busy,” claims one S, while another S –who currently works part time as a night security guard– argues that he has many duties to perform).

23. T then skips the next several exercises in the textbook, which offer practice in the use of frequency adverbs in various contexts. One pair of activities depicts a waiter in a French restaurant who, in the first activity, “seldom does a good job,... is never polite to his customers,... sometimes drops food on his customers,” etc. In the second activity, however, the waiter’s boss is in the restaurant, so now the waiter “always speaks politely ... never drops food,” etc. (T later explains to us that because of time constraints –the school wants the book to be completed by the end of the session, two weeks hence– she isn’t able to cover every exercise in the textbook).

24. The next exercise of this class period shows eight different characters (see Exercise 7 on the following page), each with a different emotion. T asks Ss to look at the pictures, and then asks for volunteers to define the eight adjectives, using other words or gestures.

25. T explains that it’s common to ask questions like “Are you ever nervous?” and that the response usually contains a frequency adverb.

26. T then models several exchanges, asking Ss to repeat chorally: • T: Are you ever angry?

• Ss: Are you ever angry?

• T: Yes, I’m often angry.

• Ss: Yes, I’m often angry.

• T: Is Alberto ever nervous?

• Ss: Is Alberto ever nervous?

• T: No, he's seldom nervous.

• Ss: No, he's seldom nervous.

This choral drill continues for, at most, one minute.

27. T next has all the Ss leave their seats with a pad of paper and pencil in hand and “interview” at least five other people in the class to find out three things about each person (for example, whether they are ever “angry” or “lonely”) and to be prepared to

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Didáctica del inglés I

give a “report” of their findings afterward.

Exercise Find out about different people in your class.

A: Are you ever angry?

B: Yes. I’m often angry (No. I’m seldom angry.) nervous

28. While Ss are mingling and asking questions, T circulates and assists here and there with pronunciation, vocabulary, or grammar problems.

29. For the final activity, selected Ss (a few volunteers to begin with and a few that T calls on) give their findings. For example, S1 says, “Yoko is often tired. She is never angry. And she is sometimes nervous, especially in the English class!” Other Ss laugh sympathetically.

30. As the bell sounds, this activity is cut a bit short. T reminds Ss that for homework, as usual, they are to write up the Workbook exercises for Unit 8, Lesson 1. Ss scurry about to gather books and leave the classroom; one or two linger to ask the T some questions.

Beneath the lesson You have just observed a relatively effective class hour in which the teacher competently planned a lesson around a textbook, managed everything with no major problems, and carried out the activities with some warmth and enthusiasm. Easy, right? Well, maybe not. What you have just witnessed is the product of a teacher’s experience and intuition

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Programa de Licenciatura para Profesores sin Título Pedagógico en Lengua Extranjera

grounded in reasonably sound theoretical principles of learning and teaching. For every tiny moment of that classroom hour, certain choices were made, choices that can for the most part be justified by our collective knowledge of second language acquisition and teaching. Think about those choices as you contemplate the numerous pedagogical questions that arise out of each numbered “statement” that follows.

1. Why the small-talk (vs. just getting straight to the lesson)? What teaching principle justifies such an opening? How long should such chatter continue?

2. Why did T ask for closed textbooks? Isn’t the written word reinforcing? Of what advantage was the chalkboard material? Why did she write it on the board before class (instead of on the spot)?

3. What are the pros and cons of asking Ss “real” questions –about their own lives, not a fictitious textbook character– in the classroom, especially at this early stage in the lesson, before Ss have had any mechanical practice of the forms? What if a S who is called on can’t respond at all?

4. T made “selected” corrections. How did she select which errors to correct and which not to correct? Shouldn’t all errors be corrected?

5. Why weren’t these words explained earlier? What if some Ss didn’t know them? Or do they need explaining at all? What is the advantage of waiting until after some practice time to explain such words?

Notice, before you press on, that each question implies that a choice was exercised by the teacher. Among dozens of possibilities for teaching this lesson on frequency adverbs, Ms. Miller has chosen, either consciously or subconsciously, a particular set of activities, a particular order, and a particular tone for each. A relatively straightforward lesson is undergirded by a plethora of principles of learning and teaching. To further complicate matters, some of those principles are disputable. For example, the issue of when to offer a deductive explanation (5) and when to allow for inductive absorption of concepts is not always clearly dictated by the context.

6. Is this too soon for pair work? Before the pair work, why did T model questions and responses? Was that sufficient for all students, even those with lower than average proficiency? If some of the pairs are silent, what should T do? If only one person in a pair is talking, is that okay? If not, how can a T get both partners to talk? What if they talk to each other in their native language?

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Didáctica del inglés I

7. Why did T wait until now to “present” the paragraphs about Keiko?

8. What purpose do the questions accomplish? Isn’t it obvious who is in the picture and what she is doing?

9. Why did T encourage Ss’ questions? Why did she quickly move on to the next step?

10. Again. T chose a deductive mode of dealing with vocabulary. Why? What are the advantages of encouraging students to attempt definitions?

11. T reads the paragraphs, but why didn’t she have Ss repeat the sentences after her in a choral drill? Or have students read the passage?

12.What purpose did the right and wrong statements fulfill? Why did T ask Ss to volunteer here rather than calling on them?

13. Were Ss ready for this exercise?

14. What purpose did reading aloud serve? Why did T call on Ss rather than get volunteers?

Could this just as well have been a silent activity?

15. At this point, T chooses to focus on the pronunciation error. Why now, when some other errors have gone untreated?

16. Is it helpful to write down such responses? Why? 17. Why did T ask Ss to correct each other? Under what circumstances is this appropriate (vs. T directly correcting)?

18. This explanation could have been made at the beginning of the lesson. Why did T wait until now?

19. While this exercise is provided by the textbook, why did T choose to include it? What further practice did it offer Ss? 20. T asks Ss to define words again. Why not just give the definitions?

21. What is the advantage of pair work? Can a T control pair work even if classes are large (this class, of course, is not)?

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Programa de Licenciatura para Profesores sin Título Pedagógico en Lengua Extranjera

22. What research principles justify this sort of sharing and comparing? What affective and linguistic purposes did it serve?

23. Do Ss miss vital information when Ts choose to skip certain exercises?

24. Why volunteers here instead of calling on certain Ss? 25. Is this explanation appropriate? Is it sufficient?

26. What is the function of a choral drill? Shouldn’t this kind of drill come earlier in the class hour? Did it go on long enough? too long?

27. Why did T choose to do an activity that got everyone out of their seats? Were directions clear? Was the activity too chaotic? What if a S didn’t participate?

28. When should T circulate like this and when is it wiser not to do so, allowing Ss to be less inhibited? How much input should T give at this point?

29. What affective and linguistic purpose does this final activity serve?

30. What do you do if an activity is cut short by the end of a period? What is the value of homework for a class like this?

You have now skimmed through some (not all!) of the many questions that one could ask about why certain choices were made about how to teach this lesson. Some of the answers are forthright, with few counterarguments. Other answers would find even the best of teachers disagreeing. But the answers to all these questions can be found, in one form or another, in the huge stockpile of second language acquisition research and collective experience of language teachers around the world.

Your job, as you continue this journey, is to make the connections between research/ theory/principles, on the one hand, and classrooms/teaching/practice on the other. By making those connections as you learn to teach, you will perhaps avoid some of the pitfalls of haphazard guesswork and instead engage in teaching that is enlightened by research and theory, that is, teaching by principles.

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Didáctica del inglés I

THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO EXPLAINING SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING* Patsy Lightbown and Nina Spada In this chapter we look at some of the theories that have been proposed to account for second language acquisition (SLA). In many ways, theories which have been developed for SLA are closely related to those discussed for first language acquisition. That is, some theories give primary importance to learners’ innate characteristics; some emphasize the essential role of the environment in shaping language learning; still others seek to integrate learner characteristics and environmental factors in an explanation for how second language acquisition takes place.

It is clear that a child or adult learning a second language is different from a child acquiring a first language in terms of both personal characteristics and conditions for learning.

Questions to consider include: 1. Does the learner already know a language?

2. Is the learner cognitively nature, that is, is he or she able to engage in problem solving, deduction, and complex memory tasks?

3. How well developed is the learners metalinguistic awareness? That is, can the learner treat language as an object —for example, define a word, say what sounds make up that word, or state a rule such as ‘add an -s to form the plural’?

4. How extensive is the learner’s general knowledge of the world? This kind of knowledge makes it easier to understand language because one can sometimes make good guesses about what the interlocutor is probably saying even when the language carrying the message is new.

5. Is the learner nervous about making mistakes and sounding silly when speaking the language?

6. Does the learning environment allow the learner to be silent in the early stages of learning, or is he or she expected to speak from the beginning?

7. Is there plenty of time available for language learning to take place, plenty of contact with proficient speakers of the language?

*

Lightbown, Patsy and Spada, Nina (1999). How languages are learned. Oxford University Press. New York.

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8. Does the learner receive corrective feedback when he or she makes errors in grammar or pronunciation, or does the listener overlook these errors and pay attention to the message?

9. Does the learner receive corrective feedback when he or she uses the wrong word, or does the listener usually try to guess the intended meaning?

10. Is the learner exposed to language which is modified, in terms of speed of delivery, complexity of grammatical structure, and vocabulary, so that it matches the learner’s ability to comprehend and interact?

ACTIVITY Learner profiles The table helps to illustrate possible answers to these questions with respect to the profiles of four language learners: -

a child learning its first language (L1) a child learning a second language (L2) informally an adolescent learning a second language in a formal language learning setting an adult learning a second language informally (in the workplace or among friends).

Fill in the chart, giving your opinion about the presence or absence of the characteristics or conditions referred to in the questions above. Use the following notation: + = a characteristic which is usually present — = a characteristic which is usually absent ? = where the characteristic or condition is sometimes present, sometimes absent, or where you are not sure.

The discussion below summarizes our views about the profiles of these four language learners in terms of their characteristics and the conditions in which their learning takes place.

Learner characteristics All second language learners, regardless of age, have by definition already acquired at least one language. This prior knowledge may be an advantage in the sense that the learner has an idea of how languages work. On the other hand, as we shall see, knowledge of other languages can also lead learners to make incorrect guesses about how the second language works and this may cause errors which a first language learner would not make.

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Didáctica del inglés I

Young language learners begin the task of language learning without the benefit of some of the skills and knowledge which adolescent and adult learners have. The first language learner does not have the same cognitive maturity, metalinguistic awareness or world knowledge as older second language learners. Although young second language learners have begun to develop cognitive maturity and metalinguistic awareness, they will still have far to go in these areas, as well as in the area of world knowledge, before they reach the levels already attained by adults and adolescents.

(L1) Learner characteristics

Child

(L2) Child Adolescent (informal) (formal)

Adult (informal)

1. knowledge of another language 2. cognitive maturity 3. metalinguistic awareness 4. Knowledge of the world 5. Nervousness about speaking Learning conditions 6. Freedom to be silent 7. Ample time 8. Corrective feedback: grammar and pronunciation 9. Corrective feedback: word choice 10. Modified input Photocopiable © Oxford University Press

Most child learners do not feel nervous about attempting to use the language— even when their proficiency is quite limited, but adults and adolescents often find it very stressful when they are unable to express themselves clearly and correctly. Nevertheless, even very young (pre-school) children differ in their nervousness when faced with speaking a language they do not know well. Some children happily chatter away in their new language; others prefer to listen and participate silently in social interaction with their peers. Fortunately for these children, the learning environment rarely puts pressure on them to speak when they are not ready.

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Learning conditions Younger learners, in an informal second language learning environment, are usually allowed to be silent until they are ready to speak. Older learners are often forced to speak –to meet the requirements of a classroom or to carry out everyday tasks such as shopping, medical visits, or job interviews. Young children in informal settings are usually exposed to the second language for many hours every day. Older learners, especially students in language classrooms, are more likely to receive only limited exposure to the second language.

One condition which appears to be common to learners of all ages –though perhaps not in equal quantities– is access to modified input. This adjusted speech style, which is called child-directed speech for first languages, is sometimes called foreigner talk or teacher talk for second languages. Many people who interact regularly with language learners seem to have an intuitive sense of what adjustments are needed to help learners understand.

Of course, some people are better at this than others. We have all witnessed those painful conversations in which insensitive people seem to think that they can make learners understand better if they simply talk louder! Some Canadian friends recently told us of an experience they had in China. They were visiting some historic temples and wanted to get more information about them than they could glean from their guidebook. They asked their guide some questions about the monuments. Unfortunately, their limited Chinese and his non-existent English made it difficult for them to exchange information. The guide kept speaking louder and louder, but our friends understood very little. Finally, in frustration, the guide concluded that it would help if these hopeless foreigners could see the information –so he took a stick and began writing in the sand –in Chinese characters!

Error correction in first language acquisition tends to be limited to corrections of meaning –including errors in vocabulary choice. In informal second language acquisition, errors which do not interfere with meaning are usually overlooked. Most people would feel

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Didáctica del inglés I

they were being impolite if they interrupted and corrected someone who was trying to have a conversation with them! Nevertheless, they may react to an error if they cannot understand what the speaker is trying to say. Thus, errors of grammar and pronunciation are rarely remarked on, but the wrong word choice may receive comment from a puzzled interlocutor. The only place where feedback on error is typically present with high frequency is the language classroom. As we shall see, however, it is not present in all classrooms.

Summary A general theory of SLA needs to account for language acquisition by learners with a variety of characteristics, learning in a variety of contexts. The emphasis in this chapter is on the theories which have been proposed to explain the learning mechanisms which are common to all second language learners.

BEHAVIOURISM In this section, we will discuss the impact of behaviourism on our understanding of second language learning. Later in this chapter, we will discuss some more recent theories based on cognitive psychology.

Behaviourists account for learning in terms of imitation, practice, reinforcement (or feedback on success), and habit formation. According to the behaviourists, all learning, whether verbal or non-verbal, takes place through the same underlying processes.

Learners receive linguistic input from speakers in their environment and they form ‘associations’ between words and objects or events. These associations become stronger as experiences are repeated. Learners receive encouragement for their correct imitations, and corrective feedback on their errors. Because language development is viewed as the formation of habits, it is assumed that a person learning a second language starts off with the habits formed in the first language and that these habits interfere with the new ones needed for the second language (Lado 1964).

Behaviourism was often linked to the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) which was developed by structural linguists in Europe and North America. The CAH predicts that where there are similarities between the first language and the target language, the learner will acquire target-language structures with ease; where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty.

There is little doubt that a learner’s first language influences the acquisition of a second language. However, researchers have found that not all errors predicted by the CAH are actually made. Furthermore, many of the errors which learners do make are not predictable on the basis of the CAH. For example, adult beginners use simple structures in the target language just as children do: ‘No understand,’ or ‘Yesterday I meet my teacher.’

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Such sentences look more like a child’s first language sentences than like translations from another language. Indeed, many of the sentences produced by second language learners in the early stages of development would be quite ungrammatical in their first language. What is more, some characteristics of these simple structures are very similar across learners from a variety of backgrounds, even if the structures of their respective first languages are different from each other and different from the target language.

We will see that learners are reluctant to transfer certain features of their first language to the second language, even when the translation equivalent would be correct. All this suggests that the influence of the learners first language may not simply be a matter of the transfer of habits, but a more subtle and complex process of identifying points of similarity, weighing the evidence in support of some particular feature, and even reflecting (though not necessarily consciously) about whether a certain feature seems to ‘belong’ in the structure of the target language.

For second language acquisition, as for first language acquisition, the behaviourist account has proven to be at best an incomplete explanation for language learning. Psychologists have proposed new, more complex theories of learning. Some of these are discussed later.

INNATISM Universal Grammar Chomsky’s theory of language acquisition is based on the hypothesis that innate knowledge of the principles of Universal Grammar (UG) permits all children to acquire the language of their environment, during a critical period in their development. Chomsky has not made specific claims about the implications of his theory for second language learning. Nevertheless, some linguists working within this theory have argued that Universal Grammar offers the best perspective from which to understand second language acquisition (SLA). Others argue that, although it is a good framework for understanding first language acquisition, UG is no longer available to guide the acquisition of a second language in learners who have passed the critical period for language acquisition. In their view, this means that second language acquisition has to be explained by some other theory, perhaps one of the more recent psychological theories described below.

Even those who believe that UG has an important explanatory role in SLA do not all agree on how UG works in second language development. Some argue that, even if second language learners begin learning the second language after the end of the critical period and even if many fail to achieve complete mastery of the target language, there is still a logical problem of (second) language acquisition: learners eventually know more about the language than they could reasonably have learned if they had to depend entirely on the input they are exposed to. They infer from this that UG must be available to second

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language learners as well as to first language learners. Some of the theorists who hold this view claim that the nature and availability of UG in SLA is no different from that which is hypothesized to guide first language learners. Others argue that UG may be present and available to second language learners, but that its exact nature has been altered by the acquisition of other languages.

Researchers working within the UG framework also differ in their hypotheses about how formal instruction or error correction will affect the learners knowledge of the second language. Some argue that, like young children, adult second language learners neither need nor benefit from error correction and metalinguistic information. They conclude that these things change only the superficial appearance of language performance and do not really affect the underlying systematic knowledge of the new language (Schwartz 1993 and see the discussion of Krashen’s theory, on pages 38-40). Other UG linguists, especially those who think that UG has been affected by the prior acquisition of the first language, suggest that second language learners may need to be given some explicit information about what is not grammatical in the second language. Otherwise, they may assume that some structures of the first language have equivalents in the second language when, in fact, they do not.

Researchers who study SLA from the UG perspective are usually interested in the language competence (knowledge) of advanced learners rather than in the simple language of early stage learners. They argue that, while a variety of different theories might be sufficient to explain some early language performance (use), a theory such as UG is necessary to explain learners’ knowledge of complex syntax. They are interested in whether the competence which underlies the language performance of second language learners resembles the competence which underlies the language performance of native speakers.

Thus their investigations often involve comparing the judgements of grammaticality made by the two groups, rather than observations of actual speaking. In doing this, they hope to gain insight into what learners actually know about the language, using a task which avoids at least some of the many things which affect the way we ordinarily use language.

Krashen’s ‘monitor model’ An innatist theory of second language acquisition which has had a very great influence on second language teaching practice is the one proposed by Stephen Krashen (1982). Five ‘hypotheses’ constitute what Krashen originally called the ‘monitor model’.

He claims that research findings from a number of different domains are consistent with these hypotheses: (1) the acquisition-learning hypothesis; (2) the monitor hypothesis; (3) the natural order hypothesis; (4) the input hypothesis; and (5) the affective filter hypothesis.

1. The acquisition-learning hypothesis

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According to Krashen, there are two ways for adult second language learners to develop knowledge of a second language: ‘acquisition’ and ‘learning’. In his view, we acquire as we are exposed to samples of the second language which we understand.

This happens in much the same way that children pick up their first language—with no conscious attention to language form. We learn, on the other hand, via a conscious process of study and attention to form and rule learning.

For Krashen, acquisition is by far the more important process. He asserts that only acquired language is readily available for natural, fluent communication. Further, he asserts that learning cannot turn into acquisition. He cites as evidence for this that many speakers are quite fluent without ever having learned rules, while other speakers may ‘know’ rules but fail to apply them when they are focusing their attention on what they want to say more than on how they are saying it.

2. The monitor hypothesis Krashen argues that the acquired system acts to initiate the speaker’s utterances and is responsible for fluency and intuitive judgements about correctness. The learned system, on the other hand, acts only as an editor or ‘monitor’, making minor changes and polishing what the acquired system has produced. Moreover, Krashen has specified that learners use the monitor only when they are focused more on being ‘correct’ than on what they have to say, when they have sufficient time to search their memory for the relevant rules, and when they actually know those rules! Thus, writing may be more conducive than speaking to monitor use, because it usually allows more time for attention to form. He maintains that since knowing the rules only helps the speaker supplement what has been acquired, the focus of language teaching should be on creating conditions for ‘acquisition rather than ‘learning’.

It is very difficult to show evidence of ‘monitor’ use. In any given utterance, it is impossible to determine what has been produced by the acquired system and what is the result of monitor use. Krashen’s claim that language which is produced quickly and apparently spontaneously must have been acquired rather than learned leaves us with a somewhat circular definition.

3. The natural order hypothesis Krashen based this hypothesis on the observation that, like first language learners, second language learners seen to acquire the features of the target language in predictable sequences. Contrary to intuition, the rules which are easiest to state (and thus to ‘learn’) are not necessarily the first to be acquired. For example, the rule for adding an -s to third person singular verbs in the present tense is easy to state, but even some advanced second language speakers fail to apply it in rapid conversation.

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Further, Krashen observes that the natural order is independent of the order in which rules have been learned in language classes. Most of Krashen’s original evidence for this hypothesis came from the ‘morpheme studies’, in which learners’ speech was examined for the accuracy of certain grammatical morphemes. While there have been many criticisms of the morpheme studies, subsequent research has confirmed that learners pass through sequences or stages in development.

4. The input hypothesis Krashen asserts that one acquires language in only one way –by exposure to comprehensible input. If the input contains forms and structures just beyond the learner’s current level of competence in the language (what Krashen calls ‘i + 1’), then both comprehension and acquisition will occur.

Krashen cites many varied lines of evidence for this hypothesis, most of which appeal to intuition, but which have not been substantiated by empirical studies. In recent years, he has emphasized the value of undirected pleasure reading as a source of comprehensible input. While he acknowledges that some people who are exposed to extensive comprehensible input do not achieve high levels of proficiency in the second language, he retains his conviction that input is the source of acquisition.

He points to the affective filter hypothesis to explain lack of success when comprehensible input is available.

5. The affective filter hypothesis The ‘affective filter’ is an imaginary barrier which prevents learners from acquiring language from the available input. ‘Affect’ refers to such things as motives, needs, attitudes, and emotional states. A learner who is tense, angry, anxious, or bored may ‘filter out’ input, making it unavailable for acquisition. Thus, depending on the learner’s state of mind or disposition, the filter limits what is noticed and what is acquired. The filter will be ‘up’ (blocking input) when the learner is stressed, self-conscious, or unmotivated. It will be ‘down’ when the learner is relaxed and motivated.

What makes this hypothesis attractive to practitioners is that it appears to have immediate implications for classroom practice. Teachers can understand why some learners, given the same opportunity to learn, may be successful while others are not. It also appeals intuitively to those who have tried unsuccessfully to learn a language in conditions where they felt stressed or uncomfortable. One problem with the hypothesis, however, is that it is difficult to be sure that affective factors cause the differences in language acquisition. It seems likely that success in acquisition may in itself contribute to more positive motivation or, in Krashen’s terms, to a ‘lowered affective filter’.

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Krashen’s writing has been very influential in supporting communicative language teaching (CLT), particularly in North America. On the other hand, the theory has also been seriously criticized for failing to propose hypotheses which can be tested by empirical research. Most teachers and researchers see much which is intuitively appealing in his views. There is little doubt that communicative language teaching, with its primary focus on using language for meaningful interaction and for accomplishing tasks, rather than on learning rules, has won support from many teachers and learners.

RECENT PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES Information processing Cognitive psychologists working in an information processing model of human learning and performance tend to see second language acquisition as the building up of knowledge systems that can eventually be called on automatically for speaking and understanding. At first, learners have to pay attention to any aspect of the language which they are trying to understand or produce. It is assumed that there is a limit to the amount of information a human can pay attention to at one time. Thus, for example, a learner at the earliest stages of second language learning will probably pay attention to the main words in a message and not be able to also notice the grammatical morphemes which are attached to some of those words. Gradually, through experience and practice, learners become able to use certain parts of their knowledge so quickly and automatically that they are not even aware that they are doing it. This frees them to focus on other

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aspects of the language which, in turn, gradually become automatic (McLaughlin 1987).

The performance which will eventually become automatic may originate from intentional learning, for example in formal study, but this is not always the case. Anything which uses up our mental ‘processing space’, even if we are not aware of it or attending to it ‘on purpose’, is a possible source for information or skills which can eventually be available automatically, if there has been enough practice. Note that, in this context, ‘practice’ is not seen as something mechanical, but as something which involves effort on the part of the learner.

One theorist who has emphasized the role of ‘noticing’ in second language acquisition is Richard Schmidt. He argues that everything we come to know about the language was first ‘noticed’ consciously. This contrasts sharply with Krashen’s views, of course.

Schmidt, like the cognitive psychologists, does not assume that there is a difference between acquisition and learning (Schmidt 1990).

In addition to the development of automaticity through practice, some psychologists suggest that there are changes in skill and knowledge which are due to ‘restructuring’. This notion is needed to account for the observation that sometimes things which we know and use automatically may not be explainable in terms of a gradual build-up of automaticity through practice. They seem rather to be based on the interaction of knowledge we already have, or on the acquisition of new knowledge which –without extensive practice– somehow fits into an existing system and causes it to be transformed or ‘restructured’.

This may lead to what appear to be sudden bursts of progress for the learner, but it can also sometimes lead to apparent backsliding when a systematic aspect of learner language incorporates too much or incorporates the wrong things. For example, when a learner finally masters the use of the regular -ed ending to show past tense, irregular verbs, which had previously been ‘practised’ correctly, may be affected. Thus, after months of saying ‘I saw a film’, the learner may say ‘I seed’ or even ‘I sawed’, overapplying the general rule.

Connectionism As seen in the discussion of first language acquisition, connectionists, unlike innatists, see no need to hypothesize the existence of a neurological module which is designed for language acquisition alone. Like most cognitive psychologists, connectionists attribute greater importance to the role of the environment than to any innate knowledge in the learner, arguing that what is innate is simply the ability to learn, not any specifically linguistic structure.

Connectionists argue that learners gradually build up their knowledge of language through exposure to thousands of instances of the linguistic features they eventually learn. Thus, while innatists see the language input in the environment mainly as a ‘trigger’ to activate innate knowledge, connectionists see the input as the principal source of

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linguistic knowledge. After hearing language features in specific situational or linguistic contexts over and over again, learners develop stronger and stronger mental or neurological ‘connections’ between these elements. Eventually, the presence of one situational or linguistic element will activate the other(s) in the learner’s mind. These connections may be very strong because the elements have occurred together very frequently or they may be relatively weaker because there have been fewer opportunities to experience them together. For example, learners might get the subject—verb agreement correct, not because they know a rule but because they have heard examples such as ‘I say’ and ‘he says’ so often that each subject pronoun activates the correct verb form.

Connectionist research has shown that a learning mechanism, simulated by a computer program, can not only ‘learn’ what it hears but can also generalize, even to the point of making overgeneralization errors. These studies have so far dealt almost exclusively with the acquisition of vocabulary and grammatical morphemes, that is, aspects of the language which even innatists will grant may be acquired largely through memorization and simple generalization. How this model of cumulative learning can lead to knowledge of complex syntactic structures is a question which is currently under investigation.

The interactionist position Some interactionist theorists, while influenced by psychological learning theories, have developed their ideas mainly within SLA research itself. Evelyn Hatch (1992), Teresa Pica (1994) and Michael Long (1983), among others, have argued that much second language acquisition takes place through conversational interaction. This is similar to the first language theory that gives great importance to child-directed speech. Michael Long’s views are based on his observation of interactions between learners and native speakers. He agrees with Krashen that comprehensible input is necessary for language acquisition.

However, he is more concerned with the question of how input is made comprehensible.

He sees modified interaction as the necessary mechanism for this to take place (Long 1983). In his view, what learners need is not necessarily simplification of the linguistic forms but rather an opportunity to interact with other speakers, in ways which lead them to adapt what they are saying until the learner shows signs of understanding. According to Long, there are no cases of beginning-level learners acquiring a second language from native-speaker talk which has not been modified in some way. In fact, he says, research shows that native speakers consistently modify their speech in sustained conversation with non-native speakers.

Long infers that modified interaction must be necessary for language acquisition. This relationship has been summarized as follows: 1. Interactional modification makes input comprehensible; 2. Comprehensible input promotes acquisition.

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Therefore, 3. Interactional modification promotes acquisition.

Modified interaction does not always involve linguistic simplification. It may also include elaboration, slower speech rate, gesture, or the provision of additional contextual cues.

Some examples of these conversational modifications are: 1. Comprehension checks –efforts by the native speaker to ensure that the learner has understood (for example, ‘The bus leaves at 6:30.Do you understand?’)

2. Clarification requests—efforts by the learner to get the native speaker to clarify something which has not been understood (for example, ‘Could you repeat please?’)These requests from the learner lead to further modifications by the native speaker.

3. Self-repetition or paraphrase—the native speaker repeats his or her sentence either partially or in its entirety (for example, ‘She got lost on her way home from school. She was walking home from school. She got lost.’).

Research has demonstrated that conversational adjustments can aid comprehension.

There is evidence that modification which takes place during interaction leads to better understanding than linguistic simplification or modification which is planned in advance.

While some recent research has shown that specific kinds of interaction behaviours aid learning in terms of immediate production, more research is needed on how access to modified interaction affects second language acquisition in the long term.

Another perspective on the role of interaction in second language acquisition is Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of human mental processing. Vygotsky’s theory assumes that all cognitive development, including language development, arises as a result of social interactions between individuals. Extending Vygotskyan theory to second language acquisition, Jim Lantolf and others claim that second language learners advance to higher levels of linguistic knowledge when they collaborate and interact with speakers of the second language who are more knowledgeable than they are, for example, a teacher or a more advanced learner. Critical to Vygotsky’s theory is the notion of the zone of proximal development, the level of performance which a learner is capable of when there is support from interaction with a more advanced interlocutor. This may be observed in a variety of speech strategies used by more advanced speakers to create supportive conditions for the second language learner to comprehend and produce language (for example, repetition, simplification, modelling). One example of this is the conversation below, reported by Richard Donato, who investigated how adult learners of French were able to co-construct language learning experiences in a classroom setting.

Speaker 1 ... and then I’11 say ... tu as souvenu notre anniversaire de mariage... or should I say mon anniversairet

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Speaker 2 Speaker 3 Speaker 1 Speaker 3 Speaker 1 Speaker 2 Speaker 1 Speaker 3 Speaker 1 Speaker 3 Speaker 1

Tu as. . .

Tu as.. .

Tu as souvenu... ‘You remembered?’

Yea, but isn’t that reflexive? Tu t’as...

Ah, tu t’as souvenu.

Oh, it’s tu es Tu es Tu es, tu es, tu...

Tes, tu t’es Tu t’es Tu t’es souvenu

(Donato 1994: 44)

According to Vygotskyan theorists, the difference between this perspective and that of other researchers who also view interaction as important in second language acquisition is that sociocultural theorists assume that language acquisition actually takes place in the interactions of learner and interlocutor, whereas other interactionist models assume that input modification provides learners with the linguistic raw material which they will process internally and invisibly.

Summary In the end, what all theories of language acquisition are meant to account for is the working of the human mind. All of the theories discussed in this chapter use metaphors to present this invisible reality. Both linguists and psychologists draw some of their evidence from neurological research. However, in light of the present state of technology as well as research ethics, most of the research must be based on other kinds of evidence.

Many claims from behaviourist theory were based on experiments with animals learning a variety of responses to laboratory stimuli. Their applicability to the natural learning of languages by humans was strongly challenged by psychologists and linguists alike, primarily because of the inadequacy of behaviourist models to account for the complexity involved in language learning.

Information processing and connectionist research often involves computer simulations or very controlled laboratory experiments where people learn a specific set of carefully chosen linguistic features, often in an invented language. Many linguists argue that this does not entitle connectionists to generalize to the complexities of normal human language learning.

In contrast, the innatists draw much of their evidence from studies of the complexities of

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the proficient speaker’s language knowledge and performance and from analysis of their own intuitions about language. Critics of this view argue that it is not enough to know what the final state of knowledge is and that more attention should be paid to the developmental steps leading up to this level of mastery.

Interactionists emphasize the role of the modification of interaction in conversations. This helps us understand some of the ways in which learners can gain access to new knowledge about the language when they have support from an interlocutor. However, critics of the interactionist position argue that there is much which learners need to know which is not available in the input, and so the put greater emphasis on innate principles of language which learners can draw on.

Researches and educators who are hoping for language acquisitions theories which give them insight into language teaching practice are often frustrated by the lack of agreement among the `experts´. But the complexities of SLA, like those of first language acquisition, represent a puzzle for linguistic, psychological, and neurological scientists which will not soon be solved. Research which has theory development as its goal has very important long-term significance for language teaching and learning, but agreement on a `complete´ theory of language acquisition is probably, at best, a long way off. Even if such agreement were reached, there would still be questions about how theory should be interpreted for language teaching. Many teachers watch theory development with interest, but must continue to teach and plan lessons and assess students’ performance in the absence of a comprehensive theory of second language learning.

There is a growing body of ‘applied’ research being carried out within these different theoretical frameworks, as well as others. This often starts from observations of second language acquisition, in both ‘natural’ or ‘instructional’ settings. The research draws on a wide range of theoretical orientations, sometimes explicitly stated, sometimes merely implied. It may provide a more immediately accessible basis for teachers’ reflections about teaching.

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THEORIES OF TEACHING IN LANGUAGE TEACHING* Jack C. Richards INTRODUCTION The field of TESOL is shaped in substantial ways by how the nature of language teaching is conceptualized. As with teaching in general, language teaching can be conceived in many different ways –for example, as a science, a technology, a craft, or an art. Different views of language teaching lead to different views as to what the essential skills of teaching are, and to different approaches to the preparation of teachers. The purpose of this paper is to examine conceptualizations of teaching which are found in TESOL and to consider the implications of different views of teaching for second language teacher education.

In an important paper on the relationship between theories of teaching and teaching skills, Zahorik (1986) classifies conceptions of teaching into three main categories: science-research conceptions, theory-philosophy conceptions, and art-craft conceptions. I will take this classification as my starting point, illustrating it with examples from the field of language teaching. I will then examine how each conception of teaching leads to differences in our understanding of what the essential skills of teaching are.

SCIENCE-RESEARCH CONCEPTIONS Science-research conceptions of language teaching are derived from research and are sup-ported by experimention and empirical investigation. Zahorik includes operationalizing learning principles, following a tested model, and doing what effective teachers do, as examples of science-research conceptions.

OPERATIONALIZING LEARNING PRINCIPLES This approach involves developing teaching principles from research on memory, transfer, motivation, and other factors believed to be important in learning. Mastery learning and programmed learning are examples of science-research conceptions of teaching in general education. In TESOL, Audiolingualism, Task-Based Language Teaching, and Learner Training represent applications of learning research to language teaching.

Audiolingualism was derived from research on learning associated with behavioral psychology. Laboratory studies had shown that learning could be successfully manipulated *

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if three elements were identified a stimulus, which serves to elicit behavior; a response, triggered by a stimulus; and reinforcement, which serves to mark the response as being appropriate (or inappropriate) and encourages the repetition (or suppression) of the response in the future. Translated into a teaching method this led to the Audiolingual Method, in which language learning was seen as a process of habit formation and in which target-language patterns were presented for memorization and learning through dialogs and drills.

A more recent example of attempts to develop a teaching methodology from learning research is referred to as Task-Based Language Teaching. Proponents of Task-Based Language Teaching point out that second language acquisition research shows that successful language learning involves learners in negotiation of meaning. In the process of negotiating with a speaker of the target language, the learner receives the kind of input needed to facilitate learning. It is proposed that classroom tasks which involve negotiation of meaning should form the basis of the language teaching curriculum, and that tasks can be used to facilitate practice of both of language forms and communicative functions.

Research is intended to enable designers to know what kinds of tasks can best facilitate acquisition of specific target-language structures and functions. Prahbu (1983) initiated a large-scale application of this approach in schools in India, developing a syllabus and associated teaching materials around three major types of tasks: information-gap tasks, opinion-gap tasks, and reasoning-gap tasks.

Learner Training is an approach which draws on research on the cognitive styles and learning strategies used by learners in carrying out different classroom learning tasks. This research may involve observing learners, asking them to introspect about their learning strategies, or probing learners in other ways. Once successful learning strategies are identified, these can be taught to other learners. This is referred to as Learner Training.

FOLLOWING A TESTED MODEL OF TEACHING This approach involves applying the results of empirical or experimental research to teaching. In this approach, “a view of good teaching is developed through logical reasoning and previous research; good teaching is defined in terms of specific acts” (Zahorik, 1986, p. 21). An example of research of this kind which has been used to develop theories of good teaching across both regular and ESL classrooms is research on teachers’ question patterns and wait time. Long (1984) argued that research had established the contribution of these to the quality of classroom interaction in second language classrooms. In applying this research to teacher preparation, a simple training model was developed in which teachers were taught the differences between display questions (those for which answers are known in advance) and referential questions (those for which answers are not known) and the advantages of providing longer wait-time after questions. Teachers’ question use and wait time before and after training were measured, and “it was found that the training

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modules affected teaching behaviors, and that the new behaviors affected student participation patterns in ways believed to be significant for these students’ language acquisition” (Long, 1984, p. vi).

With approaches of this kind, if the specific teaching behaviors such as question patterns and wait time are effective in bringing about second language acquisition, a conception of good teaching will have been identified and validated.

DOING WHAT EFFECTIVE TEACHERS DO Another approach to developing a theory of teaching is to derive teaching principles from studies of the practices of effective teachers. This involves identifying effective teachers and then studying their teaching practices. Effective teachers are typically defined as those whose students perform better on standardized achievement tests.

In a study of effective teachers in bilingual education programs in California and Hawaii, for example, Tikunoff (1985) observed teachers to find out how they organize instruction, structure teaching activities, and enhance student performance on tasks. Teachers were interviewed to determine their instructional philosophies and goals, and the demands they structured into class tasks. An analysis of the classroom data revealed that there was a clear linkage between the following: 1. teachers’ ability to clearly specify the intent of instruction, and a belief that students could achieve accuracy in instructional tasks 2. the organization and delivery of instruction such that tasks and institutional demands reflected this intent, requiring intended student responses 3. the fidelity of student consequences with intended outcomes In a summary of research of this kind (Blum, 1984, p. 3-6), twelve characteristics of effective teaching were identified: 1. Instruction is guided by a preplanned curriculum.

2. There are high expectations for student learning.

3. Students are carefully oriented to lessons.

4. Instruction is clear and focused.

5. Learning progress is monitored closely.

6. When students do not understand, they are retaught.

7. Class time is used for learning.

8. There are smooth and efficient classroom routines.

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9. Instructional groups formed in the classroom fit instructional needs.

10. Standards for classroom behavior are high.

11. Personal interactions between teachers and students are positive.

12. Incentives and rewards for students are used to promote excellence.

Advocates of effective teaching use findings of this kind as guidelines to train teachers.

An approach to teaching which reflects these principles has been labeled Direct Instruction or Active Teaching.

THEORY-PHILOSOPHY CONCEPTIONS The next approach to theories of teaching Zahorik terms “theory-philosophy conceptions.”

“Their truth is not based on a posteriori conditions or on what works. Rather, their truth is based on what ought to work or what is morally right” (Zahorik, 1986, p. 22). Teaching conceptions which are derived from what ought to work are essentially theory-based or rationalist in approach, whereas those which are derived from beliefs about what is viewed as morally right are values-based approaches.

THEORY–BASED APPROACHES The conceptions underlying many teaching methods or proposals can be characterized as theory-based or rationalist in approach. This suggests that the theory underlying the method is ascertained through the use of reason or rational thought. Systematic and principled thinking, rather than empirical investigation, is used to support the method.

These conceptions of teaching tend not to draw support from classroom results as such (e.g., by showing pre- and post-test gains resulting from the use of a method), but defend themselves through logical argumentation.

Examples of theory-based or rationalist approaches in TESOL are Communicative Language Teaching and the Silent Way. Each of these is based on a set of carefully elaborated assumptions.

Communicative Language Teaching, for example, arose as a reaction to grammar-based approaches to teaching realized in teaching materials, syllabuses, and teaching methods in the 1960s. The proponents of Communicative Language Teaching established it through convincing critiques of the inadequacy of the linguistic and pedagogical theory underlying grammar-based approaches. It was often described as a “principled approach.” Communicative Language Teaching was an attempt to operationalize the concept of Communicative competence and to apply it across all levels of language program design, from theory, to syllabus design, to teaching techniques. Its proponents, however, never felt compelled to produce any evidence to demonstrate that learning was more

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successful if “communicative” teaching methods and materials were adopted; the theory itself was considered sufficient to justify the approach.

A method such as the Silent Way, on the other hand, is derived not so much from a linguistic theory as from a learning theory. It is based on a set of claims and beliefs as to how learning takes place in adults. The classroom procedures which are distinctive to the method attempt to draw on the learning principles espoused by Gattegno (1982, p. 203), who attests: there are no really difficult forms which cannot be illustrated through the proper situation involving rods and actions on them about which one makes statements by introducing specific words whose associated meaning is obvious. What teachers must do is to arrange for practice so that students’ minds are triggered to use these new words spontaneously.

Gattegno takes the theory underlying the Silent Way as self-evident; neither the theory nor the method has been subject to any form of empirical verification.

Values–Based Approaches A different approach to a theory of teaching is to develop a teaching model from the values one holds about teachers, learners, classrooms, and the role of education in society.

Certain ways of going about teaching and learning are then seen to be educationally justifiable and should therefore form the basis of teaching practice. In some situations, this leads to certain approaches to teaching being viewed as politically justifiable (and therefore good) and others seen as not morally, ethically, or politically supportable (and therefore bad).

Values-based approaches in education are not hard to identify. For example, advocates of “literature in the language curriculum,” “school-based curriculum development,” or “the teacher as action researcher” essentially appeal to educational or social value systems in justifying their proposals.

Other examples of values-based approaches in language teaching include “team teaching,” “humanistic approaches,” the “learner-centered curriculum” movement, and “reflective teaching.” Team teaching is based on a view that teachers work best when they work in collaboration with a peer, and that the interaction with a colleague in all phases of teaching is beneficial to both teachers and learners.

Humanistic approaches in language teaching refer to approaches which emphasize the development of human values, growth in self-awarenes and in the understanding of others, sensitivity to human feelings and emotions, and active student involvement in learning and in the way human learning takes place. Community Language Learning is sometimes cited as an example of a humanistic approach, as is the work of Stevick and Moskowitz.

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The “learner-centered curriculum” is one of a number of terms used to refer to approaches to language teaching which are based on the belief that learners are self-directed, responsible decision makers. Learners are seen to learn in different ways and to have different needs and interests. Language programs and the teachers who work in them should therefore set out to provide learners with efficient learning strategies, to assist learners in identifying their own preferred ways of learning, to develop skills needed to negotiate the curriculum, to encourage learners to set their own objectives, to encourage learners to adopt realistic goals and time frames, and to develop learners’ skills in self-evaluation.

Reflective teaching is an approach to teaching which is based on a belief that teachers can improve their understanding of teaching and the quality of their own teaching by reflecting critically on their teaching experiences. In teacher education, activities which seek to develop a reflective approach to teaching aim to develop the skills of considering the teaching process thoughtfully, analytically, and objectively as a way of improving classroom practices. This is brought about through using procedures which require teachers to collect data on their own teaching practices (e.g., through audio or video recordings), to reflect on their own decision making (e.g., through Journal writing), and to examine their own values and assumptions about teaching (e.g., through peer or group discussion or observation of videos).

Art-craft conceptions Another way of conceptualizing teaching is to view it as an art or craft, and as something which depends on the teacher’s individual skill and personality. Zahorik (1986, p. 22) characterizes this approach to teaching in these terms: “The essence of this view of good teaching is invention and personalization. A good teacher is a person who assesses the needs and possibilities of a situation and creates and uses practices that have promise for that situation.”

Art-craft approaches to teaching seek to develop teaching as a unique set of personal skills which teachers apply in different ways according to the demands of specific situations. There are no general methods of teaching; rather, teachers should develop an approach to teaching which allows them to be themselves and do what they feel is best.

Teacher decision-making is an essential competency in this approach, because a good teacher is seen as one who analyses a situation, realizes that a range of options is available based on the particular class circumstances, and then selects an alternative which is likely to be most effective for the circumstances. This does not deny the value of knowing about different methods of teaching and how to use them, but it suggests that commitment to a single method of teaching may impede the teacher’s full potential as a teacher.

The essential skills of teaching

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A central issue in a theory or conception of teaching is what the essential skills of teaching are assumed to be. Science-research conceptions, theory-philosophy conceptions, and art-craft conceptions represent different points of view about what teaching is. Scienceresearch conceptions use learning theory or learning research to validate selection of instructional tasks and tend to support the use of specific teaching strategies and techniques. Teachers are expected to select and monitor learners’ performance on tasks to ensure that the tasks are generating the appropriate use of language or choice of learning strategy. The effective teaching model of teaching is similarly a top-down philosophy of teaching, in the sense that once the characteristics of effective teaching are identified, teachers must aim to implement such practices in their own classes.

Theory-philosophy conceptions require teachers first to understand the theory underlying the methodology and then to teach in such a way that the theory is realized in classroom practice. With Communicative Language Teaching, for example, lessons, syllabi, materials, and teaching techniques can be judged as more or less “communicative.” Specifications as to what constitutes “communicative teaching” have been proposed, and a teacher’s performance can be assessed according to the degree of “communicativeness” found in his or her lessons. Likewise, Gattegno’s views on teaching, which form the basis of the Silent Way, lead to prescriptions as to what teachers should and should not do in the classroom. The essential skills the teacher needs to acquire are those that reflect the theory and spirit of the Silent Way approach. There is little room for personal interpretations of the method.

Philosophical or values-based approaches are prescriptive in a different kind of way, since the choice of instructional means in this case is not based on educational criteria (e.g., on effectiveness or learning criteria) but on a wider set of values which are not subject to accountability (e.g., religious, political, social, or personal beliefs). Art-craft conceptions, on the other hand, are more “bottom-up” than top-down. Teachers should not set out to look for a general method of teaching or to master a particular set of teaching skills, but should constantly try to discover things that work, discarding old practices and taking on board new ones.

The different principles underlying the three conceptions of teaching can thus be summarized in terms of the following statements of what teachers should do according to each conception of teaching.

SCIENCE-RESEARCH CONCEPTIONS

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These see the essential skills in teaching as the following: • Understand the learning principles.

• Develop tasks and activities based on the learning principles.

• Monitor students' performance on tasks to see that desired performance is being achieved.

Theory-philosophy conceptions These see the essential skills in teaching as: • Understand the theory and the principles.

• Select syllabi, materials, and tasks based on the theory.

• Monitor your teaching to see that it conforms to the theory.

Values-based conceptions In the case of values-based approaches, the essential skills in teaching are: • Understand the values behind the approach.

• Select only those educational means which conform to these values.

• Monitor the implementation process to ensure that the value system is being maintained.

Art-craft conceptions The essential skills of teaching in this approach are: • Treat each teaching situation as unique.

• Identify the particular characteristics of each situation.

• Try out different teaching strategies.

• Develop personal approaches to teaching.

Since these three conceptions of teaching offer quite different perspectives on what the essential skills of teaching are, it is not the case that they can simply be regarded as alternatives, that can be exchanged according to the whims of the moment. Eclecticism is not an option here, since the different conceptions of teaching represent fundamentally different representations of what teaching is and how teachers should approach their work.

However, it is possible to view these three conceptions as forming a continuum. Teachers

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entering the teaching profession need technical competence in teaching, and the confidence to teach according to proven principles. Science-research conceptions of teaching might well provide a good starting point for inexperienced teachers. As they gain experience, they can then modify and adapt these initial theories of teaching, moving toward the more interpretive views of teaching implicit in theory-philosophy conceptions. Eventually, as they develop their own personal theories of teaching, they can teach more from an artcraft approach, creating teaching approaches according to the particular constraints and dynamics of the situations in which they work. In this way, teacher development can be seen as a process of ongoing self-discovery and self-renewal, as top-down approaches to teaching become replaced by more bottom-up approaches, or approaches which blend the two. This moves the teacher’s work beyond the routine, creating both the challenges and rewards of teaching.

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THE NATURE OF APPROACHES AND METHODS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING* Jack Richards and Theodore Rodgers The changing rationale for foreign language study and the classroom techniques and procedures used to teach languages have reflected responses to a variety of historical issues and circumstances. Tradition was for many years the guiding principle. The Grammar-Translation Method reflected a time-honored and scholarly view of language and language study. At times, the practical realities of the classroom determined both goals and procedures, as with the determination of reading as the goal in American schools and colleges in the late 1920s. At other times, theories derived from linguistics, psychology, or a mixture of both were used to develop a both philosophical and practical basis for language teaching, as with the various reformist proposals of the nineteenth century. As the study of teaching methods and procedures in language teaching assumed a more central role within applied linguistics from the 1940’s on, various attempts have been made to conceptualize the nature of methods and to explore more systematically the relationship between theory and practice within a method. In this chapter we will clarify the relationship between approach and method and present a model for the description, analysis, and comparison of methods.

APPROACH AND METHOD When linguists and language specialists tought to improve the quality of language teaching in the late nineteenth century, they often did so by referring to general principles and theories concerning how languages are learned, how knowledge of language is represented and organized in memory, or how language itself is structured. The early applied linguists, such as Henry Sweet (1845-1912), Otto Jespersen (1860-1943), and Harold Palmer (1877-1949) elaborated principles and theoretically accountable approaches to the design of language teaching programs, courses, and materials, though many of the specific practical details were left to be worked out by others. They sought a rational answer to questions such as those regarding principles for the selection and sequencing of vocabulary and grammar, though none of these applied linguists saw in any existing method the ideal embodiment of their ideas.

In describing methods, the difference between a philosophy of language teaching at the level of theory and principles, and a set of derived procedures for teaching a language, *

Richards, Jack and Rodgers, Theodore (2006). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge University Press, New York.

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is central. In an attempt to clarify this difference, a scheme was proposed by the American applied linguist Edward Anthony in 1963. He identified three levels of conceptualization and organization, which he termed approach, method, and technique: The arrangement is hierarchical. The organizational key is that techniques carry out a method which is consistent with an approach. . . . . . . An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught. . . . . . . Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach. An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural.

Within one approach, there can be many methods . . . . . . A technique is implementational that which actually takes place in a classroom. It is a particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate objective. Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with an approach as well. (Anthony 1963: 63-67)

According to Anthony’s model, approach is the level at which assumptions and beliefs about language and language learning are specified; method is the level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught, and the order in which the content will be presented; technique is the level at which classroom procedures are described.

Anthony’s model serves as a useful way of distinguishing between different degrees of abstraction and specificity found in different language teaching proposals. Thus we can see that the proposals of the Reform Movement were at the level of approach and that the Direct Method is one method derived from this approach. The so-called Reading Method, which evolved as a result of the Coleman Report, should really be described in the plural –reading methods– since a number of different ways of implementing a reading approach have been developed.

A number of other ways of conceptualizing approaches and methods in language teaching have been proposed. Mackey, in his book Language Teaching Analysis (1965), elaborated perhaps the most well known model of the 1960s, one that focuses primarily on the levels of method and technique. Mackey’s model of language teaching analysis concentrates on the dimensions of selection, gradation, presentation, and repetition underlying a method. In fact, despite the title of Mackey´s book, his concern is primarily with the analyses of textbooks and their underlying principles and organization. His model fails to address the level of approach, nor does it deal with the actual classroom behaviors of teachers and learners, except as these are represented in textbooks. Hence it can not really serve as a basis for comprehensive analysis of either approaches or methods.

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Although Anthony’s original proposal has the advantage of simplicity and comprehensiveness and serves as a useful way of distinguishing the relationship between underlying theoretical principles and the practices derived from them, it fails to give sufficient attention to the nature of a method itself. Nothing is said about the roles of teachers and learners assumed in a method, for example, nor about the role of instructional materials or the form they are expected to take. It fails to account for how an approach may be realized in a method, or for how method and technique are related. In order to provide a more comprehensive model for the discussion and analysis of approaches and methods, we have revised and extended the original Anthony model. The primary areas needing further clarification are, using Anthony’s terms, method and technique. We see approach and method treated at the level of design, that level in which objectives, syllabus, and content are determined, and in which the roles of teachers, learners, and instructional materials are specified. The implementation phase (the level of technique in Anthony’s model) we refer to by the slightly more comprehensive term procedure. Thus, a method is theoretically related to an approach, is organizationally determined by a design, and is practically realized in procedure. In the remainder of this chapter, we will elaborate on the relationship between approach, design, and procedure, using this framework to compare particular methods and approaches in language teaching.

Approach Following Anthony, approach refers to theories about the nature of language and language learning that serve as the source of practices and principles in language teaching.

We will examine the linguistic and psycholinguistic aspects of approach in turn.

Theory of language At least three different theoretical views of language and the nature of language proficiency explicitly or implicitly inform current approaches and methods in language teaching.

The first, and the most traditional of the three, is the structural view, the view that language is a system of structurally related elements for the coding of meaning. The target of language learning is seen to be the mastery of elements of this system, which are generally defined in terms of phonological units (e.g., phonemes), grammatical units (e.g., clauses, phrases, sentences), grammatical operations (e.g., adding, shifting, joining, or transforming elements), and lexical items (e.g., function words and structure words). The Audiolingual Method embodies this particular view of language, as do such methods as Total Physical Response and the Silent Way. The second view of language is the functional view, the view that language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. The communicative movement in language teaching subscribes to this view of language This theory emphasizes the semantic and communicative dimension rather than merely the grammatical characteristics of language,

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and leads to a specification and organization of language teaching content by categories of meaning and function rather than by elements of structure and grammar. Wilkins’s Notional Syllabuses (1976) is an attempt to spell out the implications of this view of language for syllabus design. A notional syllabus would include not only elements of grammar and lexis but also specify the topics, notions, and concepts the learner needs to communicate about. The English for Specific Purposes (ESP) movement likewise begins not from a structural theory of language but from a functional account of learner needs (Robinson 1980).

The third view of language can be called the interactional view. It sees language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social transactions between individuals. Language is seen as a tool for the creation and maintenance of social relations. Areas of inquiry being drawn on in the development of interactional approaches to language teaching include interaction analysis, conversation analysis, and ethnomethodology. Interactional theories focus on the patterns of moves, acts, negotiation, and interaction found in conversational exchanges. Language teaching content, according to this view, may be specified and organized by patterns of exchange and interaction or may be left unspecified, to be shaped by the inclinations of learners as interactors.

“Interaction” has been central to theories of second language learning and pedagogy since the 1980s. Rivers (1987) defined the interactive perspective in language education: “Students achieve facility in using a language when their attention is focused on conveying and receiving authentic messages (that is, messages that contain information of interest to both speaker and listener in a situation of importance to both). This is interaction” (Rivers 1987: 4). The notion of interactivity has also been linked lo the teaching of reading and writing as well as listening and speaking, skills. Carrell, Devine, and Esky (1988) use the notion of “interactivity” to refer to the simultaneous use by effective readers of both top-down and bottom-up processing in reading comprehension. It is also used to refer to the relationship between reader and writer who are viewed as engaged in a text-based conversation (Grabe in Carrel, Devine, and Esky 1988). Task-Based Language Teaching also draws on an interactional view of language, as to some extent do Whole Language Neurolinguistic Programming Cooperative Language Learning and Content-Based Instruction Despite this enthusiasm for “interactivity” as a defining notion in language teaching, a model of “Language as Interaction” has not been described in the same level of detail as those models that have been developed for structural and functional views of language theory.

Structural, functional, or interactional models of language (or variations on them) provide the axioms and theoretical framework that may motivate a particular teaching method, such as Audiolingualism. But in themselves they are incomplete and need to be complemented by theories of language learning. It is to this dimension that we now turn.

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Theory of language learning Although specific theories of the nature of language may provide the basis for a particular teaching method, other methods derive primarily from a theory of language learning. A learning theory underlying an approach or method responds to two questions: (a) What are the psycho-linguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning? and (b) What are the conditions that need to be met in order for these learning processes to be activated? Learning theories associated with a method at the level of approach may emphasize either one or both of these dimensions. Process-oriented theories build on learning processes, such as habit formation, induction, inferencing, hypothesis testing, and generalization. Condition-oriented theories emphasize the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place.

Stephen D. Krashen’s Monitor Model of second language development (1981) is an example of a learning theory on which a method (the Natural Approach) has been built Monitor theory addresses both the process and the condition dimensions of learning. At the level of process, Krashen distinguishes between acquisition and learning. Acquisition refers to the natural assimilation of language rules through using language for communication. Learning refers to the formal study of language rules and is a conscious process. According to Krashen, however, learning is available only as a “monitor.” The monitor is the repository of conscious grammatical knowledge about a language that is learned through formal instruction and that is called upon in the editing of utterances produced through the acquired system. Krashen’s theory also addresses the conditions necessary for the process of “acquisition” to take place. Krashen describes these in terms of the type of “input” the learner receives. Input must be comprehensible, slightly above the learner’s present level of competence, interesting or relevant, not grammatically sequenced, in sufficient quantity, and experienced in low-anxiety contexts.

Tracy D. Terrell’s Natural Approach (1977) is an example of a method derived primarily from a learning theory rather than from a particular view of language. Although the Natural Approach is based on a learning theory that specifies both processes and conditions, the learning theory underlying such methods as Counseling-Learning and the Silent Way addresses primarily the conditions held to be necessary for learning to take place without specifying what the learning processes themselves are presumed to be.

Charles A. Curran in his writings on Counseling-Learning (1972), for example, focuses primarily on the conditions necessary for successful learning. He believes the atmosphere of the classroom is a crucial factor, and his method seeks to ameliorate the feelings of intimidation and insecurity that many learners experience. James Asher’s Total Physical Response (Asher 1977) is likewise a method that derives primarily from learning theory rather than from a theory of the nature of language Asher’s learning theory addresses both the process and the condition aspects of learning. It is based on the belief that child language learning is based on motor activity, on coordinating language with action,

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and that this should form the basis of adult foreign language teaching. Orchestrating language production and comprehension with body movement and physical actions is thought to provide the conditions for success in language learning. Caleb Gattegno’s Silent Way (1972,1976) is likewise built around a theory of the conditions necessary for successful learning to be realized. Gattegno’s writings address learners’ needs to feel secure about learning and to assume conscious control of learning. Many of the techniques used in the method are designed to train learners to consciously use their intelligence to heighten learning potential.

There often appear to be natural affinities between certain theories of language and theories of language learning; however, one can imagine different pairings of language theory and learning theory that might work as well as those we observe. The linking of structuralism (a linguistic theory) to behaviorism (a learning theory) produced Audiolingualism.

That particular link was not inevitable, however. Cognitive-code proponents , for example, have attempted to link a more sophisticated model of structuralism to a more mentalistic and less behavioristic brand of learning theory.

At the level of approach, we are hence concerned with theoretical principles. With respect to language theory, we are concerned with a model of language competence and an account of the basic features of linguistic organization and language use. With respect to learning theory, we are concerned with an account of the central processes of learning and an account of the conditions believed to promote successful language learning.

These principles may or may not lead to “a” method. Teachers may, for example, develop their own teaching procedures, informed by a particular view of language and a particular theory of learning. They may constantly revise, vary, and modify teaching/learning procedures on the basis of the performance of the learners and their reactions to instructional practice. A group of teachers holding similar beliefs about language and language learning (i.e., sharing a similar approach) may each implement these principles in different ways. Approach does not specify procedure. Theory does not dictate a particular set of teaching techniques and activities. What links theory with practice (or approach with procedure) is what we have called design.

Design In order for an approach to lead to a method, it is necessary to develop a design for an instructional system. Design is the level of method analysis in which we consider (a) what the objectives of a method are; (b) how language content is selected and organized within the method, that is, the syllabus model the method incorporates; (c) the types of learning tasks and teaching activities the method advocates; (d) the roles of learners; (e) the roles of teachers; and (f) the role of instructional materials.

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Objectives Different theories of language and language learning influence the focus of a method; that is, they determine what a method sets out to achieve. The specification of particular learning objectives, however, is a product of design, not of approach. Some methods focus primarily on oral skills and say that reading and writing skills are secondary and derive from transfer of oral skills. Some methods set out to teach general communication skills and give greater priority to the ability to express oneself meaningfully and to make oneself understood than to grammatical accuracy or perfect pronunciation. Others place a greater emphasis on accurate grammar and pronunciation from the very beginning. Some methods set out to teach the basic grammar and vocabulary of a language. Others may define their objectives less in linguistic terms than in terms of learning behaviors, that is, in terms of the processes or abilities the learner is expected to acquire as a result of instruction.

Gattegno writes, for example, “Learning is not seen as the means of accumulating knowledge but as the means of becoming a more proficient learner in whatever one is engaged in” (1972: 89). This process-oriented objective may be offered in contrast to the linguistically oriented or product-oriented objectives of more traditional methods. The degree to which a method has process-oriented or product-oriented objectives may be revealed in how much emphasis is placed on vocabulary acquisition and grammatical proficiency and in how grammatical or pronunciation errors are treated in the method. Many methods that claim to be primarily process-oriented in fact show overriding concerns with grammatical and lexical attainment and with accurate grammar and pronunciation.

Content choice and organization: The syllabus All methods of language teaching involve the use of the target language. All methods thus involve overt or covert decisions concerning the selection of language items (words, sentence patterns, tenses, constructions, functions, topics, etc.) that are to be used within a course or method. Decisions about the choice of language content relate to both subject matter and linguistic matter. In straightforward terms, one makes decisions about what to talk about (subject matter) and how to talk about it (linguistic matter). ESP courses, for example, are necessarily subject-matter focused. Structurally based methods, such as Situational Language Teaching and the Audiolingual Method, are necessarily linguistically focused. Methods typically differ in what they see as the relevant language and subject matter around which language teaching should he organized and the principles used in sequencing content within a course. Content issues involve the principles of selection (Mackey 1965) that ultimately shape the syllabus adopted in a course as well as the instructional materials that are used, together with the principles of gradation the method adopts. In grammar-based courses matters of sequencing and gradation are generally determined according to the difficulty of items of their frequency. In communicative or functionally oriented courses (e.g., in ESP programs) sequencing may be according to the learners’ communicative needs.

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Traditionally, the term syllabus has been used to refer to the form in which linguistic content is specified in a course or method. Inevitably, the term has been more closely associated with methods that are product-centered rather than those that are processcentered. Syllabuses and syllabus principles for Audiolingual, Structural-Situational, and notional-functional methods, as well as in ESP approaches to language program design, can be readily identified. The syllabus underlying the Situational and Audiolingual methods consists of a list of grammatical items and constructions, often together with an associated list of vocabulary items (Fries and Fries 1961; Alexander, Alien, Glose, and O’Neill 1975). Notional functional syllabuses specify the communicative content of a course in terms of functions, notions, topics, grammar, and vocabulary. Such syllabuses are usually determined in advance of teaching and for this reason have been referred to as “a priori syllabuses.”

A number of taxonomies of syllabus types in language teaching have been proposed, for example, Yalden (1987), Long and Crookes (1992), and Brown (1995). Brown (1995: 7) lists seven basic syllabus types -Structural, Situational, Topical, Functional, Notional, Skills-based, and Task-based, and these can usually be linked to specific approaches or methods: Oral/Situational (Situational); Audiolingual (Structural), Communicative Language Teaching (Notional/Functional), Task-based Teaching (Task-based). However, for some of the approaches and methods discussed in this book we have had to infer syllabus assumptions since no explicit syllabus specification is given. This is particularly true where content organization rather than language organization or pedagogical issues determines syllabus design, as with Content-Based Instruction.

The term syllabus, however, is less frequently used in process-based methods, in which considerations of language content are often secondary. Counseling-Learning, for example, has no language syllabus as such. Neither linguistic matter nor subject matter is specified in advance. Learners select content for themselves by choosing topics they want to talk about. These are then translated into the target language and used as the basis for interaction and language practice. To find out what linguistic content had in fact been generated and practiced during a course organized according to CounselingLearning principles, it would be necessary to record the lessons and later determine what items of language had been covered. This would be an a posteriori approach to syllabus specification; that is, the syllabus would be determined from examining lesson protocols.

With such methods as the Silent Way and Total Physical Response, an examination of lesson protocols, teacher’s manuals, and texts derived from them reveals that the syllabuses underlying these methods are traditional lexico-grammatical syllabuses. In both there is a strong emphasis on grammar and grammatical accuracy.

Types of learning and teaching activities The objectives of a method, whether defined primarily in terms of product or process, are attained through the instructional process, through the organized and directed interac-

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tion of teachers, learners, and materials in the classroom. Differences among methods at the level of approach manifest themselves in the choice of different kinds of learning and teaching activities in the classroom. Teaching activities that focus on grammatical accuracy may be quite different from those that focus on Communicative skills. Activities designed to focus on the development of specific psycholinguistic processes in language acquisition will differ from those directed toward mastery of particular features of grammar.

The activity types that a method advocates –the third component in the level of design in method analysis– often serve to distinguish methods. Audiolingualism, for example, uses dialogue and pattern practice extensively. The Silent Way employs problem-solving activities that involve the use of special charts and colored rods. Communicative language teaching theoreticians have advocated the use of tasks that involve an “information gap” and “information transfer”; that is, learners work on the same task, but each learner has different information needed to complete the task.

The notion of the “task” as a central activity type in language teaching has been considerably elaborated and refined since its emergence in early versions of Communicative Language Teaching. As well, tasks have become a central focus in both second language acquisition research and second language pedagogy.

Different philosophies at the level of approach may be reflected both in the use of different kinds of activities and in different uses for particular activity types. For example, interactive games are often used in audiolingual courses for motivation and to provide a change of pace from pattern-practice drills. In Communicative language teaching, the same games may be used to introduce or provide practice for particular types of interactive exchanges. Differences in activity types in methods may also involve different arrangements and groupings of learners. A method that stresses oral chorus drilling will require different groupings of learners in the classroom from a method that uses problem-solving/ information-exchange activities involving pair work. Activity types in methods thus include the primary categories of learning and teaching activity the method advocates, such as dialogue, responding to commands, group problem solving, information-exchange activities, improvisations, question and answer, or drills.

Because of the different assumptions they make about learning processes, syllabuses, and learning activities, methods also attribute different roles and functions to learners, teachers, and instructional materials within the instructional process. These constitute the next three components of design in method analysis.

Learner roles The design of an instructional system will be considerably influenced by how learners are regarded. A method reflects explicit or implicit responses to questions concerning the learners’ contribution to the learning process. This is seen in the types of activities learners carry out, the degree of control learners have over the content of learning, the

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patterns of learner groupings adopted, the degree to which learners influence the learning of others, and the view of the learner as processor, performer, initiator, problem solver.

Much of the criticism of Audiolingualism came from the recognition of the very limited roles available to learners in audiolingual methodology. Learners were seen as stimulusresponse mechanisms whose learning was a direct result of repetitive practice. Newer methodologies customarily exhibit more concern for learner roles and for variation among learners. Johnson and Paulston (1976) spell out learner roles in an individualized approach to language learning in the following terms: (a) Learners plan their own learning program and thus ultimately assume responsibility for what they do in the classroom; (b) Learners monitor and evaluate their own progress; (c) Learners are members of a group and learn by interacting with others; (d) Learners tutor other learners; (e) Learners learn from the teacher, from other students, and from other teaching sources. Counseling-Learning views learners as having roles that change developmentally, and Curran (1976) uses an ontogenetic metaphor to suggest this development. He divides the developmental process into five stages, extending from total dependency on the teacher in stage 1 to total independence in stage 5. These learner stages Curran sees as parallel to the growth of a child from embryo to independent adulthood, passing through childhood and adolescence.

Teacher roles Learner roles in an instructional system are closely linked to the teacher’s status and function. Teacher roles are similarly related ultimately both to assumptions about language and language learning at the level of approach. Some methods are totally dependent on the teacher as a source of knowledge and direction; others see the teacher’s role as catalyst, consultant, guide, and model for learning; still others try to “teacher-proof “ the instructional system by limiting teacher initiative and by building instructional content and direction into texts or lesson plans. Teacher and learner roles define the type of interaction characteristic of classrooms in which a particular method is being used.

Teacher roles in methods are related to the following issues: (a) the types of functions teachers are expected to fulfill, whether that of practice director, counselor, or model, for example; (b) the degree of control the teacher has over how learning takes place; (c) the degree to which the teacher is responsible for determining the content of what is taught; and (d) the interactional patterns that develop between teachers and learners.

Methods typically depend critically on teacher roles and their realization. In the classical Audiolingual Method, the teacher is regarded as the primary source of language and of learning. But less teacher-realization directed learning may still demand very specific and sometimes even more demanding roles for the teacher. The role of the teacher in the Silent Way, for example, depends on thorough training and methodological initiation. Only teachers who are thoroughly sure of their role and the concomitant learner’s role will risk departure from the security of traditional textbook-oriented teaching.

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For some methods, the role of the teacher has been specified in detail. Individualized approaches to learning define roles for the teacher that create specific patterns of interaction between teachers and learners in classrooms. These are designed to shift the responsibility for learning gradually from the teacher to the learner. Counseling-Learning sees the teacher’s role as that of psychological counselor, the effectiveness of the teacher’s role being a measure of counseling skills and attributes -warmth, sensitivity, and acceptance.

As these examples suggest, the potential role relationships of learner and teacher are many and varied. They may be asymmetrical relationships, such as those of conductor to orchestra member, therapist to patient, coach to player. Some contemporary methodologies have sought to establish more symmetrical kinds of learner-teacher relationships, such as friend to friend, colleague to colleague, teammate to teammate. The role of the teacher will ultimately reflect both the objectives of the method and the learning theory on which the method is predicated, since the success of a method may depend on the degree to which the teacher can provide the content or create the conditions for successful language learning.

The role of instructional materials The last component within the level of design concerns the role of instructional materials within the instructional system. What is specified with respect to objectives, content (i.e., the syllabus), learning activities, and learner and teacher roles suggests the function for materials within the system. The syllabus defines linguistic content in terms of language elements –structures, topics, notions, functions– or, in some cases, of learning tasks (see Johnson 1982; Prabhu 1983). It also defines the goals for language learning in terms of speaking, listening, reading, or writing skills. The instructional materials in their turn further specify subject-matter content, even where no syllabus exists, and define or suggest the intensity of coverage for syllabus items, allocating the amount of time, attention, and detail particular syllabus items or tasks require. Instructional materials also define or imply the day-to-day learning objectives. Instructional the goals of the syllabus. Materials designed on the assumption that learning is initiated and monitored by the teacher must meet quiet different requirements those designed for student self-instruction or for peer tutoring. Some methods require the instructional use of existing materials, found materials, and realia. Some assume teacher-proof materials that even poorly trained teachers with imperfect control of the target language can teach with. Some materials require specially trained teachers with near-native competence in the target language. Some are designed to replace the teacher, so that learning can take place independently. Some materials dictate various interactional patterns in the classroom; others inhibit classroom interaction; still others are noncommittal about interaction between teacher and learner and learner and learner.

The role of instructional materials within a method or instructional system will reflect

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decisions concerning the primary goal of materials e.g., to present content, to practice content, to facilitate communication Between learners, or to enable learners to practice content without the teacher’s help), the form of materials (e.g., textbook, audiovisuals, computer software), the relation of materials to other sources of input (i.e., whether they serve as the major source of input or only as a minor component of it), and the abilities of teachers (e.g., their competence in the language or degree of training and experience).

A particular design for an instructional system may imply a particular set of roles for materials in support of the syllabus and the teachers and learners. For example, the role of instructional materials within a functional/communicative methodology might be specified in the following terms: 1. Materials will focus on the communicative abilities of interpretation, expression, and negotiation.

2. Materials will focus on understandable, relevant, and interesting exchanges of information, rather than on the presentation of grammatical form.

3. Materials will involve different kinds of texts and different media, which the learners can use to develop their competence through a variety of different activities and tasks.

By comparison, the role of instructional materials within an individualized instructional system might include the following specifications: 1. Materials will allow learners to progress at their own rates of learning.

2. Materials will allow for different styles of learning.

3. Materials will provide opportunities for independent study and use.

4. Materials will provide opportunities for self-evaluation and progress in learning.

The content of a method such as Counseling-Leaning; is assumed to be a product of the interests of the learners, since learners generate their own subject matter. In that sense it would appear that no linguistic content or materials are specified within the method. On the other hand, Counseling-Learning acknowledges the need for learner mastery of certain linguistic mechanics, such as vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. Counseling-Learning sees these issues as falling outside the teacher’s central role as counselor. Thus, Counseling-Learning has proposed the use of teaching machines and other programmed materials to support the learning of some of the more mechanical aspects of language so as to free the teacher to function increasingly as a learning counselor.

Procedure

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The last level of conceptualization and organization within a method is what we will refer to as procedure. This encompasses the actual moment-to-moment techniques, practices, and behaviors that operate in teaching a language according to a particular method.

It is the level at which we describe how a method realizes its approach and design in classroom behavior. At the level of design we saw that a method will advocate the use of certain types of teaching activities as a consequence of its theoretical assumptions about language and learning. At the level of procedure, we are concerned with how these tasks and activities are integrated into lessons and used as the basis for teaching and learning. There are three dimensions to a method at the level of procedure: (a) the use of teaching activities (drills, dialogues, information-gap activities, etc.) to present new language and to clarify and demonstrate formal, communicative, or other aspects of the target language; (b) the ways in which particular teaching activities are used for practicing language; and (c) the procedures and techniques used in giving feedback to learners concerning the form or content of their utterances or sentences.

Essentially, then, procedure focuses on the way a method handles the presentation, practice, and feedback phases of teaching. Here, for example, is a description of the procedural aspects of a beginning Silent Way course based on Stevick (1980: 44-45): 1. The teacher points at meaningless symbols on a wall chart. The symbols represent the syllables of the spoken language. The students read the sounds aloud, first in chorus and then individually.

2. After the students can pronounce the sounds, the teacher moves to a second set of charts containing words frequently used in the language, including numbers. The teacher leads the students to pronounce long numbers.

3. The teacher uses colored rods together with charts and gestures to lead the students into producing the words and basic grammatical structures needed.

Of error treatment in the Silent Way Stevick notes: When the students respond correctly to the teacher’s initiative, she usually does not react with any overt confirmation that what they did was right. If a student’s response is wrong, on the other hand, she indicates that the student needs to do further work on the word or phrase; if she thinks it necessary, she actually shows the student exactly where the additional work is to be done. (1980:45) Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) illustrate how the procedural phases of instruction are handled in what they call a notional-functional approach.

1. Presentation of a brief dialogue or several mini-dialogues.

2. Oral practice of each utterance in the dialogue.

3. Questions and answers based on the topic and situation in the dialogue.

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4. Questions and answers related to the student’s personal experience but centered on the theme of the dialogue.

5. Study of the basic communicative expressions used in the dialogue or one of the structures that exemplify the function.

6. Learner discovery of generalizations or rules underlying the functional expression of structure.

7. Oral recognition, interpretative procedures.

8. Oral production activities, proceeding from guided to freer communication.

We expect methods to be most obviously idiosyncratic at the level of procedure, though classroom observations often reveal that teachers do not necessarily follow the procedures a method prescribes.

The elements and subelements that constitute a method and that we have described under the rubrics of approach, design, and procedure are summarized in the figure.

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The general and specific objectives of the method A syllabus model – criteria for the selection and organization of linguistic and/or subjectmatter content c. Types of learning and teaching activities – kinds of tasks and practice activities to be employed in the classroom and in materials d. Learner roles – types of learning tasks set for learners – degree of control learners have over the content of learning – patterns of learner groupings that are recommended or implied – degree to which learners influence the learning of others – the view of the learner as processor, performer, initiator, problem solver, etc. e. Teacher roles – types of functions teachers fulfill – degree of teacher influence over learning – degree to which teacher determines the content of learning – types of interaction between teachers and learners f. The role of instructional materials – primary function of materials – the form materials take (e.g., textbook, audiovisual) – relation of materials to other input – assumptions made about teachers and other learners

a. b.

Design

Figure. Summary of elements and subelements that constitute a method.

– an account of the conditions that allow for successful use of these processes

– an account of the psycho-linguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning

b. A theory of the nature of language learning

– an account of the basic units of language structure

– an account of the nature of language proficiency

a. A theory of native language

Approach

METHOD

a. Classroom techniques, practices, and behaviors observed when the method is used – resources in terms of time, space, and equipment used by the teacher interactional pattern observed in lessons – tactics and strategies used by teachers and learners when the method is being used

Procedure

Didáctica del inglés I

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The model presented in this chapter demonstrates that any language teaching method can be described in terms of the issues identified here at the levels of approach, design, and procedure. Very few methods are explicit with respect to all of these dimensions, however. In so doing, we will often have to infer from what method developers have written in order to determine precisely what criteria are being used for teaching activities, what claims are being made about learning theory, what type of syllabus is being employed, and so on.

The model presented here is not intended to imply that methodological development proceeds neatly from approach, through design, to procedure. It is not clear whether such a developmental formula is possible, and our model certainly does not describe the typical case. Methods can develop out of any of the three categories. One can, for example, stumble on or invent a set of teaching procedures that appear to be successful and then later develop a design and a theoretical approach that explain or justify the procedures.

Some methodologists would resist calling their proposals a method, although, if descriptions are possible at each of the levels described here, we would argue that what is advocated has, in fact, the status of a method.

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A “METHODICAL” HISTORY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING* Douglas Brown The first step toward developing a principled approach to language teaching will be to turn back the clock about a century in order to learn from the historical cycles and trends that have brought us to the present day. After all, it is difficult to completely analyze the class session without the backdrop of history. In this chapter we focus on methods as the identifying characteristics of a century of “modern” language teaching efforts. What do we mean by the term “method” by which we tend to characterize that history? How do methods reflect various trends of disciplinary thought? How does current research on language learning and teaching help us to distinguish, in our history, between passing fads and “the good stuff”? These are some of the questions we will address in this chapter.

This historical overview culminates in a close look at the current state of the art in language teaching. Above all, you will come to see how our profession is now more aptly characterized by a relatively unified, comprehensive “approach” rather than by competing, restricted methods. That general approach will be described in detail, along with some of the current professional jargon associated with it.

As you read on, you will encounter references to concepts, constructs, issues, and models that are normally covered in a course in second language acquisition (SLA). I am assuming that you have already taken or are currently taking such a course. If not, may I recommend that you consult my Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, Fourth Edition (2000), or a book like Mitchell and Myles Second Language Learning Theories (1998) that summarizes current topics and issues in SLA. APPROACH, METHOD, AND TECHNIQUE In the century spanning the mid-1880s to the mid-1980s, the language-teaching profession was involved in a search. That search was for what was popularly called “methods,” or ideally, a single method, generalizable across widely varying audiences, that would successfully teach students a foreign language in the classroom. Historical accounts of the profession tend therefore to describe a succession of methods, each of which is more or less discarded as a new method takes its place. We will turn to that “methodical” history of language teaching in a moment, but first, we should try to understand what we mean by method.

*

Brown, Douglas (2001). Teaching by principles. Longman, New York.

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What is a method? About four decades ago Edward Anthony (1963) gave us a definition that has admirably withstood the test of time. His concept of “method” was the second of three hierarchical elements, namely approach, method, and technique. An approach, according to Anthony, was a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language, learning, and teaching. Method was described as an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based upon a selected approach. Techniques were the specific activities manifested in the classroom that were consistent with a method and therefore were in harmony with an approach as well.

To this day, for better or worse, Anthony’s terms are still in common use among language teachers. A teacher may, for example, at the approach level, affirm the ultimate importance of learning in a relaxed state of mental awareness just above the threshold of consciousness. The method that follows might resemble, say, Suggestopedia (a description follows in this chapter). Techniques could include playing baroque music while reading a passage in the foreign language, getting students to sit in the yoga position while listening to a list of words, or having learners adopt a new name in the classroom and role-play that new person.

A couple of decades later, Jack Richards and Theodore Rodgers (1982, 1986) proposed a reformulation of the concept of “method.” Anthony’s approach, method, and technique were renamed, respectively, approach, design, and procedure, with a superordinate term to describe this three-step process, now called “method.” A method, according to Richards and Rodgers, was “an umbrella term for the specification and interrelation of theory and practice” (1982:154). An approach defines assumptions, beliefs, and theories about the nature of language and language learning. Designs specify the relationship of those theories to classroom materials and activities. Procedures are the techniques and practices that are derived from one’s approach and design.

Through their reformulation, Richards and Rodgers made two principal contributions to our understanding of the concept of method: 1. They specified the necessary elements of language-teaching designs that had heretofore been left somewhat vague. Their schematic representation of method (see Fig. 2.1) described six important features of designs: objectives, syllabus (criteria for selection and organization of linguistic and subject-matter content), activities, learner roles, teacher roles, and the role of instructional materials. The latter three features have occupied a significant proportion of our collective attention in the profession for the last decade or so. Already in this book you may have noted how, for example, learner roles (styles, individual preferences for group or individual learning, student input in determining curricular content, etc.) are important considerations in your teaching.

2. Richards and Rodgers nudged us into at last relinquishing the notion that separate, definable, discrete methods are the essential building blocks of methodology. By helping us to think in terms of an approach that undergirds our language designs

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(curricula), which are realized by various procedures (tech-niques), we could see that methods, as we still use and understand the term, are too restrictive, too pre-programmed, and too “pre-packaged.” Virtually all language-teaching methods make the oversimplified assumption that what teachers “do” in the classroom can be conventionalized into a set of procedures that fit all contexts. We are now all too aware that such is clearly not the case.

The whole concept of separate methods is no longer a central issue in language-teaching practice. Instead, we currently make ample reference to “methodology” as our superordinate umbrella term, reserving the term “method” for somewhat specific, identifiable clusters of theoretically compatible classroom techniques.

So, Richards and Rodgers’s reformulation of the concept of method was soundly conceived; however, their attempt to give new meaning to an old term did not catch on in the pedagogical literature. What they wanted us to call “method” is more com-fortably referred to, I think, as “methodology” in order to avoid confusion with what we will no doubt always think of as those separate entities (like Audiolingual or Suggestopedia) that are no longer at the center of our teaching philosophy.

Another terminological problem lies in the use of the term designs; instead, we more comfortably refer to curricula or syllabuses when we refer to design features of a language program.

What are we left with in this lexicographic confusion? It is interesting that the terminology of the pedagogical literature in the field appears to be more in line with Anthony’s original terms, but with some important additions and refinements. Following is a set of definitions that reflect the current usage and that will be used in this book.

– Methodology: Pedagogical practices in general (including theoretical underpinnings and related research). Whatever considerations are involved in “how to teach” are methodological.

– Approach: Theoretically well-informed positions and beliefs about the nature of language, the nature of language learning, and the applicability of both to pedagogical settings.

– Method: A generalized set of classroom specifications for accomplishing linguistic objectives. Methods tend to be concerned primarily with teacher and student roles and behaviors and secondarily with such features as linguistic and subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and materials. They are almost always thought of as being broadly applicable to a variety of audiences in a variety of contexts.

– Curriculum/syllabus: Designs for carrying out a particular language program. Features include a primary concern with the specification of linguistic and subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and materials to meet the needs of a designated group of learners in a defined context. (The term “syllabus” is usually used more customarily in the United Kingdom to refer to what is called a “curriculum” in the United States.)

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– Technique (also commonly referred to by other terms):1 Any of a wide variety of exercises, activities, or tasks used in the language classroom for realizing lesson objectives.

CHANGING WINDS AND SHIFTING SANDS A glance through the past century or so of language teaching will give an interesting picture of how varied the interpretations have been of the best way to teach a foreign language. As disciplinary schools of thought —psychology, linguistics, and education, for example— have come and gone, so have language-teaching methods waxed and waned in popularity. Teaching methods, as “approaches in action” are of course the practical application of theoretical findings and positions. In a field such as ours that is relatively young, it should come as no surprise to discover a wide variety of these applications over the last hundred years, some in total philosophical opposition to others.

Albert Marckwardt (1972: 5) saw these “changing winds and shifting sands” as a cyclical pattern in which a new method emerged about every quarter of a century. Each new method broke from the old but took with it some of the positive aspects of the previous practices. A good example of this cyclical nature of methods is found in the “revolutionary”Audiolingual Method (ALM) (a description follows) of the mid-twentieth century. The ALM borrowed tenets from its predecessor the Direct Method by almost half a century while breaking away entirely from the Grammar Translation Method. Within a short time, however, ALM critics were advocating more attention to thinking, to cognition, and to rule learning, which to some smacked of a return to Grammar Translation!

What follows is a sketch of the changing winds and shifting sands of language teaching over the years.

1

64

There is currently quite an intermingling of such terms as “technique,” “task,” “procedure,” “activity,” and “exercise,” often used in somewhat free variation across the profession. Of these terms, task has received the most concerted attention, viewed by such scholars as Peter Skehan (1998a) as incorporating specific communicative and pedagogical principles. Tasks, according to Skehan and others, should be thought of as a special kind of technique and, in fact, may actually include more than one technique See Chapter 3 for a more thorough explanation.

The general and specific objectives of the method A syllabus model – criteria for the selection and organization of linguistic and/or subjectmatter content c. Types of learning and teaching activities – kinds of tasks and practice activities to be employed in the classroom and in materials d. Learner roles – types of learning tasks set for learners – degree of control learners have over the content of learning – patterns of learner groupings that are recommended or implied – degree to which learners influence the learning of others – the view of the learner as processor, performer, initiator, problem solver, etc. e. Teacher roles – types of functions teachers fulfill – degree of teacher influence over learning – degree to which teacher determines the content of learning – types of interaction between teachers and learners f. The role of instructional materials – primary function of materials – the form materials take (e.g., textbook, audiovisual) – relation of materials to other input – assumptions made about teachers and other learners

a. b.

Design

Procedure a. Classroom techniques, practices, and behaviors observed when the method is used – resources in terms of time, space, and equipment used by the teacher interactional pattern observed in lessons – tactics and strategies used by teachers and learners when the method is being used

Figure 2.1. Elements and subelements of method (Richards & Rodgers 1986) p. 64

– an account of the conditions that allow for successful use of these processes

– an account of the psycho-linguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning

b. A theory of the nature of language learning

– an account of the basic units of language structure

– an account of the nature of language proficiency

a. A theory of native language

Approach

METHOD

Didáctica del inglés I

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THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD A historical sketch of the last hundred years of language-teaching must be set in the context of a prevailing, customary language-teaching “tradition.” For centuries, there were few if any theoretical foundations of language learning upon which to base teaching methodology. In the Western world, “foreign” language learning in schools was synonymous with the learning of Latin or Greek. Latin, thought to promote intellectuality through “mental gymnastics,” was until relatively recently held to be indispensable to an adequate higher education. Latin was taught by means of what has been called the Classical Method: focus on grammatical rules, memorization of vocabulary and of various declensions and conjugations, translations of texts, doing written exercises.

As other languages began to be taught in educational institutions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the Classical Method was adopted as the chief means for teaching foreign languages. Little thought was given at the time to teaching someone how to speak the language; after all, languages were not being taught primarily to learn oral/aural communication, but to learn for the sake of being “scholarly” or, in some instances, for gaining a reading proficiency in a foreign language. Since there was little if any theoretical research on second language acquisition in general or on the acquisition of reading proficiency, foreign languages were taught as any other skill was taught.

In the nineteenth century the Classical Method came to be known as the Grammar Translation Method. There was little to distinguish Grammar Translation from what had gone on in foreign language classrooms for centuries beyond a focus on grammatical rules as the basis for translating from the second to the native language. Remarkably, the Grammar Translation Method withstood attempts at the turn of the twentieth century to “reform” language-teaching methodology (see Gouin’s Series Method and the Direct Method, below), and to this day it is practiced in too many educational contexts. Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979: 3) listed the major characteristics of Grammar Translation: 1. Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.

2. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.

3. Long, elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.

4. Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words.

5. Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.

6. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis.

7. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue.

8. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

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It is ironic that this method has until very recently been so stalwart among many competing models. It does virtually nothing to enhance a student’s communicative ability in the language. It is “remembered with distaste by thousands of school learners, for whom foreign language learning meant a tedious experience of memorizing endless lists of unusable grammar rules and vocabulary and attempting to produce perfect translations of stilted or literary prose” (Richards & Rodgers 1986:4).

On the other hand, one can understand why Grammar Translation remains so popular.

It requires few specialized skills on the part of teachers. Tests of grammar rules and of translations are easy to construct and can be objectively scored. Many standardized tests of foreign languages still do not attempt to tap into communicative abilities, so students have little motivation to go beyond grammar analogies, translations, and rote exercises. And it is sometimes successful in leading a student toward a reading knowledge of a second language. But, as Richards and Rodgers (1986: 5) pointed out, “it has no advocates. It is a method for which there is no theory. There is no literature that offers a rationale or justification for it or that attempts to relate it to issues in linguistics, psychology, or educational theory.” As you continue to examine language-teaching methodology in this book, I think you will understand more fully the “theory-lessness” of the Grammar Translation Method.

GOUIN AND THE SERIES METHOD The history of “modern” foreign language teaching may be said to have begun in the late 1800s with François Gouin, a French teacher of Latin with remarkable insights. History doesn’t normally credit Gouin as a founder of language-teaching methodology because, at the time, his influence was overshadowed by that of Charles Berlitz, the popular German founder of the Direct Method. Nevertheless, some attention to Gouin’s unusually perceptive observations about language teaching helps us to set the stage for the development of language-teaching methods for the century following the publication of his book, The Art of Learning and Studying Foreign Languages, in 1880.

Gouin had to go through a very paintful set of experiences in order to derive his insights. Having decided in mid-life to learn German, he took up residency in Hamburg for one year. But rather than attempting to converse with the natives, he engaged in a rather bizarre sequence of attempts to “master” the language. Upon arrival in Hamburg, he felt he should memorize a German grammar book and a table of the 248 irregular German verbs! He did this in a matter of only ten days, and hurried to “the academy” (the university) to test his new knowledge. “But alas!” he wrote, “I could not understand a single word, not a single word!” (Gouin 1880:11). Gouin was undaunted. He returned to the isolation of his room, this time to memorize the German roots and to rememorize the grammar book and irregular verbs. Again he emerged with expectations of success.

“But alas . . .” the result was the same as before. In the course of the year in Germany,

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Gouin memorized books, translated Goethe and Schiller, and even memorized 30,000 words in a German dictionary, all in the isolation of his room, only to be crushed by his failure to understand German afterward. Only once did he try to “make conversation” as a method, but this caused people to laugh at him, and he was too embarrassed to continue that method. At the end of the year Gouin, having reduced the Classical Method to absurdity, was forced to return home, a failure.

But there was a happy ending. After returning home, Gouin discovered that his threeyear-old nephew had, during that year, gone through the wonderful stage of child language acquisition in which he went from saying virtually nothing at all to becoming a veritable chatterbox of French. How was it that this little child succeeded so easily in a first language, in a task that Gouin, in a second language, had found impossible? The child must hold the secret to learning a language! So Gouin spent a great deal of time observing his nephew and other children and came to the following conclusions: language learning is primarily a matter of transforming perceptions into conceptions. Children use language to represent their conceptions. Language is a means of thinking, of representing the world to oneself. These insights, remember, were formed by a language teacher more than a century ago!

So Gouin set about devising a teaching method that would follow from these insights.

And thus the Series Method was created, a method that taught learners directly (without translation) and conceptually (without grammatical rules and explanations) a “series” of connected sentences that are easy to perceive. The first lesson of a foreign language would thus teach the following series of fifteen sentences: I walk towards the door. I draw near to the door. I draw nearer to the door. I get to the door. I stop at the door.

I stretch out my arm. I take hold of the handle. I turn the handle. I open the door. I pull the door.

The door moves. The door turns on its hinges. The door turns and turns. I open the door wide. I let go of the handle.

The fifteen sentences have an unconventionally large number of grammatical properties, vocabulary items, word orders, and complexity. This is no simple Voici la table lesson! Yet Gouin was successful with such lessons because the language was so easily understood, stored, recalled, and related to reality. Yet he was a man unfortunately ahead of his time, and his insights were largely lost in the shuffle of Berlitz’s popular Direct Method. But as we look back now over more than a century of language-teaching history, we can appreciate the insights of this most unusual language teacher.

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THE DIRECT METHOD The “naturalistic” –simulating the “natural” way in which children learn first languages– approaches of Gouin and a few of his contemporaries did not take hold immediately. A generation later, applied linguistics finally established the credibility of such approaches.

Thus it was that at the turn of the century the Direct Method became quite widely known and practiced.

The basic premise of the Direct Method was similar to that of Gouin’s Series Method, namely, that second language learning should be more like first language learning —lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no translation between first and second languages, and little or no analysis of grammatical rules. Richards and Rodgers (1986:9-10) summarized the principles of the Direct Method: 1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language.

2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.

3. Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully traded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.

4. Grammar was taught inductively.

5. New teaching points were taught through modeling and practice.

6. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.

7. Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.

8. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.

The Direct Method enjoyed considerable popularity at the beginning of the twentieth century. It was most widely accepted in private language schools where students were highly motivated and where native-speaking teachers could be employed. One of the best known of its popularizers was Charles Berlitz (who never used the term Direct Method and chose instead to call his method the Berlitz Method). To this day “Berlitz” is a household word; Berlitz language schools are thriving in every country of the world.

But almost any “method” can succeed when clients are willing to pay high prices for small classes, individual attention, and intensive study. The Direct Method did not take well in public education, where the constraints of budget, classroom size, time, and teacher background made such a method difficult to use. Moreover, the Direct Method was criticized for its weak theoretical foundations. Its success may have been more a factor of the skill and personality of the teacher than of the methodology itself.

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By the end of the first quarter of the twentieth century the use of the Direct Method had declined both in Europe and in the US. Most language curricula returned to the GrammarTranslation Method or to a “reading approach” that emphasized reading skills in foreign languages. But it is interesting that by the middle of the twentieth century, the Direct Method was revived and redirected into what was probably the most visible of all language teaching “revolutions” in the modern era, the Audiolingual Method (see below).

So even this somewhat short-lived movement in language teaching would reappear in the changing winds and shifting sands of history.

THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD In the first half of the twentieth century, the Direct Method did not take hold in the US the way it did in Europe. While one could easily find native-speaking teachers of modern foreign languages in Europe, such was not the case in the US. Also, European high school and university students did not have to travel far to find opportunities to put the oral skills of another language to actual, practical use. Moreover, US educational institutions had become firmly convinced that a reading approach to foreign languages was more useful than an oral approach, given the perceived linguistic isolation of the US at the time.

The highly influential Coleman Report (Coleman 1929) had persuaded foreign language teachers that it was impractical to teach oral skills and that reading should become the focus. Thus schools returned in the 1930s and 1940s to Grammar Translation, “the handmaiden of reading” (Bowen, Madseu, & Hilferty 1985).

Then World War II broke out, and suddenly the US was thrust into a worldwide conflict, heightening the need for Americans to become orally proficient in the languages of both their allies and their enemies. The time was ripe for a language-teaching revolution. The US military provided the Impetus with funding for special, intensive language courses that focused on aural/oral skills; these courses carne to be known as the Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP) or, more colloquially, the “Army Method.” Characteristic of these courses was a great deal of oral activity—pronunciation and pattern drills and conversation practice—with virtually none of the grammar and translation found in traditional classes. It is ironic that numerous foundation stones of the discarded Direct Method were borrowed and injected into this new approach. Soon, the success of the Army Method and the revived national interest in foreign languages spurred educational institutions to adopt the new methodology. In all its variations and adaptations, the Army Method came to be known in the 1950s as the Audiolingual Method.

The Audiolingual Method (ALM) was firmly grounded in linguistic and psychological theory. Structural linguists of the 1940s and 1950s were engaged in what they claimed was a “scientific descriptive analysis” of various languages; teaching methodologists saw a direct application of such analysis to teaching linguistic pat-terns (Fries 1945). At the same time, behavioristic psychologists advocated conditioning and habit-formation models of learning that were perfectly married with the mimicry drills and pattern practices of audiolingual methodology.

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The characteristics of the ALM may be summed up in the following list (adapted from Prator & Celce-Murcia 1979): 1. New material is presented in dialogue form.

2. There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and overlearning.

3. Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a time.

4. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills.

5. There is little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught by inductive analogy rather than by deductive explanation.

6. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context.

7. There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids.

8. Great importance is attached to pronunciation.

9. Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted.

10. Successful responses are immediately reinforced.

11. There is a great effort to get students to produce error-free utterances.

12. There is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content.

For a number of reasons, the ALM enjoyed many years of popularity and even to this day, adaptations of the ALM are found in contemporary methodologies. The ALM was firmly rooted in respectable theoretical perspectives of the time. Materials were carefully prepared, tested, and disseminated to educational institutions. “Success” could be overtly experienced by students as they practiced their dialogues in off-hours. But the popularity was not to last forever. Challenged by Wilga Rivers’s (1964) eloquent criticism of the misconceptions of the ALM and by its ultimate failure to teach long-term communicative proficiency, ALM’s popularity waned. We discovered that language was not really acquired through a process of habit formation and overlearning, that errors were not necessarily to be avoided at all costs, and that Structural linguistics did not tell us everything about language that we needed to know. While the ALM was a valiant attempt to reap the fruits of language-teaching methodologies that had preceded it, in the end it still fell short, as all methods do. But we learned something from the very failure of the ALM to do everything it had promised, and we moved forward.

COGNITIVE CODE LEARNING The age of audiolingualism, with its emphasis on surface forms and on the rote practice of scientifically produced patterns, began to wane when the Chomskyan revolution in linguistics turned linguists and language teachers toward the “deep structure” of lan-

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guage. Increasing interest in generative transformational grammar and focused attention on the rule-governed nature of language and language acquisition led some languageteaching programs to promote a deductive approach rather than the inductivity of the ALM. Arguing that children subconsciously acquire a system of rules, proponents of a cognitive code learning methodology (see Carroll 1966) began to inject more deductive rule learning into language classes. In an amalgamation of Audiolingual and Grammar Translation techniques, classes retained the drilling typical of ALM but added healthy doses of rule explanations and reliance on grammatical sequencing of material.

Cognitive code learning was not so much a method as it was an approach that emphasized a conscious awareness of rules and their applications to second language learning. It was a reaction to the strictly behavioristic practices of the ALM, and ironically, a return to some of the practices of Grammar Translation. As teachers and materials developers saw that incessant parroting of potentially rote material was not creating communicatively proficient learners, a new twist was needed, and cognitive code learning appeared to provide just such a twist. Unfortunately, the innovation was short-lived, for as surely as rote drilling bored students, overt cognitive attention to the rules, paradigms, intricacies, and exceptions of a language over-taxed the mental reserves of language students.

The profession needed some spice and verve, and innovative minds in the spirited 1970s were up to the challenge.

“DESIGNER” METHODS OF THE SPIRITED 1970s The decade of the 1970s was historically significant on two counts. First, perhaps more than in other decade in “modern” language-teaching history research on second language learning and teaching grew from an offshoot of linguistics to a discipline in its own right. As more and more scholars specialized their efforts in second language acquisition studies, our knowledge of how people learn languages inside and outside the classroom mushroomed. Second, in this spirited atmosphere of pioneering research, a number of innovative if not revolutionary methods were conceived. These “designer” methods (to borrow a term from Nunan 1989a: 97) were soon marketed by entrepreneurs as the latest and greatest applications of the multidisciplinary research findings of the day.

Today, as we look back at these methods, we can applaud them for their innovative flair, for their attempt to rouse the language-teaching world out of its audio-lingual sleep, and for their stimulation of even more research as we sought to discover why they were not the godsend that their inventors and marketers hoped they would be. The scrutiny that the designer methods underwent has enabled us today to incorporate certain elements thereof in our current communicative approaches to language teaching. Let’s look at five of these products of the spirited 1970s.

1. Community Language Learning

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By the decade of the 1970s, as we increasingly recognized the importance of the affective domain, some innovative methods took on a distinctly affective nature. Community Language Learning is a classic example of an affectively based method.

In what he called the “Counseling-Learning” model of education, Charles Curran (1972) was inspired by Cari Rogers’s view of education in which learners in a classroom were regarded not as a “class” but as a “group”—a group in need of certain therapy and counseling. The social dynamics of such a group were of primary importance. In order for any learning to take place, group members first needed to interact in an interpersonal relationship in which students and teacher joined together to facilitate learning in a context of valuing each individual in the group. In such a surrounding, each person lowered the defenses that prevent open interpersonal communication. The anxiety caused by the educational context was lessened by means of the supportive community. The teacher’s presence was not perceived as a threat, nor was it the teacher’s purpose to impose limits and boundaries, but rather, as a true counselor, to center his or her attention on the clients (the students) and their needs. “Defensive” learning was made unnecessary by the empathetic relationship between teacher and students. Curran’s Counseling-Learning model of education thus capitalized on the primacy of the needs of the learners—clients—who gathered together in the educational community to be counseled.

Curran’s Counseling-Learning model of education was extended to language-learning contexts in the form of Community Language Learning (CLL). While particular adaptations of CLL were numerous, the basic methodology was explicit. The group of clients (for instance, beginning learners of English), having first established in their native language (say Japanese) an interpersonal relationship and trust, were seated in a circle with the counselor (teacher) on the outside of the circle. When one of the clients wished to say something to the group or to an individual, he or she said it in the native language (Japanese) and the counselor translated the utterance back to the learner in the second language (English). The learner then repeated that English sentence as accurately as possible. Another client responded, in Japanese; the utterance was translated by the counselor into English; the client repeated it; and the conversation continued. If possible the conversation was taped for later listening, and at the end of each session, the learners inductively attempted together to glean information about the new language. If desirable, the counselor might take a more directive role and provide some explanation of certain linguistic rules or items.

The first stage of intense struggle and confusion might continue for many sessions, but always with the support of the counselor and of the fellow clients. Gradually the learner became able to speak a word or phrase directly in the foreign language, without translation. This was the first sign of the learner’s moving away from complete dependence on the counselor. As the learners gained more and more familiarity with the foreign language, more and more direct communication could take place, with the counselor provid-

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ing less and less direct translation and information. After many sessions, perhaps many months or years later, the learner achieved fluency in the spoken language. The learner had at that point become independent.

CLL reflected not only the principles of Carl Rogers’s view of education, but also basic principles of the dynamics of counseling in which the counselor, through careful attention to the client’s needs, aids the client in moving from dependence and helplessness to independence and self-assurance.

There were advantages and disadvantages to a method like CLL. The affective advantages were evident. CLL was an attempt to put Rogers’s philosophy into action and to overcome some of the threatening affective factors in second language learning. The threat of the all-knowing teacher, of making blunders in the foreign language in front of classmates, of competing against peers –all threats that can lead to a feeling of alienation and inadequacy– were presumably removed. The counselor allowed the learner to determine the type of conversation and to analyze the foreign language inductively. In situations in which explanation or translation seemed to be impossible, it was often the client-learner who stepped in and became a counselor to aid the motivation and capitalize on intrinsic motivation.

There were some practical and theoretical problems with CLL. The counselor-teacher could become too nondirective. The student often needed direction, especially in the first stage, in which there was such seemingly endless struggle within the foreign language.

Supportive but assertive direction from the counselor could strengthen the method. Another problem with CLL was its reliance on an inductive strategy of learning. It is well accepted that deductive learning is both a viable and efficient strategy of learning and that adults particularly can benefit from deduction as well as induction. While some intense inductive struggle is a necessary component of second language learning, the initial grueling days and weeks of floundering in ignorance in CLL could be alleviated by more directed, deductive learning, “by being told.” Perhaps only in the second or third stage, when the learner has moved to more independence, is an inductive strategy really successful. Finally, the success of CLL depended largely on the translation expertise of the counselor. Translation is an intricate and complex process that is often “easier said than done”; if subtle aspects of language are mistranslated, there can be a less than effective understanding of the target language.

Today, virtually no one uses CLL exclusively in a curriculum. Like other methods in this chapter, it was far too restrictive for institutional language programs. However, the principles of discovery learning, student-centered participation, and development of student autonomy (independence) all remain viable in their application to language classrooms.

As is the case with virtually any method, the theoretical underpinnings of CLL may be creatively adapted to your own situation.

2. Suggestopedia Other new methods of the decade were not quite as strictly affective as CLL. Suggesto-

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pedia, for example, was a method that was derived from Bulgarian psychologist Georgi Lozanov’s (1979) contention that the human brain could process great quantities of material if given the right conditions for learning, among which are a state of relaxation and giving over of control to the teacher. According to Lozanov, people are capable of learning much more than they give themselves credit for. Drawing on insights from Soviet psychological research on extrasensory perception and from yoga, Lozanov created a method for learning that capitalized on relaxed states of mind for maximum retention of material. Music was central to his method. Baroque music, with its 60 beats per minute and its specific rhythm, created the kind of “relaxed concentration” that led to “superlearning” (Ostrander & Schroeder 1979: 65). According to Lozanov, during the soft playing of baroque music, one can take in tremendous quantities of material due to an increase in alpha brain waves and a decrease in blood pressure and pulse rate.

In applications of Suggestopedia to foreign language learning, Lozanov and his followers experimented with the presentation of vocabulary, readings, dialogs, role-plays, drama, and a variety of other typical classroom activities. Some of the classroom methodology was not particularly unique. The primary difference lay in a significant proportion of activity carried out in soft, comfortable seats in relaxed states of consciousness. Students were encouraged to be as “childlike” as possible, yielding all authority to the teacher and sometimes assuming the roles (and names) of native speakers of the foreign language.

Students thus became “suggestible.” Lozanov (1979: 272) described the concert session portion of a Suggestopedia language class: At the beginning of the session, all conversation stops for a minute or two, and the teacher listens to the music coming from a tape-recorder. He waits and listens to several passages in order to enter into the mood of the music and then begins to read or recite the new text, his voice modulated in harmony with the musical phrases. The students follow the text in their textbooks where each lesson is translated into the mother tongue. Between the first and second part of the concert, there are several minutes of solemn silence. In some cases, even longer pauses can be given to permit the students to stir a little.

Before the beginning of the second part of the concert, there are again several minutes of silence and some phrases of the music are heard again before the teacher begins to read the text. Now the students close their textbooks and listen to the teacher’s reading. At the end, the students silently leave the room. They are not told to do any homework on the lesson they have just had except for reading it cursorily once before going to bed and again before getting up in the morning.

Suggestopedia was criticized on a number of fronts. Scovel (1979) showed quite eloquently that Lozanov’s experimental data, in which he reported astounding results with Suggestopedia, were highly questionable. Moreover, the practicality of using Suggestopedia is an issue that teachers must face where music and comfort-able chairs are not available. More serious is the issue of the place of memorization in language learning.

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Scovel (1979: 260-61) noted that Lozanov’s “innumerable references to ... memorization ... to the total exclusion of references to ‘understanding’ and/or ‘creative solutions of problems’ convinces this reviewer at least that suggestopedy ... is an attempt to teach memorization techniques and is not devoted to the far more comprehensive enterprise of language acquisition.” On the other hand, other researchers, including Schiffler (1992: xv), have suggested a more moderate position on Suggestopedia, hoping “to prevent the exaggerated expectations of Suggestopedia that have been promoted in some publications.”

Like some other designer methods (CLL and the Silent Way, for example), Suggestopedia became a business enterprise of its own, and it made promises in the advertising world that were not completely supported by research. Despite such dubious claims, Suggestopedia gave the language-teaching profession some insights. We learned a bit about how to believe in the power of the human brain. We learned that deliberately induced states of relaxation may be beneficial in the classroom. And numerous teachers have at times experimented with various forms of music as a way to get students to sit back and relax.

3. The Silent Way Like Suggestopedia, the Silent Way rested on more cognitive than affective arguments for its theoretical sustenance. While Caleb Gattegno, its founder, was said to be interested in a “humanistic” approach (Chamot & McKeon 1984:2) to education, much of the Silent Way was characterized by a problem-solving approach to learning. Richards and Rodgers (1986: 99) summarized the theory of learning behind the Silent Way: 1. Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned.

2. Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects.

3. Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned.

“Discovery learning,” a popular educational trend of the 1960s, advocated less learning “by being told” and more learning by discovering for oneself various facts and principles.

In this way, students constructed conceptual hierarchies of their own that were a product of the time they invested. Ausubel’s “subsumption” was enhanced by discovery learning since the cognitive categories were created meaningfully with less chance of rote learning taking place. Inductive processes were also encouraged more in discoverylearning methods.

The Silent Way capitalized on such discovery-learning procedures. Gattegno (1972) believed that learners should develop independence, autonomy, and responsibility. At the same time, learners in a Silent Way classroom had to cooperate with each other in the

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process of solving language problems. The teacher –a stimulator but not a hand-holder –was silent much of the time, thus the name of the method. Teachers had to resist their instinct to spell everything out in black and white, to come to the aid of students at the slightest downfall; they had to “get out of the way” while students worked out solutions.

In a language classroom, the Silent Way typically utilized as materials a set of Cuisenaire rods –small colored rods of varying lengths– and a series of colorful wall charts. The rods were used to introduce vocabulary (colors, numbers, adjectives [long, short, and so on]), verbs (give, take, pick up, drop), and syntax (tense, comparatives, pluralization, word order, and the like). The teacher provided single-word stimuli, or short phrases and sentences, once or twice, and then the students refined their understanding and pronunciation among themselves with minimal corrective feedback from the teacher. The charts introduced pronunciation models, grammatical paradigms, and the like.

Like Suggestopedia, the Silent Way has had its share of criticism. In one sense, the Silent Way was too harsh a method, and the teacher too distant, to encourage a communicative atmosphere. Students often need more guidance and overt correction than the Silent Way permitted. There are a number of aspects of language that can indeed be “told” to students to their benefit; they need not, as in CLL as well, struggle for hours or days with a concept that could be easily clarified by the teacher’s direct guidance. The rods and charts wear thin after a few lessons, and other materials must be introduced, at which point the Silent Way classroom can look like any other language classroom.

And yet, the underlying principles of the Silent Way are valid. All too often we’re tempted as teachers to provide everything for our students, neatly served up on a silver platter.

We could benefit from injecting healthy doses of discovery learning into our classroom activities and from providing less teacher talk than we usually do to let the students work things out on their own.

4. Total Physical Response James Asher (1977), the developer of Total Physical Response (TPR), actually began experimenting with TPR in the 1960s, but it was almost a decade before the method was widely discussed in professional circles. Today TPR, with simplicity as its most appealing facet, is a household word among language teachers.

You will recall from earlier in this chapter that more than a century ago, Gouin designed his Series Method on the premise that language associated with a series of simple actions will be easily retained by learners. Much later, psychologists developed the “trace theory” of learning in which it was claimed that memory is increased if it is stimulated, or “traced,” through association with motor activity. Over the years, language teachers have intuitively recognized the value of associating language with physical activity. So while the idea of building a method of language teaching on the principle of psychomotor associations was not new, it was this very idea that Asher capitalized upon in developing TPR.

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TPR combined a number of other insights in its rationale. Principles of child language acquisition were important. Asher (1977) noted that children, in learning their first language, appear to do a lot of listening before they speak, and that their listening is accompanied by physical responses (reaching, grabbing, moving, looking, and so forth). He also gave some attention to right-brain learning (PLLT, Chapter 5). According to Asher, motor activity is a right-brain function that should precede left-brain language processing. Asher was also convinced that language classes were often the locus of too much anxiety so he wished to devise a method that was as stress-free as possible, where learners would not feel overly self-conscious and defensive. The TPR classroom, then, was one in which students did a great deal of listening and acting. The teacher was very directive in orchestrating a performance: “The instructor is the director of a stage play in which the students are the actors” (Asher 1977:43).

Typically, TPR heavily utilized the imperative mood, even into more advanced proficiency levels. Commands were an easy way to get learners to move about and to loosen up: Open the window, Close the door, Stand up, Sit down, Pick up the book, Give it to John, and so on. No verbal response was necessary. More complex syntax could be incorporated into the imperative: Draw a rectangle on the chalk-board, Walk quickly to the door and hit it. Humor is easy to introduce: Walk slowly to the window and jump, Put your tooth brush in your book (Asher 1977: 55). Interrogatives were also easily dealt with: Where is the book? Who is John? (students pointed to the book or to John). Eventually students, one by one, would feel comfortable enough to venture verbal responses to questions, then to ask questions themselves, and to continue the process.

Like every other method we have encountered, TPR had its limitations. It seemed to be especially effective in the beginning levels of language proficiency, but it lost its distinctiveness as learners advanced in their competence. In a TPR classroom, after students overcame the fear of speaking out, classroom conversations and other activities proceeded as in almost any other communicative language classroom. In TPR reading and writing activities, students are limited to spinning off from the oral work in the classroom. Its appeal to the dramatic or theatrical nature of language learning was attractive. (See Smith 1984 and Stern 1983 for discussions of the use of drama in foreign language classrooms.) But soon learners’ needs for spontaneity and unrehearsed language must be met.

5. The Natural Approach Stephen Krashen’s (1982, 1997) theories of second language acquisition have been widely discussed and hotly debated over the years. The major methodological offshoot of Krashen’s views was manifested in the Natural Approach, developed by one of Krashen’s colleagues, Tracy Terrell (Krashen & Terrell 1983). Acting on many of the claims that Asher made for a comprehension-based approach such as TPR, Krashen and Terrell felt that learners would benefit from delaying production until speech “emerges,” that

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learners should be as relaxed as possible in the classroom, and that a great deal of communication and “acquisition” should take place, as opposed to analysis. In fact, the Natural Approach advocated the use of TPR activities at the beginning level of language learning when “comprehensible input” is essential for triggering the acquisition of language.

There are a number of possible long-range goals of language instruction. In some cases second languages are learned for oral communication; in other cases for written communication; and in still others there may be an academic emphasis on, say, listening to lectures, speaking in a classroom context, or writing a research paper. The Natural Approach was aimed at the goal of basic personal communication skills, that is, everyday language situations –conversations, shopping, listening to the radio, and the like. The initial task of the teacher was to provide comprehensible input, that is, spoken language that is understandable to the learner or just a little beyond the learner’s level. Learners need not say anything during this “silent period” until they feel ready to do so. The teacher was the source of the learners’ input and the creator of an interesting and stimulating variety of classroom activities– commands, games, skits, and small-group work.

In the Natural Approach, learners presumably move through what Krashen and Terrell defined as three stages: (a) The preproduction stage is the development of listening comprehension skills. (b)The early production stage is usually marked with errors as the student struggles with the language. The teacher focuses on meaning here, not on form, and therefore the teacher does not make a point of correcting errors during this stage (unless they are gross errors that block or hinder meaning entirely). (c)The last stage is one of extending production into longer stretches of discourse involving more complex games, role-plays, open-ended dialogues, discussions, and extended small-group work. Since the objective in this stage is to promote fluency, teachers are asked to be very sparse in their correction of errors.

The most controversial aspects of the Natural Approach were its advocacy of a “silent period” (delay of oral production) and its heavy emphasis on comprehensible input. The delay of oral production until speech “emerges” has shortcomings (see Gibbons 1985). What about the student whose speech never emerges? And with all students at different timetables for this so-called emergence, how does the teacher manage a classroom efficiently? Furthermore, the concept of comprehensible input is difficult to pin down, as Langi (1984:18) noted: How does one know which structures the learners are to be provided with? From the examples of “teacher talk” provided in the book (Krashen andTerrell, 1983), communication interactions seem to be guided by the topic of conversation rather than by the structures of the language. The decision of which structures to use appears to be left to some mysterious sort of intuition, which many teachers may not possess.

On a more positive note, most teachers and researchers agree that we are all too prone to insist that learners speak right away, and so we can take from the Natural Approach the good advice that for a period of time, while students grow accustomed

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to the new language, their silence is beneficial. Through TPR and other forms of input, students’ language egos are not as easily threatened, and they aren’t forced into immediate risk-taking that could embarrass them. The resulting self-confidence eventually can spur a student to venture to speak out.

Innovative methods such as these five methods of the 1970s expose us to principles and practices that you can sift through, weigh, and adapt to multiple contexts. Your responsibility as a teacher is to choose the best of what others have experimented with and adapt those insights to your own situation. Those insights and intuitions can become a part of your own principled approach to language teaching.

BEYOND METHOD: NOTIONAL-FUNCTIONAL SYLLABUSES As the innovative methods of the 1970s were being touted by some and criticized by many, some significant foundations for future growth were being laid in what soon came to be popularly known as the Notional-Functional Syllabus. Beginning with the work of the Council of Europe (Van Ek & Alexander 1975) and later followed by numerous interpretations of “notional” syllabuses (Wilkins 1976), Notional-Functional Syllabuses (hereafter referred to as NFS) began to be used in the United Kingdom in the 1970s.

The distinguishing characteristics of the NFS were its attention to functions as the organizing elements of English language curriculum, and its contrast with a structural syllabus in which sequenced grammatical structures served as the organizers. Reacting to methods that attended too strongly to grammatical form, the NFS focused strongly– and in some of its interpretations, exclusively –on the pragmatic purposes to which we put language. As such, it was not a method at all. It was close to what we can call “approach”, but it was more specifically focused on curricular structure than a true approach would be.

“Notions,” according to Van Ek and Alexander (1975), are both general and specific.

General notions are abstract concepts such as existence, space, time, quantity, and quality. They are domains in which we use language to express thought and feeling. Within the general notion of space and time, for example, are the concepts of location, motion, dimension, speed, length of time, frequency, etc. “Specific notions” correspond more closely to what we have become accustomed to calling “contexts” or “situations.” Personal identification, for example, is a specific notion under which name, address, phone number, and other personal information are subsumed. Other specific notions include travel, health and welfare, education, shopping, services, and free time.

The “functional” part of the NFS corresponded to language functions. Curricula were organized around such functions as identifying, reporting, denying, accepting, declining, asking permission, apologizing, etc. Van Ek and Alexander listed some seventy different language functions.

The NFS quickly provided popular underpinnings for the development of communicative textbooks and materials in English language courses. The functional basis of language programs has continued to the present day. In Brown (1999), for example, the following

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functions are covered in the first several lessons of an advanced beginner’s textbook: 1. Introducing self and other people 2. Exchanging personal information 3. Asking how to spell someone’s name 4. Giving commands 5. Apologizing and thanking 6. Identifying and describing people 7. Asking for information It is important to emphasize, in this historical sketch of methodology, that the NFS did not necessarily develop communicative competence in learners. First, it was not a method, which would specify how you would teach something; it was a syllabus. And while it was clearly a precursor to what we now call Communicative Language Teaching, as a syllabus it still presented language as an inventory of units—functional rather than grammatical units—but units nonetheless. Communicative competence implies a set of strategies for getting messages sent and received and for negotiating meaning as an interactive participant in discourse, whether spoken or written. Therefore, the danger that the NFS could simply be “structural lamb served up as notional-functional mutton” (Campbell 1978: 18) was ever-present. However, the NFS did indeed set the stage for bigger and better things, By attending to the functional purposes of language, and by providing contextual (notional) settings for the realization of those purposes, it provided a link between a dynasty of methods that were perishing and a new era of language teaching.

As an aid to your recollection of the characteristics of some of the methods reviewed earlier, you may wish to refer to Table A, in which the Audiolingual Method, the five “designer” methods, and the Communicative Language Teaching Approach are summarized according to eight different criteria.

On looking back over this meandering history, you can no doubt see the cycles of changing winds and shifting sands alluded to earlier. In some ways the cycles were, as Marckwardt proposed, each about a quarter of a century in length, or roughly a generation.

In this remarkable succession of changes, we learned something in each generation.

We did not allow history simply to deposit new dunes exactly where the old ones lay.

So our cumulative history has taught us to appreciate the value of “doing” language interactively, of the emotional (as well as cognitive) side of learning, of absorbing language automatically, of consciously analyzing it, and of pointing learners toward the real world where they will use English communicatively.

Table A. Approaches and methods –an overview (adapted from Nunan 1989)

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Theory of learning

Objectives

Syllabus

Language is a system of rule-governed structures hierarchically arranged.

Habit formation; skills are learned more effec-tively if oral precedes written; analogy, not analysis.

Control of structures of sound, form, and order, mastery over symbols of the language; goal: native-speaker mastery.

Graded syllabus of phonology, morphology, and syntax. Contrastive analysis.

Basically a structuralist, grammar-based view of language.

L2 learning is the same as L1 learning; comprehension before production, is “imprinted” through carrying out commands.

Teach oral proficiency to produce learners who can communicate uninhibitedly and intelligibly with native speakers.

Sentence-based sylab with grammatical and lexical critena being primary, but focus on meaning, not form.

The Silent Way

Each language is composed of elements that give it a unique rhythm and spirit. Functional vocabulary and core structure are key to the spirit of the language.

Processes of learning a second language are fundamentally different from L1 learning. L2 learning is an intellectual, cognitive process. Surrender to the music of the language, silent awareness then active trial.

Near native fluency, correct pronunciation, hasic practical knowledge of the grammar of the L2.

Learner learns how to learn a language.

Basically structural lessons planned around grammatical items and related vocabulary. items are introduced according to theír grammatical complexity.

Language is more than a system for communication. It involves whole person, culture, educational, developmental communicative processes.

Learning involves the whole person. It is a social process of growth from childlike dependence to self-direction and independence.

No specific objectives.

Near-native mastery is the goal.

No set syllabus. Course progression is topicbased; learners provide the topics. Syllabus emerges from learners’ intention and the teacher’s reformulations.

The essence of language is meaning. Vocabulary, not grammar, is the heart of language.

There are two ways of L2 language development: “acquisition” –a natural subconscious process, and “learning”–a conscious process. Learning cannot lead to acquisition.

Designed to give beginners and intermediate learners basic communicative skills. Four broad areas; basic personal communicative skills (oral/ written); academic learning skills (oral/ written).

Based on selection of communicative activities and topics derived from learner needs.

Rather conventional, although memorization of whole meaningful o texts is recommended.

Learning occurs through suggestion, when learners are in a deeply relaxed state. Baroque music is used to induce this state.

To deliver advanced conversational competence quickly. Leaners are required to master prodigious lists of vocabulary Pairs, although the goal is understanding, not memorization.

Ten unit courses consisting of 1200-word dialogues graded by vocabulary and grammar.

Language is a system for the expression of meaning; primary function-interaction and communication.

Activities involving realcommunication; carrying out meaningful tasks; and using language which is meaningful to the learner promote learning.

Objectives will reflect the needs of the learner; they will include functional kills as well as linguistic objectives.

Will include some/all of structures, functions, notions, themes, tasks. rdering the following: will be guided by learner needs.

Communicative Language Teaching

Suggestopedia

The Natural Approach

Total Physical response

Audiolingual

Theory of language

Community Language Learning

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Activitiy Types

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Learner roles

Teacher roles

roles of material

Didáctica del inglés I

Dialogues and drills, repetition and memorization,pattern practice.

Organisms that can be directed by skilled. Training techniques to produce correct responses.

Central and active teacher-dominated method. Provides model, controls direction and pace.

Primarily teacher-oriented.

Tapes and visuals, language lab often used.

Imperative drills to elicit physical actions.

Listener and performer, little influence over the content of learning.

Active and direct role; “the director of a stage play” with students as actors.

No basic text; materials and media have an important role later. Initially voice, action, and gestures are sufficient.

Learner responses to commands, questions, and visual cues. Activities encourage and shape oral responses without grammatical explanation or modeling by teacher.

Learning is a process of personal growth.

Learners are responsible for their own learning and must develop independence, autonomy, and responsibility.

Teachers must (a) teach (b) test (c) get out of the way.

Remain impassive.

Resist temptation to model, remodel, assist, direct, exhort.

Unique materials: colored rods, color-coded pronunciation and vocabu-lary charts.

Combination of innovative and conventional. Translation, group work, recording, transcription, reflection and observation, listening, free conversation.

Learners are members of a community. Learning is not viewed as an individual accomplishment, but something that is achieved collaboratively.

Counseling/parental analogy. Teacher provides a safe environment in which students can learn and grow.

No textbook, which would inhibit growth. Materials are developed as course progresses.

Activities allowing comprehensible input, about things in the here-and-now. Focus on meaning, not form.

Should not try to learn language in the usualsense, but should try to lose themselves in activi ties involving meaningful communication.

The teacher is the primary source of comprehensible input. Must create positive low-anxiety climate. Must choose and orchestrate a rich mixture of classroom activities.

Materials come from realia rather than text-books.

Primary aim is to promote comprehension and communication.

Initiatives, question and answer, role-play, listening exercises under deep relaxation.

Must maintain a passive and allow the materials to work on them (rather than vice versa).

To create situations in which the learner is most suggestible and present material in a way most likely to encourage position.

Must exude authorIty and confidence

Consists of texts, tapes classroom fixtures, and music. Texts should have forcé, literary quality, and interesting characters.

Engage learners in com¬munication, involve processes such as information sharing, negotiation of meaning, and interaction.

Learner as negotiator, interactor, giving as well as taking.

Facilitator of the commu nication process, participants’ tasks, and texts; needs analyst, counselor, process manager.

Primary role in promoting communicative language use; task-based materials; authentic.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION, AND RESEARCH

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[Note: (I) Individual work; (G) group or pair work; (C) whole-class discussion.]

1. (I) Since this chapter refers to some basic principles and issues that are normally covered in a course in second language acquisition (and in books like PLLT and Mitchell and Myles 1998), it is quite important at this point for you to review such material. For example, varied theories of learning are implied in all the methods just reviewed; the role of affective factors in second language acquisition is highlighted in some methods; conscious and subconscious (or focal and peripheral) processing assumes various roles, depending on the method in question. If you encountered concepts or issues that you needed to brush up on as you read this chapter, make some time for a thorough review.

2. (G) Given the choice of Richards and Rodgers’s or Anthony’s earlier model of looking at the concepts of approach, method, design, procedure, and technique, which is preferable? Direct small groups to discuss preferences. If there is disagreement, groups should try to come to a consensus. Make sure groups deal with Richards and Rodgers’s rationale for the change.

3. (G) Consider the Series Method, the Direct Method, and the Audiolingual Method. Assign a different method to each of several small groups. The task is to list the theoretical foundations on which the method rested and share findings with the whole class.

4. (C) Richards and Rodgers (1986: 5) said Grammar Translation “is a method for which there is no theory.” Is this too harsh a judgment? Ask students if they agree with the theorylessness of Grammar Translation and why.

5. (G/C) Review the five “designer” methods. If class size permits, assign a method to each of five different small groups, where each group will “defend” its method against the others. The group task is to prepare arguments in favor of its method, questions to ask of other methods, and counter-arguments against what other groups might ask them. After a modified debate, end with a whole-class discussion.

6. (C) Three of the five “designer” methods (CLL, Silent Way, and Suggestopedia) were (and still are, to some extent) proprietary, with their own commercial publishing and educational company. Ask students to consider how that fact might color (a) the objectivity with which its backers promote each method and (b) public reception to it?

7. (C) Chapter 1 described a classroom lesson in English as a second language. Ask students to look back through that lesson now and, in light of the various methodological positions that have occupied the last century or so of language teaching, to determine how the activities/techniques in the lesson reflect some of the theoretical foundations on which certain methods were constructed. For example, when the teacher did a quick choral drill (#26). how would one support that technique with principles that lay behind the

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ALM? 8. (G/C) Ask students in small groups to review the cycles of “shifting sands’’ since Gouin’s time. How did each new method borrow from previous practices? What did each reject in previous practices? Each group will then share their conclusions with the rest of the class.

On the board, you might reconstruct the historical progression in the form of a time line with characteristics listed for each “era.” If time permits, try to determine what the prevailing intellectual or political mood was when certain methods were flowering. For example, the ALM was a product of a military training program and flourished during an era when scientific solutions to all problems were diligently sought.

Are there some logical connections here?

THE PRESENT: AN INFORMED “APPROACH” The “methodical” history, even with our brief look at Notional-Functional Syllabuses, does not quite bring us up to the present. By the end of the 1980s, the profession had learned some profound lessons from our past wanderings. We had learned to be cautiously eclectic in making enlightened choices of teaching practices that were solidly grounded in the best of what we knew about second language learning and teaching. We had amassed enough research on learning and teaching that we could indeed formulate an integrated approach to language-teaching practices. And, perhaps ironically, the methods that were such strong signposts of our century-old journey were no longer of great consequence in marking our progress. How did that happen?

In the 1970s and early 1980s, there was a good deal of hoopla about the “designer” methods described. Even though they were it widely adopted as standard methods, they were nevertheless symbolic of a profession at least partially caught up in am ad scramble to invent a new method when the very concept of “method” was eroding under our feet. We didn’t need a new method. We needed, instead, to get on with the business of unifying our approach to language teaching and of designing effective tasks and techniques that were informed by that approach.

And so, today those clearly identifiable and enterprising methods are an interesting if not insightful contribution to our professional repertoire, but few practitioners look to any one of them, or their predecessors, for a final answer on how to teach a foreign language (Kumaravadivelu 1994,1995). Method, as a unified, cohesive, finite set of design features, is now given only minor attention.2 The profession has at last reached the point of maturity where we recognize that the diversity of language learners in multiple worldwide contexts demands an eclectic 2

While we may have outgrown our need to search for such definable methods nevertheless, the term “methodology” continues to be used, as it would in any other behavioral sience, to refer to the systematic application on validated principles to practical contexts. You need not therefore subscribe to a particular Method (with a capital M) in order to engage in a “methodology”.

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blend of tasks, each tailored for a particular group of learners in a particular place, studying for particular purposes in a given amount of time. David Nunan C1991b: 228) sums it up nicely: “It has been realized that there never was and probably never will be a method for all, and the focus in recent years has been on the development of classroom tasks and activities which are consonant with what we know about second language acquisition, and which are also in keeping with the dynamics of the classroom itself.”

AN ENLIGHTENED, ECLECTIC APPROACH It should be clear from the foregoing that as an “enlightened, eclectic” teacher, you think in terms of a number of possible methodological options at your disposal for tailoring classes to particular contexts. Your approach, or rationale for language learning and teaching, therefore takes on great importance. Your approach includes a number of basic principles of learning and teaching (such as those that will be elaborated on in the next chapter) on which you can rely for designing and evaluating classroom lessons. Your approach to languageteaching methodology is a theoretically well informed global understanding of the process of learning and teaching. It is inspired by the interconnection of all your reading and observing and discussing and teaching, and that interconnection underlies everything that you do in the classroom.

But your approach to language pedagogy is not just a set of static principles “set in stone.” It is, in fact, a dynamic composite of energies within you that change (or should change, if you are a growing teacher) with your experiences in your own learning and teaching. The way you understand the language-learning process what makes for successful and unsuccessful learning-may be relatively stable across months or years, but don’t ever feel too smug. There is far too much that we do not know collectively about this process, and there are far too many new research findings pouring in, to allow you to assume that you can confidently assert that you know everything you already need to know about language and language learning.

The interaction between your approach and your classroom practice is the key to dynamic teaching. The best teachers always take a few calculated risks in the classroom, trying new activities here and there. The inspiration for such innovation comes from the approach level, but the feedback that these teachers gather from actual implementation then informs their overall understanding of what learning and teaching is. Which, in turn, may give rise to a new insight and more innovative possibilities, and the cycle continues.

If you have little or no experience in teaching and are perhaps now in a teacher education program, you may feel you cannot yet describe your own approach

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to language learning and teaching. Go the other hand, you might just surprise yourself at the intuitions you already have about the foundations of teaching. Look at the following selected list of potential choices you have in designing a lesson.

On the basis of what you know so far about second language acquisition and the pedagogical process, think about (a) which side of a continuum of possibilities you would generally lean toward, (b) why you would lean that way, and, most important, (e) what contextual variables might influence a change away from your general inclination. For example, the first item below asks you to choose between “meaning” and “grammar” for a focus. While you might lean toward meaning because you know that too much focus on form could detracts from communicative acquisition, aerating classroom objectives and tasks might demand a focus on grammar. Here is the list: 1. Language classes should focus on a) meaning b) grammar 2. Students learn best by using plenty of a) analysis b) intuition 3. It is better for a student to a) think directly in the L2 b) use translation from L1 4. Language learners need a) immediate rewards b) long-term rewards 5. With new language learners, teachers need to be a) tough and demanding b) gentle and empathetic

6. A teacher’s feedback to the student should be given

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a) Frequently b) infrequently, so Ss will develop autonomy 7. A communicative c1ass should give special attention to a) Accuracy b) fluency Were you able to respond to these items? If you could choose an (a) or (b) for each, it indicates that you do indeed have some intuitions about teaching, and perhaps the beginnings of an approach. Your approach is guided by a number of factors: your own experience as a learner in classrooms, whatever teaching experience you may already have had, classroom observations you have made, books you have read, and previous courses in the field. But more important, if you found that in almost every choice you wanted to add something like “but it depends on ... ,” then you are on the way toward developing an enlightened approach to language learning and teaching. Our approaches to language teaching must always be tempered by specific contexts of teaching! Rarely can we say with absolute certainty that some principle applies to all learners in all contexts for all purposes.

Your approach also will differ on various issues from that of a colleague of yours, or even a supervising teacher, just as “experts” in the field differ in their theoretical stance-in their interpretations of research on learning and teaching. There are two reasons for variation at the approach level: (a) an approach is by definition dynamic and therefore subject to some “tinkering” as a result of one’s observation and experience, and (b) research in second language acquisition and pedagogy almost always yields findings that are not conclusive, but are subject to interpretation.

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING Is there a currently recognized approach that is a gene rally accepted norm in the field? The answer is a qualified “yes.” That qualified “yes” can be captured in the term communicative language teaching (CLT), and the qualifications to that answer lie in the numerous possible ways of defaming CLT and a plethora of interpretations and classroom applications.

In the previous chapter you were introduced to a progression of methods that defamed a century or more of language-teaching history. Beneath those methods lay some important theoretical assumptions. In the 1940s and 1950s, the profession was determined to behavioristically program a scientifically ordered set of linguistic structures into the minds of learners through conditioning. In the 1960s we were quite worried about how Chomsky’s generative grammar was going to fit

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Didáctica del inglés I

into our language classrooms and how to inject the cognitive code of a language into the process of absorption. The innovativeness of the 1970s brought affective factors to the forefront of some wildly experimental language-teaching methods.

The late 1970s and early 1980s saw the beginnings of what we now recognize as a communicative approach as we better and better understand the functions that must be incorporated into a classroom. The late 1980s and 1990s saw the development of approaches that highlighted the fundamentally communicative properties of language, and classrooms were increasingly characterized by authenticity, real-world simulation, and meaningful tasks.

Today we continue our professional march through history. Beyond grammatical and discourse elements in communication, we are probing the nature of social, cultural, and pragmatic features of language. We are exploring pedagogical means for “real-life” communication in the classroom. We are trying to get our learners to develop linguistic fluency, not just the accuracy that so consumed our historical journey. We are equipping our students with tools for generating unrehearsed language performance “out there” when they leave the womb of our classrooms.

We are concerned with how to facilitate lifelong language learning among our students, not just with the immediate classroom task. We are looking at learners as partners in a cooperative venture. And our classroom practices seek to draw on whatever intrinsically sparks learners to reach their fullest potential.

AlI of these theoretical interests underlie what we can best describe as CLT. It is difficult to offer a definition of CLT. It is a unified but broadly based, theoretically well informed set of tenets about the nature of language and of language learning and teaching. From the earlier seminal works in CLT (Widdowson 1978, Breen & Candlin 1980, Savignon 1983) up to more recent teacher education textbooks (Brown 2000, Richard-Amato 1996, Lee & VanPatten 1995, Nunan 1991a), we have definitions enough to send us reeling. For the sake of simplicity and directness, I offer the following six interconnected characteristics as a description of CLT: 1. Classroom goals are focused on all of the components (grammatical, discourse, functional, sociolinguistic, and strategic) of communicative competence. Goals therefore must intertwine the organizational aspects of language with the pragmatic.

2. Language techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes. Organizational language forms are not the central focus, but rather aspects of language that enable the learner to accomplish those purposes.

3. Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative techniques. At times fluency may have to take on more importance than accuracy in order to keep learners meaningfully engaged in language use.

4. Students in a communicative class ultimately have to use the language, productively

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and receptively, in unrehearsed contexts outside the classroom. Classroom tasks must therefore equip students with the skills necessary for communication in those contexts.

5. Students are given opportunities to focus on their own learning process through an understanding of their own styles of learning and through the development of appropriate strategies for autonomous learning.

6. The role of the teacher is that of facilitator and guide, not an all-knowing bestower of knowIedge. Students are therefore encouraged to construct meaning through genuine linguistic interaction with others.

These six characteristics underscore some major departures from earlier proaches. In some ways those departures were a gradual product of outgrowing the numerous methods that characterized a long stretch of history. In other ways ose departures were radical. Structurally (grammatically) sequenced curricula were a mainstay of language teaching for centuries. CLT suggests that grammatical cture might better be subsumed under various functional categories. In CLT we . considerably less attention to the overt presentation and discussion of grammatical rules than we traditionally did. A great deal of use of authentic language is lied in CLT, as we attempt to build fluency (Chambers 1997). It is important to note, however, that fluency should never be encouraged at the expense of clear, unambiguous, direct communication. Much more spontaneity is present in communicative classrooms: students are encouraged to deal with unrehearsed situations under the guidance, but not control, of the teacher. The importance of learners’ developing a strategic approach to acquisition is a total turnabout from earlier methods that never broached the topic of strategies-based instruction. And, fInally, the teacher’s facilitative role in CLT is the product of two decades or more of slowly recognizing the importance of learner initiative in the classroom.

Some of the characteristics of CLT make it difficult for a nonnative speaking teacher who is not very proficient in the second language to teach effectively. Dialogues, drills, rehearsed exercises, and discussions (in the first language) of grammatical rules are much simpler for some nonnative speaking teachers to contend with. This drawback should not deter one, however, from pursuing communicative goals in the classroom. Technology (such as video, television, audiotapes, the Internet, the web, and computer software) can aid such teachers. Moreover, in the last decade or so, we have se en a marked increase in English teachers’ proficiency levels around the world. As educational and political institutions in various countries become more sensitive to the importance of teaching foreign languages for cornmunicative purposes (not just for the purpose of fulftlling a “requirement” or of “passing a test”), we may be better able, worldwide, to accomplish the goals of communicative language teaching.

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One of the most comprehensive lists of CLT features carne some time ago from Finocchiaro and Brurnfit (1983: 91-93) in a comparison of audiolingual methodology with what they called the Communicative Approach. Because of its practicality, their list is reprinted in Table B. In subsequent chapters, as you grapple with designing specific classroom techniques and planning lessons, you will be given chances to apply your understanding of CLT and, no doubt, to refine that understanding.

At the beginning of this section, it was noted that a “yes” to CLT needed to be qualifIed. Why the caution? Doesn’t all the above make perfectly good sense? Haven’t CLT principIes been applied repeatedly, and successfully, in classrooms around the world? Indeed, you can with so me assurance latch on to the CLT label and,like a member of a club, ayes that you “believe in CLT,” and be allowed to step inside the gates. But as with every issue in our field, there are caveats.

1. Beware of giving lip service 10 principIes of CLT (and related principIes like cooperative learning, interactive teaching, learner-centered classes, contentcentered education, whole language, etc. –see the next sections in this chapter) but not truly grounding your teaching techniques in such principIes. No one these days would admit to a disbelief in principIes of CLT; they would be marked as a heretic. But if you believe the term characterizes your teaching, then make sure you do indeed understand and practice your convictions.

2. Avoid overdoing certain CLT features: engaging in real-life, authentic language in the classroom to the total exclusion of any potentially helpful controlled exercises, grammatical pointers, and other analytical devices; or simulating the real world but refraining from “interfering” in the ongoing flow of language. Such an “indirect” approach3 (Celce-Murcia et al. 1997) to CLT only offers the possibility of incidental learning without specific focus on forms, rules, and principles of language organization. A more effective application of CLT principles is manifested in a “direct” approach that carefully sequences and structures tasks for learners and offers optimal intervention to aid Iearners in developing strategies for acquisition.

3. Remember that there are numerous interpretations of CLT. Because it is a catchall term, it is tempting to figure that everyone agrees on its defmition. They don’t. In fact, some of those in the profession, with good reason, feel uncomfortable using the term, even to the point of wishing to exorcise it from our jargon. As long as you are aware of many possible versions of CLT, it remains a term that can continue to capture current language-teaching approaches.

3

Howatt (1984), Littlewood (1981), and Nunan (1988) refer to this as the “strong” approach to CLT, nothing that most practitioners would follow a “weak” version of CLT in which authenticity is coupled with structural and functional practice and other procedures of intervention.

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A comparison of the Audiolingual Method and Communicative Language Teaching (Finocchiaro & Brumfit 1983) Audiolingual Method

Communicative Language Teaching

1. Attends to structure and form more than meaning.

2. Demands more memorization of structurebased dialogues.

3. Language items are not necessarily contextualized.

4. Language learning is learning structures, sounds, or words.

5. Mastery or “overlearning” is sought.

6. Drilling is a central technique.

7. Native-speaker-like pronunciation is sought.

8. Grammatical explanation is avoided.

9. Communicative activities come only after a long process of rigid drills and exercises.

10. The use of the student’s native language is forbidden.

11. Translation is forbidden at early levels.

12. Reading and writing are deferred until speech is mastered.

13. The target linguistic system is learned through the overt teaching of the patterns of the system.

14. Linguistic competence is the desired goal.

15. Varieties of language are recognized but not emphasized.

16. The sequence of units is determined solely by principles of linguistic complexity.

17. The teacher controls the learners and prevents them from doing anything that conflicts with the theory.

18. “Language is habit,” so error must be prevented at all costs.

19. Accuracy, in terms of formal correctness, is a primary goal.

20. Students are expected to interact with the language system, embodied in machines or controlled materials.

21. The teacher is expected to specify the language that students are to use.

22. Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in the structure of language

Meaning is paramount.

Dialogues, if used, center around communicative functions and are not normally memorized.

Contextualization is a basic premise.

Language learning is learning to communicate.

Effective communication is sought.

Drilling may occur, but peripherally.

Comprehensible pronunciation is sought.

Any device that helps the learners is accepted— varying according to their age, interest, etc.

Attempts to communicate are encouraged from the very beginning.

Judicious use of native language is accepted where feasible.

Translation may be used where students need or benefit from it.

Reading and writing can start from the first day, if desired.

The target linguistic system is learned through the process of struggling to communicate.

Communicative competence is the desired goal.

Linguistic variation is a central concept in materials and methods.

Sequencing is determined by any consideration of content function or meaning that maintains interest.

Teachers help learners in any way that motivates them to work with the language.

Language is often created by the individual through trial and error.

Fluency and acceptable language are the primary goals; accuracy is judged not in the abstract but in context.

Students are expected to interact with other people, either in the flesh, through pair and group work, or in their writing.

The teacher cannot know exactly what language the students will use.

Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in what is being communicated by the language.

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Closely allied to CLT are a number of concepts that have, like CLT, become bandwagon terms without the endorsement of which teachers cannot be decent human beings and textbooks cannot sell! To corroborate the latter, just take a look at any recent ESL textbook catalog and try to find a book that is not “learner-centered,” “cooperative,” “interactive,” “whoIe language based,” “content-centered,” or, of course, “communicative.” One way of looking at these terms is that they are simply expressions for the latest fads in language teaching and are therefore relatively meaningless. But another viewpoint would embrace them as legitimate attempts to label current concerns within a CLT framework, as overlapping and confusing as those concerns sometimes are. I believe the latter is the more reasoned perspective. However, in order to take that perspective, some “demythologizing” is in order. Hence, a brief summary is appropriate.

1. Learner-Centered Instruction This term applies to curricula as well as to specific techniques. It can be contrasted with teacher-centered, and has received various recent interpretations. Learner-centered instruction includes • techniques that focus on or account for learners' needs, styIes, and goals.

• techniques that give some control to the student (group work or strategy training, for example).

• curricula that include the consultation and input of students and that do not presuppose objectives in advance.

• techniques that allow for student creativity and innovation.

• techniques that enhance a student's sense of competence and selfworth.

Because language teaching is a domain that so often presupposes classrooms where students have very little language proficiency with which to negotiate with the teacher, some teachers shy away from the notion of giving learners the "power" associated with a learner-centered approach. Such restraint is not necessary because, even in beginning leveI classes, teachers can offer students certain choices. All of these efforts heIp to give students a sense of “ownership” of their learning and thereby add to their intrinsic motivation).

2. Cooperative and Collaborative Learning A curriculum or classroom that is cooperative –and therefore not competitive– usually involves the above learner-centered characteristics. As students work together in pairs and groups, they share information and come to each others’ aid. They are a “team” whose players must work together in order to achieve goals successfully. Research has shown an advantage for cooperative learning (as opposed to individual learning) on such factors as “promoting intrinsic motivation, ... heightening self-esteem, ... creating caring and altruistic

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reIationships, and lowering arrxiety and prejudice” (Oxford 1997: 445). Included among some of the challenges of cooperative learning are accounting for varied cultural expectations, individual learning styles, personality differences, and overreliance on the first language (Crandall 1999).

Cooperative learning does not merely imply collaboration. To be sure, in a cooperative classroom the students and teachers work together to pursue goals and objectives. But cooperative learning “is more structured, more prescriptive to teachers about classroom techniques, more directive to students about how to work together in groups [than collaborative learning]” (Oxford 1997: 443). In cooperative learning models, a group learning activity is dependent on the socially structured exchange of information between learners. In collaborative learning, the learner engages “with more capable others (teachers, advanced peers, etc.), who provide assistance and guidance” (Oxford 1997: 444). Collaborative learning models have be en developed within social constructivist (see Brown 2000, Chapter 1) schools of thought to promote communities of learners that cut across the usual hierarchies of students and teachers.

3. Interactive Learning At the heart of current theories of cornmunicative competence is the essentially interactive nature of communication. When you speak, for example, the extent to which your intended message is received is a factor of both your production and the listener’ s reception. Most meaning, in a semantic sense, is a product of negotiation, of give and take, as interlocutors attempt to communicate. Thus, the communicative purpose of language compels us to create opportunities for genuine interaction in the classroom. An interactive course or technique will provide for such negotiation. Interactive classes will most likely be found •

doing a significant amount of pair work and group work.

•

receiving authentic language input in real-world contexts.

•

producing language for genuine, meaningful communication.

•

performing classroom tasks that prepare them for actual language use "out there."

•

practicing oral communication through the give and take and spontaneity of actual conversations.

•

writing to and for real audiences, not contrived ones.

The theoretical foundations of interactive learning lie in what MichaeI Long (1996,1985) described as the interaction hypothesis of second language acquisition. Going beyond Stephen Krashen’s (1997, 1985) concept of comprehensible input, Long and others have pointed out the importance of input and output in the development of language. As learners interact with each other through oral and written discourse, their cornmunicative abilities are enhanced.

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4. Whole Language Education One of the most popular terms currently sweeping through our profession, whole language has been so wideIy and divergently interpreted that it unfortunately is on the verge of losing the impact that it once had (see Rigg 1991 for an excelIent review of whole language education). InitialIy the term carne from reading research and was used to emphasize (a) the “wholeness” of language as opposed to views that fragmented language into its bits and pieces of phonemes, graphemes, morphemes, and words; (b) the interaction and interconnections between oral language (listening and speaking) and written language (reading and writing); and (c) the importance, in literate societies, of the written code as natural and developmental, just as the oral code is.

Now the term has come to encompass a great de al more. Whole language is a label that has been used to describe • cooperative learning • participatory learning • student-centered learning • focus on the community of learners • focus on the social nature of language • use of authentic, natural language • meaning-centered language • holistic assessment techniques in testing •

integration of the "four skills."

With all these interpretations, the concept of whole language has become considerably watered down. Edelsky (1993: 550-51) noted that whole language is not a recipe and it's not an activity that you schedule into your lesson; "it is an educational way of life. [It helps people to] build meaningful connections between everyday learning and schoollearning."

It is appropriate, then, that we use the term carefully so that it does not become just another buzz word for teachers and materials developers. Two interconnected concepts are brought together in whole language: a. The wholeness of language implies that language is not the sum of its many dissectible and discrete parts. First language acquisition research shows us that children begin perceiving "wholes" (sentences, emotions, intonation patterns) well before "parts."

Second language teachers therefore do well to help their students attend to such wholes and not to yield to the temptation to build language only from the bottom up.

And since part of the wholeness of language includes the interrelationship of the four skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing), we are compelled to attend conscien-

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tiously to the integration of two or more of these skills in our classrooms. b. Whole language is a perspective "anchored in a vision of an equitable, democratic, diverse society" (Edelsky 1993: 548). Because we use language to construct meaning and to construct reality, teaching a language enables learners to understand a system of social practices that both constrain and liberate. Part of our job as teachers is to empower our learners to liberate themselves from whatever social, political, or economic forces constrain them.

5. Content-Based Instruction Content-based instruction (CBI), according to Brinton, Snow, and Wesche (1989: vii), is “the integration of content learning with language teaching aims. More specifically, it refers to the concurrent study of language and subject matter, with the form and sequence of language presentation dictated by content material.” Such an approach contrasts sharply with many practices in which language skills are taught virtually in isolation from substantive contento When language becomes the medium to convey informational content of interest and relevance to the learner, then learners are pointed toward matters of intrinsic concern. Language takes on its appropriate role as a vehicle for accomplishing a set of content goals.

A recent surge of research and material on CBI (Snow 1998, Brinton & Master 1997, Snow & Brinton 1997, among others) has given us new opportunities and challenges.

Content-based classrooms may yield an increase in intrinsic motivation and empowerment, since students are focused on subject matter that is important to their lives.

Students are pointed beyond transient extrinsic factors, like grades and tests, to their own competence and autonomy as intelligent individuals capable of actually doing something with their new language. Challenges range from a demand for a whole new genre of textbooks and other materials to the training of language teachers to teach the concepts and skills of various disciplines, professions, and occupations, and/or to teach in teams across disciplines.

6. Task-Based Instruction While there is a good deal of variation among experts on how to describe or defme task, Peter Skehan’s (1998a: 95) concept of task seems to capture the essentials.

He defines task as an activity in which •

meaning is primary;

•

there is some communication problem to solve;

•

there is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities;

•

task completion has some priority; and

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•

the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome.

A task is really a special form of technique. In some cases, task and technique may be synonymous (a problem-solving task/technique; a role-play task/technique, for example). But in other cases, a task may be comprised of several techniques (for example, a problem-solving task that includes, let's say, grammatical explanation, teacher-initiated questions, and a specific turn-taking procedure). Tasks are usually "bigger" in their ultimate ends than techniques.

Task-based instruction is not a new method. Rather, it puts task at the center of one's methodological focus. It views the learning process as a set of communicative tasks that are directly linked to the curricular goals they serve, the purposes of which extend beyond the practice of language for its own sake. Research on task-based learning (see Skehan 1998a, 1998b; Skehan & Foster 1997, 1999; Williams & Burden 1997; Willis 1996, among others) has attempted to identify types of tasks that enhance learning (such as open-ended, structured, teacherfronted, small group, and pair work), to defme task-specific learner factors (for example, roles, proficiency levels, and styles), and to examine teacher roles and other variables that contribute to successful achievement of objectives.

Task-based instruction is a perspective within a CLT framework that forces you to carefully consider all the techniques that you use in the classroom in terms of a number of important pedagogical purposes: •

Do they ultimately point learners beyond the forms of language alone to real-world contexts?

•

Do they specifically contribute to communicative goals?

•

Are their elements carefully designed and not simply haphazardly or idiosyncratically thrown together?

•

Are their objectives well specified so that you can at some later point accurately determine the success of one technique over another?

•

Do they engage learners in some form of genuine problem-solving activity?

Your approach to language teaching is obviously the keystone to all your teaching methodology in the classroom. By now, you may be able to "profess" at least some components of your own approach to language learning and teaching and have a beginning of an understanding of how that approach enlightens –or will enlighten-your classroom practices. Many aspects of your approach will predictably mirror those that have been espoused here, especially since you are just beginning to learn your teaching craft. That's quite acceptable. But do keep in mind the importance of the dynamic nature of the theoretical stance of even the most

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experienced teachers. We have much to learn, collectively, in this profession. And we will best instruct ourselves, and the profession at large, when we maintain disciplined inquisitiveness about our teaching practices. After all, that's how we ol to this point after a century of questioning.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION, AND RESEARCH Note: (I) Individual work; (G) group or pair work; (C) whole-class discussion 1. (I)Review the notion that your overall approach to language teaching can directIy lead to curriculum design and lesson techniques, without subscribing to a method, as the term was used in the previous chapter. Can you still comfortably use the term methodology to refer to pedagogical practice in general? As you read other research literature in the field of language teaching, pay special attention to how an author uses these terms. You will find some disparity in the various understandings of the terms.

2. (G) On page 87, a checklist of seven items was provided for readers to mentally respond to. Ask students to compare their responses with those of a partner. In pairs, they should taIk about what contextual factors might cause one to change one’s general inclination on any one or two of the items. Pairs will then present some of their discussion to the rest of the class.

3. (G/C) In which readers will encounter twelve principles of language learning and teaching, ask students to brainstorm, in small groups, some assertions about language learning that one might include in a description of an approach to language teaching. For example, what would they say about the issues of age and acquisition, inhibitions, how to best store something in memory, and the relationship of intelligence to second language success? Direct the groups to come up with axioms or principies that would be relatively stable across many acquisition contexts. Then, as a whole class, list these on the board.

4. (G) Ask pairs to look at the six features used as a general definition of CLT on page 89 and to come up with some practical classroom examples of each of the six factors. Should any characteristics be added to the list? or changed?

5. (G/C) Direct pairs to look again at the twenty-two characteristics of CLT (page 92) offered by Finocchiaro and Brumfit and to ask themselves if they are all in keeping with general CLT principles. Are they all sufficiently balanced in their viewpoint? Would students disagree with any of them? Pairs can share their ideas with the rest of the class.

6. (I/G) Have students observe an ESL class and use the characteristics as a

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gauge of how closely the lesson approximates CLT. Students should share their observations in small groups.

7. (I/G/C) Without looking back, students should write their own brief definitions of: •

learner-centered instruction

•

cooperative and collaborative learning

•

interactive learning

•

whole language education

•

content-based instruction

•

task-based instruction

Now, have them compare their definitions with those of a partner. If they are still confused by any terms, they should try to clear up the confusion through re-reading and/ or whole-class discussion.

8. (C) Ask members of the class to volunteer some examples from personal experience (learning or teaching) of the six types of teaching named above. How do your examples fit the types of teaching?

9. (C) Ask students if there are other specialized terms and professional jargon that are either fuzzy or confusing to them. If so, try to pin them down through class discussion.

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PART TWO

Curriculum development

Objectives 1. To understand and examine the processes of curriculum development in language teaching.

2. To understand the importance of curriculum development.

3. To value the importance of curriculum evaluation.

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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING* Jack C. Richards Second language teaching is often viewed from a very narrow perspective –that of the teaching act. Consequently much of the literature on second language teaching deals with teaching methods or with the design and use of instructional materials. If students aren’t learning it is assumed to be the fault of the method, the materials, or the teacher.

Yet the success of a language program involves far more than the mere act of teaching.

As with any successfull educational program, a number of levels of planning, development, and implementation are involved. Goals and objectives for the program have to be developed as well as syllabuses and instructional materials. Instructional strategies have to be determined, teachers selected and trained, and tests and assessment procedures chosen. Once the program is in operation, procedures are needed to enable the program to be monitored and its effects on learners and learning evaluated. In order to plan for effective second language teaching, a comprehensive view is needed of the nature and process of language program development. Providing such a view is the goal of this chapter, in which issues and practices in language curriculum development are reviewed and their contribution to effective language teaching assessed.

Language curriculum development, like other areas of curriculum activity, is concerned with principles and procedures for the planning, delivery, management, and assessment of teaching and learning. Curriculum development processes in language teaching comprise needs analysis, goal setting, syllabus design, methodology, and testing and evaluation.

NEEDS ANALYSIS Needs assessment refers to an array of procedures for identifying and validating needs, and establishing priorities among them. (Pratt 1980:79) In language curriculum development, needs analysis serves the purposes of: 1. providing a mechanism for obtaining a wider range of input into the content, design, and implementation of a language program through involving such people as learners, teachers, administrators, and employers in the planning process 2. identifying general or specific language needs that can be addressed in developing goals, objectives, and content for a language program. *

Richards, Jack C. (1997) The language teaching matrix. Cambridge University Press. New York.

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3. providing data that can serve as the basis for reviewing and evaluating an existing program.

In language teaching, the impact of needs analysis has been greatest in the area of special-purposes program design, and a considerable literature now exists on the role of needs assessment in English for specific purposes (ESP) (Robinson 1980). But needs analysis is also fundamental to the planning of general language courses.

PARAMETERS, SOURCES, AND PROCEDURES Needs analysis may focus on either the general parameters of a language program or on the specific communicative needs of language learners. The first approach may be referred to as situation analysis, and involves focusing on the following kinds of questions: – Who are the learners?

– What are the learners’ goals and expectations?

– What learning styles do the learners prefer?

– How proficient are the teachers in the target language?

– Who are the teachers?

– What training and experience do the teachers have?

– What teaching approach do they favor?

– What do teachers expect of the program?

– What is the administrative context of the program?

– What constraints (e.g., time, budget, resources) are present?

– What kinds of tests and assessment measures are needed?

The second approach, communicative needs analysis (Munby 1978), is concerned with gathering information about the learners’ communicative needs in the target language, and involves questions such as these: – In what settings will the learners use the target language?

– What role relationships are involved?

– Which language modalities are involved (e.g., reading, writing, listening, speaking)?

– What types of communicative events and speech acts are involved?

– What level of proficiency is required?

Answers to these questions help determine the type of language skills and level of language proficiency the program should aim to deliver. An example of a questionnaire in the domain of situation analysis is given in Appendix 1, and one in the domain of communicative needs analysis in Appendix 2.

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Determining needs is not an exact science, however, since it involves both quantitative and qualitative approaches, requires the use of a variety of formal and informal data-gathering procedures, and seeks to identify or quantify needs that may be by nature imprecise.

Needs statements thus represent judgments by the needs analyst as to what should be analyzed, the means to be used, and the meaning and significance of the data collected.

Methods employed in gathering data vary according to setting and may involve participant observation, interviews, questionnaires, content analysis of job descriptions and job advertisements, tests, role play, and analysis of communication breakdowns (Roberts 1980; Schrader 1981).

Needs-analysis procedures generate a considerable amount of data, including information about the context of the language program, the learners, the teachers, and the administrative factors that affect the program. This information is then used in planning the program itself. Let us examine some of the key processes involved in more detail.

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES Curriculum goals are general statements of the intended outcomes of a language program, and represent what the curriculum planners believe to be desirable and attainable program aims based on the constraints revealed in the needs analysis. Goals can be used as a basis for developing more specific descriptions of the intended outcomes of the program (the program objectives). Goal statements refer to elements of the program that are actually going to be addressed by instruction. For example, a needs analysis might reveal that a group of learners had unfavourable attitudes toward the proposed language program. A goal statement reflecting this might be: Students will develop favourable attitudes toward the program.

However, while this goal might represent a sincere wish on the part of teachers, it should appear as a program goal only if it is to be addressed concretely in the program.

From goals to objectives In language teaching, a number of different ways of stating program objectives are commonly employed, including behavioral, skills-based, content-based, and proficiency-based objectives.

Behavioral objectives The most familiar way to state objectives is in terms of behavior. Mager (1962) specified three essential characteristics of behavioral objectives:

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1. They must unambiguously describe the behavior to be performed; 2. They must describe he conditions under which the performance will be expected to occur; 3. They must state a standard of acceptable performance (the criterion).

Findlay and Nathan (1980) give examples of behavioral objectives in “competencybased” language programs. Sample objectives for a survival language course include: – Given an oral request, the learner will say his/her name, address and telephone number to a native speaker of English and spell his/her name, street and city so that an interviewer may write down the data with 100% accuracy.

– Given oral directions for a 4-step physical action, the learner will follow the directions with 100% accuracy.

Sample objectives for an ESP course for clerical workers are: – Given a letter with 10 proofreading marks for changes, the learner will re-write the letter with 90% accuracy in 10 minutes.

– Given the first and last names of 10 persons, five with Spanish surnames and five with English surnames from a local telephone directory, the learner will locate the names and write down the telephone numbers in 5 minutes with 90% accuracy. (Findláy and Nathar. 1980: 226) Four justifications are commonly made to support the use of behavioral objectives in curriculum planning: 1. They help teachers to clarify their goals.

2. They facilitate instruction by highlighting the skills and subskills underlying different instructional content.

3. They make the evaluation process easier.

4. They provide a form of accountability.

A criticism that is often made, however, is that representing language teaching goals in terms of behavioral objectives is impractical, as well as undesirable. Some learning goals cannot locally be stated in terms of behavioral changes expected in students. In such cases, it is preferable to focus on the classroom tasks and learning activities what learners should engage in, and the intrinsic worth and value of these experiences for their own sake, without specifying precise learning outcomes. This is sometimes referred to as a process-based approach (Stenhouse 1975).

Behavioral objectives also tend to deal only with aspects of second language proficiency that can be represented as “competencies” and hence tend to trivialize the nature of second language acquisition.

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Skills-based objectives A common way of stating objectives in language programs is to specify “microskills,” or processes that account for fluency in such specific “macroskill” áreas as reading, writing, listening, and speaking. In specifying microskills, the curriculum planner tries to describe the competencies that account for functional ability in a given skill but are “independent of specific settings or situations” (Krahnke 1987: 49). For example, Nuttall (1983: 146) presents objectives for an intensive reading program in the following form: After completing the reading course, the student will: a) Use skimming when appropriate to ensure that he reads only what is relevant,”5.0 help subsequent comprehension. b) Make use. of non-text information (especially diagrams etc.) to supplement the text; Jici increase understanding. c) Read in different ways according to his purpose and the type of text. d) Not worry if he does not understand every word, except when complete accuracy is important. e) Recognize that a good writer chooses his words carefully and would have meant something different if he had chosen A rather than B. (An advanced reader will be able to explain the difference.) f) Make use of the reference system, discourse markers, etc., to help himself unravel the meaning of difficult passages. g) Be aware that a sentence with the same signification may have a different value in different contexts, and be able to identify the value. h) Be able to make use of the rhetorical organization of the text help him interpret a complex message. i) Be aware that a writer does not express everything he means, and be able to make inferences as required. j) Be aware that his own expectations influence his interpretation and recognize those occasions when the writer’s assumptions differ from his own. k) Be aware, when necessary, chat he has not understood the text, and be able to locate the source of misunderstanding and tackle it. l) Respond fully to the text in whatever way is appropriate.

Richards (1985 a: 199) lists among the microskills needed for academic listening the ability to 1. identify the purpose and scope of a lecture

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2. identify and follow the topic of a lecture 3. identify relationships among units within discourse (e.g., major ideas, generalizations, hypotheses, supporting ideas, examples) 4. identify the role of discourse markers in signalling the structure of a lecture 5. infer relationships (e.g., cause, effect, conclusion) 6. recognize key lexical items related to a topic 7. deduce meanings of words from context.

Krahnke (1987) discusses the advantages and disadvantages of a skills-based approach.

Relevance to students’ needs is a key advantage, whereas the potential ambiguity and subjectivity of skills taxonomies are disadvantages.

Content-based objectives Many language programs specify objectives in relation to content. For example, the Council of Europe’s Threshold Level English (Van Ek and Alexander 1980: 29) includes objectives related to fourteen topic areas. Under the topic “House and Horne,” for example, the following are among the specifications given: Learners should be able to discuss where and under what conditions they live, specifically:

types of accommodation

describe the type of house, flat, etc in which they live themselves, as well as those in the neighborhood, and seek similar information from others

accommodation, rooms

describe their own accommodation, house, flat, etc. and the rooms in it, and seek similar information from others

furniture, bedclothes

mention and inquire about the availability of the most essential pieces of furniture and bedclothes

rent

state, rent and/or purchase price of their own, accommodation and inquire about that of other houses, flats, etc

Lists of functions, often related to specific situations or settings, are also employed as objectives in language programs. For example, a syllabus guide for vocational English in industry lists “core needs” in the following form (MacPherson and Smith 1979):

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To ask: someone to lend you something someone to pass something that’s out of reach To ask for: change in deductions change in holiday dates change in shift help from workmates when the Job is too much for one person It is clear that in using skills taxonomies and content-based descriptions as objectives, the distinction between “objectives” in the sense proposed by Mager and “syllabus” –that is, between goals and content– has been blurred.

PROFICIENCY SCALES A related development in language curriculum development is the use of proficiency scales. Program objectives may specify a level! of proficiency, such as “survival English,” or “Level 3 on the Foreign Service Oral Proficiency Scale.” An example of the use of proficiency-based objectives in large-scale language program design is the Australian Adult Migrant Education On-Arrival Program, a program for immigrants (Ingram 1982).

In order to ensure that a language program is coherent and systematically moves learners along the path towards that level of proficiency they require some overall perspective of the development path is required. This need resulted ... in the development of the Australian Second Language Proficiency Ratings (ÁSLRP). The ASLRP defines levels of second language proficiency at nine (potentially twelve) points along the path from zero to native-like proficiency. The definitions provide detailed descriptions of language behaviour in all four macroskills and allow the syllabus developer to perceive how a course at any level fits into the total pattern of proficiency development. (Ingram 1982: 66).

Likewise instruments such as the Foreign Service Institute Oral Interview (a scale that contains five levels of oral proficiency supplemented by ratings for accent, grammar, vocabulary, and fluency) can be used not only to assess proficiency for diagnostic or placement purposes but also to establish levels of proficiency as program objectives. The American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) in 1982 published Provisional Proficiency Guidelines, which are “a series of descriptions of proficiency levels for speaking, listening, reading, writing, and culture in a foreign language. These guidelines represent a graduated sequence of steps that can be used to structure a foreign-language program” (Liskin-Gasparro 1984: 11). However, Ingram and others have stressed that proficiency descriptions complement rather than replace the use of program objec-

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tives since, particularly at the lower levels, they tend to resemble profiles of incompetence and hence are hardly suitable as statements of objectives (Brindley 1983: 39). It has also been observed that there is little relevant empirical data available to develop valid statements pf proficiency levels across skill areas, an issue that has proved problematic with the ACTFL proficiency scales (Lee and Musumeci 1988).

No matter what approach to stating goals and objectives is used, all language programs operate with explicit or implicit objectives. Where the program fails to make objectives explicit, teachers and learners have to infer them from the syllabus, materials, or classroom activities. Teachers may hence regard objectives merely as instructional goals (e.g., “to develop learners’ confidence in speaking”), as course descriptions (e.g., “to concentrate on listening skills”), or as descriptions of the material they intend to cover (e.g., “to cover Chapter 3 of Strategies”) (Brindley 1984). Without clear statements. of goals and objectives, questions of content, methodology, and evaluation cannot be systematically addressed.

SYLLABUS DESIGN In standard models of curriculum processes, curriculum planners progress systematically from needs assessment, to goals and objectives, to specification of the instructional content of the program. Taba’s model of curriculum processes (1962: 12) consists of: Step 1: Diagnosis of needs Step 2: Formulation of objectives Step 3: Selection of content Step 4: Organization of content Step 5: Selection of learning experiences Step 6: Organization of learning experiences Step 7: Determination of what to evaluate and means to evaluate In language teaching, Steps 3 and 4 are usually known as syllabus, design. Syllabus-design (the product of which is usually referred to as a syllabus in British usage and a curriculum in American usage) is concerned with the choice and sequencing of instructional content. if the Taba model were followed, the procedures for developing a syllabus would involve examining instructional objectives and arranging them by priorities, and then determining what kind of content was required to attain the objectives.

In reality, in language teaching the syllabus has traditionally been the starting point in planning a language program, rather than an activity that occurs midway in the process. The concept of a language syllabus has been fundamental in the development of language teaching practices in the twentieth century. In the work of such British language

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teaching specialists as Harold Palmer, Michael West, and A. S. Hornby, and such American specialists as Charles Fries and Robert Lado, questions concerning the linguistic content of a language program were considered primary and a necessary basis for planning a language program. This reflects the fact that many applied linguists were trained as linguists, rather than as educational planners. Hence from the 1920s through to the present, debate over the most appropriate form for syllabuses in language teaching has continued. A properly constructed and planned syllabus is believed to assure successful learning, since it represents a linguistically and psycholinguistically optimal introduction to the target language. Syllabus design theory has consequently been one of the most active branches of applied linguistics in recent years (e.g., Wilkins 1976; Shaw 1977; Yalden 1983; Krahnke 1987; Nunan 1988) - to the astonishment perhaps of those with a broader educational view of curriculum issues.

Conceptions of the nature of a syllabus are closely related to the view of language and second language learning that the curriculum designers subscribe to. Under the impact of grammar-based views of the nature of language, language syllabuses were traditionally expressed in terms of grammar, sentence patterns, and vocabulary. As a result of the more recent movement toward communicative theories of language and language learning, syllabuses have tended to be expressed more in communicative terms. The following kinds of syllabuses (or variants and combinations of them) are commonly found in current English as a second language (ESL) courses and materials, particularly those dealing with speaking and listening.

1. Structural (organized primarily around grammar and sentence patterns) 2. Functional (organized around communicative functions, such as identifying, reporting, correcting, describing) 3. Notional (organized around conceptual categories, such as duration, quantity, location) 4. Topical (organized around themes or topics, such as health, food, clothing) 5. Situational (organized around speech settings and the transactions associated with them, such as shopping, at the bank, at the supermarket) 6. Skills (organized around skills, such as listening for gist, listening for specific information, listening for inferences) 7. Task or activity-based (organized around activities, such as drawing maps, following directions, following instructions) Despite the extensive literature on syllabus design in recent years, there is little empirical evidence to warrant commitment to any particular approach to syllabus development. In practice, a combination of approaches is often used, since many would agree with Johnson (1981:34):

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A syllabus is essentially a job specification, and as such it should set out clearly and precisely what is to be done, and the standards or criteria to be met by those who do ¡t.

If seen in this light, arguments as to the relative merits of notional, situational, or topic based syllabuses, etc. are no more sensible than arguments as to whether the specifications in a construction contract should cover the foundations, or the steel framework or the concrete or the glass or the interior design etc. The obvious answer is that all of these must be covered.

In addition, it should be emphasized that the form in which a syllabus is presented reflects the intended users and uses of the syllabus. Is the syllabus primarily a guide for materials writers, or are classroom teachers expected to teach from it? Is the syllabus a document teachers will consult, and if so, what do they expect to find in it? Will learners be tested on the content of the syllabus, or are teachers free to adapt and supplement it?

What teaching skills and teaching styles do the teachers have who will be using the syllabus? The effect of different answers to these kinds of questions is seen when syllabuses are compared.

Appendix 3, for example, is taken from the Malaysian Communicational Syllabus (1975), a syllabus for the teaching of English in upper-secondary school. The syllabus specifies activities and tasks rather than notions, functions, grammar, or vocabulary, as well as the level at which tasks are to be accomplished. Procedures suggested for classroom use include various kinds of communication tasks, role plays, and simulations, and the syllabus provides sample situations as a guide to the ‘’teacher. The syllabus reflects the philosophical assumptions of the syllabus planners: a commitment to communicative language teaching and 10 a needs-based approach to program content. At the same time the syllabus assumes that teachers have a high degree of proficiency in English and are able to adapt and plan materials and classroom activities around the syllabus. The syllabus was also intended as a guide for textbook writers, who were expected to write materials that exemplified the principles of the syllabus.

The syllabus example in Appendix 4 is very different in form and approach. This is part of a tutor’s kit intended for volunteers working with Vietnamese refugees in Britain. In this case the syllabus is planned around topics and content, and a great deal more linguistic specification is given. This reflects the fact that the users of this syllabus were not expected to have the same high degree of training and experience as the teachers using the Malaysian syllabus.

Appendix 5 is from a syllabus for refugees in the United States who survival-level skills to enter the Job market. The philosophy of the syllabus planners is evident in the “competencies” specified, which provide clear guidelines for both teaching and testing. The syllabus is planned around topics, and competencies are listed for each topic area. Teachers are expected to teach to the syllabus and to test students in and out of the program based on the learners’ mastery of the content of the syllabus.

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METHODOLOGY It is not until the goals, objectives, and content of a language program have been determined that decisions about methodology can be taken up in detail. The focus of this phase of program development is on the kind of instruction that will be required to achieve the goals of the program. From the perspective of curriculum development, questions of methodology do not center on the choice of a “method”. Appropriate teaching methodology is not predetermined; nor can it be imposed on teachers and learners.

Rather, it evolves out of the dynamics of the teaching process itself. This does not mean however, that effective teaching cannot be planned for and conceptualized in advance.

Methodology can be characterized as the activities, tasks, and learning experiences selected by the teacher in order to achieve learning, and how these are used within the teaching/learning process. These activities are justified according to the objectives the teacher has set out to accomplish and the content he or she has set out to teach. They also relate to the philosophy of the program, to the view of language and language learning that the program embodies, and to the roles of teachers, learners, and instructional materials in the program. Since the assumptions underlying methodology are not necessarily shared by teachers, administrators, and learners, it is a useful exercise for all who are involved in a language program to clarify their assumptions about the kind of teaching and learning the program will try to exemplify. This can be done through teacher preparation activities that examine attitudes, beliefs, and practices concerning five central issues: 1. the approach or philosophy underlying the program 2. the role of teachers in the program 3. the role of the learners 4. the kinds of learning activities, tasks, and experiences that will be used in the program 5. the role and design of instructional materials.

The approach or philosophy First, assumptions about the nature of language and language learning need to be clarified. What view of the subject matter or content of the course (e.g., listening to lectures, reading for study purposes, conversation skills for social survival) does the program reflect? For example, is reading viewed as primarily a “top-down” or “bottom-up” process?

What does listening comprehension involve and what skills does it depend upon? How conversation understood and what are its most important components? In order to answer questions Iike these, teachers and curriculum planners need to find ways of clarifying and sharing their perceptions and beliefs in order to reach an understanding of the very skill they are setting out to teach. If different view¬points are not resolved, teachers

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may set about their teaching in ways that seem incorrect or puzzling to each other or to a program supervisor.

Closely related to the teachers’ understanding of the nature of language and the specific aspects of language proficiency that the program sets out to teach is their understanding of how proficiency in reading, writing, listening, and speaking is achieved. What be1iefs do teachers have about how people acquire conversational skills, Iearn to write effectively, or gain a better mastery of the phonology or grammar of the target Language? What theory of second language learning do the teachers subscribe to, and how divergent or relevant to the particular program are the beliefs or assumptions they hold? Opportunities for clarification of these questions should be planned for during the curriculum development process.

The role of the teacher Teaching is usually regarded as something that teachers do in order to bring about changes in learners. A central component of methodology is how teachers view their role in this process. What kinds of teaching style do they regard as desirable? What kinds of teacher-Iearner interactions do they favor? The following are among the kinds of roles teachers may see for themselves in the classroom: – monitor of student learning – motivator – organizer and controller of pupil behavior provider of accurate language models counselor and friend – needs analyst – materials developer – evaluator The roles teachers adopt form the basis for teachers’ decisions on how the program’s activities, techniques, and learning experiences can best be used to bring about learning.

In thinking about these kinds of issues, teachers can better understand the assumptions that guide their own teaching. Willing (1985) suggests a number of values-c1assification and other kinds of exercises that enable teachers to explore these issues. For example, teachers may discuss such questions as: 1. Suppose a total stranger walked in and observed one of your classes.

What aspects of your reaching style would give that person clues as to your basic personality?

2. What aspects of your teaching styIe might mislead that same person about your true personality?

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3. Who does best in your classes? How would you describe a typical “excellent learner” for [he son of reaching you do?

4. Have you ever gone through a major change of teaching style?

(Willing 1985: 14)

The role of the learners How do those involved in the program view the role of learners in the Iearning process?

How are learners expected to learn within the pro¬gram? Are they viewed as the passive recipients of an educational technology that is imposed on them, or are they viewed as having active input into the learning process? To what extent will learners be consulted concerning the kinds of learning and learning activities they will un¬dertake? What will characterize a good approach to learning from the point of view of both teachers and learners? Is there any conflict between this and the learners’ view of their role in learning and their approach to learning? The role of the learners will therefore relate to: – approaches to learning – attitudes to learning – preferred learning styles and strategies – preferred learning activities – patterns of learner-to-learner interaction – patterns of teacher-to-Iearner interaction – degree of control learners exercise over their own learning – how learners characterize effective teaching – how learners characterize effective learning Learning activities, tasks, and experiences Teaching consists of the activities, tasks, and learning experiences selected to help bring about learning, and how these are used in the classroom. What principal kinds of activities, tasks, and learning experiences will the program make use of and what criteria will be used for selecting them? How much weight will be assigned to each activity type per lesson/unit, and what configurations of teacher and learners will activities involve? A conversation course, for example, may include the following activities: – pair work or group work (learner to learner) – practice with the text (teacher to learner) – free conversation (teacher to learners / learner to learner) – dialogue work (learner to learner) – pronunciation exercises (teacher to learner)

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These activities are selected on the basis of the kinds of conversational interaction and the opportunities for conversational practice they bring about. A writing course, on the other hand, may be organized around activities such as the following: – brainstorming (learner to group) – quickwriting (learner to self) – group writing (learner to group) – peer feedback sessions (learner to group) – blackboard writing (teacher to group) – free composition activities (learner to self) – analysis of models of good writing (teacher to group) Activities are selected according to the opportunities they provide for developing composing skills (planning, drafting, revising) as well as for gaining control of the mechanics of writing.

Instructional materials Methodology also depends upon the role of instructional materials in the program. The following kinds of questions will have to be asked at this point: 1. Will materials provide the primary source of language input for the learners or are they merely viewed as supplementing input provided by the teacher?

2. Will materials be adopted, adapted, or specially prepared for the program? Which of these options is best matched to the financial resources available and to the skills/ abilities of teachers in the program?

3. If existing materials are going to be used (e.g., commercially published textbooks), what kind of preparation will teachers need in order to use them effectively?

4. If materials are to be specially written for the program, who will be involved in preparing them and under what circumstances?

5. Will adequate provisions be made for development, testing, and revision of the materials?

Good instructional materials are an important part of the process of instruction. They set out to teach through the process of – defining instructional objectives – setting learning tasks or activities to attain the objectives – informing learners of what tasks they have to perform – providing guidance in how to perform tasks – providing practice in performing tasks

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– providing feedback on performance – enhancing retention of the skills the learner acquired through performing the task.

At the same time, effective instructional materials in language teaching have the following characteristics: – They are based on theoretically sound learning principles.

– They arouse and maintain the learners’ interest and attention.

– They are appropriate to the learners’ needs and background.

– They provide examples of how language is used.

– They provide meaningful activities for learners.

– They provide opportunities for communicative and authentic language use.

Attention to these kinds of issues is an essential aspect of the design of effective instructional materials.

TESTING AND EVALUATION Testing occupies a central role in curriculum development, since it is often a component of both needs assessment and evaluation, and has consequences for the design and delivery of instruction as well as for the administration of the program itself. A large number of decisions made in the course of designing and implementing a language program are hence dependent on the use of tests. Traditionally four different kinds of tests have been distinguished in the literature on language testing according to the purposes for which they are typically used. Proficiency tests are tests that measure how well a learner can use a language relative to a specific purpose before a course of instruction, such as the TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language), which is used to measure the English language proficiency of foreign students who wish to study in the United States. Proficiency tests are usually general in nature and not linked to a specific course of instruction.

Placement tests are used to place students at an appropriate level within a language program. Although the same kinds of test items may be used in both a proficiency test and a placement test, proficiency tests are generally designed for a specific program or language course. Achievement tests measure how much of a language someone has learned ¡n a particular course of study or program of instruction. They thus aim to measure gains in proficiency that result from the program itself, and can consequently be used to monitor the effectiveness of teaching, of the materials, or of the curriculum itself.

Diagnostic tests aim to diagnose students’ particular learning problems; for example, a diagnostic pronunciation test can be used to find out which aspects of English phonology a student is having difficulty with.

In recent years a further distinction has been made between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests. A criterion-referenced test is

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a test which measures a student’s performance according to a particular standard or criterion which has been agreed upon. The student must reach this level of performance to pass the test, and a student’s score is therefore interpreted with reference to the criterion score, rather than to the scores of other students. (Richards, Platt, and Weber 1985).

This is contrasted with a norm-referenced test, which is a test... designed to measure how the performance of a particular student or group of students compares with the performance of another student or group of students whose scores are given as the norm. A student’s score is therefore interpreted with reference to the scores of other students or groups of students, rather than to an agreed criterion score. (Richards et al. 1985)

A criterion-referenced approach to testing is often thought to be more appropriate to the proficiency-based view of language teaching increasingly being advocated in current discussions of language teaching, since tests should reveal whether students have developed the specific skills and proficiencies identified in the program objectives, rather than show how students’ performances compare to each other. The test designer’s goal, particularly for placement and achievement tests, is hence to develop tests that directly measure the kinds of language proficiencies described in the program objectives (see Dick and Carey 1985).

Evaluation is concerned with gathering data on the dynamics, effectiveness, acceptability, and efficiency of a program to facilitate decision making (Popham 1975; Jarvis and Adams 1979).

Evaluation is the determination of the worth of a thing. It includes obtaining information for use in judging the worth of a program, product, procedure or objective, or the potential utility of alternative approaches designed to attain specified objectives. (Worthen and Sanders 1973: 19)

The relatively short life span of most language teaching methods and the absence of a systematic approach to language program development in many institutions where English is taught are largely attributable to the fact that adequate allowance is not made for evaluation procedures in the planning process.

The primary focus of evaluation is to determine whether the goals and objectives of a language program are being attained –that is, whether the program is effective. When a decision must be made as to whether to adopt one of two possible program options geared to the same objectives, a secondary focus is on the relative effectiveness of the program. In addition, evaluation may be concerned with how a program works: that is, with how teachers and learners and materials interact in classrooms, and how teachers and learners perceive the program’s goals, materials, and learning experiences. Evaluation differs from educational research in that even though it shares many of the procedures of educational research (tests, assessment, observation), information obtained

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from evaluation procedures is used to improve educational practices rather than simply describe them (Popham 1975).

Summative versus formative evaluation A widely used distinction is between evaluation carried out at the completion of a course or program in order to measure how effective it was in attaining its goals (summative evaluation} and evaluation carried out during the development and implementation of a program, in order to modify and revise aspects of the program or the materials and to ensure the efficiency of the program (formative evaluation).

Summative evaluation may be used to support decisions about the continuation or modification of the program and typically involves the use of criterion-referenced or other achievement tests based on the program objectives. Typically differences between pretest and posttest scores are used as evidence of program effectiveness. Most institutions lack the resources necessary to measure a program’s effectiveness through a true experimental design, using control or comparison groups. As Pratt notes, There is adequate guidance in the literature as to how to control such factors as differences in student aptitude between two classes, but little as to how to control teacher differences in instruction; even the imposition of detailed lesson plans does not guarantee equivalent teaching. Finally, to compare the efficiency of two programs, they must be aiming at the same results and evaluated by tests equally appropriate to both curricula. (Pratt 1980: 421).

Other measures of a program’s effectiveness are also available, however, such as interviews with graduates and dropouts from the program, interviews with employers and others who have contact with the learners after completion of the program, as well as interviews with teachers (Pratt 1980). Summative evaluation may be concerned with gathering data about a program over a period of years, which will ultimately be used to make decisions about the future of the program.

Formative evaluation addresses the efficiency and acceptability of the program, and frequently involves subjective and informal data (obtained, for example, from questionnaires or observation). Bachman suggests that the following processes are involved in formative evaluation: The process of formative evaluation parallels that of program development, and comprises two types of activity: the internal assessment of what the program is supposed to be, and the gathering and interpretation of external information during field testing... Given a particular objective set, one aspect of internal assessment is to evaluate these objectives themselves. Is the ration-ale for each objective cogent? Are there undesired consequences associated with achieving certain objectives?... Another aspect of internal assessment is content-based review. Are the materials accurate? Do they constitute an appropriate range, in both difficulty and

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interest, vis-a-vis the learner?... Once the developer is satisfied, on the basis of the internal assessment, that the program incorporates the intended objectives and processes, he or she must then determine how it can most effectively produce the intended outcomes. This typically involves field testing. (Bachman 1981: 110-11)

Formative evaluation thus addresses such criteria as the appropriateness of the program’s objectives; the degree of preparation of teachers; teachers’ competence in the classroom; the usefulness of the syllabus, text, and materials; the effectiveness of scheduling and organization; the se-lection and use of test instruments. Pfannkuche proposes a comprehensive model that is characterized by a focus on the attainment of goals: “A certain set of learning goals and objectives are identified, and an assessment is made as to how well these goals are being met during the course of instruction” (Omaggio et al.

1979:254). This model involves the following processes: 1. Identify a set of program goals and objectives to be evaluated;...

2. Identify program factors relevant to the attainment of these objectives;...

3. For each factor in Step 2, develop a set of criteria that would indicate that the objectives are being successfully attained ...

4. Design appropriate instruments to assess each factor according to the criteria outlined...

5. Collect the data that is needed.

6. Compare data with desired results ...

7. Match or discrepancy?...

8. Prepare evaluationn report...

(Omaggio et al. 1979: 254-63)

Pfannkuche emphasizes that such a comprehensive approach to formative evaluation can be realized only if one or two aspects of the language program are evaluated at a time; thus the total picture emerges over a period of several years.

Procedures used in conducting formative evaluation are varied. Bachman emphasizes that “although the most useful information is of an informal and subjective nature, this is not to say, however, that it cannot be systematic” (1981: 115). Evaluation of the program’s objectives may involve the use of needs-analysis procedures; analysis of program characteristics may make use of checklists; in-class observation may provide data on the efficiency of the program and the use of equipment and materials; data on the processes actually used in teaching a class may be used to determine the degree of fit between the philosophy underlying a methodology and the classroom processes that result from it (Long 1983a); data on the acceptability and difficulty of materials may involve questionnaires to teachers and learners; enrollment and attrition figures for a program may be used as evidence of

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student attitudes about the program; interviews with students and teachers may identify weaknesses in content, sequencing, and materials; analysis of test results may be used to identify whether the content and methodology are consistent with the curriculum and appropriate to the objectives and the learners.

Although evaluation is discussed here as the final phase in the cycle of curriculum processes, evaluation processes apply to all phases of curriculum development, and formative evaluation procedures in particular have to be developed at the same time that objectives, syllabuses, learning content, and activities are being planned. Hence a curriculum can be viewed as a retrospective account of how an educational program was developed.

For, as Stenhouse observes, “A curriculum, like the recipe for a dish, is first imagined as a possibility, then the subject of an experiment. The recipe offered publicly is in a sense a report on an experiment” (1975: 4).

IMPLICATIONS The following dimensions of language curriculum development have been examined: 1. Needs analysis (situation analysis, communicative needs analysis) 2. Goals and objectives (behavioral objectives, skills-based objectives, content-based objectives, proficiency scales) 3. Syllabus design (syllabus types) 4. Methodology (approach or philosophy, role of the teacher, role of the learners, learning activities and tasks, instructional materials) 5. Testing and evaluation (proficiency tests, placement tests, achievement tests, diagnostic tests, summative evaluation, formative evaluation) It has been stressed that effective language teaching programs are de-pendent upon systematic data gathering, planning, and development within a context that is shaped and influenced by learner, teacher, school, and societal factors. Each of these factors must be considered and ad-dressed in educational program design. In an optimum program, design, content, instructional, learner, and teacher considerations are taken into account, as well as the broader questions that relate to the various levels of decision making.

Potential conflicts are hence identified and system stability is aimed for. In moving toward a more cooperative perspective it is productive for participants at the different levels of educational decision making to have a more global view of the process oí curriculum planning and of the various participants involved. In this way potential obstacles to successful design and implementation can be anticipated.

In Rodgers and Richards (1987) a practical approach to bringing this about is illustrated through the use of a Program Planning Profile (see Figure 1.1). This consists of a problem-solving and group-discussion exercise for administrators, curriculum planners, and

120

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teachers that focuses on the different categories of considerations in curriculum design discussed here. These considerations are arranged under four categories: knowledge factors, learner factors, instructional factors, and administrative factors (Rodgers 1986).

The profile is a device to stimulate group discussion, evaluation, and problem solving.

Curriculum development is typically a group planning process, and group planning plays an important part in almost all curriculum development projects that have been analyzed (e.g., see Schaffarzick and Hampson 1975). Central questions in this process concern how group educational planning can be most effective, how planning groups can be constituted and operate, and in particular, what factors planning groups should direct their attention to.

The factors proposed in the Program Planning Profile are ones that have emerged as worthy of early consideration from twenty years of curriculum design experiences of the staff of the Curriculum Research and Development Group at the University of Hawaii. The factor inventory has been revised several times and will undoubtedly be revised again. At this point, the factor inventory is intended to be more than suggestive but less than comprehensive.

The scales are organized so that low-diffículty factors are on the left and high-difficulty factors on the right. For example, if a proposed program’s subject area (Factor 1) is already highly familiar to educators and the community (e.g., reading), the assessment would suggest “low difficulty” loading on this factor. If subject matter is highly unfamiliar (e.g., discourse analysis), assessment would indicate “high-difficulty” loading on this factor.

In use, each member of a planning group is given a profile sheet. The proposed educational program is described by the team leader and substantive questions are entertained. Each of the factor scales is “read” and briefly discussed to ensure a more or less common interpretation of the factor. Each of the participants then privately provides an assessment indicating which of the four points on the scale best represents the current status of that factor and marks the scale accordingly. The exercise leader may want to “pulse” this so that participants consider each factor equally and complete this phase of the exercise together. Participants then divide into subgroups of about four or five, each group containing a mix of people with different sorts of educational affiliations. The groups then discuss each factor (or a subset of factors) and comment on their individual assessments. Afterward a group secretary records assessment on a clean profile sheet. Consensus and disagreement are both important to note. The group then reconvenes as a whole, and secretaries report the results of the subgroup discussions.

The group can then make several kinds of assessments and determinations. For example: 1. How “difficult” does the project look as a whole? (Do assessments bias to the left/ low-difficulty or to the right/high-difficulty end?)

2. What “high-difficulty” factors are most susceptible to manipulation, which could make them less difficult?

3. What factors will be most critical in the likely success or non-success of the project?

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4. When considerable disagreement exists as to assessment rating, why is this so?

Would more data/discussion help?

5. Which factors contain the greatest unknowns? Could/should more information be gathered on these factors?

6. Do representatives with the same affiliations assess factors similarly? What are the implications for intergroup/intragroup communication and cooperation?

The following examples clarify the kinds of application that can be made from deliberation on the Profile.

Knowledge factors 1. Subject area 2. Knowledge base 3. Knowledge structure 4. Relevant materials 5. Knowledge outcomes

Familiar

Unfamilar

1 2 Defined

3 4 Undefined

1 2 Simple

3 4 Complex

1 2 Available

3 4 Unavailable

1 2 Facts

3 4 Values

1

3

2

4

Learner factors 6. Group size 7. Homogenciry 8. Teachability 9. Motivation 10. Attainment expectations

122

Limited

General

1 2 Homogeneous

3 4 Heterogeneous

1 2 Easy to teach

3 4 Hard to teach

1 2 Aspirina

3 4 Non-aspiring

1 Basic

2

3 4 Sophisticated

1

2

3

4

DidĂĄctica del inglĂŠs I

Instructional factors 11. Curriculum design 12. Educational plan 13. Instructional media 14. Teacher retraining possibilities 15. Target schools (system) 1 6. Target schools (problems) 17. Compacting programs

Simple

Complex

1 2 Well-researched

3 4 Intuitive

1 2 Technically simple

3 4 Technically complex

1 2 Extensive

3 None

4

1

3

4

2

Coherent 1

Disjoint 2

3

4

Known/Simple

Unknown/Profound

1

3

2

Norte 1

4

Many 2

3

4

Administrative factors 18. Change effort (brcadlh) 19. Change effort (depth) 20. Development time 21. Development team 22. Agency reputation 23. Agency leverage 24. Development resources

Local 1

Internacional 2

Partial 1

4

Complete 2

Extensive 1

3 3

4

Limited 2

3

4

Experienced

Inexperienced

1 2 Excellent

3 4 Poor/Unknow

1 Great

2

3 4 Limited

1 Large

2

3 4 Small

1

2

3

4

Figure 1.1 Program planning profile (from Rodgers and Richards 1987:36-7)

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Case A: A national communicative curriculum is proposed to replace a grammar/literature upper-secondary syllabus in an EFL situation. The planning group notes that communicative approaches are unfamiliar to teachers (Factor 1), locally relevant materials are unavailable (Factor 4), and time and resources for development for teacher retraining are highly limited (Factors 14, 20, 24). Deliberation suggests that because these and a number of other factors are weighted toward the high difficult end of the factor scales, a modest change in subject matter should be attempted initially. Using the principle of least change, a program built around communicative pair practical of exercise types familiar to and favored by teachers and maintenance of a literature element is proposed.

Case B: A computer-based guided composition program has been devised by a university team and tested for secondary school age students in the university laboratory school. Several enthusiastic school administrators are now proposing to install the program regionally. A budget is proposed for equipment purchases and for teacher inservice training at the university. Program factor analysis indicated “guided composition” to be an unfamiliar educational technique for most teachers (Factor 1). Current administrative disagreements regarding computer choice, software design, and equipment security and maintenance also yields a “high-difficulty” rating for Factor 13. The university team has high prestige (Factor 22) but little leverage (Factor 23). After deliberation, a decision is made (a) to introduce guided composition techniques through a newsletter with sample reproducible paper and pencil exercises; (b) to form a town/gown consortium to test and promote the new guided composition program; and (c) to hold inservice training sessions in familiar and easy-to-reach local schools rather than at the university.

Case C: Following successful trial and piloting of a process-based academic writing curriculum in a university English Language Institute, a decision has been made to use such an approach on a wider scale. Program factor analysis indicates that there is a wide disparity among teachers as to what constitutes a “process-based approach” (Factor 1), that learners might resist such an approach because it differs strongly from their previous experience of how writing is taught and because it involves extensive use of peer feedback (Factor 8), that a less textbook-oriented curriculum would require more teacher as well as learner initiative (Factor 13), and that teacher turnover is high, with most new teachers having had little experience in teaching writing at this level (Factor 21). Deliberation resulted in the suggestion that the existing ‘ program be modified to involve more process-directed activities, that ongoing inservice training be provided, and that an orientation program be provided for students entering the program.

The use of an activity like this has several benefits. It helps planners at all levels to 1. conceptualize educational planning in a new way 2. find out what they don’t know and need to know

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3. focus on issues of feasibility in education renewal 4. become more sensitive to the concerns of other individuals and agencies involved in educational change 5. identify factors requiring more detailed analysis 6. plan allocation of time, energy, and resources.

Perhaps most critically, the exercise of group deliberation built around the profile helps individuals involved in planning and implementation to develop cohesiveness and a deliberative style that facilitates more difficult problem resolution in the teaching and learning tasks that lie ahead. This contrasts with the approach to educational design typically seen in the field of language teaching. Program or curriculum development in language teaching has not generally been viewed as an integrated and interdependent set of processes that involves careful data gathering, planning, experimentation, monitoring, consultation, and evaluation. Rather, simplistic solutions are often advocated that address only one dimension of the process, for example by advocating changes in teaching techniques, methods, learning styles, technologies, materials, or teacher preparation. If the field of second and foreign language teaching is to attain the degree of rigor found in other areas of education, however, a more comprehensive basis for educational practices is needed.

DISCUSSION TOPICS AND ACTIVITIES 1. Examine the list of questions related to situation analysis on page 2. Suggest three different procedures for finding answers to the questions, in relation to a language program or language teaching situation you are familiar with. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each procedure?

2. Prepare a plan to carry out a communicative needs analysis for the following situations: a) A group of foreign doctors requires an intensive language course before doing observations at local hospitals. b) A group of recently arrived immigrants requires a course to prepare them for hotel work.

3. Prepare three examples of goals for each of the situations you discussed in question 2, and three objectives for each program. Then discuss any difficulties you had in developing statements of objectives.

4. Prepare a description of microskills relating to conversational ability at a basic social or survival level.

5. Compare the syllabuses in Appendixes 3—5. How do they differ?

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6. Prepare a syllabus outline for the following topic, which is to be included in a conversation course: “Inviting someone to do something.” Your syllabus outline (one or two pages in length) should cover one unit of instruction.

7. Examine an ESL or foreign language course book. What assumptions underly the book with respect to a) the syllabus? b) the role of the teacher? c) the roles of the learners? d) learning theory?

8. In groups, examine a language teaching situation or program you are familiar with, in terms of the factors contained in the Program Planning Profile (Figure 1).

Then compare your assessments with other groups.

APPENDIX 1: SITUATION ANALYSIS The following is part of a questionnaire that tries to identify the learner’s needs and preferred modes of learning.

QUESTIONNAIRE 2: HOW DO YOU LIKE LEARNING? Put a circle around your answer. a) In class do you like learning 1. individually

YES/NO

2. in pairs?

YES/NO

3. in small groups?

YES/NO

4. in one large group?

YES/NO

b) Do you want to do homework?

YES/NO

If so, how much time have you got for homework outside class hours? _____ hours a day or _____ hours a week How would you like to spend this time?

1. Preparing for the next class?

YES/NO

2. Reviewing the day’s work?

YES/NO

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3. Doing some kind of activity based on your personal experience, work experience, or interests?

YES/NO c) Do you want to 1. spend all your learning time in the classroom? or...

2. spend some time in the classroom and some time practising your English with people outside?

YES/NO 3. spend some time in the classroom and some time getting to know your city and the Australian way of life, e.g., by visiting Parliament, government offices, migrant resource centres, places of interest, work, entertainment, and so on? YES/NO d) Do you like learning 1. by memory?

YES/NO

2. by problem solving?

YES/NO

3. by getting information for yourself?

YES/NO

4. by listening?

YES/NO

5. by reading?

YES/NO

6. by copying off the board?

YES/NO

7. by listening and taking notes?

YES/NO

8. by reading and making notes?

YES/NO

9. by repeating what you hear?

YES/NO

Put a cross next to the three things that you find most useful. e) When you speak do you want to be corrected 1. immediately, in front of everyone? or...

YES/NO

2. later, at the end of the activity, in front of everyone? or...

YES/NO

3. later, in prívate?

YES/NO

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f) Do you mind if other students sometimes correct your written work?

YES/NO

Do you mind if the teacher sometimes asks you to correct your own work? YES/NO g) Do you like learning from?

1. television/video/films?

YES/NO

2. radio?

YES/NO

APPENDIX 2: COMMUNICATIVE NEEDS ANALYSIS The questionnaire from which his excerpt comes was formulated to “obtain a valid description of the kinds of writing tasks that are required of students ...during typical coursework” at the university level (Bridgman and Carl-son 1983; App. A).

For each of the following writing tasks, indicate how frequently each task might be assigned to students per semester. (Circle one number for each task.)

Writing tasks

Not at all

1-2 times per 3-6 times per semester semester

7 or more times per semester

1.

Lab reports or descriptions of experiments conducted by the student or in class

0

1

2

3

2.

Brief summaries of arricies read (1-2 pages)

0

1

2

3

3.

Brief research papers (5 pages or less)

0

1

2

3

4.

Longer research papers (6 pages or more)

0

1

2

3

5.

Creative writing (fiction, poetry, or drama)

0

1

2

3

6.

Expository or critical writing unrelated to lab or library research

0

1

2

3

7.

Exams with essay questions

0

1

2

3

8.

Group writing projects

0

1

2

3

9.

Case studies

0

1

2

3

10.

Other (specify)

0

1

2

3

11.

Other (specify)

0

1

2

3

Survey of Academic Writing Tasks Required of Graduate and Undergraduate Foreign Students by Brent Bridgeman and Sybil Carlson. Reprinted by permission of Educational Testing Service.

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APPENDIX 3: SYLLABUS SPECIFYING ACTIVITIES AREA FIVE Required product: Oral/Written Gathering of Information, comments and ideas Stimulus

Situation

Notes

(a) The host at a party suggests the game “Twenty Questions” and instructs guests on how it is played. As part of the game, ask your host pertinent questions so as to arrive at the answer he has in mind. (b) As a father, you are worried about financial security for your family. You contact an insurance agent. In your conversation with him, find out which insurance scheme would best suit you. (c) The manager of your insurance firm informs you that a client’s car has been damaged in an accident and that he wants you to look into the matter immediately. Contact your client and ask him about the details and circumstances of the accident. (d) A famous boxer has just arrived in thiscountry.

At the press conference at the air port, question him on his background and experiences. (e) You want to buy a new car, and apart from setting your mind on a certain make, you have no idea of the attributes of the various models.

Contact the sales representative of the nearest outlet and ask him about the various models available and details of them. (f) You are in Hong Kong and would like to stay there for an extended period. Contact the manager of a suitable hotel and enquire about discounts for a long stay. (g) You work in the survey department and have been assigned the task of finding out the spending habits of various households. Interview the heads of households and ask questions on their monthly expenditure. h) As an employee in an oil firm, you would like to find out how people react to increases in the price of petrol. Interview several consumers and ask them in what ways the cost of petrol affects their travelling habits.

This excerpt is reprinted with permission from English Language Syllabus in Malaysian Schools, p. 46, © Hakcipta Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia, 1975.

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Getting things connected e.g. gas, phone.TV Rent - payment, contract Buying furniture second-hand, markets, auctions, small ads Paying bills-when and how At the door: milkman, postman, dustman, meter, salesmen Repairs-plumber.

Electrician Making appointments Electoral Register

SITUATION

Topic: HOUSE and HOME

Understanding and asking for information Understanding directions and local information Expressing intentions Declining Giving information Making requests to

FUNCTION

APPENDIX 4: SYLLABUS SPECIFYING CONTENT

I’m looking for a large wardrobe.

What sort of price did you have in mind?

Have you got anything cheaper?

I am moving to . .. ....

Can I have the gas/electricity connected. please?

What’s your address?

It’s £70 deposit.

Hello. I’m the . . . .

I’ve come to read the meter.

Could I see your identification please?

Where can I get a . . .?

Are you interested in . . .?

No, not today, thank you.

ACTUAL LANGUAGE

l’m Iooking. for . . . .

Have you got . . .?

Could I have . . .?

Can I . . .?

Can you tell me . . .?

Would you like . . .?

Sorry.I. .. .

Comparatives/adjectives Where can I . . .? (+infinitive without to)

LANGUAGE PATTERNS and TENSES

Programa de Licenciatura para Profesores sin Título Pedagógico en Lengua Extranjera

Reading bilis, final demands, meters and filling in estimated bills, checking meter readings Library - Section headings Form-filling Reading contracts

LITERACY Types of shops best for certain items Where to buy what Use of telephone for buying, inquiring Filig bilis and recepts Guarantees What is delivered-mílk. etc.

How and when to pay bills Where to get local information –library, rent officer, Citizen’s Advice Bureau, Legal Centre Asking for identification from strangers at the door Meaning of deposit Meaning of electoral register

SYSTEM

Reproduced from Lessons from the Vietnamese with permission from the National Extensión College Trust Ltd

Names of household items. including plugs, etc.

Equipment Names of local institutions c.g. clinic, library

LEXIS Simplified maps of localitygrading up to actual maps.

Simplified and graded gas bills and meter readings.

7 Days a Week’ Pack Tapes - of dialogues in the situations

AIDS and MATERIALS

Didáctica del inglés I

131

132

TIME DATES – INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT 4

Speaking

Reading

Other questions requiring a date as answer (When

What date is/ The 3rd. was this/next/ (ordinal last Friday? number)

(It’s) X. Months and their What’s the date (today)? (mo./day/yr.) abbreviations day date What’s your (It’s) X (mo./day/yr.) month (mo.) year birthdate? (yr.)

When’s your (It’s) X. (mo./ birthdate day) birthday?

Listening

date and birthdate in word and number form (August 10, 1984 = 8/10/84)

Writing

Numbers, cardinal and ordinal

Wh-questions (what, when?)

Grammatical structure focus

this next last

calendar

Months and their abbreviations day date month (mo.) year (yr.) birthdate birthday

Vocabulary

ANS pp. 1314, 69 ANS1 pp. 4147, 53

Month precedes day in U.S. usage.

For bureaucratic purposes, knowledge of one’s own birthdate and one’s family’s birthdates is essential.

EAC p. 19

On forms “date” means today’s ANS2 pp. 30date.

32, 58

Possible materials

Culture notes

COMPETENCIES: 8.Name, read and write months and their abbreviations. 9. Read and write dates in both words and numbers. 10. Ask about and give dates when asked. 11. Use a calendar.

SITUATION: Talking to co-worker or answering questions at Public Aid office, etc.

TOPIC:

Level I - Survival ESL

APPENDIX 5: SYLLABUS SPECIFYING TOPICS AND COMPETENCIES Programa de Licenciatura para Profesores sin Título Pedagógico en Lengua Extranjera

Didáctica del inglés I

APPROACHES TO EVALUATION * Jack C. Richards A recurring theme throughout this book has been reflective analysis of the practices that are involved in planning and teaching a language course. This has involved an examination of the context in which the program occurs, of the goals, syllabus, and structure of a course, and how these can be planned and developed, as well as analysis of the teaching and learning that takes place during the course. The focus throughout has been analysis of the different factors that determine the successful design and implementation of language programs and language teaching materials. This overall and interlinked system of elements (i.e., needs, goals, teachers, learners, syllabuses, materials, and teaching) is known as the second language curriculum. However, once a curriculum is in place, a number of important questions still need to be answered. These include: •

Is the curriculum achieving its goals?

•

What is happening in classrooms and schools where it is being implemented?

•

Are those affected by the curriculum (e.g., teachers, administrators, students, parents, employers) satisfied with the curriculum?

•

Have those involved in developing and teaching a language course done a satisfactory job?

•

Does the curriculum compare favorably with others of its kind?

Curriculum evaluation is concerned with answering questions such as these. It focuses on collecting information about different aspects of a language program in order to understand how the program works, and how successfully it works, enabling different kinds of decisions to be made about the program, such as whether the program responds to learners’ needs, whether further teacher training is required for teachers working in the program, or whether students are learning sufficiently from it.

Evaluation may focus on many different aspects of language program such as: •

curriculum design: to provide insights about the quality of program planning and organization.

•

the syllabus and program content: for example, how relevant and engaging it was, how easy or difficult, how successful tests and assessment procedures were

•

classroom processes: to provide insights about the extent to which a program is being implemented appropriately

*

Richards, Jack C. (2001). Curriculum Development in language Teaching. Cambridge University Press. New York.

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•

materials of instruction: to provide insights about whether specific materials are aiding student learning

•

the teachers: for example, how they conducted their teaching, what their perceptions were of the program, what they taught

•

teacher training: to assess whether training teachers have received is adequate

•

the students: for example, what they learned from the program, their perceptions of it, and how they participated in it

•

monitoring of pupil progress: to conduct formative (in-progress) evaluations of student learning

•

learner motivation: to provide insights about the effectiveness of teachers in aiding students to achieve goals and objectives of the school

•

the institution: for example, what administrative support was provided, what resources were used, what communication networks were employed

•

learning environment: to provide insights about the extent to which students are provided with a responsive environment in terms of their educational needs

•

staff development: to provide insights about the extent to which the school system provides the staff opportunities to increase their effectiveness

•

decision making: to provide insights about how well the school staff principals, teachers, and others - make decisions that result in learner benefits.

(Sanders 1992; Weir and Roberts 1994)

Since the 1960s, curriculum evaluation has become of increasing interest to educators and curriculum planners. Funding for national curriculum projects in many parts of the world was often linked to a requirement to provide evaluation reports that demonstrated accountability, that helped guide improvement of ongoing projects, and that documented what happened in curriculum projects. Increasingly since then, schools, program administrators, and teachers have had to be accountable for the funds they received or for the programs they have been responsible for, and this has created the need for an understanding of the nature of curriculum evaluation. The scope of evaluation has moved from a concern with test results to the need to collect information and make judgments about all aspects of the curriculum, from planning to implementation (Hewings and Dudley-Evans 1996).

PURPOSES OF EVALUATION Weir and Roberts (1994) distinguish between two major purposes for language program evaluation, program accountability, and program development. Accountability refers to the extent to which those involved in a program are answerable for the quality of their

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work. Accountability-oriented evaluation usually examines the effects of a program or project at significant end points of an educational cycle and is usually conducted for the benefit of an external audience or decision maker. Development-oriented evaluation, by contrast, is designed to improve the quality of a program as it is being implemented. It may involve staff who are involved in the program as well as others who are not and may nave a teacher-development focus (Weir and Roberts 1994, 5). The different purposes for evaluation are referred to as formative, illuminative, and summative evaluation.

FORMATIVE EVALUATION Evaluation may be carried out as part of the process of program development in order to find out what is working well, and what is not, and what problems need to be addressed.

This type of evaluation is generally known as formative evaluation. It focuses on ongoing development and improvement of the program. Typical questions that relate to formative evaluation are: •

Has enough time been spent on particular objectives?

•

Have the placement tests placed students at the right level in the program?

•

How well is the textbook being received?

•

Is the methodology teachers are using appropriate?

•

Are teachers or students having difficulties with any aspect of the course?

•

Are students enjoying the program? If not, what can be done lo improve their motivation?

•

Are students getting sufficient practice work? Should the workload be increased or decreased?

•

Is the pacing of the material adequate?

Information collected during formative evaluation is used to address problems that have been identified and to improve the delivery of the program.

– Example 1: During the implementation o f a new primary course in an EFL context it is found that rather than using the task-oriented communicative methodology that provides the framework for the course, a number of teachers-dominated drill and practice mode of teaching that is not in harmony with the course philosophy. In order to address this problem a series of Saturday morning workshops are held to identify the kinds of problems teachers are having with the materials. Videos are used to model more appropriate teaching strategies and teachers agree to attempt to implement in their classrooms some of the techniques they have seen demonstrated and to report back on their experiences at subsequent workshops.

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– Example 2: A few weeks after a course on integrated skills has started, it is found that there are different perceptions of what the priorities in the course are. Teachers are spending very different amounts of time on different components of the course and are emphasizing different things. A series of meetings are held to review teachers’ understanding of the course objectives and to further clarify the weighting that should be given to different course components. Peer observation is then suggested as a way for teachers to compare teaching styles and priorities and to enable them to achieve a consensus concerning teaching practices.

– Example 3: A 10-week course on conversation skills has been started for a group of low-level learners. Pronunciation is not a major element of the course because it is assumed that most pronunciation problems will sort themselves out after a few weeks.

However, four weeks after the course has commenced, teachers report that a number of students have persistent and major pronunciation problems that the course is not addressing. It is decided to refocus one section of the course to include a pronunciation component. Individual diagnostic sessions are held with students who have the most serious pronunciation problems, and laboratory work as well as classroom time is allotted to systematic pronunciation work for the remainder of the course.

ILLUMINATIVE EVALUATION Another type of evaluation can be described as illuminative evaluation. This refers to evaluation that seeks to find out how different aspects of the program work or are being implemented. It seeks to provide a deeper understanding of the processes of teaching and learning that occur in the program, without necessarily seeking to change the course in any way as a result. Questions that might be asked within this framework are: •

How do students carry out group-work tasks? Do all students participate equally in them?

•

What type of error-correction strategies do teachers use?

•

What kinds of decisions do teachers employ while teaching?

•

How do teachers use lesson plans when teaching?

•

What type of teacher-student interaction patterns typically occur in classes?

•

What reading strategies do students use with different kinds of texts?

•

How do students understand the teacher’s intentions during a lesson?

•

Which students in a class are most or least active?

– Example 1: A teacher is teaching a course on reading skills and has developed a course which focuses on a wide variety of reading skills, such as skimming, scanning, reading for details, surveying a text, critical reading, and vocabulary development. All

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of the skills receive regular focus throughout the course. The teacher is interested in finding out what the students perceive to be the main point of the course. Students complete a short questionnaire at different times during the course in order to describe their perceptions of what the course is seeking to achieve. At times there is a different perception on the part of students as to the purpose of different activities, or even of whole lessons. After reflecting on this phenomenon, the teacher comes to understand that learners’ perceptions of a course may reflect what they are most interested in or what they feel they need most help with at a particular point in time.

– Example 2: A teacher is interested in learning more about teacher-student interaction in her own classroom. She invites a colleague to visit her class and to carry out a series of classroom observations. The observer is given the task of noting how often the teacher interacts with different student in the class and the kind of interaction that occurs. This involves noting the kinds of questions the teacher asks and the extent to which she acknowledges and follows up on students’ questions. From the data collected by the observer, the teacher is able to assess the extent to which she or the students control classroom interaction and gets a better understanding of how she uses questions to “scaffold” lesson content.

– Example 3: A teacher wants to find out more about how students carry out group work and whether he is sufficiently preparing students for group work tasks. He arranges to record different groups of students carrying out a group-work task and reviews the recording to find out the extent to which students participate in group discussions and the kind of language they use. On reviewing the recording, the teacher is pleased to note that the strategy of assigning each member of a group a different role during group tasks -such as coordinator, language monitor, or summarizer- is proving effective in ensuring that group members participate actively in tasks.

Much classroom action research or teacher inquiry can be regarded as a type of illuminative evaluation. Block (1998) discusses the importance of this type of evaluation in understanding learners’ interpretations of the language courses they attend and how learners make sense of their lessons. He suggests that teachers interview learners regularly to find out how they interpret what is going on in a course. Richards and Lockhart (1994) describe a piece of classroom action research of this kind carried out by two primary school teachers who sought to understand the following questions about their classes: •

What learning strategies were used by successful learners in their classes?

•

Do the learners use English outside of the classroom?

•

Do they feel good about learning English?

The teachers collected information on two learners over a term, using classroom observation, learner journals, and interviews. They found that the successful learners had identified a number of helpful learning strategies that they applied in different ways; for

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example, in helping to remember things they had studied, the children gave these examples: It is easy to remember when you listen.

I do it over and over again.

I practice with friends and family.

I stick sentences on my wall in my room.

I spend lots of time going over with my book because I like it and I learn. I would still study it if my teacher didn’t see it or mark it.

From their classroom research the teachers concluded: Even though we didn’t learn anything particularly surprising from our investigation, it was useful to confirm and make explicit some things which we knew intuitively. We have learned a useful strategy to use in order to more effectively facilitate our students’ learning. The strategy involves asking the following questions: How did you go about doing this?

Which way of doing this works best for you?

SUMMATIVE EVALUATION A third approach to evaluation is the type of evaluation with which most teachers and program administrators are familiar and which seeks to make decisions about the worth or value of different aspects the curriculum. This is known as summative evaluation. Is concerned with determining the effectiveness of a program. Its efficiency, and to some extent with its acceptability. It take place after a program has been implemented and seeks to answer questions such as these.

•

How effective was the course? Did it achieve its aims?

•

What did the students learn?

•

How well was the course received by students and teachers?

•

Did the materials work well?

•

Were the objectives adequate or do they need to be revised?

•

Were the placement and achievement tests adequate?

•

Was the amount of time spent on each unit sufficient?

•

How appropriate were the teaching methods?

•

What problems were encountered during the course?

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In order to decide if a course is effective, criteria for effectiveness need to be identified.

There are many different measures of a course’s effectiveness and each measure can be used for different purposes. For example: Mastery of objectives: One way of measuring the effectiveness of a course is to ask “How far have the objectives been achieved?” Each objective in the course is examined and criteria for successful achievement of each objective are chosen. In a course on speaking skills, for example, an objective might be: In group discussions students will listen to and respond to the opinions of others in their group. The extent to which the students have mastered this objective at the end of the course can be assessed by the teacher’s observing students during group discussions and recording on a scale the extent to which they listen and respond to opinions. If students’ performance on this objective is poor, reasons would have to be identified, Perhaps, for example, insufficient opportunities were provided in the course for students to practice this task, perhaps the materials relating to this objective were too difficult or not sufficiently interesting.

However, mastery of objectives does not provide a full picture of the effectiveness of a course. Objectives can be achieved despite defects in a course. Students may have realized that the teaching or materials were poor or insufficient and so spent a lot of extra time in private study to compensate for it. Or perhaps mastery of an objective was achieved but the same objective could have been covered in half the amount of time devoted to it. Or the program might have achieved its objectives but students have a very negative perception of it because it was not stimulating or the pacing was inappropriate.

Performance on tests: Apart from the relatively informal way of assessing mastery of objectives, formal tests are probably the commonest means used to measure achievement. Such test might be unit test given at the end of each unit of teaching materials, class test or quizzes devised by teachers and administered at various stages throughout the course, or as formal exit test designed to measure the extent to which objectives have been achieved. Weir (1995) points out that achievement tests can have an important washback effect on teaching and learning. They can help in the making of decisions about needed changes to a program, such as which objectives need more attention or revision. Brindley (1989) reports, however, that in programs he studied in Australia, teachers preferred to rely on informal methods of ongoing assessment rather than formal exit tests. About the use of informal methods, he comments: This does not seem to be sufficiently explicit to meet the expectations and requirements of either administrators or learners for more formal information on learners’ achievement of a course or a unit... The informal methods of ongoing assessment provided by teachers do not provide the kind of explicit information on achievement required by learners and administrators. (Brindley 1989, 43) Weir (1995) argues for the need for better measures of summative evaluation and for the development of progress-sensitive performance tests for use during courses.

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Measures of acceptability: A course might lead to satisfactory achievement of its objectives and good levels of performance on exit tests yet still be rated negatively by teachers or students. Alternatively, if everyone liked a course and spoke enthusiastically of it, could this be more important than the fact that half the students failed to reach the objectives?

Acceptability can be determined by assessments of teachers and students. Reasons for a course being considered acceptable or unacceptable might relate to such factors as time-tabling, class size, choice of materials, or teachers’ teaching styles.

Retention rate or reenrollment rate: A measure of a course’s effectiveness that may be important from an institution’s point of view is the extent to which students continue in the course throughout its duration and the percentage of students who reenroll for another course at the end. If there is a significant dropout rate, is this true of other courses in the institution and the community or is it a factor of a given course only?

Efficiency of the course: Another measure of the success of a course is how straightforward the course was to develop and implement. This may be a reflection of the number of problems that occurred during the course, the time spent on planning and course development, the need for specialized materials and teacher training, and the amount of time needed for consultations and meetings.

Examples of different approaches to determine program effectiveness are given in the appendix.

ISSUES IN PROGRAM EVALUATION Weir and Roberts (1994, 42) propose a broad view of evaluation that is characterized by: •

a need for both insider and outsider commitment and involvement lo ensure adequate evaluation

•

a central interest in improvement, as well as the demonstration of the “product value” of a program or project or their components

•

an associated commitment to a deeper professional understanding of the processes of educational change, as well as the results of that change

•

systematic documentation for evaluation purposes both during implementation and at the beginning and end of a program or project’s life

•

a willingness to embrace both qualitative and quantitative methodology appropriate to the purpose of the evaluation and the context under review

These principles raise the following issues in the evaluation process.

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THE AUDIENCE FOR EVALUATION There are many different levels of involvement in language teaching, programs and this creates different kinds of audiences for evaluation. In planning an evaluation it is important to identify who the different audiences are and what kind of information they are most interested in (Elley 1989). For example, in developing a new textbook series for public schools funded by the ministry of education, officers in the ministry (who might not be specialists in language teaching) might be primarily interested in how the money provided for the project is spent and whether all components of the project (student books, teacher guides, and workbook) are available in a schools by a specific date. Teachers teaching the materials might be primarily concerned that the books provide sufficient material for all the classes on the school timetable. An outside consultant may be interested in the design of the materials and the kind of classroom interaction and language practice they provide for. Vocational training centers might be interested in whether the course prepares school leavers for vocational training programs conducted in English. Therefore, evaluation has to satisfy all interested parties. Question different audiences might be interested in are: Students What did I learn?

How well did I do compare to others?

How well will I rate this course?

How will this help me in the future?

Do I need another course?

Teachers How well did I teach?

What did my students learn?

Were my students satisfied with the course?

How useful were the materials and course work?

How effective was the course organization?

Curriculum developers Is the design of the course and materials appropriate?

What aspects of the course need replacing or revising?

Do teachers and students respond favorably to the course?

Do teachers need additional support with the course?

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Administrators Was the time frame of the course appropriate?

Were the management and monitoring of the course successful in identifying and rectifying problems? Were clients’ expectations met?

Were testing and assessment procedures adequate?

Were resources made use of?

Sponsors Was the cost of the course justified?

Did the course deliver what was promised?

Was the course well managed?

Is the reporting of the course adequate?

Shaw and Dowsett (1986, 66) suggest that three audiences are identifiable for all summative evaluation of language courses: •

other teachers in the program, for course design and planning purposes (the main audience)

•

managers of the institution or program, for the purpose of determining course offerings and placement

•

the curriculum support or development unit, for the purpose of monitoring the curriculum

In planning an evaluation, these different kinds of audiences need to be carefully identified and the results of the evaluation presented in a way that No appropriate for each audience.

PARTICIPANTS IN THE EVALUATION PROCESS Two types of participants are typically involved in evaluation -insiders and outsiders. Insiders refers to teachers, students, and anyone else closely involved in the development and implementation of the program. Formative evaluation, for example, is often carried out by teachers who can monitor a course as it develops to check the extent to which it is working, what difficulties are encountered, how effective the materials are, and what modifications would ensure the smooth running of the program. Students are often key participants in the summative evaluation of the program, providing evidence of their gains in language proficiency and completing evaluations on the way the program was taught and the relevance of what they have learned to their needs. An important factor in successful program evaluations is often the involvement of key insiders in the process of designing and carrying out the evaluation, because as a consequence, they will have a greater degree of commitment to acting on its results. Outsiders are others who are not involved in the program and who may be asked to give an objective view of aspects of the program. They may be

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consultants, inspectors, or administrators whose job it is to supplement the teachers’ perceptions of what happened in a course with independent observation and opinion.

QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE EVALUATION Quantitative measurement refers to the measurement of something that can be expressed numerically. Many tests are designed to collect information that can be readily counted and presented in terms of frequencies, rankings, or percentages. Other sources of quantitative information are checklists, surveys, and self-ratings. Quantitative data seek to collect information from a large number of people on specific topics and can generally he analysed statistically so that certain patterns and tendencies emerge. The information collected can be analyzed fairly simply because subjective decisions are not usually involved. Traditionally, quantitative data are regarded as “rigorous” or conforming to scientific principles of data collection, though the limitations of quantitative information are also recognized, hence the need to complement such information with qualitative information.

Qualitative measurement refers to measurement of something that cannot be expressed numerically and that depends more on subjective judgment or observation. Information obtained from classroom observation, interviews, journals, logs, and case studies is generally qualitative. Qualitative approaches are more holistic and naturalistic than quantitative approaches and seek to collect information in natural settings for language use and on authentic tasks rather than in test situations. They are normally more exploratory and seek to collect a large amount of information from a fairly small number of cases. The information obtained is more difficult to analyze because it is often open-ended and must be coded or interpreted. Qualitative data are sometimes regarded as “soft” or less rigorous than quantitative data, but such information is essential in many stages of program evaluation.

In language program evaluation both quantitative and qualitative approaches to collecting information are needed, because they serve different purposes and can be used to complement each other. For example, in assessing students’ achievement at the end of a course on spoken English, the following procedures might be used: •

performance on an oral proficiency test (quantitative)

•

observation of students’ performance on classroom tasks with evaluation using a holistic rating scale (qualitative)

•

students’ self-assessment of improvement in their speaking skills (qualitative)

THE IMPORTANCE OF DOCUMENTATION The more documentation that is available about a course, the easier it is to arrive at decisions about it. Relevant documentation includes:

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Course statistics: information on why students chose the course, student numbers, attendance, class size, drop outs, use of facilities such as library or self-access center. This kind of information provides an overview of the nature of the course and its mode of operation and may reveal certain patterns or problems.

Relevant course documents: compilation of all relevant documentation about the course, such as descriptions, publicity materials, statements of aims, objectives and syllabus, course materials, teaching guides, newsletters, newspaper articles, reports of planning meetings.

Course work: examples of tests, class assignments, examples of students’ work.

Written comments: anything that has been written about the course by external assessors, teachers, learners, managers.

Institutional documents: anything that is available about the school or institution, hiring policy, job descriptions, needs analyses that have been conducted, reports of previous courses.

Course reviews: a written account of a course, prepared by the teacher or teachers who taught the course. This should be both descriptive and reflective. It should be an account of how the course progressed, what problems occurred, the perceived strengths and weaknesses of the course, and suggestions for the future. A well-written review is a useful resource for others who will teach the course and also provides a record of the course.

Weir and Roberts (1994, 12) comment: “One shudders to think how many times the wheel has been reinvented in ELT programs and projects around the world. Where is the collective memory of decades of projects? Where does one go to learn from the mistakes and successes of similar projects in the past?”

IMPLEMENTATION The purpose of evaluation is to promote review, reflection, and revision of the curriculum based on careful compilation of information from a variety of different sources. In order to make decisions based on the evaluation, It is first necessary to review the process of evaluation to ensure that the evaluation was adequately designed. Questions that help determine this are: – Scope: Does the range of information collected include all the significant aspects of the program being evaluated?

– Audience: Does the information collected adequately serve the needs of all the intended audiences?

– Reliability: Has the information been collected in such a way that I he same findings would be obtained by others?

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– Objectivity: Have attempts been made to make sure that there is no bias in the collecting and processing of information?

– Representativeness: Does the information collected accurately describe the program?

– Timeliness: Is the information provided timely enough to be of use to the audiences for the evaluation?

– Ethical considerations: Does the evaluation follow accepted ethical standards, e.g., such that confidentiality of information is guaranteed and in formation obtained in a professional and acceptable manner? (Stufflebeam, McCormick, Brinkerhoff, and Nelson 1985) Once it has been determined dial that the evaluation meets acceptable standards of adequacy, it is necessary to decide how to make use of the information obtained: •

Review all information that was collected.

•

Disseminate findings to relevant! parties.

•

Decide on what changes may need lo be made.

•

Identify costs and benefits of proposed changes.

•

Develop a plan for implementation of changes.

•

Identify those responsible for taking follow-up action.

•

Establish procedures for review of the effectiveness of changes.

Examples of the kinds of changes that might be needed are:  revision or replacement of some of the course objectives  preparation of supplementary materials to complement the textbook  selection of a new textbook to replace the book currently being used  reorganization of the sequence of skills taught within a course  organization of in-service training for teachers  development of a peer review process for teachers  development of a materials writing project  setting up of brown-bag seminars for staff to share teaching experiences

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PROCEDURES USED IN CONDUCTING EVALUATIONS Many of the procedures used in conducting evaluation are similar to those described elsewhere in this book, though their purposes may be different. Here we will consider their role in evaluation and possible advantages or limitations of each procedure.

Tests Different types of tests can be used to measure changes in learning at the end (or at intermediate stages) of a course. These tests may be:  institutionally prepared tests such as exit tests designed to measure what students have learned in the course  international tests, such as TOEFL, IELTS, or a Cambridge proficiency test if these are related to the course aims and content  textbook tests such as those provided in teachers' manuals or as part of a commercial course  student records, such as information collected throughout the course based on course work or continuous assessment. This information may be used to arrive at a final score or grade for a student without using a final test.

– Advantages: Tests can provide a direct measure of achievement, particularly if they are based on student performance, that is, they are criterion-referenced.

– Disadvantages: It is not always easy to be sure that changes in learning as measured by tests are a direct result of teaching or are linked to other factors. And if there is poor performance on achievement tests, this does no identify the cause of the problem. Is it the teacher, the materials, the students, or the course? Further investigation is normally needed. Student evaluation should not be confused with course evaluation. In addition, sound tests - tests that reflect principles of reliability and validity - are difficult lo construct.

Comparison of two approaches to a course Two different versions of a course might be taught and the results as measured by student achievement compared. The comparative approach seeks lo compare the effects of two or more different teaching conditions. It measures the efficiency of the curriculum by comparing the relative effectiveness of two different ways of teaching it.

– Advantages: The comparative approach seeks to control all relevant! factors and to investigate factors rigorously.

– Disadvantages: This approach usually imposes artificial constraints on the teacher.

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One teacher, for example, might be required always to give explicit error correction and another to give only indirect error correction. Bu because of human factors, it is very difficult to maintain these kinds of differences. It is usually impossible to control all relevant variables and the results are therefore usually inconclusive.

Interviews Interviews with teachers and students can be used to get their views on any aspect of the course. Normally, structured interviews provide more useful information than unstructured interviews.

– Advantages: In-depth information can be obtained on specific questions, – Disadvantages: Interviews are very time consuming and only a sample of teachers or students can normally be interviewed in depth; hence the representativeness of their views may be questionable.

Questionnaires These can be used to elicit teachers’ and students’ comments on a wide range of issues.

– Advantages: Questionnaires are easy to administer and information can be obtained from large numbers of respondents.

– Disadvantages: Questionnaires need to be carefully designed if they are to elicit unbiased answers, and information may be difficult to interpret. For example, if students indicate that they found a particular unit in a course difficult, follow-up investigation may be needed to determine exactly why they perceived it to be difficult. Was it the unit itself or was it badly taught?

TEACHERS’ WRITTEN EVALUATION Teachers can complete a course evaluation using a structured feedback form that elicits comments on all aspects of the course.

– Advantages: Teachers are in a good position to report on a course and a well-designed evaluation form provides information quickly in a way that is easy to summarize.

– Disadvantages: The information obtained may be impressionistic and biased, because it presents only the teacher’s point of view.

Diaries and journals Teachers can keep an ongoing record of their impressions and experiences of a course.

Diaries provide a narrative record of things the teacher does, problems encountered, critical incidents, time allocation, and other issues.

– Advantages: Diaries and journals provide relatively detailed and open-ended infor-

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mation and can capture information that may be missed by other means.

– Disadvantages: It is difficult to decide how to use the information obtained. Diaries are impressionistic and unsystematic. They also require cooperation and a time commitment on the part of the teacher.

Teachers’ records Use can be made of available written records of courses, such as reports of lessons taught, material covered, attendance, students’ grades, and time allocation.

– Advantages: Records can provide a detailed account of some aspects of the course.

– Disadvantages: Not all of the information collected may be relevant. Some information may be impressionistic and represent only the teacher’s point of view.

Student logs Students might be asked to keep an account of what happened during a course, how much time they spent on different assignments, how much time they allocated to homework and other out-of-class activities.

– Advantages: Provides the students’ perspective on the course and gives insights that the teacher may not be aware of.

– Disadvantages: Requires the cooperation of students and time commitment. Students may not see the benefit of such an activity.

Case study A teacher may conduct a case study of a course or some aspect of a course. For example, the teacher might document how he or she made use of lesson plans throughout a course, or trace the progress of a particular learner, – Advantages: Case studies provide detailed information about aspects of a course, and over time the accumulated information from case studies can provide a rich picture of different dimensions of a course.

– Disadvantages: The information collected may not be typical or representative, and case studies are time-consuming to prepare.

STUDENT EVALUATIONS

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Students can provide written or oral feedback on a course both during the course and after it has been taught, commenting on features such as the teacher’s approach, the materials used, and their relevance to the students’ needs.

– Advantages: Student evaluations are easy to obtain, provide feedback on a wide range of topics, and enable large numbers of learners to be involved, – Disadvantages: Information obtained may be subjective and impressionistic and is sometimes difficult to interpret or generalize.

Audio- or video-recording Lessons can be recorded to provide examples of different teaching styles and lesson formats – Advantages: Recordings can provide a rich account of teaching in real time and record information that is difficult to document in other ways.

– Disadvantages: The presence of the recording instrument or person making the recording can be disruptive and can bias the data. Good recordings are difficult to set up.

Observation Regular observation of classes may be made by other teachers or a supervisor. Observation is usually more useful if it is structured in some way, such as by giving a specific task to the observer and by providing procedures for the observer to use (e.g., checklists or rating scales).

– Advantages: Observers can focus on any observable aspect of the lesson and can provide an objective eye, identifying things that may not be apparent to the teacher. If teachers observe each other’s classes, it also provides a basis for follow-up discussion and reflection.

– Disadvantages: The observer’s presence may be intrusive. As noted earlier, observation is a specialized skill and requires preparation and explicit guidance if it is to be useful.

Weir and Roberts (1994,134) summarize the focus and procedures available in program evaluation:

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Focus Teacher beliefs

Teacher abilities

Pre/Post: questionnaires interviews observations review of lesson plans Observations/videotapes Self-assessment quizzes Pre/Post: questionnaires interviews observations review of lesson plans

Teacher practices

Record of activities Lesson plan reviews Observations/videotapes Interviews Questionnaires

Student behaviors

Student interviews Student questionnaires Teacher logs Observation Teacher interviews

Student learnings

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Procedures

Chapter/unit tests Standardized test Teacher logs Student assignments Comparison of present term grades to previous grades (or grades of another group of students) Student interviews Teacher questionnaires Student questionnaires Teacher interviews

Didáctica del inglés I

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES 1. What procedures can be used to carry out a formative evaluation of a new program as it is being implemented? Identify the goals of such an evaluation for a program you are familiar with and suggest procedures that could be used to achieve these goals.

2. How useful do you think illuminative evaluation is in program evaluation? Discuss a program you are familiar with and suggest information that could be collected as part of the process of illuminative evaluation.

What use could be made of the information collected?

3. What do you think are the best ways to measure the effectiveness of a language program? Discuss a program you are familiar with and compare different options for determining its effectiveness.

4. Imagine that you have been asked to visit a school or institution and to conduct an evaluation of its language programs. List some of the questions you would want to ask the school’s directors in planning how you will carry out the evaluation.

5. As part of a program evaluation, you want to assess the adequacy of teachertraining provision for teachers in the program. Discuss how you would approach this issue and procedures you could use.

6. Review the two examples given in the appendix. Evaluate the evaluation design and suggest how the evaluation might been improved or done differently.

APPENDIX EXAMPLES OF PROGRAM EVALUATIONS Example 1: Evaluation of a primary English course in an EFL country A new primary English program is developed for an EFL context. English has not been taught previously at this level and will now be taught from year 2 of primary school. Three years are budgeted for the development of materials for the program and for training of teachers. The new course is introduced on a progressive basis over 4 years, beginning with 16 schools in year 1, 32 schools in year 2, and so on. An evaluation is required after the program has been in place for 3 years. The evaluation addresses formative, illuminative, and summative issues. Because not all schools can be examined in depth, the following evaluation plan is developed:  questionnaire to all schools and teachers involved in the new program  an in-depth study of eight representative schools Time frame: 4 weeks

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Audiences for the evaluation: • curriculum development unit in ministry of education • ministry of education officials • schools (teachers and principals) • teacher trainers in teacher-training colleges The eight targeted schools were studied in the following way: • classroom observation • interviews with teacher and principles • interviews with students • tests to determine levels of achievement • documentation (minutes of teachers’ meetings, teachers’ reports, teachers’ teaching logs) Three reports are prepared: • a report for the curriculum development unit • a report for schools and teachers • a report for teacher trainers The first report was an overview and summary of all the information collected and the strengths and weaknesses of the program that were identified, with recommendations for modifications in different aspects of the program as well as more school-based support for some aspects of the program.

The second reports focused on the things students appeared to be learning and problems teachers had reported as well as suggestions from teachers and schools on how aspects of the program could be fine-tuned. Comments on the appropriateness of the teachers’ methodology were also included.

The third report commented on the extent to which the teachers were reflecting principles and practices that had been emphasized in the teacher training that all teachers had received. Problems teachers identified were summarized as input to future teacher-training sessions.

Example 2: Evaluation of courses in a private language institute A large private language institute with up to five hundred students in courses at any given time and offering a range of general English courses as well as company courses wants to develop an evaluation system for its courses and to gather information that will be useful

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in strategic planning. The emphasis is primarily summative. Other aspects of evaluation (formative and illuminative) are dealt with incidentally by teachers and coordinators.

Audiences for the evaluation: • the owners and board of directors of the school • the school director • coordinators and teachers Both qualitative and quantitative measures needed to determine the following: • client satisfaction • teacher competence • teacher satisfaction • adequacy of placement and achievement tests • adequacy of course curriculum and materials • adequacy of teaching methods • efficiency of course development and delivery • adequacy of administrative structures and support • course marketing and fiinancial matters Time frame for the evaluation: 3 weeks Evaluation data was collected in the following ways: •

Expert review. A consultant! was hired to review existing curriculum and tests; a marketing consultant was hired to review course marketing and business management practices in the school.

•

Focus groups. Meetings were held with representative groups of teachers, students, and coordinators to identify strengths and weaknesses of existing practices and to recommend changes.

•

Student evaluations of courses and teaching. A detailed evaluation form was developed to gather student feedback on different aspects of the courses and the teaching.

•

Observation. Coordinators were asked to conduct at least two observations of each teacher, to identify teachers’ strengths and weaknesses, and to make recommendations for in-service training.

•

Test analysis. A review team was established to review placement and achievement tests.

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•

Test results. Test scores are reviewed for all classes to determine the percentage of students in each class who achieve a passing grade. If less than 10 percent of students achieve the grade the course is targeted for, closer scrutiny is undertaken to determine the cause.

•

Administrative review. A management group reviewed all administrative procedures and systems and asked teachers to complete a questionnaire on the adequacy of existing administrative systems.

•

Self-reports. Teachers provided reports on how much time they spent on course preparation, individual student consultation, reading, professional development and administrative matters.

•

Interviews. Interviews were held with student representatives to determine students’ perceptions of the institute, its teachers, and its programs, and to compare it with other institutions.

Several documents resulted from the evaluation: •

An overall summary of the evaluation and its findings for the principal and to serve as a public document for any interested persons.

•

A report for the owners and board of directors of the school that briefly described how and why the evaluation was conducted, an analysis of the strengths and weaknesses that were identified, and recommendations for follow-up action.

•

A report for coordinators and teachers with curriculum development responsibilities outlining findings in relation to course offerings, tests, materials, and teaching.

•

A report for classroom teachers on the main findings in relation to teachers, teaching, and students. This report served as the focus of working groups who were given the task of recommending changes in course delivery and other areas.

•

A copy of all the reports for senior management. This information was to be used to formulate a strategic plan for the next 5 years’ operation of the institute.

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PROPÓSITOS DE LA EDUCACIÓN BÁSICA REGULAR AL 2021* Ministerio de Educación En el marco de las demandas educativas que plantean el mundo moderno y la globalización, los avances de la ciencia y la tecnología, el reconocimiento de la diversidad y la unidad de nuestra sociedad, el proceso de descentralización que vive el país, las necesidades de fortalecimiento de lo nacional en escenarios de diversidad; aspiramos a modificar un sistema educativo que reproduce las desigualdades, la exclusión, las prácticas rutinarias y mecánicas que imposibilitan el logro de las competencias que requieren los estudiantes, el trabajo digno y motivado de los docentes, la formación de personas conscientes de sus derechos y deberes, la vinculación de la educación con el desarrolle de la localidad o región. Pretendemos una educación renovada que ayude a construir, como se plantea en el Proyecto Educativo Nacional, una sociedad integrada –fundada en el diálogo, el sentido de pertenencia y la solidaridad– y un Estado moderno, democrático y eficiente: posibilitando que e país cuente con ciudadanos participativos, emprendedores, reflexivos, propositivos, con capacidad de liderazgo e innovación.

En concordancia con lo señalado y con los fines generales de la educación, se establecen los “Propósitos de la Educación Básica Regular al 2021”, que traducen las intenciones pedagógicas! del sistema educativo peruano, con el fin de responder a las demandas actuales que la sociedad) plantea a la Educación Básica Regular y que todo estudiante debe lograr.

Estos propósitos otorgan cohesión al sistema educativo peruano, de acuerdo con los principios de inclusión, equidad y calidad, en la medida que expresan la diversidad de necesidades de aprendizaje presentes en nuestro país y, a su vez, orientan la formación de la persona a partir de competencias que posibiliten a los estudiantes responder con éxito a las actuales y futuras circunstancias.

PROPÓSITOS 1. Desarrollo de la identidad personal, social y cultural en el marco de una sociedad democrática, intercultural y ética en el Perú.

2. Dominio del castellano para promover la comunicación entre todos los peruanos.

3. Preservar la lengua materna y promover su desarrollo y práctica.

4. Conocimiento del inglés como lengua internacional.

*

Ministerio de Educación (2009). Diseño Curricular de la Educación Básica Regular. Lima, Perú.

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5. Desarrollo del pensamiento matemático y de la cultura científica y tecnológica para comprender y actuar en el mundo.

6. Comprensión y valoración del medio geográfico, la historia, el presente y el futuro de la humanidad mediante el desarrollo del pensamiento crítico.

7. Comprensión del medio natural y su diversidad, así como desarrollo de una conciencia ambiental orientada a la gestión de riesgos y el uso racional de los recursos naturales, en el marco de una moderna ciudadanía.

8. Desarrollo de la capacidad productiva, innovadora y emprendedora; como parte de la construcción de! proyecto de vida de todo ciudadano.

11. Desarrollo corporal y conservación de la salud física y mental.

10. Desarrollo de la creatividad, innovación, apreciación y expresión a través de las artes, las humanidades y las ciencias.

11. Dominio de las Tecnologías de la Información y Comunicación (TIC).

PRESERVAR LA LENGUA MATERNA Y PROMOVER SU DESARROLLO Y PRÁCTICA El siglo XXI plantea nuevos estilos de vida donde los estudiantes tendrán mayores exigencias y oportunidades de desplazarse y alternar en contextos diversos cultural y lingüísticamente. Para que este intercambio les resulte enriquecedor se requiere en ellos una identidad cultural afirmada que les permita abrirse a relaciones impregnadas por el diálogo intercultural.

La identidad cultural se afirma, desde los primeros años de vida, con la comunicación a través de la lengua materna, porque ésta expresa la cosmovisión de la cultura a la que el estudiante pertenece. El dominio de la lengua, aprendida desde fa infancia, posibilita el desarrollo de la función simbólica de la que se vale el pensamiento para representar la realidad y comunicarla a través del lenguaje.

La institución educativa toma como punto de partida los conocimientos, la experiencia social, cultural y lingüística del estudiante para que resulte pertinente, significativo y enriquecedor. Por lo tanto, el desarrollo y la práctica de la lengua materna constituye una base fundamental para que los estudiantes expresen sus pensamientos, sentimientos, necesidades e inquietudes; fortaleciendo la identidad cultural, garantizando la vitalidad de los pueblos, asegurando la sostenibilidad de nuestra diversidad.

Conocimiento del inglés como lengua internacional El aprendizaje del inglés como lengua internacional contribuye en el marco de la globalización a fortalecer en los estudiantes su competencia comunicativa para en-

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trar en contacto con otras personas que hablan esa lengua, sea en su entorno o en otros.

La institución educativa ofrece al estudiante la posibilidad de conocer una lengua que te posibilite acceder a nuevos conocimientos, obtener información de (os últimos avances científicos y tecnológicos de diferentes fuentes (Internet, documentos impresos y otros).

Esto implica, el desarrollo de la comunicación oral, la lectura y la escritura.

El conocimiento del inglés contribuye al acceso a la información producto de la investigación y la innovación permanente en diferentes áreas de fa ciencia, la cultura y las tecnologías. Facilita la interculturalidad con otras realidades y contextos.

Adicionalmente al inglés, las regiones podrán determinar, si lo consideran necesario, la enseñanza de una segunda lengua internacional. ÁREA DE INGLÉS Fundamentación El inglés es uno de los idiomas más difundidos internacionalmente y, como tal, se convierte en una herramienta útil en la formación integral de los estudiantes, pues les permite el acceso a la información para satisfacer las exigencias académicas actuales, desenvolverse de manera eficiente en diversas situaciones de la vida al entrar en contacto con personas –que hablan inglés– de otros entornos sociales y culturales, así como para transitar laboralmente en diferentes contextos.

En tal sentido, el área de Inglés tiene como finalidad el logro de la competencia comunicativa en una lengua extranjera, la que le permitirá adquirir la información de los más recientes y últimos avances científicos y tecnológicos, ya sean digitales o impresos en inglés, así como permitirles e! acceso a las nuevas tecnologías de la información y la comunicación para ampliar su horizonte cultural. Además, se les crea las condiciones y oportunidades para el manejo de metodologías innovadoras que fortalezcan su autonomía en el aprendizaje de otras lenguas.

El área adopta el enfoque comunicativo que implica aprender el inglés en pleno funcionamiento, en simulaciones de situaciones comunicativas y atendiendo las necesidades e intereses de los estudiantes. El aprendizaje de la lengua se realiza con textos auténticos y con sentido completo, evitando así la presentación de palabras y frases aisladas que no aportan significado.

El área de Inglés responde a la demanda nacional e internacional de formar estudiantes ciudadanos del mundo que puedan comunicarse a través de diversos medios, sea vía directa o “directa, es decir, utilizando las herramientas tecnológicas, vía virtual. Igualmente, permite que los estudiantes tengan acceso a los avances de a ciencia y la tecnología cuyas publicaciones se hacen por lo general en inglés.

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El área de Inglés desarrolla capacidades de la expresión y comprensión oral; comprensión de textos y producción de textos.

Expresión y comprensión oral Implica el desarrollo interactivo de las capacidades de comprensión y producción de textos orales. Este proceso se da en diversas situaciones comunicativas y con diversos propósitos relacionados con la vida cotidiana del entorno familiar y social del estudiante.

Involucra el saber escuchar y expresar las propias ideas, emociones y sentimientos en diversos contextos con interlocutores diferentes.

Comprensión de textos La Comprensión de textos implica la reconstrucción del sentido del texto, proceso que permite distinguir las ideas principales y secundarias, teniendo en cuenta las estructuras lingüísticas apropiadas al texto. Facilita la recepción crítica de la información para una adecuada interacción comunicativa y para obtener nuevos aprendizajes.

Producción de textos En la Producción de textos se desarrolla el proceso que conlleva la expresión de ideas, emociones y sentimientos en el marco de una reestructuración de los textos previamente planificados. Esto motiva el espíritu activo y creador, y además, facilita el manejo adecuado de los códigos lingüísticos y no lingüísticos.

Los conocimientos planteados sirven de soporte para el desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa. Están organizados en léxico, fonética, recursos no verbales y gramática.

En el léxico se propone las informaciones básicas vinculadas con las situaciones comunicativas planteadas en el grado. Se utilizan tanto en lo oral como en lo escrito. La fonética presenta conocimientos relacionados con la pronunciación y entonación, elementos inherentes a la producción del sonidos. La gramática contribuye a una mejor producción de los textos con coherencia y corrección lingüística.

Además de las capacidades y los conocimientos, el área desarrolla un conjunto de actitudes relacionadas con el respeto por las ideas de los demás, el esfuerzo por comunicarse y solucionar problemas comunicación y el respeto a la diversidad lingüística y cultural.

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PRODUCCIÓN DE TEXTOS

COMPRENSIÓN DE TEXTOS

EXPRESIÓN Y COMPRENSIÓN ORAL

Expresa ideas, opiniones, emociones y sentimientos sobre temas de interés social para una interacción fluida con un interlocutor nativo hablante, demostrando asertividad en su proceso comunicativo. Comprende el mensaje de sus interlocutores, mostrando su posición frente a temas de su interés.

Expresa sus ideas sobre sí mismo y aspectos cercanos a su realidad, empleando una entonación y pronunciación adecuada y demostrando respeto por las ideas de los demás en el proceso interactivo.

Produce textos diversos con adecuación y coherencia, relacionados consigo mismo, con su entorno familiar, utilizando los elementos lingüísticos y no lingüísticos.

Produce textos variados con adecuación, cohesión, coherencia y corrección sobre temas de interés personal y social, teniendo en cuenta su propósito comunicativo y los destinatarios.

Comprende textos variados de mayor complejidad y extenComprende textos de uso cotidiano relacionados sión relacionados con temas de la realidad actual y expreconsigo mismo, con su familia y su entorno inme- sada en un lenguaje de uso común. diato.

Comprende el mensaje de su interlocutor y solicita aclaraciones cuando considera pertinente.

CICLO VII

CICLO VI

COMPETENCIAS POR CICLO

Didáctica del inglés I

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PRIMER GRADO EXPRESIÓN Y COMPRENSIÓN ORAL–COMPRENSIÓN DE TEXTOS– PRODUCCIÓN DE TEXTOS CONOCIMIENTOS

CAPACIDADES Expresión y comprensión oral

Léxico

– Dialoga con sus compañeros acerca de sí – Indicadores de relaciones sociales: Salumismo y de su entorno inmediato, con endos, despedidas. tonación adecuada y mostrando respeto – Información personal (nombres, dirección, por las ideas de tos demás. cumpleaños, nacionalidad, entre otros).

– Entiende y sigue instrucciones sencillas y – Elementos socioculturales (alimentos, fesde uso cotidiano en el aula. tividades, medio ambiente, arte).

– Describe el aspecto físico de las personas – Expresiones propias de la lengua: saluasí como actividades de rutina con prodos, expresiones populares, expresiones nunciación clara en sus expresiones. familiares, entre otras.

– Escucha y comprende información espe– Expresiones formales e informales. cífica de ia televisión a condición de que tenga soporte visual que lo ayude en com- – Vocabulario propio de las situaciones comunicativas que se presentan en el grado. prensión.

– Utiliza recursos verbales y no verbales pertinnentes en el proceso comunicativo Fonética así como las expresiones necesarias para – Expresiones en contexto que permitan iniciar o terminar un diálogo. mejorar la pronunciación y entonación.

– Evalúa el control de la voz, del cuerpo y de – æ : lad, bad, cat la mirada para comprender el mensaje.

– ʃ : she, sure, emotion, sugar, machine Comprensión de textos

Recursos no verbales

– Predice el contenido del texto teniendo en – Gestos y acciones: La designación, la decuenta los elementos paratextuales. mostración, acciones observables.

– Identifica la información global o especí- – Los elementos paratextuales. La ilustrafica de textos sencillos como instructivos, ción: fotografías y dibujos postales, cartas personales, anuncios, entre otros, utilizando los procedimientos de comprensión como: el skimming y el scanning.

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CAPACIDADES

CONOCIMIENTOS

– Discrimina las ideas principales de las se- Gramática y ortografía cundarias de un texto utilizando el subraya– Comandos (come in, sit down, entre do y la enumeración de párrafos. otros).

– Infiere el significado de las palabras por el – Conectores; and, so, because. contexto.

– Tiempos verbales: presente simple, pre– Organiza la información del texto leído de sente progresivo. acuerdo con su ubicación en los párrafos.

– Pronombres, preposiciones, adjetivos po– Evalúa el contenido del texto. sesivos, adjetivos calificativos, adverbios de frecuencia, entre otros.

Producción de textos – Planifica la producción del texto, identificando la situación comunicativa.

– Reglas de puntuación: mayúsculas, punto y coma.

– Organiza la información teniendo en cuenta el texto que produce.

– Redacta textos sencillos sobre aspectos personales y situaciones concretas, como postales y mensajes cortos.

– Redacta textos en los que describe el aspecto físico de las personas, así como las actividades diarias que pueda realizar.

– Utiliza las reglas gramaticales y ortográficas propias del texto que produce.

– Evalúa el texto redactado teniendo en cuenta la adecuación y coherencia del texto.

• • • • • •

ACTITUDES Respeta y valora ideas, creencias, lenguas y culturas distintas a la propia.

Respeta los acuerdos y normas establecidas en el aula para una mejor interacción.

Respeta las convenciones de comunicación interpersonal y grupal.

Aprecia el uso de tecnología apropiada para mejorar su nivel de inglés.

Valora los aprendizajes desarrollados en el área como parte de su proceso formativo.

Muestra iniciativa en las actividades de aprendizaje desarrolladas en el área.

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EXPRESIÓN Y COMPRENSIÓN ORAL – COMPRENSIÓN DE TEXTOS – PRODUCCIÓN DE TEXTOS CAPACIDADES Expresión y comprensión oral •

• •

•

•

•

•

Léxico

Dialoga con diversos interlocutores para • intercambiar información sobre aspectos específicos y de interés personal (cómo • llegar a un lugar, comprar y vender, gustos y preferencias, entre otros), solicitan• do aclaraciones cuando es necesario.

Entiende y sigue instrucciones de uso cotidiano.

• Describe el aspecto físico y psicológico de las personas así como sus actividades diarias con la entonación y pronunciación • clara y precisa.

Infiere información proveniente de los medios de comunicación visuales referidos a • temas de su interés personal.

Expresiones de cortesía propias de la situación comunicativa.

Rutina diaria (hora, fecha, medios de transporte).

Elementos soctoculturaies (alimentos, festividades nacionales, medio ambiente, arte, entretenimiento).

Expresiones propias de la lengua, expresiones populares, proverbios, expresiones familiares, entre otras.

Expresiones formales e informales en diálogos y conversaciones sobre situaciones diversas al inicio y al término.

Vocabulario propio de las situaciones comunicativas presentadas.

Analiza textos diversos como diálogos, conversaciones referidas a temas personales provenientes de un medio auditivo, Fonética teniendo en cuenta las cualidades de la • Expresiones en contexto que permitan mejovoz en la emisión del mensaje. rar la pronunciación y entonación Utiliza recursos no verbales y expresiones pertinentes para iniciar o terminar un diá- • ε: bed, net, dress logo.

• ð: this, breathe, father Evalúa el contenido del mensaje emitido por su interlocutor manifestando su acuerdo o desacuerdo.

Comprensión de textos •

CONOCIMIENTOS

Recursos no verbales

Predice el contenido y el tipo de texto • considerando los elementos paratextuales.

•

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Los gestos, la mímica, las expresiones del rostro.

Elementos paratextuales. La ilustración: fotografías, dibujos. La tipografía: itálicas, espaciados

Didáctica del inglés I

CAPACIDADES

CONOCIMIENTOS

•

Discrimina ia información relevante de la Gramática y Ortografía complementaria en textos diversos refe• Imperativos de consejo (Take this, it’s for you). ridos a hechos o sucesos pasados, utilizando las técnicas y estrategias de lectura • Conectores de adición: furtherrnore, moreopertinente. ver, entre otros.

•

Interpreta el contenido del texto, teniendo • en cuenta el lenguaje iconográfico.

Conectores de contraste: however, despite although, entre otros.

•

Organiza la información, producto de la • comprensión del mismo.

Tiempos verbales: pasado simple, futuro (going to / will).

•

Evalúa el contenido de los textos.

•

Verbos compuestos: look after, look at, look for, entre otros.

•

Reglas de puntuación: signo de interrogación y de exclamación.

Producción de textos •

Planifica el tipo de texto a producir considerando (a situación comunicativa.

•

Organiza la información, respetando el orden lógico de fas ideas y las regias de puntuación.

•

Redacta textos variados en relación con sus vivencias personales y eventos ocurridos, entre otros, considerando la estructura del texto.

•

Redacta cartas personales expresando sus ideas y experiencias, empleando el procedimiento adecuado para la producción de textos.

•

Utiliza las reglas gramaticales y ortográficas propias del texto que produce.

•

Evalúa el texto redactado teniendo en cuenta la adecuación, cohesión y coherencia del texto.

ACTITUDES • • • • • •

Respeta y valora ideas, creencias, lenguas y culturas distintas a la propia.

Respeta los acuerdos tomados para una mejor interacción en el aula.

Respeta las convenciones de comunicación interpersonal y grupal.

Aprecia el uso de tecnología apropiada para mejorar su nivel de inglés.

Valora los aprendizajes desarrollados en el área como parte de su proceso formativo.

Muestra iniciativa en las actividades de aprendizaje desarrolladas en el área.

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EXPRESIÓN Y COMPRENSIÓN ORAL-COMPRENSIÓN DE TEXTOS-PRODUCCIÓN DE TEXTOS CAPACIDADES Expresión y comprensión oral •

•

CONOCIMIENTOS Léxico

Dialoga con sus compañeros u otras • personas para expresar acuerdos y des- • acuerdos, invitar, aceptar o rechazar una invitación, entre otros, utilizando estrategias pertinentes para superar problemas • léxicos y dar fluidez al diálogo.

Entiende y sigue las indicaciones de los textos instructivos vinculados al uso de aparatos domésticos, reglamentos referi- • dos a la seguridad, recetas, entre otros.

Hábitos de estudio y de trabajo.

Elementos socioculturales (alimentos saludables, comida rápida, celebraciones internacionales, medio ambiente, arte).

Expresiones propias de la lengua, expresiones idiomáticas, y aquellas estereotipadas, entre otras.

Expresiones formales e informales en diálogos y conversaciones sobre situaciones diversas al inicio, durante y al término.

•

Describe lugares y eventos o hechos vividos en determinado momento, así como la • preparación y organización de un evento.

•

Infiere la intención comunicativa de los programas de televisión y de documentos Fonética grabados sobre temas familiares o de su interés en los que se usa un lenguaje es- • Procedimientos para mejorar la pronunciación y entonación, tándar.

•

Analiza textos diversos registrados en un • medio auditivo (cd o radio) vinculados a • temas de interés social.

•

•

i: happy, glorious θ: thin, thick, strength

Utiliza recursos no verbales y expresiones de cortesía para dirigirse a alguien, así Recursos no verbales como para iniciar, mantener y terminar una • Comportamiento paralingüístico. El lenconversación o diálogo. guaje del cuerpo, la postura.

Evalúa la claridad de las ideas emitidas • Elementos paratextuales. La ilustración; por el interlocutor, así corno las cualidades fotografías, dibujos. La tipografía; itálicas, de la voz. espaciados.

Comprensión de textos •

Vocabulario propio para las situaciones comunicativas que se presentan en el grado.

Predice la intención del autor teniendo en cuenta la estructura y los elementos paratextuales.

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CAPACIDADES

CONOCIMIENTOS

•

Identifica el tema, la secuencia de hechos, Gramática y Ortografía las ideas principales, entre otros elementos • Imperativos de recomendación (Go to the propios del tipo de texto que lee. dentist).

• Discrimina la información relevante de la • Expresiones para dar ejemplos: for instancomplementaria y la accesoria considerance, such as, entre otros. do las estrategias de lectura pertinente.

• Conectores de tiempo; before, while, now that.

• Infiere el propósito del texto así como el sentido del mismo por inducción o deduc- • Tiempos verbales: presente progresivo, pación. sado progresivo.

• Organiza las ideas que recepciona de un • Verbos compuestos: gíve up, give back, give in, entre otros. medio auditivo de acuerdo con su relevancia para la comprensión del texto.

• Orden de los adjetivos. Sustantivos plurales irregulares. Adverbios de tiempo. Pronom• Evalúa la estructura y contenido del texto. bres interrogativos.

• Reglas de puntuación: comillas, dos punProducción de textos tos, punto y coma, puntos suspensivos.

• Planifica el texto a producir, seleccionando la información según a quienes dirigirá el texto.

• Organiza la información, respetando el orden lógico de las ideas al describir sus experiencias personales.

• Redacta textos formales como cartas de invitación, agradecimiento, rechazo, reclamo por un mal servicio, entre otros, empleando las expresiones formales correspondientes a cada caso.

• Utiliza las reglas gramaticales y ortográficas propias del texto que produce.

• Evalúa la adecuación, la coherencia y la corrección del texto.

• • • • • •

ACTITUDES Respeta y valora ideas, creencias, lenguas y culturas distintas a la propia.

Respeta los acuerdos y normas establecidas en el aula para una mejor interacción.

Respeta las convenciones de comunicación interpersonal y grupal.

Aprecia el uso de tecnología apropiada para mejorar su nivel de inglés.

Valora los aprendizajes desarrollados en el área como parte de su proceso formativo.

Muestra iniciativa en las actividades de aprendizaje desarrolladas en el área.

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EXPRESIÓN Y COMPRENSIÓN ORAL – COMPRENSIÓN DE TEXTOS – PRODUCCIÓN DE TEXTOS CAPACIDADES Expresión y comprensión oral •

•

CONOCIMIENTOS Léxico

Planifica su participación en diversos contex- • tos y con propósitos diversos como el expresar alegría, sorpresa y sus puntos de vista.

• Conversa con diversos interlocutores sobre temas de interés social, en los que expresa • sus opiniones, sus sentimientos y emociones como alegría, sorpresa, entre otras,

Obligaciones y actividades de entretenimientos (deberes y pasatiempos).

Elementos socioculturales (salud, enfermedades, festividades).

Expresiones propias de la lengua, expre¬siones idiomáticas, expresiones de creencias, clichés y aquellas estereotipadas: las metáforas, los procedimientos de insisten¬cia, entre otras.

•

Expone sus ideas referidas a temas variados y de interés personal y social presentando argumentos sobre los mismos.

•

Describe lugares, sucesos, hechos y situaciones específicas relacionando causa y consecuencia, empleando las expresiones pertinentes con una entonación y pronunciación precisa.

•

Infiere la información proveniente de prograFonética mas de televisión y de documentos grabados sobre temas familiares o de su interés en los • Variaciones fonéticas determinadas por el contexto morfológico. que se usa un lenguaje estándar.

•

Analiza textos variados en los que tiene en • ɪ ; kit, bid, hymn cuenta las cualidades de la voz para expresar • ʤ: gin, joy, edge ideas, opiniones, emociones y sentimientos.

•

Utiliza recursos no verbales y expresiones de cortesía para dirigirse a alguien, así como Recursos no verbales para iniciar, mantener y terminar una conver• La onomatopeya para mostrar dolor, disgusto, sación o diálogo. indiferencia, entre otros. Elementos paratextuales. La ilustración; cuadros, esquemas. La Evalúa las opiniones vertidas por hablantes tipografía; cuerpo, itálicas, espaciados, subranativos sobre temas de interés social. yado, márgenes, entre otras.

•

Comprensión de textos • Predice el sentido del texto considerando los elementos paratextuales.

• Identifica las ideas principales y secundarías o la secuencia de ideas en cuentos, historietas, u otros textos referidos a temas sociales de su interés.

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•

Expresiones formales e informales en diálogos y conversaciones sobre situaciones diversas al inicio, durante y al término. Vocabulario propio para las situaciones comunicativas que se presentan en el grado.

Didáctica del inglés I

CAPACIDADES • • •

•

CONOCIMIENTOS

Discrimina las características del lenguaje Gramática y Ortografía televisivo y cinematográfico.

• Imperativos de sugerencia (Talk to your teacher, it’s the best thing).

Infiere el mensaje de los textos que lee considerando la estructura general del texto.

• Conectores de causa y consecuencia: because, since, as a result, entre otros. CoOrganiza la información de diversos temas nectores para añadir ideas: what is more, de interés social de manera secuencia! y moreover, besides, entre otros. Tiempos jerárquica, empleando esquemas visuales verbales: presente perfecto. para su mejor comprensión.

Evalúa las opiniones vertidas en los textos. •

Producción de textos

•

Verbos compuestos: put off, put down, put on, entre otros.

Adjetivos comparativos y superlativos.

• Planifica el tipo de texto a producir y seleccio• na la información relevante a comunicar.

Discurso indirecto.

•

Organiza formas de presentación del texto • apoyándose en las estrategias para la producción de textos.

Reglas de puntuación: paréntesis y apóstrofe.

•

Redacta cuentos y experiencias vinculadas a su entorno personal, familiar o al contexto de su comunidad, respetando las reglas de ortografía, Redacta diversos tipos de texto para Informar, expresar sus ideas sobre temas abstractos o culturales como una película o la música.

•

Utiliza las reglas gramaticales y ortográficas propias del texto que produce.

•

Evalúa el texto redactado teniendo en cuenta la adecuación, cohesión y coherencia del texto.

•

• • • • • •

Condicionales O y 1.

ACTITUDES Respeta y valora ideas, creencias, lenguas y culturas distintas a la propia.

Respeta los acuerdos y normas establecidas en el aula para una mejor interacción.

Respeta las convenciones recomunicación interpersonal y grupal.

Aprecia el uso de tecnología apropiada para mejorar su nivel de inglés.

Valora los aprendizajes desarrollados en el área como parte de su proceso formativo.

Muestra iniciativa en las actividades de aprendizaje desarrolladas en el área.

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EXPRESIÓN Y COMPRENSIÓN ORAL – COMPRENSIÓN DE TEXTOS – PRODUCCIÓN DE TEXTOS CAPACIDADES

CONOCIMIENTOS

Expresión y comprensión oral • Planifica su participación en diversos contextos y con propósitos diversos.

• Debate sobre temas vanados de interés social en los que expresa sus ideas y opiniones, así como sus emociones y sentimientos.

• Expone ternas variados sobre tos que emite su opinión con suficientes argumentos.

• Describe lugares, sucesos, hechos y situaciones diversas, incluyendo sus emociones y sentimientos con proyección a su vida futura.

• Infiere información sobre temas sociales y de su interés en los que se utiliza un lenguaje estándar, proveniente de diversos medios audiovisuales como programas televisivos así como de registros grabados que pueden ser entrevistas, mesa redonda, entre otras.

• Analiza textos diversos en los que tiene en cuenta ias cualidades de la voz para expresar ideas, opiniones, emociones y sentimientos.

• Utiliza recursos no verbales y expresiones de cortesía para dirigirse a alguien, así como para iniciar, mantener y terminar una exposición o debate.

• Evalúa las opiniones vertidas por hablantes nativos, así como los contenidos de los temas de interés social.

Léxico • Estilos de vida de diferentes países (comparaciones).

• Elementos socioculturales (salud, enfermedades, festividades, medio ambiente, arte).

• Expresiones propias de la lengua, expresiones idiomáticas, expresiones de creencias, clichés y aquellas estereotipadas: las metáforas, los procedimientos de insistencia, entre otras.

• Expresiones formales e informales en diálogos y conversaciones sobre situaciones diversas al inicio, durante y al término.

• Vocabulario propio para las situaciones comunicativas que se presentan en el grado.

Fonética • Variaciones fonéticas determinadas por el contexto morfológico.

• ʊ: book, put, foot • ʃ: pleasure, beige, seizure

Recursos no verbales • Calidad de la voz, tono, volumen, duración de la insistencia.

Comprensión de textos • Identifica la estructura de diversos textos como • Elementos paratextuales. La ilustración; cuadros, esquemas y diagramas. cartas comerciales, folletos, guías, boletines, La tipografía en general. entre otros, que contengan información sobre temas de interés personal y social • Discrimina la información de las opiniones en los textos que lee.

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• •

Infiere el propósito comunicativo y las ideas Gramática y Ortografía implícitas.

• Imperativos de ofrecimiento: Have a bit more wine, entre otros.

Organiza la información para una mejor com¬prensión del texto leído. Evalúa el con- • Conectores para mostrar secuencia y tenido y el tipo de lenguaje em¬pleado en los conclusión: firstly, secondly, finally, entextos. tre otros.

•

Producción de textos •

•

Planifica el tipo de texto a producir y seleccio- • na el tema de acuerdo al interés personal y social.

• Organiza la estructura del texto empleando • los conectores de secuencia y conclusión al narrar sus vivencias personales así como hechos o sucesos de interés personal y social de • manera clara y detallada.

•

•

Redacta textos de diverso tipo para expresar sus emociones y sentimientos, y hacer comentarios sobre sus puntos de vista.

•

Redacta hechos o sucesos ocurridos en la actualidad que generan el interés de la comunidad, expresando opiniones sobre ellas. Utiliza las reglas gramaticales y ortográficas propias del texto que produce.

•

Evalúa el texto redactado teniendo en cuenta la adecuación, cohesión, coherencia y corrección del mismo.

Tiempos verbales: voz pasiva.

Verbos compuestos: call on, call for, call for, call up, entre otros.

Uso del used to.

Adverbios de manera (angrily, happily, slowly, otros).

Condicionales 2 y 3.

Reglas de puntuación: guión para las palabras compuestas.

ACTITUDES •

Respeta y valora ideas, creencias, lenguas y culturas distintas a la propia.

•

Respeta los acuerdos y normas establecidas en el aula para una mejor interacción.

•

Respeta las convenciones de comunicación interpersonal y grupal.

•

Aprecia el uso de tecnología apropiada para mejorar su nivel de inglés.

•

Valora los aprendizajes desarrollados en el área como parte de su proceso formativo.

•

Muestra iniciativa en las actividades de aprendizaje desarrolladas en el área.

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THE SYLLABUS* Penny Ur WHAT IS A SYLLABUS? Preliminary questions How would you define the term ‘syllabus’?

What should, or may, a syllabus contain?

Compare your ideas with those presented below.

The courses you teach, or intend to teach, are very likely to be based on some kind of written syllabus. This unit looks at the typical content of syllabuses; and you will get most benefit out of it if you have an example of one at your elbow preferably one that is used locally, or that you know something about to refer to for illustration or comparison, or in order to do the Application task at the end of the unit.

Note that a syllabus may consist of an independent publication –a book or booklet– if it is intended to cover all the courses in a particular context regardless of the actual materials used: a country’s national syllabus for schools, for example, or the syllabus of a group of language colleges. However, a textbook that is designed to cover an entire course should also provide its own syllabus through the introduction and contents page or index. This unit relates mostly to the first kind: an ‘official’ and comprehensive document that usually includes the word ‘syllabus’ in its title.

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF A SYLLABUS1 A syllabus is a document which consists, essentially, of a list. This list specifies all the things that are to be taught in the course(s) for which the syllabus was designed (a beginner’s course, for example, or a six-year secondary-school programme): it is therefore comprehensive. The actual components of the list may be either content items (words, structures, topics), or process ones (tasks, methods). The former is the more common.

The items are ordered, usually having components that are considered easier or more essential earlier, and more difficult and less important ones later. This ordering may be fairly detailed and rigid, or general and flexible.

The syllabus generally has explicit objectives, usually declared at the beginning of the document, on the basis of which the components of the list are selected and ordered. * 1

Ur, Penny (2007). A Course in Language Teaching. Cambridge University Express. Cambridge.

The description given here is relevant to most conventional syllabuses; there are, however, some innovative types to which it may no apply.

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Another characteristic of the syllabus is that it is a public document. It is available for scrutiny not only by the teachers who are expected to implement it, but also by the consumers (the learners or their parents or employers), by representatives of the relevant authorities (inspectors, school boards), by other interested members of the public (researchers, teacher trainers or textbook writers). Underlying this characteristic is the principle of accountability: the composers of the syllabus are answerable to their target audience for the quality of their document.

There are other, optional, features, displayed by some syllabuses and not others. A time schedule is one: some syllabuses delimit the time framework of their components, prescribing, for example, that these items should be dealt with in the first month, those in the second; the class should have completed this much by the end of the year. A particular preferred approach or methodology to be used may also be defined, even in a syllabus that is essentially content-based. It may list recommended materials –coursebooks, visual materials or supplementary materials– either in general, or where relevant to certain items or sections.

BOX A: CHARACTERISTICS OF A SYLLABUS 1.

Consists of a comprehensive list of: – contend items (words, structures, topics); – process items (tasks, methods).

2.

Is ordered (easier, more essential items first).

3.

Has explicit objectives (usually expressed in the introduction).

4.

Isa public document.

5.

May indicate a time schedule.

6.

May indicate a preferred methodology or approach.

7.

May recommend materials. © Cambridge University Press 1995

A p p l i c a - In the Box A there is a summary of the items listed tion in the previous section. Which of these apply to your own syllabus (or one that is commonly used locally)?

Put a tick by ones that apply, a cross by ones that do not. Can you, perhaps, comment on the significance of the presence or absence of any of the items?

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF LANGUAGE SYLLABUS A number of different kinds of syllabuses are used in foreign language teaching. A list of these is provided below; it is not, of course, exhaustive, but includes the main types that you may come across in practice or in your reading. Each is briefly explained; some also include references to sources of more detailed information on content of rationale.

Types of syllabuses 1. Grammatical A list of grammatical structures, such as the present tense, comparison of adjectives, relative clauses, usually divided into sections graded according to difficulty and/or importance.

2. Lexical A list of lexical items (girl, boy, go away . . .) with associated collocations and idioms, usually divided into graded sections. One such syllabus, based on a corpus (a computerized collection of samples of authentic language) is described in Willis, 1990.

3. Grammatical-lexical A very common kind of syllabus: both structures and lexis are specified: either together, in sections that correspond to the units of a course, or in two separate lists.

4. Situational These syllabuses take the real-life contexts of language uses as their basis: sections would be headed by names of situations or locations such as ‘Eating a meal’ or ‘In the street’.

5. Topic-based This is rather like the situational syllabus, except that the headings are broadly topicbased, including things like ‘Food’ or ‘The family’; these usually indicate a fairly clear set of vocabulary items, which may be specified.

6. Notional ‘Notions’ are concepts that language can express. General notions may include ‘number’, for example, or ‘time’, ‘place’, colour specific notions look more like vocabulary items: ‘man’, ‘woman’, ‘afternoon’. For an introduction to the topic of notional syllabuses see Wilkins, 1976.

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7. Functional-notional Functions are things you can do with language, as distinct from notions you can express: examples are ‘identifying’, ‘denying’, ‘promising’. Purely functional syllabuses are rare: usually both functions and notions are combined, as for example in Van Ek, 1990.

8. Mixed or ‘multi-strand’ Increasingly, modern syllabuses are combining different aspects in order to be maximally comprehensive and helpful to teachers and learners; in these you may find specification of topics, tasks, functions and notions, as well as grammar and vocabulary.

9. Procedural These syllabuses specify the learning tasks to be done rather than the language itself or even its meanings. Examples of tasks might be: map reading, doing scientific experiments, story-writing. The most well-known procedural syllabus is that associated with the Bangalore Project (Prabhu, 1987).

10. Process This is the only syllabus which is not pre-set. The content of the course is negotiated with the learners at the beginning of the course and during it, and actually listed only retrospectively (Candlin, 1984; Clarke, 1991).

Task: classifying syllabuses Look at the syllabuses of two or three coursebooks, not necessarily those used locally.

(Coursebook syllabuses are normally defined in the introduction and/or in a listing of the content provided at the front or back of the book.) Which of the types listed above do they belong to?

Using the syllabus Assuming the course you are to teach has a syllabus separate from your coursebook, composed or ratified by some recognized authority –how will, or would, you use it? For example: will you keep to it carefully, consulting it regularly? Or will you refer to it only rarely, to check yourself? Or will you adapt or even rewrite it completely?

Task: Thinking about how to use the syllabus In Box B five teachers describe how they use their syllabuses. Consider on your own or discuss with colleagues: with whom do you identify most closely?

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With regard to the teacher you feel you identify with most closely: what is it about his or her statement that you feel in sympathy with? What alterations would you need to introduce to make it express your own position more precisely? With regard to the others: what is it about their approaches that you reject, or that is irrelevant to your own teaching context? If you found yourself in their situation, how would you use the syllabus?

Some comments follow.

Comments on Box B: Using the syllabus How teachers use the syllabus varies very widely between different countries and institutions, and depends on financial resources as well as on teaching approach.

Where there is no lack of resources to invest in the drawing-up of very detailed syllabuses and the purchase of a wide variety of teaching materials teachers may find it most effective to work mainly from the syllabus as the basis of their programme, drawing on specific materials as they need them, as Anna does.

BOX B: USING THE SYLLABUS Anna: The syllabus of the language school where I teach is very comprehensive: it includes grammar, vocabulary, functions, notions, situations; and gives references to material I can use. I use it all the time and could not do without it. When preparing a teaching session or series of sessions I go first to the syllabus, decide what it will be appropriate to teach next according to its programme, plan how to combine and schedule the components I have selected, and take the relevant books or materials from the library as I need them.

Joseph: There is a syllabus, but we don’t have to use it; nor is there any fixed coursebook, although the college recommends certain ones. Personally, I simply ignore the syllabus, since I prefer to do my own thing, based on the needs of my [adult] students. I use materials and activities from different sources (teacher’s handbooks, textbooks, enrichment materials, literature) which are available in my institution’s library in order to create a rich and varied programme that is flexible enough to be altered and adapted to student needs during the course.

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Maria: They made us read the national syllabus in my teacher-training course, but I haven’t looked at it since.

What for? In my [state] school we use a class coursebook which lays out all the language I have to teach, as well as giving me texts, exercises and ideas for activities. I assume the Ministry would not have authorized the book if it didn’t accord with the syllabus, so there’s no reason for me to double-check if I’m teaching the right things.

Lilly: I possess the syllabus, and look at it occasionally, but mostly I work from the coursebook that my school chose for the class. It’s just that sometimes I get a bit fed up with the coursebook and want to do something different: so then I ‘do my own thing’ for a bit, using the syllabus as a retrospective checklist, to make sure I’m still reasonably on target with the content. .. after all, I am being employed to teach a certain syllabus, I can’t stray too far.

David: The school where I work cannot afford to buy coursebooks for the children, so I have the only book; I also have an officially authorized syllabus. Everything I teach I take either from the syllabus or from the coursebook. I don’t add material of my own; for one thing, the authorities do not approve; for another, I am not confident enough of my knowledge of the language I am teaching –I might make mistakes. © Cambridge University Press 1996

In other relatively affluent settings there may be a policy of allowing teachers complete freedom in designing their teaching programme; in such a case the syllabus may be non-existent or ignored, and teachers like Joseph may develop new, independent programmes, based mainly on the teacher’s preferences and learners’ needs. With a competent and creative teacher working with mature learners, this kind of situation can also generate a unique, exciting and satisfying teaching/learning experience. However, in most contexts the disadvantages outweigh the advantages: apart from a possibly prohibitive amount of work for the teacher, the abandonment of a carefully pre-planned syllabus may result in significant gaps in the language content taught. This may not matter so much in a situation where the target language is used predominantly outside the classroom (if the class is composed of immigrants learning English in Australia, for example); in other situations, however, it may seriously impair learning.

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Also, the lack of clear structure may make it difficult for either teacher or learners to feel a sense of progress or evaluate learning outcomes.

When only one coursebook can be afforded per student, the book often tends to take over the function of a syllabus, particularly if, as in the case of Maria, the book has been recommended for use by the same authority that drew up the syllabus. Here the use or non-use of the syllabus to supplement the book depends to some extent on the personality of the teacher, and his or her willingness to put in extra effort –as exemplified by Lilly.

There are some situations where even one book per student is an unknown luxury, as described by David; in this case the teacher may base the course on the coursebook or syllabus or a combination of the two. Note that sometimes, as here, the syllabus has an extra role to play: as a source of information and reassurance for teachers who are not confident of their own knowledge of the target language.

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PART THREE

Lesson planning Objectives 1. To specify the importance of planning.

2. To identify the structure and function of planning.

3. To analyze different plan formats.

4. To talk about the need for a blended of both coherence and variety in a lesson plan.

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WHAT DOES A LESSON INVOLVE?* Penny Ur The lesson is a type of organized social event that occurs in virtually all cultures. Lessons in different places may vary in topic, time, place, atmosphere, methodology and materials, but they all, essentially, are concerned with learning as their main objective, involve the participation of learner(s) and teacher(s), and are limited and pre-scheduled as regards time, place and membership.

There are additional characteristics or perspectives to a lesson which may be less obvious, but which are also significant. One way to become aware of these is to look at metaphors that highlight one or another of them.

Metaphors for a lesson a variety show,

a conversation

climbing a mountain

doing the shopping

eating a meal

a football game

a wedding

a symphony

a menu

consulting a doctor

© Cambridge University Press 1996

GROUP TASK: EXPLORING METAPHORS Stage 1: Choosing a metaphor Which of the metaphors shown expresses best, in your opinion as a teacher, the essence of a lesson? There is, of course, no ‘right’ answer, but your choice will reflect your own conception. If you can find no metaphor here which suits you, invent your own.

Stage 2: Comparing choices If you are working in a group, get together in pairs or threes and share your selections and reasons for making them. Since any one choice is as valid as any other, there is no need to try to reach any kind of group consensus as to which is the ‘best’; the aim of the discussion is simply to become more aware of the different attributes different people feel are significant. If you are on your own, go straight to Stage 3 below. *

Ur, Penny (2007). A course in language teaching. Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom.

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Stage 3: Analysis Some of the main elements that may have come up in your thinking and discussion about the various metaphors are discussed in the section Aspects of the lesson below.

Have a look at this section and try to relate it to your own choice(s).

ASPECTS OF THE LESSON 1. Transaction, or series of transactions. This is expressed in the metaphors of shopping, a wedding and a meal, with the emphasis on some kind of purposeful give-and-take which results in a product: an acquisition or a definable mental or physical change in the participants. If you care about the transactional element, then what is important to you is the actual learning which takes place in the lesson.

2. Interaction. This is most obvious in the metaphor of conversation, but is also expressed in the wedding, the variety show, and, in perhaps a rather different way, in the football game. Here what is important are the social relationships between learners, or between learners and teacher; a lesson is seen as something which involves relaxed, warm interaction that protects and promotes the confidence and happiness of all participants.

3. Goal-oriented effort, involving hard work (climbing a mountain, a football game). This implies awareness of a clear, worthwhile objective, the necessity of effort to attain it and a resulting sense of satisfaction and triumph if it is achieved, or of failure and disappointment if it is not.

4. A satisfying, enjoyable experience (a variety show, a symphony, eating a meal). This experience may be based on such things as aesthetic pleasure, fun, interest, challenge or entertainment; the main point is that participants should enjoy it and therefore be motivated to attend while it is going on (as distinct from feeling satisfied with the results).

5. A role-based culture, where certain roles (the teacher) involve responsibility and activity, others (the learners) responsiveness and receptivity (consultation with a doctor, a wedding, eating a meal). All participants know and accept in advance the demands that will be made on them, and their expected behaviours. This often implies: 6. A conventional construct, with elements of ritual (a wedding, a variety show, a performance of a symphony). Certain set behaviours occur every time (for example, a certain kind of introduction or ending), and the other components of the overall event are selected by an authority from a limited set of possibilities. In contrast, there is a series of free choices (a menu, a conversation). Participants are free to ‘do their own thing’ within a fairly loose structure, and construct the event as it progresses, through their own decision-making. There is no obvious authority figure who imposes choices.

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LESSON PREPARATION How should a lesson be prepared? Is there a best method to do so? One way of looking for answers to these questions is to ask competent professionals, and then try to discover some general principles that seem to be accepted by all, or most, of them.

Lesson preparation Stage 1: Preliminary study There are seven questions about lesson preparation. Start by answering them yourself, in writing. (If you are a trainee with limited experience, then note how you hope to prepare lessons yourself, or how you have done so in teaching practice.) After writing each response, leave two or three lines empty before going on to the next.

Questions on lesson preparation 1. How long before a specific lesson do you prepare it?

2. Do you write down lesson notes to guide you? Or do you rely on a lesson format provided by another teacher, the coursebook, or a Teacher’s Book?

3. If so, are these notes brief (a single page or less) or long (more than one page)?

4. What do they consist of?

5. Do you note down your objectives?

6. Do you actually look at your notes during the lesson? If so, rarely? Occasionally?

Frequently?

7. What do you do with your lesson notes after the lesson? © Cambridge University Press 1996

Stage 2: Interview Now interview at least two language teachers who are experienced and (as far as you can tell) conscientious and competent professionals. Ask them the same questions, stressing that what you want to know is what they actually do in daily practice, not what they think they ought to do!

My own answers to these questions may be found in the Notes, (2). If you cannot find (enough) teachers to interview, you may find it helpful to refer to these at Stage 4 (Conclusions) below.

Stage 3: Results

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If you are working in a group and have each interviewed different teachers, share your results; if not, put together the different answers you got from your own interviewees. Can you make any generalizations, or does lesson preparation seem to be entirely idiosyncratic?

Stage 4: Conclusions Think about or discuss the evidence you have gathered from interviews, and/or from my responses in the Notes. What conclusions can you draw?

Try to assess critically the relevance and usefulness of these conclusions for your own practice.

Stage 5: Personal application Finally, revert to the answers you wrote yourself at the beginning of this task, and add notes below each one, recording ideas you have learned from this inquiry that may be helpful to you in future lesson planning.

VARYING LESSON COMPONENTS The teaching/learning tasks and topics which form the basis of different components of a language lesson have been discussed in earlier modules: presentation of new material, practice activities or tests; accurate reception or production of the language’s pronunciation, vocabulary or grammar; or more fluency-oriented work such as discussing or writing essays. In this unit we shall be looking at the ‘packaging’ of such components: how they may be combined with each other and presented as a varied and effective lesson programme.

In a lesson which is entirely taken up with one kind of activity, interest is likely to flag: learners will find it more difficult to concentrate and may get bored and irritable which will detract from learning and may produce discipline problems in some classes. A varied lesson, besides being more interesting and pleasant for both teacher and learners, is also likely to cater for a wider range of learning styles and strategies, and may delay onset of fatigue by providing regular refreshing changes in the type of mental or physical activity demanded.

TASK: BRAINSTORM How many different ways of varying language-learning activity within a lesson can you think of? It helps to think in terms of contrasts: for example, rapid-moving versus leisurely activities; or individuals versus pair/group versus full-class organization. Write down, or pool ideas in groups.

Selection and organization

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Variation of components within the programme of a lesson is a good principle, but it is not enough. Varied activities flung together in random order can result in a feeling of restlessness and disorder; it is therefore worth defining some principles of selection and organization of components to construct a smooth, coherent programme. Which components should come earlier, which later in a lesson? Which are likely to fit together well to form a coherent sequence? And so on.

Below are some guidelines for the combination of different components that I have found useful and relevant in my own teaching.

WAYS OF VARYING A LESSON 1. Tempo Activities may be brisk and fast-moving (such as guessing games) or slow and reflective (such as reading literature and responding in writing).

2. Organization The learners may work on their own at individualized tasks; or in pairs or groups; or as a full class in interaction with the teacher.

3. Mode and skill Activities may be based on the written or the spoken language; and within these, they may vary as to whether the learners are asked to produce (speak, write) or receive (listen, read).

4. Difficulty Activities may be seen as easy and non-demanding; or difficult, requiring concentration and effort.

5. Topic Both the language teaching point and the (non-linguistic) topic may change from one activity to another.

6. Mood Activities vary also in mood: light and fun-based versus serious and profound; happy versus sad; tense versus relaxed.

7. Stir-settle Some activities enliven and excite learners (such as controversial discussions, or activities that involve physical movement); others, like dictations, have the effect of calming them down (see Maclennan, 1987).

8. Active-passive Learners may be activated in a way that encourages their own initiative; or they may only be required to do as they are told. © Cambridge University Press 1996

GUIDELINES FOR ORDERING COMPONENTS OF A LESSON

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1. Put the harder tasks earlier On the whole, students are fresher and more energetic earlier in the lesson, and get progressively less so as it goes on, particularly if the lesson is a long one. So it makes sense to put the tasks that demand more effort and concentration earlier on (learning new material, or tackling a difficult text, for example) and the lighter ones later.

Similarly, tasks that need a lot of student initiative work better earlier in the lesson, with the more structured and controlled ones later.

2. Have quieter activities before lively ones It can be quite difficult to calm down a class –particularly of children or adolescents– who have been participating in a lively, exciting activity. So if one of your central lesson components is something quiet and reflective it is better on the whole to put it before a lively one, not after. The exception to this is when you have a rather lethargic or tired class of adults; here ‘stirring’ activities early on can actually refresh and help students get into the right frame of mind for learning.

3. Think about transitions If you have a sharp transition from, say, a reading-writing activity to an oral one, or from a fast-moving one to a slow one, devote some thought to the transition stage.

It may be enough to ‘frame’ by summing up one component in a few words and introducing the next; or it may help to have a very brief transition activity which makes the move smoother (see Ur and Wright, 1992, for some ideas).

4. Pull the class together at the beginning and the end If you bring the class together at the beginning for general greetings, organization and introduction of the day’s programme, and then do a similar full-class ‘roundingoff at the end: this contributes to a sense of structure. On the whole, group or individual work is more smoothly organized if it takes place in the middle of the lesson, with clear beginning and ending points.

5. End on a positive note This does not necessarily mean ending with a joke or a fun activity –though of course it may. For some classes it may mean something quite serious, like a summary of what we have achieved today, or a positive evaluation of something the class has done. Another possibility is to give a task which the class is very likely to succeed in and which will generate feelings of satisfaction. The point is to have students leave the classroom feeling good.

Discussion Think about or discuss the questions:

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Task -

How far do you agree with these guidelines?

-

Are they appropriate for your own teaching context as they stand, or would you wish to omit, add to or change any of them?

Follow-up Observe one or two foreign language lessons, noting down in detail what observation the components are and how they are organized. The lessons should Task Preferably be given by a teacher you do not know, or a video recording can be used.

Afterwards, think about your notes, or discuss them with colleagues, analyzing the way the lesson was constructed. What possible alternatives, or improvements, can you think of?

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PLANNING LESSONS* Jeremy Harmer •

Reasons for planning

•

Plan formats

•

A proposal for action

•

Planning a sequence of lessons

•

Lesson shapes

•

•

Planning questions

After the lesson (and before the next)

Reasons for planning Some teachers with experience seem to have an ability to think on their feet, and this allows them to believe that lesson planning is unnecessary. However, most teachers do not share this view and prepare their lessons. The resulting lesson plans range from the very formal and elaborate to a few hurried notes. But even the notes are still a plan of a kind.

For students, evidence of a plan shows that the teacher has devoted time to thinking about the class. It strongly suggests a level of professionalism and a commitment to the kind of research they might reasonably expect. Lack of a plan may suggest the opposite of these teacher attributes, even if such a perception is unjustified.

For teachers, a plan gives the lesson a framework, an overall shape. It is true that they may end up departing from it at some stage of the lesson, but at the very least it will be something to fall back on. Of course, good teachers are flexible and respond creatively to what happens in the classroom, but they also need to have thought ahead, to have a destination which they want their students to reach, and some idea of how they are going to get there. In the classroom, a plan helps to remind teachers what they intended to do especially if they get distracted or momentarily forget what they had proposed.

There is one particular situation in which planning is especially important, and that is when a teacher is to be observed as part of an assessment or performance review. Such plans are likely to be more elaborate than usual, not just for the sake of the teacher being observed, but also so that the observer can have a clear idea of what the teacher intends in order to judge how well that intention is carried through.

*

Harmer, Jeremy (2008). How to teach English. Longman, China.

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A proposal for action Whatever lesson plans look like, they should never be thought of as instructions to be slavishly followed, but rather as proposals for action (in the same way as course book lessons-see page 153). We may have an idea of what the learning outcomes for the lesson should be (that is, what the students will have learnt by the end), but we will only really know what those outcomes are once the lesson itself has finished. How closely lesson plans are followed depends, in other words, on what happens when we try to put them to work.

Suppose, for example, that the teacher has planned that the students should prepare a dialogue and then act it out, after which there is a reading text and some exercises for them to get through. The teacher has allowed twenty minutes for dialogue preparation and acting out. But when the students start working on this activity, it is obvious that they need more time. Clearly the plan will have to be modified. A similar decision will have to be made if the class suddenly encounters an unexpected language problem in the middle of some planned sequence of activities. The teacher can bypass the problem and keep going, or they can realize that now is an ideal time to deal with the issue, and amend the plan accordingly.

Another scenario is also possible: all the students are working on preparing a dialogue except for two pairs who have already finished. The teacher then has to decide whether to tell them to wait for the others to catch up (which might make them bored and resentful) or whether to stop the rest of the class to prevent this (which could frustrate all those who didn’t get a chance to finish).

There are other unforeseen problems too: the tape/CD player or computer program suddenly doesn’t work; we forget to bring the material we were relying on; the students look at the planned reading text and say ‘We’ve done that before’.

Good teachers need to be flexible enough to cope with unforeseen events, and it is because they know that they may have to adapt to changing circumstances that they understand that a lesson plan is not fixed in stone.

So far we have suggested that teachers need to be flexible when confronted with unforeseen problems. But a happier scenario is also possible. Imagine that during a discussion phase a student suddenly says something really interesting, something which could provoke fascinating conversation or suggest a completely unplanned (but appropriate and enjoyable) activity. In such a situation –when this kind of magic moment suddenly presents itself– we would be foolish to plough on with our plan regardless. On the contrary, a good teacher will recognize the magic moment for what it is and adapt what they had planned to do accordingly. Magic moments are precious, in other words, and should not be wasted just because we didn’t know they were going to happen.

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There will always be a tension between what we had planned to do and what we actually do when magic moments or unforeseen problems present themselves. It is the mark of a good teacher to know when and how to deal with unplanned events, and how to balance a proposal for action with appropriate flexibility.

Lesson shapes A good lesson needs to contain a judicious blend of coherence and variety. Coherence means that students can see a logical pattern to the lesson. Even if there are three separate activities, for example, there has to be some connection between them –or at the very least a perceptible reason for changing direction. In this context, it would not make sense to have students listen to an audio track, ask a few comprehension questions and then change the activity completely to something totally unrelated to the listening. And if the following activity only lasted for five minutes before, again, something completely different was attempted, we might well want to call the lesson incoherent.

Nevertheless, the effect of having a class do a 45-minute drill would be equally damaging.

The lack of variety, coupled with the relentlessness of such a procedure, would militate against the possibility of real student engagement. However present it might be at the beginning of the session, it would be unlikely to be sustained. There has to be some variety in a lesson period.

There are other methodological reasons why a 45-minute drill is inappropriate, too. Drilling concentrates only on the study aspect of our three ESA learning elements. In effective lessons, the teacher has thought (and is thinking) carefully about the balance of engagement, study and activation, and how one can lead to the others in a variety of different sequences such as the straight arrows, boomerang and patchwork sequences. The moment we think of lessons in this way, both variety and coherence are almost guaranteed.

The ideal compromise, then, is to plan a lesson that has an internal coherence but which nevertheless allows students to do different things as it progresses.

Planning questions Unless teachers walk towards a class with absolutely no idea about (or interest in) what is going to happen when they get there, they will have thought about what they are going to do. These thoughts may be extremely detailed and formalized, or they may be vaguer and more informal. We will see differences between more and less formal thinking of this kind, but in every case teachers will be answering seven fundamental questions when they decide what activities to take to a lesson.

Who exactly are the students for this activity?

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The make-up of the class will influence the way we plan. The students’ age, level, cultural background and individual characteristics have to be taken into account when deciding what activities, texts or methodologies to use in the classroom. This includes an understanding of the kinds of individual differences in learning style.

What do we want to do and why?

We have to decide what we want to do in the lesson in terms of both activities, skills and language. We also need to know why we want to do it. It might be because we ourselves like the activity, or because we think it will be appropriate for a particular day or a particular group. There is nothing wrong with deciding to do an activity simply because we think it will make students feel good.

However, before deciding to use an activity just because we or the students might like it, we need to try to predict what it will achieve. What will students know, be able to do, understand or feel after the activity that they did not know, were not able to do, did not understand or feel before? What, in other words, is the learning outcome of the activity?

Examples of what an activity might achieve include giving students a greater understanding of an area of vocabulary, providing them with better listening strategies, teaching them how to construct conditional sentences, improving their oral fluency or raising the morale of the group through appropriate cooperative interaction.

How long will it take?

Some activities which, at first glance, look very imaginative end up lasting for only a very short time. Others demand considerable setting-up time, discussion time, studentplanning time, etc. The students’ confidence in the teacher can be undermined if they never finish what they set out to do; students are frequently irritated when teachers run on after the bell has gone because they haven’t finished an activity. Teachers, for their part, are made uncomfortable if they have overestimated the amount of time something might take and are thus left with time on their hands and no clear idea what to do. There is no absolute way of preventing such problems from occurring, of course, but we should at least try to estimate how long each activity will take (based on our experience and knowledge of the class) so that we can measure our progress as the lesson continues against our proposed ‘timetable’. We can also plan for our material taking too little time by having some spare activities with us. If we have built-in lesson stages in our plan, we can decide, as the lesson progresses, where we might want to veer away from the plan if we see that we have taken too much time over one particular element of it.

How does it work?

We need to know how we and our students are going to do it. Who does what first? How

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and when should students be put in pairs or groups? When do we give instructions? What should those instructions be? What should we be doing while the students are working in groups?, etc. Experienced teachers may have procedures firmly fixed in their minds, but even they, when they try something new, need to think carefully about the mechanics of an activity.

What will be needed?

Teachers have to decide whether they are going to use the board, a CD or tape player, an overhead projector, a data projector, some role-cards or a computer (or computers).

It is important to think about the bestway of doing something, rather than automatically choosing the most technologically exciting option. It is also important to consider the physical environment of the classroom itself and how that might affect whatever teaching equipment we wish to use.

What might go wrong?

If teachers try to identify problems that might arise in the lesson, they are in a much better position to deal with them if and when they occur. This will also give the teacher insight into the language and/or the activity which is to be used. This isn’t to say that we can predict everything that might happen. Nevertheless, thinking around our activities –trying to put ourselves in the students’ minds, and gauging how they might react– will make us much more aware of potential pitfalls than we might otherwise be.

How will it fit in with what comes before and after it?

An activity on its own may be useful and engaging and may generate plenty of good language. But what connection, if any, does it have with the activities which come before and after it? How does it fit into our need for the three ESA lesson elements?

Is there a language tie-in to previous or future activities? Perhaps two or three activities are linked by topic, one leading into the other (like the threads of a multi-lesson sequence —see page 191). Perhaps an activity has no connection with the one before it: it is there to break up the monotony of a lesson or to act as a ‘gear change’. Perhaps we may decide to start our lesson with a short icebreaker (sometimes called a warmer) for no other reason than to get the students in a good mood for the lesson that is to follow. The point of answering this question for ourselves is to ensure that we have some reasonable vision of the overall shape of our lesson and that it is not composed of unrelated scraps.

Plan formats When making plans, some teachers write down exactly what they are going to do and

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note down each sentence that the students are going to say. Others use note-form hints to themselves (e.g. ‘T checks comprehension’) or just write ‘pairwork’ or ‘solowork’ or ‘whole class’, for example, to describe how they are going to do something. Some teachers write down notes with ordered paragraph headings, whereas others produce flow diagrams or random notes. Some just write short headings like ‘going to’ or ‘photograph activity’ or ‘Little Rock reading’ to remind them what to do. And of course there are teachers who keep the whole plan in their heads. This may be completely appropriate for them, of course, but won’t help anyone else (observers, possible substitute teachers, etc) to know what they had in mind.

When teachers are observed - or when an institution asks for formal plans - the exact format of the plan may depend on the personal preferences of trainers, exam schemes or institutions (schools, colleges, etc). However, in some form or other, the following elements (which match the kinds of questions we asked in the previous section) are usually included: Description of the students: this includes anything from a general picture of the group (its level, age range, atmosphere, etc) to detailed descriptions of individual students (what they find easy or difficult, how they respond to different activities, etc).

Aims and objectives: we generally say what we hope to achieve; the more specific we are, the easier it will be for us —and anyone observing— to see whether or not we have achieved those aims. Broad aims like ‘have a good time’ are bound to be less useful than ‘sensitise students to uses of pitch and intonation to indicate enthusiasm (or lack of it)’.

Most lessons will have a series of primary and secondary aims.

Procedures: the meat of the plan is in the description of how it will be executed. The section on procedures can include patterns of interaction. We might write T → SS (for times when the teacher talks to the whole class), S → S (for pairwork) or SSS → SSS (for groupwork); or we could write ‘groups’, ‘pairs’, etc, or record these patterns in some other way.

Frequently we will include timings as well, so that we have some idea of how long we expect things to take. We will also include the actual procedures, such as ‘students look through the pictures and match them with the phrases’.

Anticipated problems: teachers frequently make some kind of a list of potential difficulties –and suggestions about what to do if they arise. They might consider what they would do if a computer or other piece of equipment failed them - or if some other student-based eventuality occurred (such as the activity being a lot more difficult for the class than expected).

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Extra activities/material (just in case): many teachers make a note of extra activities they could include if things go quicker than anticipated.

Material to be used in the lesson: especially when they are to be observed, teachers attach examples of the material they are to use with the students to their plan.

Group

Date

Recent topic work:

Time

NÂş of students

Recent language work:

Aims: (stated in input terms, i.e. what the teacher intends to do) Assessment: Materials: Anticipated problems: Timing

Teacher activity

Student activity

Success indicators

Aims of the stage

Additional possibilities: Homework/Further work: Lesson plan blank

The actual form of a plan becomes important for teachers in training, especially when they are about to be observed. In such circumstances, the plan format is dictated by the training program and the trainers who teach it. The plan blank above, for example, shows

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one such institutional template.

There are two elements in this template that we have not so far mentioned. Firstly, there is a column called Success indicators where the planner has to note down how they will be able to measure the success of what happens. This forces the planner to focus on exactly how both teacher and students will know if something has worked, in other words, if me learning outcomes have been met. There is also a final heading for Homework/Further work which will show the planner thinking ahead beyond the actual lesson to be taught.

The (first page of a) completed lesson plan on page 163 shows how a different plan blank (from a different institution) might be filled in.

Notice that, in contrast to the plan blank on page 161, there is no column here for success indicators, but there is a special column for Interaction (who’s interacting with whom), since the trainer/designers perceive this as being of special significance.

Other trainers and schools may have their own formats, of course, and they may look significantly different from the two templates shown here. A lot will depend on the priorities of the training course - and perhaps the teaching qualification which the trainees are working towards. There is no one correct format, in other words, although, of course, trainees will almost certainly have to conform to the format that is used on their particular training course.

To sum up: the purpose of a plan is to be as useful as possible to the people who are going to use it (whether they are the teachers themselves, their observers or an examination board). This, in the end, is what should guide the form in which teachers put their thoughts down on paper.

Planning a sequence of lessons We have stressed the need for variety in classroom activities and teacher behaviour as an antidote to student (and teacher) boredom. This means, as we have seen, that when teachers plan a lesson, they build in changes in pace and a variety of different activities.

The same principies also apply to a sequence of lessons stretching, for example, over two weeks or a month. Once again, students will want to see a coherent pattern of progress and topic-linking so that there is a transparent connection between lessons, and so that they can perceive some overall aims and objectives to their program of study. Most find this preferable to a series of’one-off lessons.

However, two dangers may prejudice the success of a sequence of lessons. The first is predictability; if students know exactly what to expect, they are likely to be less motivated than if their curiosity is aroused. The second is sameness; students may feel less enthusiastic about today’s lesson if it starts with exactly the same kind of activity as yesterday’s lesson. Once again, however, thinking about the three ESA learning elements will help us to avoid such problems. We recognise that there are many different ways of

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combining and sequencing the three elements, and that our choice of how they should be sequenced will often depend upon the task, the level and age of the students and what exactly we want them to achieve.

According to Tessa Woodward in her book on planning, an ideal multi-lesson sequence has threads running through it. These might be topic threads, language threads (grammar, vocabulary, etc) or skill threads (reading, listening, etc). Over a period of lessons students should be able to see some interconnectivity, in other words, rather than a random collection of activities. The need for both coherence and variety is just as necessary in multi-lesson sequences as it is in single lessons.

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13’

TIME

Warm up

STAGE

Review the adjectives learned in the previous lesson in a meaningful context

AIM

S: encourage to correct themselves.

P: Ss might make mistakes during the practice.

S: circulate a lot during the activity and check if Ss are on the right track.

ANTICIPATED PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS P: Ss might have a hard time filling in the slips.

3. Ss will learn to say thank you.

2. Ss will learn new vocabulary and grammar.

5. at the end, Ss report their findings as to what place they would like to go on their holiday.

4. encourage each S to talk to another Ss.

3. give then time to fill ít in.

2. distribute the handout to Ss.

1. tell Ss they have to fill in the chart with their idea of place, where it is and what it is like.

PROCEDURES

to fill in

Individual Cocktail

Slips for Ss

INTERACTI0N TXsss

MATERIAL

Timetable fit

Terminal objective(s)

This is the second week of the course. Ss are being taken from a very basic level to the abitity to manage simple conversation such as: asking about names, talking briefly about occupations, greeting, asking and giving phone numbers, describing people, talking about tocations, informal phone conversations, and talking about current activities, In this dass they will produce y/n questions with be, they will practise the vocabulary related to the family, which was introduced in the previous class, and they will be introducecl to numbers and to the irregular form of the plural. Ss will also be provided with practice related to the new structures.

1. Ss will review the vocabulary learned in the previous lesson.

There are 13 students in this group, 5 rrten and 8 women. Most of them are between 16 and 25 years oíd. They nave had tirite exposure to spoken Englísh. They nave had few opportunities to speak English.

Class profile

Book: World Link íntro A

Seven Language and Culture SP Date: Length of dass: 150 minutes Level: basic Programa de Licenciatura para Profesores sin Título Pedagógico en Lengua Extranjera

10 ‘

Grammar practice

Vocabulary presentation

Introduce the difference between a and an (indefinrte articles)

Introduce personal Ítems

Page 1 of a completed lesson plan

10’

P: Ss might not understand the instructions of the exercise.

S: have a S who understood the instructions in English clarify the instructions in Portuguese to the others.

P: Ss might not understand meaning of a new piece of vocabulary.

S: encourage Ss to explain the definitions to each other.

Poster Stips with the articles Board Glue

Group TXsss

1. put the poster with the personal Ítems on the floor and tell Ss they wilt have to put before each of them a or an. The group should agree on what to put where and they should be abte to ¡ustify their cholees.

3. Ss copy the bb record.

2. elicit the rule and put it on the bb.

Poster Slips Glue

Group T X ssss Individual

give Ss the poster with the pictures and Ss to match the slips with the names of the ítems.

2. work on the pronunciation of each of the Ítems (number of syltables, stressed syllables).

3. ask Ss to copy it into their notebooks by drawing as well.

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Didáctica del inglés I

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The following lesson notes show how three such threads (topic, grammar (tense) and a skill (reading)) can be woven into five consecutive classes: Threads

MONDAY

TUESDAY

WEDNESDAY THURSDAY

Animals vocabulary thread (10 mms each time)

Parts of cat’s body

Revíew + cat words

Review + cat metaphors

Review and start fish vocab

Tenses thread (30 mins each time)

Regular past simpie first person

Review + all persons

Review + all negatives

Review -i- some irregulars

Reading thread (20 mins each time)

Introduction of a graded reader

First two pages + comp. questions

Review and Chap. 1

Study of past forms in Chap. 1

FRIDAY Review and start fish verbs Review and start ‘Did you ... ?’ questions Oral summary of Chap.

1 + vocab in notebooks

Lesson threads

Perhaps the most important thing to remember, however, is that a long teaching sequence (e.g. two weeks) is made up of shorter sequences (e.g. six lessons) which are themselves made up of smaller sequences (one or two per lesson perhaps). And at the level of a teaching sequence we have to ensure the presence of our three elements, engage, study and activate in their various permutations.

After the lesson (and before the next) In the lesson plan blank on page 191 there was a column labelled Success indicators, so that teachers could work out how to judge if a lesson (or part of a lesson) had been a success. Evaluation of how well things have gone (for both teacher and students) is vital if our lessons are to develop in response to our students’ progress. In other words, we need to plan future lessons on the basis of what happened in previous classes. Not only that, but our decision about whether to use an activity more than once (or whether we need to change the way we use that activity) will depend on how successful it was the first time we tried it.

When we evaluate lessons or activities, we need to ask ourselves questions such as, Was the activity successful? Did the students enjoy it? Did they learn anything from it?

What exactly did they get from the activity? How could the activity be changed to make it more effective next time? Unless we ask ourselves such questions, we are in danger of continuing with activities and techniques that either do not work, or, at the very least, are not as successful as they might be with appropriate modification.

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One kind of data which will help us evaluate lessons and activities is feedback from students. We might, for example, ask them simple questions such as, ‘Did you like that exercise? Did you find it useful?’ and see what they say. But not all students will discuss topics like this openly in class. It may be better to ask them to write their answers down and hand them in. A simple way of doing this is to ask students once every fortnight, for example, to write down two things they want more of and two things they want less of.

The answers we get may prove a fruitful place to start a discussion, and we will then be able to modify what happens in class, if we think it appropriate, in the light of our students’ feelings. Such modifications will greatly enhance our ability to manage the class.

We can also give students special evaluation forms where they have to rate different activities with a score, or put them in some kind of order and then add comments about what they thought. We might ask students to submit comments by email.

Another way of getting reactions to new techniques is to invite a colleague into the classroom and ask them to observe what happens and make suggestions afterwards. This kind of peer observation is most successful when both teachers discuss the content and practice of the lesson both before and after the observation. It is important that the colleague who comes into our classroom does so in order to offer constructive advice rather than to concéntrate on our apparent failings. The lesson could also be videoed. This will allow us to watch the effect of what happened in the lesson with more objectivity than when we try to observe what is happening as it takes place.

Some teachers keep journals in which they record their thoughts about what happened as soon as possible after the lesson has finished. In that way they can read through their comments later and reflect on how they now feel about what happened.

Good teachers also need to assess how well their students are progressing. This can be done through a variety of measures including homework assignments, speaking activities where the teacher scores the participation of each student and frequent small progress tests.

Conclusions: In this chapter we have  discussed reasons for planning, showing its advantages both for student confidence in the teacher and also as a framework for teachers to work from. We said how important plans are for teachers in training.  stressed that plans are proposals for action rather than the action itself. Teachers need to be receptive and flexible when unforeseen problems and magic moments turn up in a lesson.  talked about the need for a blend of both coherence and variety in a lesson plan.  said that whatever the format the plan takes, it should be based on who the students

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are, what we want them to do, how long each activity will take, how the activity actually works, what equipment will be needed, what might go wrong and how what we are planning will fit into what comes before and after it.  discussed different plan formats, saying that there are many different ways of laying out the information. A lot will depend (especially on training courses) on who the plan is written for –apart from the teacher. However, we have suggested that most formal plans should include a description of the students, a statement of aims and objectives, a description of procedures (including who will be interacting with whom, and how long each activity will take), anticipated problems, extra materials and the material to be used in the lesson.  talked about planning a sequence of lessons where topic-linking is important, but there are dangers of predictability and sameness. We introduced the concept of lesson threads which run through a sequence of lessons.  said that it is important to plan future lessons on the basis of what has gone before, and using student feedback and our own observation to inform our future decisions.

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PLANNING PRINCIPLES* Jeremy Harmer The two overriding principles behind good lesson planning are variety and flexibility. Variety means involving students in a number of different types of activity and where possible introducing them to a wide selection of materials; it means planning so that learning is interesting and never monotonous for the students. Flexibility comes into play when dealing with the plan in the classroom; for any number of reasons what the teacher has planned may not be appropriate for that class on that particular day. The flexible teacher will be able to change the plan in such a situation. Flexibility is the characteristic we would expect from the genuinely adaptable teacher.

We have already commented on the danger of routine and monotony and how students may become de-motivated if they are always faced with the same type of class. This danger can only be avoided if the teacher believes that the learning experience should be permanently stimulating and interesting. This is difficult to achieve, but at least if the activities the students are faced with are varied there will be the interest of doing different things. If new language is always introduced in the same way (e.g. if it is always introduced in a dialogue) then the introduction stages of the class will become gradually less and less challenging. If all reading activities always concentrate on extracting specific information and never ask the students to do anything else, reading will become less interesting. The same is true of any activity that is constantly repeated. Our aim must be to provide a variety of different learning activities which will help individual students to get to grips with the language. And this means giving the students a purpose and telling them what the purpose is. Students need to know why they are doing something and what it is supposed they will achieve. We have stressed the need for a purpose particularly with communicative activities and receptive skills: but teachers must have a purpose for all the activities they organize in a class and they should communicate that purpose to their students.

In any one class there will be a number of different personalities with different ways of looking at the world. The activity that is particularly appropriate for one student may not be ideal for another. But teachers who vary their teaching approach may be able to satisfy most of their students at different times.

Variety is a principle that applies especially to a series of classes. Over a two-week period, for example, we will try and do, different things in the ‘classes. Variety also applies to a lesser extent to a single class period. Although there are some activities that can *

Harmer, Jeremy (1996). The practice of English language teaching. Longman, London.

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last for fifty minutes it seems generally true that changes of activity during that time are advisable. An introduction of new language that lasted for fifty minutes would probably be counter-productive, and it is noticeable how an over-long accurate reproduction stage tires students and fails to be very effective. We would not expect, either, to ask the students to engage in reading comprehension for a whole class. We might, however, be able to base a whole class on one reading passage, but only if we varied the activities that we could use with it. Thus we might get students to read to extract specific information; this could be followed by some discussion, some intensive work and some kind of written or oral follow-up. Children, especially, need to do different things in fairly quick succession since they will generally not be able to concentrate on one activity for a long stretch of time.

The teacher who believes in variety will have to be flexible since the only way to provide variety is to use a number of different techniques: not all of these will fit into one methodology (teachers should be immediately suspicious of anyone who says they have the answer to language teaching for this will imply a lack of flexibility).

Good lesson planning is the art of mixing techniques, activities and materials in such a way that an ideal balance is created for the class. In a general language course there will be work on the four skills (although a teacher will probably come to a decision about the relative merits of each skill): there will be presentation and controlled practice, roughlytuned input (receptive skill work) and communicative activities. Different student groupings will be used.

If teachers have a large variety of techniques and activities that they can use with students they can then apply themselves to the central question of lesson planning: ‘What is it that my students will feel, know or be able to do at the end of the class (or classes) that they did not feel or know or were not able to do at the beginning of the class (or classes)?’

We can say, for example, that they will feel more positive about learning English at the end of the class than they did at the beginning as a result of activities that were enjoyable; we can say that they will know some new language that they did not know before; we can say that they will be able to write a type of letter that they were not able to write before, for example.

In answering the central question teachers will create the objectives for the class Students may be involved in a game-like activity because the teacher’s objective is to have them relax and feel more positive about their English classes. The students may be given a reading passage to work on because the teacher’s objective is to improve their ability to extract specific information from written texts. New language may be introduced because the objective is that students should know how to refer to the past, for example.

We will look at what the teacher should know before starting to plan.

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What teachers should know Before teachers can start to consider planning their classes they need to know a considerable amount about three main areas: the job of teaching, the institution and the students.

Clearly well-prepared teachers need to know a lot about the job they are to do before they can start to make successful plans. There are six major areas of necessary knowledge. a. The language for the level Clearly teachers must know the language that they are to teach. By ‘know’ we mean that teachers must be able to use the language themselves and also have an insight into the rules that govern its form and the factors which affect its use. This is obviously the result not only of the teacher’s own knowledge of English but also of preparation and study where facts about language can be absorbed. b. The skills for the level Teachers need to ‘know’ the skills they are going to ask their students to perform. It is no good asking students to do a report if you cannot do it yourself! c. The learning aids available for the level We need to know what aids are available and appropriate for the level we are teaching. These may include wall pictures, flashcards, flipcharts, cards, charts, tapes, tape recorders, video playback machines, overhead projectors, computer hardware and software, sets of books and materials and, of course, the board. d. Stages and techniques in teaching We need to know and recognize different teaching techniques and stages. We need to know the difference between accurate reproduction and communicative activities so that we do not, for example, act as controller in both cases. We also need to be able to recognize stages in the textbook we are using so that we realize when an activity is controlled rather than free and vice versa. In particular, then, we must have a working knowledge of the issues discussed in and the principles behind the teaching of receptive skills. e. A repertoire of activities Well-prepared teachers have a large repertoire of activities for their classes. They can organize presentation and controlled output practice; they can direct students in the acquiring of receptive skills and organize genuinely communicative activities. This repertoire of activities enables them to have varied plans and achieve an activities balance.

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f. Classroom management skills Well-prepared teachers will have good classroom management skills. They will be able to adopt a number of different roles, will be able to use different student groupings, and will be able to maintain discipline.

These areas are all vitally important for a teacher and they all imply a lot of work particularly where a level is being taught for the first time. Without these areas of knowledge a teacher is in a poor position to make decisions about lesson planning.

The institution Teachers need to know a lot about the institution in so far as it is involved with their teaching. The following five areas of knowledge are crucial. a. Time, length, frequency It sounds silly to emphasize that the teacher should know at what time, for how long and how often classes take place. Nevertheless this is clearly important since it will affect all planning. b. Physical conditions Teachers need to know what physical conditions exist in the place(s) that they are going to teach, It is no good taking in an electrically powered tape recorder if there is no socket for a plug in the classroom! When planning it will be important to bear that kind of detail in mind as well as more major considerations like the condition of the chairs and blackboard, the brightness of the lighting, the size of the room, etc. c. Syllabus It is clearly important to be familiar with the syllabus the institution has for the levels that are being taught. We will have to be sure in general terms that we can cover the majority of the syllabus where possible. It is impossible to plan within an institution without such knowledge. d. Exams It is also extremely important to know what type of exams (if any) the students, will have to take and when, since clearly a major responsibility of the teacher will be to try and ensure that the students are successful in tests and exams.

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e. Restrictions Teachers should be aware of any restrictions imposed by the institution upon their teaching: apart from the obvious restrictions of physical size and shape of the classroom, there are also the limitations of class size, availability of aids and physical conditions (see (b) above) Clearly a knowledge of all these things is vital if the teacher is to make plans that are realistic in the circumstances.

The students Teachers need to know a considerable amount about their students. We have already made the point that each class is unique and as a result, each class will need to be treated differently. Nowhere is this more true than in planning, where we select the activities that will be suitable for our students. In order to do so we obviously need to know a lot about them.

Teachers need to know who the students are, what the students bring to the class and what the students need. a. Who the students are It is obviously necessary for teachers to know about the following things: Age: How old are the students? Are they children? Adolescents? In each case they will need to be treated differently from each other and from an adult class. Are they all more or less the same age?

Sex: Are they all girls/women? Is there a mixture of the sexes? Are they all men? In an ideal world the sex of the students should make no difference to the activities and content of the lesson. In practice, however, there are still countries where a teacher may well feel that what is suitable for one sex is not suitable for the other.

Social background: It is important to know if your students are rich or poor; whether or not they are used to luxury or are oppressed by it. What kind of behaviour is usual in the social class to which they belong? In a classless society where wealth was adequately shared this might not be so important. Such societies do not exist, however! Especially where a small minority of the students come from a different social background to the rest of the class it will be vital to take this fact into account when planning the content of your class.

Occupation: Clearly the occupation of your students will help you to make decisions about your planning. Where a teacher is fortunate enough to have thirty students who all have the same occupation the task will be considerably easier since assumptions can be made about what things the students know and what activities they are used

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to. Certainly this is the case with secondary school classes, etc., but with adults there is usually a variety of different occupations represented by the students.

Of these four items the most difficult to ascertain will be the students’ socioeconomic background. Teachers might well prepare a confidential questionnaire at the beginning of the term/semester to help them get an idea of such information. b. What the students bring to the class Teachers need to know how the students feel about learning English and what they ‘know’. Again there are four major areas for them to investigate: Motivation and attitude: How do the students feel about learning English? Are they generally positive about coming to class? Do they feel friendly or hostile towards the culture that English represents for them? What is their attitude to teachers and to their English teacher in particular? Clearly special efforts will have to be made with hostile students having negative attitudes and teachers might well place a greater emphasis on motivating the students than on anything else, at least for a time, Educational background: Closely tied to motivation and attitude is the educational background of the students. Clearly the content of the class will be different if the students are postgraduates than if they have never got beyond primary education. At the same time the educational experiences of the students are important. Some students who have been previously unsuccessful may need more encouragement than usual.

The style pf their previous learning is also important. Students who have been rigidly disciplined in a classroom where the teacher is the only person speaking may ‘ find the sudden insistence on communication and interaction difficult to take (and vice versa). Again the teacher may think it a good idea to issue a questionnaire - or at least talk to the students informally - at the beginning of the term/semester.

Knowledge: Teachers will want to know about various aspects of the students’ knowledge. For example we will obviously want to know how much English each student knows. At the same time, though, we will want to know how well the students perform in their own language: can they write academic papers, do they write informal letters fluently?, etc.

Another important major area of knowledge concerns the world in general. How much do students know about current affairs? Are there parts of the world about which they appear to be largely ignorant? Are there large areas of knowledge they do not have? It is vital to know this since much planning will be unsuccessful if we assume knowledge of current events, etc. which the students do not have. It might be worth adding here that teachers are often scathing about their students’ apparent ignorance; if this is the case they should try and work out what world knowledge they are unfamiliar with. It is a salutary experience.

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Interests: Teachers will want to know what the students’ interests are (and we will be lucky if we can find a majority interest in various subjects). Often we will take planning decisions on the basis of student interest rather than anything else: it should not be forgotten that interest is a primary ingredient of motivation. c. What the students need We have said that different types of student will need to be treated differently: we also saw that people learn languages for a variety of different reasons. Particularly in the light of why our students are studying language we must analyze what their needs are.

If we are teaching a group of medical students who are unlikely to have to use oral English in their professional lives, but who need to be able to read medical textbooks in English, we might at once identify the ability to read scientific texts (medical, in this case) as the students’ need and therefore design a course consisting exclusively of exercises and texts designed only to give students this ability. If our students are training to be travel guides, on the other hand, we might identify their biggest need as being the ability to give quick oral descriptions and answer factual questions in English (as well as the ability to ‘organize’ people and give directions, etc. in English).

The point being made is that where possible teachers or coordinators should find out exactly what it is their students really need English for and use this knowledge to make decisions about course design. What skills should have greater emphasis? Is there a need for communicative oral activities or should the emphasis be on writing?

The analysis of student needs helps to answer these questions and provide a sound basis for course decisions.

The fact that a student need has been identified, however, does not necessarily mean that all decisions about course design and planning can be taken immediately. Two more considerations are important; student wants and methodological principles.

The fact that the medical students’ need is to be able to read medical texts in English does not necessarily mean that all they want to do for all and every English class is read medical texts. They might want to learn some oral English, be able to write informal letters, etc. The travel guide’s needs may be largely oral but the students might also want to be able to read English novels. In other words, needs and wants are not necessarily the same and the job of the course designer and lesson planner is to try and reach a compromise between the two. Thus the main theme running through our course for medical students might be the reading and understanding of medical texts.

But this might be integrated with oral work about the texts, or might even run side by side with work on oral social English. What is being suggested is that we will have to pay attention to what the students want even where it seems to conflict with student needs.

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Even where wants and needs are compatible and well-established, however, there may be good reasons for using material which is not especially directed towards those needs. We have already stressed the concepts of variety and flexibility in lesson planning and they are no less important with specialist classes than for the ‘general’ class.

Even where students are studying English for a specific purpose (ESP), teachers will want to include a variety of motivating activities. The initial enthusiasm of students who are studying ESP can easily be destroyed unless the teacher remembers general planning principles.

The majority of students, however, will be studying English for a reason that makes their needs difficult to identify. In such cases we will teach the four skills, making our decisions about how much weight to give each skill (and the language to be used) as best we can.

A detailed knowledge of the students, then, is essential when planning what activities to use and what subject matter to teach. It is important for the students to be interested in the subject, but it is also important that they should be able to cope with its level of difficulty (not just of the language, but also the content): where there are clearly definable student needs it is important for the students to see that the teacher has taken account of these needs and is organizing classes accordingly - although we should bear in mind our comments about needs and wants and the importance of general planning principles.

Knowing the students (who they are, what they bring to class and what their needs are) will give the teacher a good idea of how to provide a programme of balanced activities that will be most motivating and most beneficial to the students.

The pre-plan Teachers who are knowledgeable about the institution, the profession and the students, are ready to start making a plan. Before actually writing down the exact contents of such a plan, however, we will need to think about what we are going to do in a general way so that our decisions are taken on the basis of sound reasoning. This is where the pre-plan is formed.

The idea of the pre-plan is for teachers to get a general idea of what they are going to do in the next class or classes. Based on our knowledge of the students and the syllabus we can consider four main areas: activities, language skills, language type, and subject and content. When we have ideas of what we want to do as a result of considering these areas we can decide whether such ideas are feasible given the institution and its restrictions. When this has been done we have our pre-plan and we can then move towards the final detailed plan. The concept of the pre-plan and how it operates is summarized in this figure:

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Teacher’s knowledge of the student - who They are - what they bring to class - what their needs are

Teacher´s knowledge of the syllabus

Activities

Language skills

Language type

Subject and content

The institution and its restrictions The plan

We will now consider the four major elements of the pre-plan: a. Activities ‘Activities’ is a lose term used to give a general description of what will happen in a class.

It is important to realize that here we are not talking in any way about items of language; we are talking about what, generally and physically, the students are going to do.

A game is an activity; so is a simulation. The introduction of new language is an activity; so is parallel writing or story reconstruction. Listening is an activity and so is an information gap task; ‘The hot seat’ is an activity, so is an oral composition.

An activity is what teachers think of when they are asked. ‘What are you going to do in class today?’. Rather than give details they will often say, ‘Oh, I’ve got a nice groupwriting task and then we’re going to do a song.’

When teachers think of what to do in their classes it is vital to consider the students and what they have been doing recently. If, for example, they have been doing largely controlled work (e.g. presentation and controlled practice) then the teacher may well take a preliminary decision to plan a freer activity. Only subsequently will he or she decide what skill or skills this might involve. If recent work has been very tiring, challenging, and over-serious the teacher may make an immediate decision to include an activity whose main purpose is to give the students an enjoyable time. If, on the

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other hand, the last two classes have largely consisted of communicative activities the teacher may decide to include language input or controlled work.

Teachers should make decisions about activities independently of what language or language skills they have to teach. Their first planning thought should centre round what kind of class would be appropriate for the particular group of students on a particular day. It is in this consideration of activities as a starting point for lesson planning that the teacher can ensure a motivating balance of the type we have discussed.

It will also be necessary to consider activities not only on the basis of what the students have been doing recently but also in terms of the class period itself. In other words we must consider what activities to include in a period of, say, sixty minutes, and how to balance the different activities within that period of time. We have already said that a lengthy session of accurate reproduction would probably be de-motivating and unsuccessful. Where presentation is included in a class we will want to make sure that students are not only involved in a lockstep accurate reproduction stage, but are also involved in other motivating activities. In general our aim will be to provide a sequence that is varied and does not follow one activity with a completely similar activity and then follow that with one that is the same.

The decision about what activities are to be included in a plan is a vital first stage in the planning process. The teacher is forced to consider, above all, what would be most beneficial and motivating for the students. b. Language skills Teachers will have to decide what language skills to include in the class. Sometimes, of course, this decision will already have been taken when the activity has been selected (e.g. listening). In the case of more general activities, though (e.g. communicative activity, roughly-tuned input, etc.) we will then decide whether we wish to concentrate on one skill or a combination of skills. Even where the choice of activity has determined the skill to be studied (e.g. listening) it will still be necessary to decide what sub-skills the class are going to practice. We looked at a number of different ways of listening: when planning, the teacher will select which of these types of listening is most appropriate.

The choice of language skills to be practiced and studied will be taken in accordance with the syllabus. The latter will often say what skills and sub-skills should be taught during the term or year and it will be the teacher’s job to cover these over a period of time. Teachers will also make their choice on the basis of their students’ needs. They will also bear in mind what the students have been doing recently, just as they do when thinking of activities

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c. Language type Teachers will have to decide what language is to be focused on during the class.

There is, of course, a great range of possibilities here. We may decide that we want the language to be used to be ‘general and unpredictable’. This would be the case if we were going to organize a ‘reaching a consensus’ activity or perhaps a simulation.

We might decide, however, that we want to focus on yes/no questions using ‘was’ and ‘were’. These are the two extremes (completely free language and completely controlled). Teachers may choose to concentrate on a language area: we might want our students to ‘talk about the past’ using a variety of past tenses or in general to concentrate on ‘inviting’. Much will depend on the language in the syllabus.

The choice of language type is a necessary decision: all too often it is the first decision that teachers make and thus classes take on the monotonous controlled aspect. Here it is only one of four major areas the teacher has to think of when drawing up the preplan. d. Subject and content We have considered what kind of activity would be suitable for our students and we have decided on language skills and type. The last and in some ways most important decision still has to be made. What kind of content will our class have? We may have decided that a simulation activity is appropriate but if the subject of that simulation does not interest the students in any way the choice of activity is wasted. Although we have said it is the teacher’s job to interest students in a reading passage, for example, it will surely be more motivating to give the students a reading passage that they would fid interesting with or without the teacher.

Teachers who know who their students are and what they bring to class will be in a much better position to choose subject and content than a teacher who does not.

And thís knowledge is vital since one of language’s main functions is to communicate interest and ideas.

These four areas, then, form the basis of the pre-plan. It should be noticed that two of them are not in any way concerned with decisions about language, but are based on what will interest and motívate the students. This reflects everything we have said about language use since language is a tool for doing things, not just an abstract system.

Teachers who concentrate on activities and subject and content will benefit the students far more than those who only concentrate on language skills and type.

When we have a general idea of what we are going to do in our class as a result of considering the four areas in the pre-plan we will then consider the institution and the restrictions it imposes. If we have decided that we want to take a song into class we

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must make sure that this is possible: is a tape of the song available and are the tape recorders in good working order? Is the activity we would like to take into class suitable for the number of students we have to teach? How should we organise the activity for that number of students? Will we be able to do all the things we want to in the time available, and if we can how should we order the class? What should come first?

Experienced teachers consider all these details without, perhaps, consciously realizing they are doing so. The new teacher, or the teacher starting a job in a new school or institute will have to bear all these points in mind.

We now have a clear idea of what we are going to do in our class: we are ready to make a detailed plan.

The plan The plan we are going to consider is extremely detailed and it should be understood that most experienced teachers do not write down what they are going to do in such a complicated way. The detail in our plan and in the specimen plan in is felt to be necessary, however, for two reasons. Firstly, the inexperienced teacher needs a clear framework of reference for the task of planning, and secondly the form of the plan forces the teacher to consider aspects of planning that are considered desirable.

There is one particular situation in which a detailed plan is beneficial and that is when a teacher is to be observed: by providing a plan such a teacher clearly shows why he or she is doing things in the classroom, and where an activity is not totally successful, the observer can see how it would have gone if it had been performed or organized more efficiently.

The plan has five major components: description of the class, recent work, objectives, contents and additional possibilities. When we have discussed these we will look at a specimen plan. a. Description of the class Teachers may well carry this part of the plan in their heads: the more familiar they become with the group the more they will know about them. The description of the class embraces a description of the students, a statement of time, frequency and duration of the class, and comments about physical conditions and/or restrictions. We will see how this works in the specimen plan b. Recent work Teachers need to have in their heads –or on paper– details of recent work the students have done. This includes the activities they have been involved in, the subject

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and content of their lessons and the language skills and type that they have studied, Only if all this is known (or remembered) can teachers make reasonable planning decisions about future classes. c. Objectives We will write down what our objectives are for the class. We will usually have more than one since there will be a number of stages in the class and each one will be there to achieve some kind of objective.

Objectives are the aims that teachers have for the students and are written in terms of what the students will do or achieve. They are written in general terms (e.g. ‘The objective is, to relax the students’), in terms of skills (e.g. ‘to give students practice in extracting specific information from a text’) and in terms of language (e.g. ‘to give students practice in the use of the past simple tense using regular and irregular verbs, questions and answers’). The written objectives will be more or less specific depending onhow specific the teacher’s aims are.

The objectives, then, are the aims the teacher has for the students. They may refer to activities, skills, language type or a combination of all of these. d. Contents By far the most detailed part of the plan is the section in which the contents are written down. Here we spell out exactly what we are going to do in the class. The ‘Contents’ section has five headings: Context: Here we write down what context we will be using for the activity. Context means ‘what the situation is: what the subject of the learning is’. The context for introducing new language might be a flight timetable; the context for an oral composition might be a story about a man going to the zoo. The context for a simulation might be “The travel agency’.

Activity and class organization: Here we indicate what the activity will be and we say whether the class will be working in lockstep, pairs, groups or teams, etc.

Aids: We indicate whether we will be using the blackboard or a wall picture, the tape recorder or the textbook, etc.

Language: Here we describe the language that will be used. If new language is to be introduced we will list some or all of the models. If the activity is an oral communicative activity we might only write ‘unpredictable’. Otherwise we may write ‘advice language’, for example, and give some indication of what kind of language items we expect.

Possible problems: Many activities can be expected to be problematic in some way.

We can often anticipate that the new language for a presentation stage may cause

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problems because of its form. The introduction of the past simple may cause problems because of the different verb endings: question forms are often difficult because of word order, etc. We should be aware of these possible problems and have considered ways of solving them. Certain activities have complicated organization.

Again we should be aware of this and know how to overcome it. e. Additional possibilities Here we write down other activities we could use if it becomes necessary (e.g. if we get through the plan quicker than we thought or if one of our activities has to be stopped because it is not working well).

All these details, then, form the major part of the plan. We can now look at an example of the kind of plan we have been discussing.

A specimen lesson plan We will now look at a specimen lesson plan which closely follows the model we have described. It is designed for an adult class that has been studying for about two hundred hours the students are near the beginning of their sixth term.

The reading material comes from a textbook at this level which it is assumed the students are using as a class text. The recent work is based on the syllabus of the textbook.

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Specimen plan A- Description of the class Level: Intermediate Students between the ages of 16-25. 21 women, 9 men (6 secretaries, 5 housewives, 10 university students, 3 teachers, 1 doctor, 1 businessman, 4 secondary students).

The class takes place from 7.45-9.00 p.m. on Mondays and Wednesdays. The students are generally enthusiastic, but often tired: concentration sometimes suffers as a result. Students have completed approximately 200 hours of English.

B - Recent work • Students have been studying the passive - discovery activities followed by language practice.

• Writing complete passive sentences about e.g. the world’s first postage stamp, the VW Beetle, etc.

• Listening work (listening for detailed comprehension).

• Writing notes based on the listening.

C - Objectives (for details see ‘Contents’ below) 1. To create interest in the topic of buildings: to promote discussion.

2. To raise expectations and create involvement in a reading task.

3. To read to confirm expectations.

4. To study relevant words.

5

To prepare a description of a famous building.

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D – Contents Objective 1: (Estimated time: 15 minutes) (a) Context

Students’ own lives - buildings

(b) Activity / class organization

Discussion (buzz groups) in small groups. SS are asked to agree on the five most famous buildings in the world and say how they make them feel.

(c) Aids

None.

(d) Language

All and any.

(e) Possible problems

Students may not have much to say. The teacher prepared to prompt if necessary - or shorten the activity if that seems appropriate.

Objective 2: (Estimated time: 10 minutes) (a) Context

‘Creating expectations’ about the Empire State Building.

(b) Activity / class orga- Whole class contributes suggestions to T who writes them nization up in 3 columns on the board. (c) Aids

Board; chalk or board pen, etc.

(d) Language

All and any; ‘buildings’ vocabulary.

(e) Possible problems

Students don’t know anything about the Empire State: Building! T can prompt with ‘Is it tall?’ ‘Where is it?’, etc.

Objective 3: (Estimated time: 25 minutes) (a) Context

A text about the Empire State Building.

Students read individually and then check in pairs to see (b) Activity class organi- if the questions/doubts written on the board have been zationn settled by the information in the text. T then leads the feedback session and discusses with the whole class (c) Aids (d) Language

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The text (in the textbook): the ‘expectations’ chart on the board.

All and any - especially vocabulary related to buildings.

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(e) Possible problems

The ‘expectations’ questions may not be answered in the text. T will have prepared a series of type 2 questions for detailed comprehension (or will find them in the book being used) e.g. ‘How many boroughs make up New York City?

Where exactly is the ESB situated in Manhattan? When was it built?’, etc.

Objective 4: (Estimated time: 10 minutes) (a) Context Words about different kinds of building. (b) Activity /class organization In pairs students have to put ‘buildings’ words organization: (e.g. block of flats, skyscraper, house, bungalow, hut, palace, cottage, semi-detached, detached, terraced, etc.) in order of height, overall size, privacy, worth, etc. T then discusses their conclusions. (c) Aids

Wordlist / textbook.

(d) Language

As in (b) above); discussion language.

‘Buildings’ words.

Students don’t know any of the words.

Maybe they problems: know all of them. T assesses the situation and is prepared for more explanation or to cut the activity short and move on.

(e) Possible problems

Objective 5: (Estimated time: 15 minutes) (a) Context Buildings - the world/students’ lives. (b) Activity /class organization T and SS talk about paragraph organization of a text about a famous building (e.g. Para 1: identify building, say where and when it was built; Para 2: describe the building and its distinctive features; Para 3: say what people think of the building, why it is famous, what happens/happened there, etc.). Students get into groups to plan a composition about a particular building. They are then asked to write the composition for homework.

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(c) Aids

(d) Language

(e) Possible problems

The board and/or handout and/or textbook with notes/ hints about paragraph organisation. SS’s notebooks, etc.

As in (b) above. T will try to elicit passives and building vocabulary when discussing organisation.

SS might not know much about any famous building! T has some information about other famous buildings, e.g. Eiffel Tower, Taj Mahal, etc. to help out just in case.

E- Additional possibilities 1. Find the differences. The teacher gives each pair two pictures of urban landscapes – With different buildings, etc. They have to find at least ten differences between their pictures without looking at each other’s.

2. Describe and draw. In pairs one student tells another student to draw a building (of the first student’s choice). Then they do it the other way round.

3. A co-operative writing exercise in which students group- write a story starting ‘When she saw the building for the first time she knew there were something wrong.’

A number of points can be made about this lesson plan. In the first place decisions were taken based on what students had been doing recently (recent work). It appears that students had not been doing much reading and that a lot of their oral work had been either in lockstep or was at best controlled practice output. There had not been many opportunities for students to express themselves, but the students had done some listening practice.

The record of recent work led to a number of decisions being taken, therefore. In the first place it was clearly time for some reading work. Secondly students needed involving in some communicative oral interaction. They did not appear to have been doing much vocabulary work, either, so this was a good time to work on some words.

These were the considerations that affected the pre-plan. The plan then allowed for a detailed response based not only on recent work, but also on what we wished to achieve.

The lack of previous oral interaction is why the opening buzz group and the ‘creating expectations’ activity were used since they allow the students to use spontaneous speech.

The reading text was appropriate here since we recognized the need for reading. Vocabulary work follows naturally from a reading so that slotted in nicely. Finally we used

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the preceding stages to build up to a piece of guided writing.

Conclusions In this chapter we have considered an approach to the planning of language classes.

We have shown how an over-reliance on the textbook and the syllabus may well cause teachers to give classes which are not as motivating as they could be. We have stressed the need to choose appropriate activities for the class, highlighting the need for variety, flexibility and balance.

We have discussed what teachers need to know before making a plan. This includes a knowledge of how to teach - including ideas for different activities and a knowledge of useful techniques. Teachers should also be familiar with the (rules of the) institution they are working in. Most important, however, is a knowledge of the students; who they are and what needs they have.

We have looked at a pre-plan in which teachers make general decisions about what they are going to teach: these decisions are made on the basis of activities, language skills, language type and subject and content. We emphasized the fact that language type (the traditional syllabus) was only one of the necessary components of the pre-plan and that activities and subject and contend were equally important since here teachers could base decisions on how the students were feeling and what they had been doing recently.

Finally we have looked at how an actual plan can be put together, stressing that experienced teachers seldom write plans in such detail but that to do so forces us to consider important aspects of planning (and will be useful if we are to be observed).

Discussion 1. If variety is the cornerstone of good planning, is it possible to have too much variety?

2. Do you think activities can (or should) last for a whole class period? Give examples to back up your opinions.

3. How important is it for teachers to know about their students? What else should they know apart from the things mentioned here?

4. What do you think of the specimen plan. Would it be appropriate for the students you teach?

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EVALUATING LESSON EFFECTIVENESS* Penny Ur It is important to stop and think after giving a lesson whether it was a good one or not, and why. This is not in order to indulge in self-congratulation or vain regrets, but in order to have a basis for your own learning from reflection on experience: this lesson was unsatisfactory, what could I have done to improve it? Or: this lesson was good, what was it exactly that made it so? Other units in this module have dealt with criteria that can be applied to the design or assessment of particular procedures; this one concentrates on overall evaluation of the lesson event: effective, or not?

GROUP TASK: EVALUATING CRITERIA Imagine you have just come out of a lesson - whether your own, or one that you have observed - and wish to assess how effective it was. By what criteria will you evaluate it?

In Box A is a list of criteria I have heard suggested by teachers; you may wish to add more. Can you put them in order of priority: the most important, in your opinion, first, the least important last? You may, of course, put two or more at the same level if you think they are of the same importance.

Below are some notes on the criteria that you may find useful; and my own solution to the task, with explanations, is given at the end of the unit.

BOX A: CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING LESSON EFFECTIVENESS a) The learners were active all the time. b) The learners were attentive all the time. c)The learners enjoyed the lesson, were motivated. d)The class seemed to be learning the material well. e)The lesson went according to plan. f) The language was used communicatively throughout. g) The learners were engaging with the foreign language throughout. © Cambridge University Press 1996 *

Ur, Penny (2007). A course in language teaching. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

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Notes on the criteria 1. The learners were active, attentive, enjoying themselves If learners are active, attentive, enjoying themselves and motivated they are likely to be learning better. On the other hand it is very possible to activate learners effectively and enjoyably and hold their attention for long periods of time in occupations that have little learning or educational value.

2. The class seemed to be learning the material well The main goal of a lesson, when all is said and done, is to bring about learning; the problem is how to judge whether learning is in fact taking place.

3. The lesson went according to plan On average, I would guess that a lesson that went on the whole according to plan is more likely to have been effective; but this does beg the question of whether the plan was a good one in the first place! Also, a sensitive and flexible teacher may well deviate from an original plan in response to changing circumstances or learner needs, with positive results.

4. The language was used communicatively throughout It is certainly important to do activities that involve communication; but non-communicative activities (for example, grammar explanations) also have their place and assist learning.

5. The learners were engaging with the foreign language throughout The engaging with the material to be learnt (in this case the language) is surely a prerequisite for learning that material. Learning, however, will result from this process only if the material and task are of appropriate level.

Suggested order of priority My order would be the following: 1. c) The class seemed to be learning the material well.

2. g) The learners were engaging with the foreign language throughout.

3. b) The learners were attentive all the time.

4. d) The learners enjoyed the lesson, were motivated.

5. a) The learners were active all the time.

6. e) The lesson went according to plan.

7. f) The language was used communicatively throughout.

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Comments This order will quite probably be different from yours; and I found some decisions about the ranking –as I am sure you will have done– very difficult to make! Here are some of my considerations.

The first criterion has to be the learning; that is the main objective of a lesson. The fact that it is difficult to judge how much learners have learned does not let us off the duty of trying our best to do so! We can usually make a fairly good guess, based on our knowledge of the class, the type of activity they were engaged in, and some informal test activities that give feedback on learning.

The amount of learning is very likely to correlate highly with the amount of the foreign language the class engages with in the course of a lesson. If the foreign language material is too difficult, or the task too slow, or too much time is spent on organization or mothertongue explanation, the amount of learning will lessen.

Learners who are really engaging with the language must be attentive; loss of attention means loss of learning time. However, this attention may be directed at activities which produce little learning –which is why this item is not higher up the list.

Enjoyment and motivation are important because they make it more likely that learners will attend; they also contribute to learners’ holding a long-term positive attitude towards language lessons and learning in general. But it is, of course, possible to have participants thoroughly enjoying a lesson without learning anything.

Active learning is usually good learning; however, learners may be apparently passive (quietly listening or reading) and actually learning a lot; and, conversely, may be very active and learning nothing. It is common –and dangerous– for teachers to over-estimate the importance of learners being active all the time.

Most teachers plan carefully, and if the plan was a reasonably good one, then a lesson that accorded with it was probably also good. However, a specific plan may turn out to be not so good; in such a case following it may be disastrous, and inspired improvisation more successful. Also, occasionally, unexpected circumstances or learner demand may result in changes, with similarly positive results. In summary: yes, a criterion that has some use, but too dubious to be put very high.

Communication is important for language learning, but non-communicative activities can also teach; for some learners lesson time spent on the latter may actually be a better long-term investment. The higher you rank this criterion, the more crucial you feel the communicative character of the lesson to be; obviously I personally do not feel this to be as important a factor as the others.

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FOLLOW-UP TASK: PRACTICE AND/OR OBSERVATION The aim of this task is to try to evaluate the effectiveness of a lesson. The lesson itself could be one of the following possibilities: 1. Most usefully: one you yourself have planned and taught, based on a unit n a coursebook or syllabus you use or are familiar with.

2. One taught by a colleague or another teacher.

3. Less effective: a video recording of a lesson.

4. As a final resort: the observation notes shown in Box B. Try to evaluate how good the lesson was, using the criteria and priorities you have worked on in this unit. If you have observed together with other teachers, come together after the lesson to compare notes.

BOX B: DESCRIPTION OF A LESSON This was a heterogeneous class of 35 fifteen-year-olds.

9.15 The teacher (T) enters, students (Ss) gradually quieten, sit, take out books.

9.20 T elicits the topic Ss had been asked to prepare for today (‘conformism’),elicits and discusses some key words, does not write them up.

9.25 T distributes cartoons, asks Ss to work in pairs and suggest captions that have to do with the topic. Some Ss work, most do not.

9.30 T elicits results: only three pairs are willing to suggest ideas. T suggests they carry on for homework.

9.32 T tells Ss to open books at p. 35: an article on conformism. T: ‘What would you do if you wanted to get the general idea of the article? Suggests they read only first sentence of each paragraph.

9.35 Silent reading 9.38 T does true/false exercise from book based only on these first sentences, using volunteer responders for each item, correcting and commenting. Some questions are not yet answerable.

9.45 T gives homework: read the entire article, finish finding the answers to the T/F questions.

9.47 T invites individual student to perform a prepared monologue (about Stalin) before the class, The class applauds, T approves warmly, refrains from commenting on language mistakes.

9.52 T initiates discussion on the topic of the monologue; about seven students participate, most of the rest are listening.

10.00 The lesson ends, some Ss come up to talk to T. © Cambridge University Press 1996

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PART FOUR

Assessment and evaluation

Objectives 1. To determine the function of assessment and evaluation.

2. To identify methods and tools for testing.

3. To talk about the reason for testing.

4. To identify differents test types and items.

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TESTING* Jeremy Harmer REASONS FOR TESTING STUDENTS At various stages during their learning, students may need or want to be tested on their ability in the English language. If they arrive at a school and need to be put in a class at an appropriate level, they may do a placement test. This often takes the form of a number of discrete (indirect) items (see below), coupled with an oral interview and perhaps a longer piece of writing. The purpose of the test is to find out not only what students know, but also what they don’t know. As a result, they can be placed in an appropriate class.

At various stages during a term or semester, we may give students progress tests.

These have the function of seeing how students are getting on with the lessons, and how well they have assimilated what they have been taught over the last week, two weeks or a month.

At the end of a term, semester or year, we may want to do a final achievement test (sometimes called an exit test) to see how well students have learnt everything. Their results on this test may determine what class they are placed in next year (in some schools, failing students have to repeat a year), or may be entered into some kind of school-leaving certificate. Typically, achievement tests include a variety of test types and measure the students’ abilities in all four skills, as well as their knowledge of grammar and vocabulary.

Many students enter for public examinations such as those offered by the University of Cambridge ESOL, Pitman or Trinity College in the UK, and in the US, the University of Michigan and TOEFL and TOEIC. These proficiency tests are designed to show what level a student has reached at any one time, and are used by employers and universities, for example, who want a reliable measure of a student’s language abilities.

So far in this chapter we have been talking about testing in terms of ‘one-off’ events, usually taking place at the end of a period of time (except for placement tests). These ‘sudden death’ events (where ability is measured at a particular point in time) are very different from continuous assessment, where the students’ progress is measured as it is happening, and where the measure of a student’s achievement is the work done all through the learning period and not just at the end. One form of continuous assessment is the language portfolio, where students collect examples of their work over time, so that these pieces of work can all be taken into account when an evaluation is made of their language progress and achievement. Such portfolios (called dossiers in this case) are * Harmer, Jeremy (2008). To teach English. Longman. China.

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part of the CEF (Common European Framework), which also asks language learners to complete language passports (showing their language abilities in all the languages they speak) and language biographies (describing their experiences and progress).

There are other forms of continuous assessment, too, which allow us to keep an eye on how well our students are doing. Such continuous recording may involve, among other things, keeping a record of who speaks in lessons and how often they do it, how compliant students are with homework tasks and how well they do them, and also how well they interact with their classmates.

Some students seem to be well suited to taking progress and achievement tests as the main way of having their language abilities measured. Others do less well in such circumstances and are better able to show their abilities in continuous assessment environments. The best solution is probably a judicious blend of both.

GOOD TESTS Good tests are those that do the job they are designed to do and which convince the people taking and marking them that they work. Good tests also have a positive rather than a negative effect on both students and teachers.

A good test is valid. This means that it does what it says it will. In other words, if we say that a certain test is a good measure of a student’s reading ability, then we need to be able to show that this is the case. There is another kind of validity, too, in that when students and teachers see the test, they should think it looks like the real thing - that it has face validity. As they sit in front of their test paper or in front of the screen, the students need to have confidence that this test will work (even if they are nervous about their own abilities).

However reliable the test is (see below) face validity demands that the students think it is reliable and valid.

A good test should have marking reliability. Not only should it be fairly easy to mark, but anyone marking it should come up with the same result as someone else. However, since different people can (and do) mark differently, there will always be the danger that where tests involve anything other than computer-scorable questions, different results will be given by different markers. For this reason, a test should be designed to minimise the effect of individual marking styles.

When designing tests, one of the things we have to take into account is the practicality of the test. We need to work out how long it will take both to sit the test and also to mark it.

The test will be worthless if it is so long that no one has the time to do it. In the same way, we have to think of the physical constraints of the test situation. Some speaking tests, especially for international exams, ask not only for an examiner but also for an interlocutor (someone who participates in a conversation with a student). But this is clearly not practical for teachers working on their own.

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Tests have a marked washback/backwash effect, whether they are public exams or institution-designed progress or achievement tests. The washback effect occurs when teachers see the form of the test their students are going to have to take and then, as a result, start teaching for the test. For example, they concentrate on teaching the techniques for answering certain types of question rather than thinking in terms of what language students need to learn in general. This is completely understandable since teachers want as many of their students as possible to pass the test. Indeed, teachers would be careless if they did not introduce their students to the kinds of test item they are likely to encounter in the exam. But this does not mean that teachers should allow such test preparation to dominate their lessons and deflect from their main teaching aims and procedures.

The washback effect has a negative effect on teaching if the test fails to mirror our teaching because then we will be tempted to make our teaching fit the test, rather than the other way round. Many modern public examinations have improved greatly from their more traditional versions, so that they often do reflect contemporary teaching practice. As a result, the washback effect does not have the baleful influence on teaching which we have been discussing.

When we design our own progress and achievement tests, we need to try to ensure that we are not asking students to do things which are completely different from the activities they have taken part in during our lessons. That would clearly be unfair.

Finally, we need to remember that tests have a powerful effect on student motivation.

Firstly, students often work a lot harder than normal when there is a test or examination in sight. Secondly, they can be greatly encouraged by success in tests, or, conversely, demotivated by doing badly. For this reason, we may want to try to discourage students from taking public examinations that they are clearly going to fail, and when designing our own progress and achievement tests, we may want to consider the needs of all our students, not just the ones who are doing well. This does not mean writing easy tests, but it does suggest that when writing progress tests, especially, we do not want to design the test so that students fail unnecessarily - and are consequently demotivated by the experience.

TEST TYPES When designing tests, we can either write discrete items, or ask students to become involved in more integrative language use. Discrete-item testing means only testing one thing at a time (e.g. testing a verb tense or a word), whereas integrative testing means asking students to use a variety of language and skills to complete a task successfully. A further distinction needs to be made between direct and indirect test items. A direct test item is one that asks students to do something with language (e.g. write a letter, read and reply to a newspaper article or take part in a conversation). Direct test items are almost always integrative.

Indirect test items are those which test the students’ knowledge of language rather than getting them to use it. Indirect test items might focus on, say, word collocations or the cor-

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rect use of modal verbs. Direct test items have more to do with activation, whereas indirect items are more closely related to study- that is the construction of language.

Indirect test items There are many different ways of testing the students’ knowledge of language construction.

We will look at three of the most common.

Multiple choice Multiple-choice questions are those where students are given alternatives to choose from, as in the following example: Circle the correct answer.

You must __________ here on time. a) to get

b) getting c) to have get

d) get

Sometimes students are instructed to choose the ‘correct’ answer (because only one answer is possible), as in the example above. But sometimes, instead, they can be told to choose the ‘best’ answer (because, although more than one answer is possible, one stands out as the most appropriate), e.g.

Circle the best answer.

Police are worried about the level of_______ crime. a) juvenile b) childish c) young d infant Multiple-choice questions have the great advantage of being easy to mark. Answer sheets can be read by computer, or can be marked by putting a transparency over the answer sheet which shows the circled correct letters. Markers do not have to worry, then, about the language in the questions; it is simply a matter of checking the correct letters for each question.

One problem with multiple-choice questions lies in the choice of distractors, that is the three incorrect (or inappropriate) answers. For while it may not be difficult to write one obvious distractor (e.g. answer a ‘to get’ in the first example above), because that is a mistake that students commonly make, it becomes less easy to come up with three items which will all sort out those students who know how this piece of language works from the ones who don’t. In other words, there is a danger that we will either distract too many students (even those who should get the question right) or too few (in which case the question has not done its job of differentiating students).

Multiple-choice questions can be used to test reading and listening comprehension (we can also use true/false questions for this: students circle T or ‘F’ next to statements concerning material they have just read or listened to).

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The washback effect of multiple-choice questions leads some people to find them unattractive, since training students to be good at multiple-choice questions may not help them to become better language learners. And there is a limit to how much we can test with this kind of indirect item. Nevertheless, multiple-choice questions are very attractive in terms of scorer reliability.

FILL-IN AND CLOZE This extremely common form of indirect testing involves the examinee writing a word in a gap in a sentence or paragraph, e.g.

Yesterday I went a ____ the cinema b ___ my friend Clare.

I enjoyed the film c ___she did not.

Gap-fill (or fill-in) items like this are fairly easy to write, though it is often difficult to leave a gap where only one item is possible. In such cases, we will need to be aware of what different answers we can accept. They also make marking a little more complex, though we can design answer sheets where students only have to write the required word against different letters, e.g. a ___________________________ b ___________________________ c ___________________________ A variation on fill-ins and gap-fills is the cloze procedure, where gaps are put into a text at regular intervals (say every sixth word). As a result, without the test writer having to think about it too much, students are forced to produce a wide range of different words based on everything from collocation to verb formation, etc, as in the following example.

AII around the world, students a ____ all ages are learning to b __ English, but their reasons for c ______ to study English can differ d _____ Some students, of course, only e ______ English because it is on f _______curriculum at primary or secondary g ____ , but for others, studying the h ____ reflects some kind of a i ____.

The random selection of gaps (every sixth word) is difficult to use in all circumstances. Sometimes the sixth word will be impossible to guess –or will give rise to far too many alternatives (e.g. gaps c and d above). Most test designers use a form of modified cloze to counteract this situation, trying to adhere to some kind of random distribution (e.g. making every sixth word into a blank), but using their common sense to ensure that students have a chance of filling in the gaps successfully –and thus demonstrating their knowledge of English.

TRANSFORMATION

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In transformation items students are asked to change the form of words and phrases to show their knowledge of syntax and word grammar. In the following test type they are given a sentence and then asked to produce an equivalent sentence using a given word: Rewrite the sentence so that it means the same. Use the word in bold Could I borrow five pounds, please? lend ______________________ In order to complete the item successfully, the students not only have to know the meaning of borrow and lend, but also how to use them in grammatical constructions.

A variation of this technique is designed to focus more exactly on word grammar. Here, students have to complete lines in a text using the correct form of a given word, e.g.

It was a terrifying performance.

terrify

The acrobats showed __________ no fear even though

absolute

their feats of ________ shocked the crowd into stunned silence. dare These kinds of transformations work very well as a test of the students’ underlying knowledge of grammar and vocabulary. However, the items are quite difficult to construct.

There are many other kinds of indirect test item. We can ask students to put jumbled words in order, to make correct sentences and questions. We can ask them to identify and correct mistakes or match the beginnings and ends of sentences. Our choice of test item will depend on which, if any, of these techniques we have used in our teaching since it will always be unfair to give students test items unlike anything they have seen before.

DIRECT TEST ITEMS In direct test items, we ask students to use language to do something, instead of just testing their knowledge of how the language itself works. We might ask our students to write instructions for a simple task (such as using a vending machine or assembling a shelving system) or to give an oral mini-presentation.

There is no real limit to the kinds of tasks we might ask students to perform. The following list gives some possibilities: – Reading and listening Some reading and writing test items look a bit like indirect items (e.g. when students are given multiple-choice questions about a particular word in a text, for example, or have to answer T/F questions about a particular sentence). But at other times we might ask students to choose the best summary of what they have heard or read. We

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might ask them to put a set of pictures in order as they read or listen to a story, or complete a phone message form (for a listening task) or fill out a summary form (for a reading task).

Many reading and listening tests are a blend of direct and indirect testing. We can ask students direct language –or text-focused– questions as well as testing their global understanding.

– Writing Direct tests of writing might include getting students to write leaflets based on information supplied in an accompanying text, or having them write compositions, such as narrative and discursive essays. We can ask students to write ‘transactional letters’ (that is letters replying to an advertisement, or something they have read in the paper, etc). In transactional writing we expect students to include and refer to information they are given.

– Speaking We can interview students, or we can put them in pairs and ask them to perform a number of tasks. These might include having them discuss the similarities and differences between two pictures; they might discuss how to furnish a room, or talk about any other topic we select for them. We can ask them to role-play certain situations, such as buying a ticket or asking for information in a shop, or we might ask them to talk about a picture we show them.

When designing direct test items for our students, we need to remember two crucial facts. The first is that, as with indirect tests, direct tests should have items which look like the kind of tasks students have been practising in their lessons. In other words, there is no point in giving students tasks which, because they are unfamiliar, confuse them.

The result of this will be that students cannot demonstrate properly how well they can use the language, and this will make the test worthless.

Direct test items are much more difficult to mark than indirect items. This is because unless we do something to modify this subjectivity. We will now go on to look at how this can be done.

MARKING TESTS The marking of tests is reasonably simple if the markers only have to tick boxes or individual words (though even here human error can often creep in). Things are a lot more complex, however, when we have to evaluate a more integrative piece of work.

One way of marking a piece of writing, for example, is to give it an overall score (say A or

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B, or 65%). This will be based on our experience of the level we are teaching and on our ‘gut-instinct’ reaction to what we read. This is the way that many essays are marked in various different branches of education and sometimes such marking can be highly appropriate. However, ‘gut instinct’ is a highly subjective phenomenon. Our judgment can be heavily swayed by factors we are not even conscious of. All students will remember times when they didn’t understand why they got a low mark for an essay which looked remarkably similar to one of their classmates’ higher-scoring pieces.

There are two ways of countering the danger of marker subjectivity. The first is to involve other people. When two or three people look at the same piece of work and, independently, give it a score, we can have more confidence in the evaluation of the writing than if just one person looks at it.

The other way of making the marking more objective is to use marking scales for a range of different items. If we are marking a student’s oral presentation, we might use the following scales: 0

1

2

3

4

5

Grammar Vocabulary Pronunciation Coherence Fluency This kind of scale forces us to look at our student’s speaking in more detail than is allowed by an overall impressionistic mark. It also allows for differences in individual performance: a student may get marked down on pronunciation, but score more highly on use of grammar, for example. As a result, the student’s final mark out of a total of 25 may reflect his or her ability more accurately than a one-mark impression will do. But we are still left with the problem of knowing exactly why we should give a student 2 rather than 3 for pronunciation. What exactly do students have to do to score 5 for grammar? What would make us give students O for fluency? Subjectivity is still an issue here (though it is less problematic because we are forcing ourselves to evaluate different aspects of the students’ performance).

One way of trying to make marking scales more objective is to write careful descriptions of what the different scores for each category actually represent. Here, for example, is a scale for assessing writing, which uses descriptions:

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Ideas/Content

Organisation

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Voice

Organisation is appropriate but conventional.

There is an obvious attempt at an introduction and conclusion.

Structure moves the reader smoothly thro-ugh the text.

Well organised with an inviting introduction and a satisfying closure.

Expressive, engaging, sincere tone with good sense of audience.

Writer behind the words comes through occasionally.

Effectively organised in a logical and interesting way. Has a creative and engaging introduction and conclusion.

Passionate, compelling, full of energy and commitment. Shows emotion and generates an emotional response from the reader.

Pleasant but not distinctive tone and persona. Voice is appropriate to audience and purpose.

Evident main idea with some supporting details. May have some irrelevant material, gaps in needed information.

Clear, interesting ideas enhanced by appropriate details.

Original treatment of ideas, well-developed from start to finish, focused topic with relevant, strong supporting detail.

3 Satisfactory

4 Strong

5 Exemplary

Voice may be mechanical, artificial or inappropriate. Writer seems to lack a sense of audience.

An effort has been made to organise the piece, but it may be a ‘list’ of events. The introduction and conclusion are not well developed.

Some attempt at support but main topic may be too general or confused by irrelevant details.

2 Developing

Writing tends to be flat or stiff.

Style does not suit audience or purpose.

A lack of structure makes this piece hard to follow. Lead and conclusion may be weak or nonexistent.

Writing lacks a central idea; development is minimal Or nonexistent, wanders.

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Word choice

Sentence Fluency

Conventions

The piece has an easy flow and rhythm with a good variety of sentence length and structures.

Generally, the writing is free from errors,but there may be occasional errors in more complex words and sentence constructions.

High degree of craftsmanship; control of rhythm and flow so the writing sounds almost musical to read aloud. Variation in sentence length and forms adds interest and rhythm.

The writing contains few, if any, errors in conventions.

The writer shows control over a wide range of conventions for this grade level.

A marking scale for writing

Word choice is functional and appropriate with some attempt at description; may overuse adjectives and adverbs.

Carefully chosen words convey strong, fresh, vivid images consistently throughout the piece.

Occasional errors are noticeable but minor. The writer uses conventions with enough skill to make the paper easily readable.

The writing shows some general sense of rhythm and flow, but many sentences follow a similar structure.

Words may be correct but mundane; writing uses patterns of conversation rather than book language and structure.

The writing suffers from more frequent errors, inappropriate to the grade level, but a reader can still follow it.

Many similar sentence beginnings and patterns with little sense of rhythm; sounds choppy to read aloud. May have many short sentences or run-ons.

Word choice is monotonous; may be repetitious or immature.

Errors in conventions make the writing difficult to follow. The writer seems to know some conventions, but confuse many more.

No real sentence sense - may ramble or sound choppy to read aloud.

Limited vocabulary range.

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This framework suggests that the students’ writing will be marked fairly and objectively.

But it is extremely cumbersome, and for teachers to use it well, they will need training and familiarity with the different descriptions provided here.

When marking tests –especially progress tests we design ourselves– we need to strike a balance between totally subjective one-mark-only evaluation on the one hand, and overcomplexity in marking-scale frameworks on the other.

DESIGNING TESTS When we write tests for our classes, we need to bear in mind the characteristics of good tests.

We will think very carefully about how practical our tests will be in terms of time (including how long it will take us to mark them).

When writing progress tests, it is important to try to work out what we want to achieve, especially since the students’ results in a progress test will have an immediate effect on their motivation. As a consequence, we need to think about how difficult we want the test to be. Is it designed so that only the best students will pass, or should everyone get a good mark? Some test designers, especially for public exams, appear to have an idea of how many students should get a high grade, what percentage of examinees should pass satisfactorily, and what an acceptable failing percentage would look like.

Progress tests should not work like that, however. Their purpose is only to see how well the students have learnt what they have been taught. Our intention, as far as possible, should be to allow the students to show us what they know and can do, not what they don’t know and can’t do.

When designing tests for our classes, it is helpful to make a list of the things we want to test. This list might include grammar items (e.g. the present continuous) or direct tasks (e.g. sending an email to arrange a meeting). When we have made our lists, we can decide how much importance to give to each item. We can then reflect these different levels of importance either by making specific elements take up most of the time (or space) on the test, or by weighting the marks to reflect the importance of a particular element. In other words, we might give a writing task double the marks of an equivalent indirect test item to reflect our belief in the importance of direct test types.

When we have decided what to include, we write the test. However, it is important that we do not just hand it straight over to the students to take. It will be much more sensible to show the test to colleagues (who frequently notice things we had not thought of) first. If possible, it is a good idea to try the test out with students of roughly the same level as the ones it is designed for. This will show us if there are any items which are more difficult (or easier) than we thought, and it will highlight any items which are unclear –or which cause unnecessary problems.

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Finally, once we have given the test and marked it, we should see if we need to make any changes to it if we are to use some or all of it again.

It is not always necessary to write our own tests, however. Many coursebooks now include test items or test generators which can be used instead of home-grown versions.

However, such tests may not take account of the particular situation or learning experiences of our own classes.

CONCLUSIONS: In this we have •

discussed the different reasons that students take tests, and detailed the differences between placement tests, progress tests, achievement tests, public examinations and proficiency tests.

•

said that good tests are both valid and reliable - and that face validity (‘looking good’) is also important.

•

mentioned the fact that test design may be influenced by physical constraints (e.g. time and money).

•

talked about the washback effect which can sometimes persuade teachers to work only on exam preparation with their students while ignoring general language development. We have said this is not usually a good thing. We talked about the effect of success or failure in tests on students’ motivation.

•

looked at examples of different test types and items including discrete test items (one thing at a time) and integrative test items (where students use a variety of language and skills); direct test items (where students are asked to do things with the language - e.g. writing a report) and indirect test items (where they are tested about the language - e.g. grammar tests).

•

discussed the issue of subjectivity when it comes to marking tests and shown how marking scales can counter such subjectivity - though if they are over-detailed they may become cumbersome.

•

said that when preparing tests, we need to decide what we want to test and how important each part of a test is in relation to the other parts. We said that teachers should show their tests to colleagues and try them out before using them ‘for real’.

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CLASSROOM-BASED ASSESSMENT* Geoff Brindley WHAT IS ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION? Assessment Chapelle and Brindley (2002, p. 267) define assessment as “the act of collecting information and making judgments on a language learner’s knowledge of a language and ability to use it.” Assessment is thus concerned with individual student learning. The term evaluation, on the other hand, is often used in the broader sense of program evaluation, and refers to the process of collecting information and making judgments on the quality of the total language program. This involves a consideration of a range of elements in addition to student learning, such as teacher and student attitudes, teaching methods and materials, as well as administrative systems and resources.

The two most important qualities of assessment are validity and reliability. A valid assessment is one which provides information on the ability we want to assess and nothing else. If we wanted to find out about a person’s conversational ability in English, for example, we would not ask them to read out a list of English words, since reading aloud would not be considered by most people to be part of conversational ability. Validity also concerns the extent to which the uses that are made of assessment are appropriate. To continue the previous example, using the results of an assessment of reading words aloud as an indicator of conversational ability would be an invalid use of that test. Similarly, in the context of classroom assessment, if we wanted to find out how well learners had mastered the vocabulary that they had covered in class, it would not be appropriate to use a test containing vocabulary they had not been taught.

Reliability refers to the consistency with which our assessment tools measure language ability. An assessment is reliable when there is little difference in learners’ scores or in judges’ ratings across different occasions or different judges. If we use a test to assess a learner’s ability on Monday, we would want it to yield similar results on Tuesday. Similarly, if two teachers were assessing the same piece of student writing, we would hope that they would be in fairly close agreement on the quality of the performance.

*

From: Practical English Language Teaching. Numan, David (2003). McGraw-Hill/Contemporary. New York.

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Reflection

1. In some educational settings, the quality of language programs is judged solely on the basis of students’ test scores. Is this fair?

2. A Teacher wants to assess the listening comprehension of her advanced ESL/EFL class. She plays them a radio news bulletin and asks them to write a short paragraph outlining the main points, Is this a valid assessment of listening ability? Why or why not?

Evaluation Evaluation is a broader concept than assessment. It involves collecting and interpreting information (which will usually include assessment data) for making decisions about the effectiveness of a particular program. Language program evaluation may be carried out for a variety of reasons. Often the government or an external funding body will want to know whether the program is providing “value for money” and will commission a team of consultants to conduct an evaluation. Sometimes an institution might conduct its own internal evaluation in order to identify any problems with its administrative and educational systems, with a view to improving them. However, teachers are usually concerned not so much with system level concerns such as these, but rather with the question of whether or not their course was successful on its own terms. In particular they will want to find out learners’ opinions of the course.

Action Imagine you were a teacher and you were asked by the school you work in to provide evidence of the quality of the program you were teaching. Write down a list of the information that you would want to collect.

Quality, like proficiency, can be defined in many ways and for this reason it is not easy to list indicators of quality. Nevertheless, if we think about the elements that might contribute to a program’s success from teachers’ and learners’ perspectives, then we can begin to identify some of the factors that we would need to take into account in determining whether our course worked. These might include: Student factors Student learning outcomes

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Course factors Content Atmosphere Materials and learning activities Assessment Teaching/classroom management Institutional factors Facilities Resources The evaluation could also include a self-evaluation element for students and teachers which provides the opportunity for them to reflect on the extent to which the course has met their own goals and expectations.

BACKGROUND TO ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION Beliefs about the nature of language proficiency have changed somewhat over the years and language tests have reflected these changes. From the 1950s to about the mid1970s, it was thought that language proficiency involved mastery of separate parts of the linguistic system such as the sound system, grammar, and vocabulary, so these were the elements that were tested. Typical test items that test candidates encountered might have looked something like the following: Discriminating between sounds Choose the word that contains the same sound as that underlined in the first word. glove

a. top

b. move

c. bus

d. over

Grammar I’ve been living here ……. ……. ten years a. since

b. during

c. for

d. while

Vocabulary Choose the word which is closest in meaning to the word on the left: apprehensive

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a. obvious

b. worried

c. near

d. ready

Didáctica del inglés I

The tests that were used during this period were known as discrete-point tests because they tested one linguistic item at a time. In order to make them as reliable as possible, the designers included large numbers of items and used machine-scorable “objective” types of items such as multiple choice.

Although these kinds of tests were highly reliable and efficient to administer, they could only assess a person’s knowledge of isolated elements and thus did not provide much useful information about the test-takers’ ability to use the language in the real world. Applied linguists and language test developers, therefore, began to reassess the notion of language ability and to try to spell out explicitly what happens when people use language for communicative purposes. One of the first attempts to do this in a systematic way was

by Canale and Swain (1980) who proposed a model of communicative competence that identified the different kinds of abilities that were required to communicate appropriately in a particular social context. More recently, Bachman and Palmer (1996) have proposed a detailed framework for describing communicative language ability that includes language competence (including grammatical knowledge as well as knowledge of how to use language appropriately in context) and strategic competence (strategies that enable language learners to create and understand discourse). Bachman and Palmer (1996, p.

57) provide a detailed guide for describing the characteristics of the language tasks that learners have to carry out in real life so that assessment tasks can be designed to reflect these characteristics.

This principle of matching assessment tasks to real-world language use has been increasingly applied to language test construction in recent years. In contrast to the rather artificial items that were used in earlier tests, many tests nowadays include authentic-looking texts and present the learner with tasks similar to those they would encounter in using the language for communication. Thus, some of the commonly used tests of English for academic purposes (EAP) require candidates to demonstrate the language skills they would need as a student in an English-speaking university, such as writing an essay in which they present and defend their opinion, or listening to a lecture in which they have to identify the lecturer’s main points. Similarly, the assessment procedures that are used for certifying foreign language teachers’ proficiency in the United States include an oral interview in which candidates have to converse with a native speaker of the language they are preparing to teach.

In the interview, candidates might have to carry out a range of language functions that could include giving personal information, describing people or activities, telling a story, giving opinions, and speculating about future events. This emphasis on reallife language is also evident in classroom assessment. Assessment activities used by teachers today will typically include a range of performance tasks that require learners to engage in purposeful communication that is relevant to their needs.

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PRINCIPLES OF CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION 1. Make sure that the kind of assessment you use is appropriate for its intended purpose.

In language programs, assessment is used for a variety of purposes. The main ones are: – to give learners feedback on their progress and to motivate them to study – to certify a person’s ability or determine their suitability for selection – to demonstrate achievement to external parties such as parents, school boards or government funding authorities (Broadfoot, 1987)

It is very important to ensure that the type of assessment you use is appropriate for its purpose. The misuse of assessment can have quite detrimental effects on learners.

Consider these comments from students, quoted by Shohamy (1985, p. 9): We spent ten lessons conjugating the past tense but on the test there were only two conjugations.

I don’t see the connection between the test and my knowledge. Otherwise how can I explain the fact that I get good grades on English tests, but last week, when I met an American, I couldn’t say anything in English? How come we never get to speak on tests?

These students cannot see the relationship between what they are supposed to be learning and what they are being tested on. Thus, these tests, which are intended to be motivational tools, are having quite the opposite effect.

Reflection Think of the tests you have taken during your educational career. Can you remember ever taking a test that was not appropriate for its intended purposes or target group? If so, what effect did this experience have on you?

2. Make sure your assessment tasks are based on an explicit statement of the ability you are assessing and are clearly related to learning outcomes.

Before we can assess something, we have to be able to describe it, so the starting point for any language assessment is a statement that describes the ability we want to assess. If we want to assess something called speaking ability, for example, we have to be able to specify what the components of this ability are. This is called construct definition. A construct is an abstract concept (in this case speaking proficiency) that cannot be observed directly.

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When they are designing a proficiency test, the first thing that test designers do is to write what are called test specifications which define the construct that is to be tested and describe the kinds of tasks that will be used. Making the construct explicit in this way gives the designers a means of verifying that the tasks they construct actually test what they are supposed to be testing.

The same principle applies in the case of classroom assessment. However, the starting point for planning classroom assessment will usually be a statement of student learning outcomes rather than a theoretical construct definition. Since the main aim of assessment is usually to establish the extent to which outcomes are achieved, it is very important to ensure that assessment tasks are clearly related to the course or unit outcomes. An example of how this can be done is shown in Figure 1. You can see how the broad learning outcome (here it is called a “profile sentence”), greet someone, is broken down into more specific behaviors that are involved in greeting someone (performance criteria). To determine whether or not someone has achieved the outcome, the teacher needs to devise an assessment task that requires learners to demonstrate these abilities.

PROFILE SENTENCE: Greet Someone Performance criteria (the student has demonstrated the ability to): Use appropriate forms of address Use a range of greetings and responses Recognize and convey relationship and attitude in a short encounter Consistency Demonstrate ability in at least three contexts with variables such as time, place, relationship.

Constraints Greetings should be both initiated and responded to.

Examples of contexts As member of a group, with neighbors, shopkeepers, friends, colleagues, officials, teachers Examples of appropriate evidence Oral demonstration Figure 1. Performance criteria for a proficiency exam (Royal Society of Arts, 1988)

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Reflection What abilities do you think would be involved in the following Profile Sentence?

Order a meal in a restaurant.

3. Involve learners in assessment Classroom assessment is part of the learning process, so it should be done with learners, not to them. Before assessment takes place, it is important to make sure that learners know why they are being assessed, what the results of the assessment mean, and how the results are going to be used. In addition, the instructions for doing the task need to be made clear. In some cases it might be necessary to provide these in the learners’ first language. The criteria that will be used to assess their performance also need to be explained. If different levels of achievement are possible for a particular task, learners should be told what these levels mean and what is considered to be a satisfactory level of performance.

If the purpose of an assessment is to provide diagnostic feedback, then this feedback needs to be provided in a form-either verbal or written-that is easy for the learners to understand and use. For example, learners often want explicit feedback on their written errors and advice on how to proceed in order to address the problems they are having. Conferences involving either one-to-one or group discussion between teacher and students are one way in which this can happen.

4. Use a variety of assessment methods In recent years, teachers have become increasingly dissatisfied with using “one-off” tests to assess classroom achievement. A test is a finite event that happens in a short time and by definition, the type and amount of material that can be included is limited.

In addition, some learners simply do not like taking tests and perform below their real ability. For these reasons, assessment researchers in recent years have stressed the importance of using a variety of assessment methods in addition to tests. Not only does this show development over time, but it also gives the teacher a richer picture of learners’ abilities in a range of different contexts.

CLASSROOM TECHNIQUES AND TASKS Different types of assessment are used at various points throughout a language program for various purposes. These are summarized below.

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Precourse assessment At the beginning of a course of instruction, we will usually want to ascertain the learners’ ability to use a language for particular communicative goals, regardless of any instruction they may have had previously. For this purpose we would use a proficiency test which would give us a general idea of their level of ability so that the course can be pitched at the appropriate level of difficulty. This could be either a commercial test or one that is developed “in-house” by a particular institution. A proficiency test may also be used as a placement test to sort learners into groups of similar proficiency level or as a selection test to ascertain whether a person has sufficient language proficiency to begin a particular course of study or to practice a given profession or occupation. Even though most teachers will not be responsible for the construction of proficiency tests, it is important that they are able to interpret and act on the information that such tests provide.

The results of proficiency assessment may be interpreted in two ways. First, learners’ scores or grades can be compared with each other (e.g., “Maria scored 90 out of 100/in the top 10 percent”). This is known as a norm-referenced interpretation. Alternatively, their performance may be compared with an external standard or criterion which has already been defined, such as a particular course objective or descriptor of a performance (e.g., “can give simple personal information”). This is known as a criterion-referenced interpretation.

Criterion-referenced reporting provides test users with qualitative information about what a test taker can do with the language. For example, a learner who is assessed at Threshold Level on the framework used by the Council of Europe for describing language proficiency: Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, and so on. Can deal with most situations likely to arise while traveling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple, connected text on topics that are familiar or of personal interest.

Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes, and ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans.

(North, 2000, p. 28)

In-course assessment Once learning is under way, we will want to find out how much a student has learned in a particular unit of instruction. For this purpose, we would use some form of achievement assessment. Achievement assessment may be based either on the specific content that has been covered or on the course objectives. Hughes (1989) considers that the latter approach is greatly preferred since he believes that assessing mastery of specific content may not tell us whether the objectives have actually been achieved. As we have seen, the major advantage of basing assessment on the course objectives is that there is a very close link between assessment and instruction: what is taught is what is assessed and what is assessed is what is reported. This allows teachers, learners, and external parties such as parents or school administrators to see to what extent the intended outcomes of the course have been achieved.

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An informal way of keeping track of progress over a period of time is by giving progress achievement tests such as short weekly tests based on the topics, themes, or structures that have been covered during that week. The results of these tests can be used to give students feedback on their progress in relation to the course objectives and to help them identify any areas where they might need to do more work. Used in this way, the tests have a diagnostic function. Another important purpose of progress achievement tests is to motivate learners by allowing them the opportunity to demonstrate what they have learned. For this reason, they tend to be designed so that learners achieve high scores.

In addition to tests, there are a variety of other non-test procedures that can be used to gather ongoing information on learners’ progress and achievement, including systematic observation, conferences between the teacher and the student, and self- and peer assessment. One method that has been shown to be particularly useful is the portfolio. A portfolio contains a collection of student work selected by the student that demonstrates their efforts, progress, or achievement over a period of time. Portfolios may contain samples of classroom tests, samples of writing, audiotapes, or videotapes of oral performances.

End-of-course assessment At the end of a period of instruction teachers will usually need to report on learners’ achievement to external authorities (for example at the end of a school term). This is known as summative assessment. For this purpose, final achievement tests would be used. These usually resemble formal tests and may be constructed by external educational bodies or by teachers within an institution with special responsibilities for assessment.

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION IN THE CLASSROOM In this section we will look at some examples of ways in which students’ proficiency and achievement can be assessed at various points throughout the program for the range of purposes that we have identified. We will also consider how learners themselves can be involved in the assessments.

Proficiency assessment at course entry As we have seen, the results of some proficiency tests are reported in the form of criterion-referenced descriptors of different levels of ability. Although these descriptors are a useful indicator of a learner’s overall proficiency, they tend to be rather broad and general and thus are of limited value in course planning. However, general proficiency descriptors can be helpful in sensitizing learners to what is involved in learning a language, particularly if they are couched as self-assessment (SA) statements, as in the following example from Oskarsson (1980):

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SPEAKING I speak the language as well as a well-educated native,

I speak the language fluently and for the most part correctly. I have a large vocabulary so I seldom have to hesitate or search for words, On the other hand I am not completely fluent in situations in which I have had no practice with the language.

5 4.5 4 3-5

I can make myself understood in most everyday situations, but my language is not without mistakes and sometimes I cannot find the words for what 1 want to say. It is difficult for me to express myself in situations in which I have had no opportunity to practice the language, I can give a short summary of general information that I have received in my native language.

3 2.5

I can make myself understood in simple everyday situations, for example asking and giving simple directions, asking and telling the time, asking and talking about simpler aspects of work and interests. My vocabulary is rather limited, so it is only by a great deal of effort that I can use the Language in new and unexpected situations.

2 1.5

I can just about express very simple things concerning my own situation and my nearest surroundings. for example asking and answering very simple questions about the time, food, housing and directions. I only have a command of very simple words and phrases.

1 0.5

I do not speak the language at all.

0

Figure 2. Self-assessment statements for speaking skills.

Action If you speak another language, rate yourself on the speaking scale (Figure 2). To what extent do you feel your proficiency was adequately represented by the descriptions on the scale? Add any features of your proficiency that you think are missing.

Asking learners at the beginning of the course to self-assess where they are on this type of scale and the level they wish to achieve can be a useful way of involving them early in the specification of their own language learning goals and objectives, thus encouraging self-direction. SA can also be used as a placement tool. Learners can be asked to say how well they can carry out the types of tasks that they will encounter in the syllabus.

This provides information that the teacher can use in course design and also encourages learners to reflect on their learning needs, goals and objectives.

Commentary The notion of SA may be unfamiliar and even threatening to some learners, and in some cases, it may take some time before they under-stand the rationale for

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self-assessment. In this regard, one of the clear messages that emerges from research into SA is that it needs to be introduced in a carefully staged way so that learners know why it is being used and how it can help them learn better. Before asking learners to use SA tools, then, the teacher needs to spend some time discussing the aims of self-assessment, its advantages, and ways in which learners might become involved. This could be done at the beginning of a course in conjunction with proficiency assessment using a SA scale such as the one above. The learners also need to have the opportunity to develop skills in organizing their learning, reflecting on their achievements, describing their own and their peers’ performances, and making assessment decisions. Some people maintain that a parallel learner training program is necessary if SA is to be systematically incorporated into the program. Given the need for this supplementary component, it may be difficult to incorporate SA into language programs in which hours of instruction are limited.

ONGOING ACHIEVEMENT ASSESSMENT Observation Observation is one of the most widely used methods of keeping track of learners’ progress in the classroom. Teachers commonly observe learners’ performance in the classroom on a day-to-day basis and follow this up with some kind of diagnostic feedback, either verbal or written, which alerts the learner to his or her strengths or weaknesses.

Used in this way, observation is an important part of formative assessment, the purpose of which is to inform and improve the learning process.

One of the most commonly used formats for observation-based assessment and monitoring is the checklist. In its most basic form, this consists of a grid containing the learner’s name, the task or objective which is to be attempted, and a series of boxes which allow the teacher to note whether or not the task has been successfully achieved. In some cases, rather than a simple yes/no judgment on achievement, there is a simple rating scale describing different levels of attainment in relation to the task or objective that is the object of instruction. Some formats also allow for the inclusion of the learner’s and/or their peers’ assessment of their own achievement in addition to the teacher’s.

Action Design a similar checklist for monitoring learners’ achievement of language competencies in a beginning level unit on shopping (you will need to think about what competencies are involved). Include five competencies.

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Name …………………….………...

Class ……………………..

TEPR Entry Date ………………….

Social Security N.º ………

Key : 0 - Needs Improvement 1 - Communicative/Satisfactory 2 - Good 3 - Very Good Date

Date

1. State previous occupation(s) in simple terms.

2. Ask and answer basic question about work shifts, starting date, specific hours and pay day.

3. Read want ads and identify skills needed for a job.

4. Describe previous work experience, job skills, qualifications, and training in detail, including degree of ability.

5. State own ability to use tool, equipment, and machines.

6. Follow simple step-by-step oral instructions to begin and perform a task which is demonstrated, including simple classroorn instructions.

7. Ask if the task Is done properly.

8. Ask simple clarification questions about routine Job task and instructions.

9. Ask supervisor/co-worker for help.

10. Respond to simple oral warning/basic commands about safety.

11. Interpret common warnings/safety signs at work site.

12. Give simple excuses for lateness or absence in person.

13. Report work progress and completion of tasks.

14. Follow simple two-step oral instructions on the job.

15. Find out about the location of common materials and facilities at the work site.

16. Follow simple oral instructions which contain references to places or objects in the immediate work area.

17. Modify a task based on changes in instructions.

18. Respond to supervisor’s comments about quality of work on the job, including mistakes, working too slowly, and incomplete work.

19. Give specific reasons for sickness, absence, or lateness.

20. Report specific problems encountered in completing a task.

Figure 3. Student competency checklist.

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Commentary The checklist format, although obviously fairly basic, is simple to use and allows for achievement of tasks or objectives to be informally and rapidly monitored by the teacher either on an individual or group basis. Developing strategies and skills can also be noted and monitored. In addition, it serves as a record which can be used by learners to keep track of their own learning progress and difficulties and to demonstrate achievement of objectives to other people. The performance levels that are used, however, tend to be rather vague and impressionistic (e.g., “good”) and might need to be made more precise if the information had to be conveyed to other people.

DEVELOPING TASKS FOR ASSESSING ACHIEVEMENT: RATING SCALES As we have seen, assessing language production requires the elicitation of a performance and then a judgment on that performance. In the case of speaking and writing skills, this judgment will often be carried out using a rating scale that describes and quantifies the key features of the performance, as in the previous example from Oskarsson (1980).

The scale descriptors may be quite general (e.g., “Can handle most social situations with facility.”) or they may relate to a particular area of language use (e.g., “Can write a wide range of business correspondence with confidence and competence.”). Scales can even be developed to describe a specific task (e.g., “Provides all/most/some information.”). It is generally inappropriate to use a scale that has been designed for one purpose (e.g., a general proficiency scale) for another purpose (e.g., to describe achievement of a particular classroom objective).

Now look at the cartoon in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Prompt for picture description task.

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Reflection Study the Extracts 1 and 2 below which were collected from two adult ESL learners doing a picture description task. Which learner do you think is the more proficient?

Why? Extract 1 Learner 1 Ze boy gives ze...money ze man who selled ze balloon...and ze man...give him ze change...and ze balloon..and ze boy...runs with three balloons to his mother. He’s very exciting about zis...and ze boy gives ze rest of ze money his mother. But he...ze boy is too light for ze balloon and he goes up in the air.

Extract 2 Learner 2 Dey boy wants a balloon...so...de boy...told to grandma “I want a balloon” so you gave me some money and,..er...de baby went to...er...er...salesman ...and...de boy told him “I wanna three balloon” and den...”How muchee?... er...um...um...de salesman gave him some changee...and den...balloon. He’s got a balloon now...and...he carne back here...um...and den...he gave grandmother some changeee...give...um...gave her...have her...er...de boy flew...flew up.

Commentary Interestingly, when I gave a group of ESL teachers this exercise, they did not agree in their rankings. Some of them thought that Learner 1 was more proficient because she was able to explain precisely why the boy flew away (“the boy is too light for the balloon”). However, others thought that Learner 2 was better because in their view she provided more detail, had a wider range of vocabulary and better control of grammar (note her consistent use of the past tense, even though in this case the historic present would normally be used).

What criteria would we use, then, to rate these performances? The ones that this group of teachers carne up with were as follows: •

Overall communicative effectiveness (task fulfillment)

•

Fluency

•

Vocabulary

•

Grammatical accuracy

•

Pronunciation, intonation and stress

If you look at the criteria, it becomes clear that the reason for the disagreement between the teachers can be traced back to the emphasis that they give to the different features

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of performance. Some teachers were focusing on the first criterion, overall communicative effectiveness (also called task fulfillment), which concerns the learner’s ability to get the message across, while others were more concerned with the learner’s mastery of the language code in terms of grammar and vocabulary.

Once the key features of the performance have been identified, it is relatively straightforward to turn them into a rating scale. But in order to be able to quantify the performances we need to add a scoring system. The scale might then look like this: Overall communicative effectiveness

5

4

3

2

1

0

Fluency

5

4

3

2

1

0

Vocabulary

5

4

3

2

1

0

Grammatical accuracy

5

4

3

2

1

0

Pronunciation, intonation and stress

5

4

3

2

1

0

Figure 5. Criteria scale for rating speakers If some criteria are deemed to be more important than others, different weightings can be given to each of the criteria. If the teachers were able to agree that communicative effectiveness was more important than, say, pronunciation, this could be reflected in the marking scheme by giving the former a weighting of, say, 30 percent and the latter a weighting of 10 percent.

Because rating is quite a subjective process, it is important to ensure that people who use rating scales regularly are provided with training in how to interpret and use them. This is particularly necessary when the results of the assessment carry high stakes (such as selection or entry).

Reflection Of the performance criteria in the rating scale above, which do you think would be the most difficult for raters to agree on? Why? Action Using the model (Figure 5), try to create a similar rating scale for the outcome statement: Can give an oral presentation. You may need to change some of the performance criteria.

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CONCLUSION In this chapter, I have briefly traced the development of language assessment from the time when it was concerned with people’s mastery of isolated elements of the language to its present focus on using language to communicate in the real world. We have looked at the different purposes for which language assessment is carried out in language programs and the kinds of tools that can be used to assess proficiency and achievement.

One of the main themes running through the chapter has been the need for a close link between assessment and teaching. Classroom assessment is a means of informing and improving learning-if you teach what you assess and you assess what you teach, then both learners and teachers know what has been achieved and where they need to go next.

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TYPES OF TEST ELICITATION TECHNIQUES* Penny Ur FORMAL AND INFORMAL TESTING Tests in the classroom may be of conventional type, where the testees are told in advance what they need to know, what the criteria are for success, and so on. But they may also be informal: a homework assignment may in fact function as a test if the teacher’s main aim in giving it is to find out whether the learners have learned some language point or not; questions asked during the routine give-and-take of classroom interaction may serve the same purpose, as may some textbook exercises.

ANALYSING ELICITATION TECHNIQUES Tests, whether formal or informal, utilize one or more of a large number of elicitation techniques. Some of the more common of these are listed in Box; more comprehensive taxonomies can be found in, for example, Hughes, 1989.

Which you will choose to use for a certain testing purpose will probably depend mainly on the following considerations: 1. What will it tell me about the testee’s knowledge? In other words, for what type of knowledge might it be a valid test?

2. How easy is it to compose?

3. How easy is it to administer?

4. How easy is it to mark?

*Ur, Penny (2007) A course in language teaching. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge

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BOX: ELICITATION TECHNIQUES 1. Questions and answers. Simple questions, very often following reading, or as part of an interview; may require short or long answers: What is the (family) relationship between David Copperfield and Mr Murdstone?

2. True/false. A statement is given which is to be marked true or false. This may also be given as a question, in which case the answer is yes or no.

Addis Ababa is the capital of Egypt.

Is Addis Ababa the capital of Egypt?

3. Multiple-choice. The question consists of a stem and a number of options (usually four), from which the testee has to select the right one.

A person who writes books is called a) a booker.

b) an editor.

c) an author.

d) a publisher.

4. Gap-filling and completion. The testee has to complete a sentence by filling a gap or adding something. A gap may or may not be signalled by a blank or dash; the word to be inserted may or may not be given or hinted at.

They (go) to Australia in 1980.

Or They _______________ to Australia in 1980. (go) Or A _____________ is someone who writes books.

Or I’ve seen that film, (never) 5. Matching. The testee is faced with two groups of words, phrases or sentences; each item in the first group has to be linked to a different item in the second. large unhappy a lot little

small many big sad

6. Dictation. The tester dictates a passage or set of words; the testee writes them down.

7. Cloze. Words are omitted from a passage at regular intervals (for example, every seventh word). Usually the first two or three lines are given with no gaps.

The family are all fine, though Leo had a bad bout of flu last week. He spent most of it lying on the sofa watching ______________ when he wasn’t sleeping!

His exams ____________ in two weeks, so he is ____________ about missing school, but has managed to ___________ quite a lot in spite _____________ feeling iII.

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8. Transformation, A sentence is given; the testee has to change it according to some given instruction.

Put into the past tense: I go to school by bus.

9. Rewriting. A sentence is given; the testee rewrites it, incorporating a given change of expression, but preserving the basic meaning.

He came to the meeting in spite of his illness. Although ....

10. Translation. The testee is asked to translate expressions, sentences or entire passages to or from the target language.

11. Essay. The testee is given a topic, such as ‘Childhood memories’, and asked to write an essay of a specific length.

12. Monologue. The testee is given a topic or question and asked to speak about it for a minute or two. © Cambridge University Press 1996

TASK: CRITICAL STUDY OF ELICITATION TECHNIQUES Try applying the above considerations to the set of elicitation techniques shown in Box My own comments follow.

COMMENTS 1. Questions and answers These can be used to test almost anything. The more ‘closed’ the question is (that is, the fewer the possible options for correct answers), the easier the item will be to mark.

It is fairly easy to compose and grade closed-ended questions; more open, thoughtprovoking ones are more difficult, but may actually test better.

2. True/false This does not directly test writing or speaking abilities: only listening or reading. It rnay be used to test aspects of language such as vocabulary, grammar, content of a reading or listening passage. It is fairly easy to design; it is also easy to administer, whether orally or in writing, and to mark.

3. Multiple-choice This may be used for the same testing purposes as true/false items; it does test rather more thoroughly since it offers more optional answers and is obviously very easy to

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mark. It is administered more conveniently through writing; but note that since the reading of the question-and-options is fairly time-consuming, the process of comprehension of the actual question items may take more time and effort than the point ostensibly tested, which raises problems of validity. Another important problem is that good multiple-choice questions are surprisingly difficult to design: they often come out ambiguous, or with no clear right answer, or with their solutions over-obvious. They are to be approached with caution!

4. Gap-filling and completion This usually tests grammar or vocabulary, as in the examples. It is tedious to compose, though not so difficult as multiple-choice; it is more easily administered in writing than in speech; the marking is usually simple. You may need to be aware that there is more than one possible right answer.

5. Matching This usually tests vocabulary, and is rather awkward to administer orally: thus it is best presented written on the board or on paper, though responses may be either oral or in writing. Items can be time-consuming and difficult to compose, and again, there may be alternative ‘right’ answers to any particular item. Answers are fairly easily checked.

6. Dictation This mainly tests spelling, perhaps punctuation, and, perhaps surprisingly on the face of it, listening comprehension: people can only usually write words down accurately from dictation if they understand them. It does not, however, test other writing skills or speech, and involves very little reading. It may supply some information on testees’ passive knowledge of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. It is very easy to prepare and administer; it is relatively easy to mark, though there may be a problem deciding how much weight to attribute to different mistakes.

7. Cloze This tests (intensive) reading, spelling, and to some extent knowledge of vocabulary and grammar. It can be adapted to ‘target’ specific language items, by, for example, omitting all the verbs (in which case it is not, strictly speaking, ‘cloze’, but rather ‘gapfilling’). It is fairly easy to prepare and administer. Marking can be tricky: you may find it difficult sometimes to decide if a specific item is ‘acceptable’ or not.

8. Transformation This item is relatively easy to design, administer and mark, but its validity may be suspect. It tests the ability of the testee to transform grammatical structures, which is

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not the same as testing grammar: a testee may perform well on transformation items without knowing the meaning of the target structure or how to use it in context.

Marking is fairly straightforward.

9. Rewriting This tests the same sort of thing as transformation, but is likely to reflect more thorough knowledge of the target items, since it involves paraphrasing the entire meaning of a sentence rather than transforming a particular item. It is, however, more difficult to compose, and the marking may be more subjective. It is, as its name suggests, usually done in writing.

10. Translation A technique which, at the time of writing, is for various reasons rather unpopular, but in my opinion undeservedly so. In a monolingual class whose teacher also speaks the learners’ mother tongue, the translation of a ‘bit’ of language to or from the target language can give very quick and reliable information on what the testee does or does not know, particularly when it involves entire units of meaning (phrases, sentences) within a known context. Translation items are also relatively easy to compose –even improvise, in an informal test– and administer, in either speech or writing.

Marking may sometimes be more difficult, but not prohibitively so.

11. Essay This is a good test of general writing abilities. It is relatively easy to provide a topic and tell the class to write an essay about it but marking is extremely difficult and time-consuming. It must be clear in advance, both to you and to the students, how much emphasis you are going to lay on language forms, such as spelling, grammar, punctuation, and how much on aspects of content, such as interest and originality of ideas, effectiveness of expression, organization.

12. Monologue This tests oral fluency in ‘long turns’ –something not everyone can do in their mother tongue! It also tests overall knowledge of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. To choose a topic and allot it is not so difficult; to assess is very difficult indeed, demanding concentration and a very clear set of criteria and weighting system.

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DESIGNING A TEST In this part you are asked to design your own test. This should be for a learner population you know: a class you teach or have taught, or the kind of class you have in the past been a member of yourself. Ideally, of course, the test should be one that can be integrated into your own teaching programme with your own class, and that you will have a chance to administer in practice.

The material to be tested should, similarly, be part of a syllabus and teaching programme you are familiar with: perhaps a section of a coursebook, or certain elements of a set curriculum.

TASK: DESIGNING A TEST Stage 1: Preparation Prepare your test. It is a good idea to list in writing all the material that you want your test to cover: you can then refer back to the list during and after the test-writing to see if you have included all you intended.

Stage 2: Performance If possible, administer your test to a class of learners; if not, ask colleagues to try doing it themselves.

Stage 3: Feedback Look at how your test was done, and ask the testees how they felt about it.

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CLASSROOM TESTS* Adrian Doff WHAT SHOULD WE TEST? We can test language (to find out what students have learnt): - grammar - vocabulary - spelling - pronunciation We can test skills (to find out what students can do): - listening - reading - speaking - writing Which of these are the most important for your students? Which are the easiest to test?

Imagine you are testing students to find out these things: 1. Can they follow street directions?

2. Can they form the past simple tense correctly?

3. Can they write a few sentences about their family?

4. Do they know common words for rooms and furniture?

5. Can they understand a simple description of their town?

Which main area would each test focus on?

Think of five questions like these about your own students.

Testing receptive skills Read this text, and answer the questions.

*

Doff, Adrian. (2002) Teach english: a training course for teachers. Cambridge University Press. New York.

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The dagona tree, which is common in the dry regions of Africa, has an unusual appearance. The fully-grown dagona is about twenty feet tall and has a thin trunk, about nine inches across.

The trunk is bare for most of its height and the spiky branches, which have many small leaves, stand out from the top of the trunk, giving the tree the appearance of a large brush stuck in the ground.

The dagona tree has many uses. In October it produces large, round fruit with yellow flesh inside which can be eaten raw or made into a refreshing drink. The flesh can also be dried and made into flour. The outer skin of the fruit can be used for making glue; first it is dried, then the skin is pounded and mixed with water to make the glue. The bark of the tree is made up of fibres of great strength which are used to make ropes. And the spiky branches can be hollowed out and used as musical pipes.

(Fictional description based on a text from Reading for a purpose Book 1: N.J.H. Grant and S.O. Unoh)

A. True or false?

Look at the following statements. Write T for true, F for false, and DK (don’t know) if you can’t tell from the text. a) The dagona tree grows in Africa. b) The dagona is common in rain forests. c) The dagona produces fruit twice a year. d) The flesh of the fruit can be used as a medicine.

B. Multiple choice Choose the correct answer.

The dagona tree is: a) common in parts of Africa b) found in sandy regions c) common throughout the world d) unusual in dry regions of the world The tree looks like a brush because the branches: a) are long and thin b) are stuck in the ground c) have many small leaves d) grow out from the top of the trunk

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C. Open-ended questions Give short answers to these questions.

What does the fruit look like?

The fruit has four uses. What are they?

Why is the bark good for making ropes?

D. Information transfer Complete this table.

Part of tree

Use

a) flesh of fruit

food, drink, flour

b) skin of fruit c) d) What are the good and bad points of each type of question?

TESTING GRAMMAR AND WRITING Look at these tests.

Which ones mainly test grammar?

Which ones mainly test writing skills?

A. Give the past tense forms of these verbs: meet go come see hear take

Number them from 1 to 5 according to how much they focus on grammar or writing (1 = grammar, 5 = writing).

B.

What did you do before you come here today?

Write three sentences.

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C.

Write these notes as full sentences. Put the verbs into the correct form.

I/spend/last week/try/find/job.

I/buy/newspaper/look/advertisements.

I/see/interesting/job/shoe factory.

I/go/interview/but/not/get/job.

D.

Fill in the gaps with suitable verbs.

Yesterday John.............. lunch in a restaurant. Then he ....................... his friend Peter and they .............to a football match together. When they arrived, they................ thirsty, so they ................... some lemonade.

E.

Fill the gaps with a suitable word or phrase.

1. I feel so tired! I ............................... at five o’clock this morning.

2. There used to be ....................... last month.

a

cinema

in

the

town,

but

it

3. When I was a boy, we ..................... a large house by the sea.

MARKING FREE WRITING TESTS Here are two students’ answers to Test B in the last activity. Work in pairs. Give each answer a mark out of ten.

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ORAL TESTS Imagine you are giving short oral tests to your students (one minute each). Which of these topics would be suitable? a) Talk about yourself and your family. b) Ask the teacher some questions. c) Describe your village/town. d) Talk about a friend. e) Talk about your school. f) Talk about transport in your region.

Think of five other topics that you could use, and write them down. ............................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................................

LESSON PREPARATION Prepare a test to give to your class. The test should focus on one of these skills: reading, listening, writing or speaking. Use any of the techniques you have discussed in this unit.

Note: If you are giving a reading or listening test, you should use a text that the students do not know.

Self-evaluation sheet Complete this after you have given the test.

1. Which skill did you test: reading? writing? listening? speaking?

2. Briefly describe what happened in the test.

Think about these questions In general, how successful was the test?

What were its good points?

What were its bad points?

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Did it seem to have a positive or a negative effect on the students’ learning?

Could most students do the test easily?

How did they react to it?

What did you learn from the test about your students’ ability?

Did anything surprise you?

What did the students learn about their ability?

How did you prepare the class for the test?

Did you need to help them during the test? If so, in what way?

What did you do after the test?

Would you give the class a test like this again?

If so, what improvements might you make?

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alexander, L. G., W. S. Alien, R. A. Close, and R. J. O’Neill. (1975) English Grammatical Structure. London: Longman.

Anthony, E. M. (1963) Approach, method and technique. English Language Teaching.

London: Longman.

Asher, J. (1977) Learning Another Language through Actions: The Complete Teacher’s Guidebook. Los Gatos, Calif.: Sky Oakes Productions.

Bialystok, E. and E. Ryan. (1985) ‘A metacognitive framework for the development of first and second language skills’. In: D. Forrest-Pressley, G. Mackinnon, and T. Waller (eds.): Metacognition, Cognition, and Human Performance, Vol 12. New York: Academic Press, pp 207-52.

Blum, R. E. (1984) Effective schooling practices: A research synthesis. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Portland, OR. Bosco, E J., and R. J. Di Pietro (1970) Instructional strategies: Their psychological and linguistics bases. International Review of Applied Linguistics; 8:1-19.

Breen, M. P, and C. Candlin (1980) The essentials of a communicative curriculum in language teaching. Applied Linguistics; 1(2): 89-112.

Brown, J. (1995) The Elements of the Language Curriculum. Heinle &c Heinle. Boston.

Brumfit, C. J. (ed.) (1984) General English Syllabus Design. Pergamon Press. Oxford Candlin, C. N. (1984) ‘Syllabus design as a critical process’. In: Brumfit, C. J. (ed.)

(1984b) General English Syllabus Design (ELT Documents 118), Oxford: Pergamon Press. Oxford.

Carrell, P., A. Devine, and D. Esky. (1988) Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Celce-Murcia, Marianne, Dornyei, Zoltán, and Thurrell, Sarah. (1997) “Direct approaches in L2 instruction: A turning point in communicative language teaching?”. TESOL Quarterly; 31:141-52.

Clarke, D. F. (1991) The negotiated syllabus: what is it and how is it likely to work?

Applied Linguistics, 12(1):13-28. (Also about the ‘process’ syllabus: some reservations about its application in practice and practical suggestions) Cook, V. (1991) Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. London: Edward Arnold.

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Crandall, JoAnn (1999) “Cooperative language learning and affective factors”. In: Arnold, Jane (Ed.). Affective factors in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp 226-45.

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Studies in Second Language Acquisition 19: 145-71.

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Gattegno, C. (1976) The Common Sense of Teaching Foreign language. New York: Educational Solutions.

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Krashen, S. D. (1982) Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.

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Kumaravadivelu, B. (1994) “The postmethod condition: Emerging strategies for second/ foreign language teaching”. TESOL Quarterly; 28: 27-48.

Kumaravadivelu, B. (1995) “The author responds...”. TESOL Quarterly; 29:177-80.

Lado, R. (1964) Language Teaching: A Scientific Approach. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Lantolf, J. P. and G. Appel. (1994) Vygotskian Approaches to Second Language Research. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex.

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Lee, James F. and VanPatten, Bill. (1995) Making Communicative Language Teaching Happen. NewYork: McGraw-Hill.

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Long,M.H. (1984) The effect of teachers’ questioning patterns and wait-times. Department of ESL, University of Hawaii.

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Mackey, W. E. (1965) Language Teaching Analysis. London: Longman.

McLaughlin, B. (1987) Theories of Second Language Learning. London: Edward Arnold.

Nunan, D. (1988) Syllabus Design. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Mostly a series of tasks helping the reader to engage with and understand different issues) Oxford, Rebecca. (1997) “Cooperative learning, collaborative learning, and interaction: Three communicative strands in the language classroom.” Modern Language loumal 81: 443-56.

Prabhu, N. (1983) Procedural syllabuses. Paper presented at the RELC Seminar. Singapore: Regional Language Centre.

Prabhu, N. (1990) There is no best method - why? TESOL Quarterly; 24:161-176.

Prahbu, N. S. (1983) Procedural syllabuses. Paper presented at the RELC Seminar, Singapore.

Richards J. C. (1990) Beyond methods. In: J. C. Richards. The Language Teaching Matrix. New York: Cambridge University Press.

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Ritchie, W. C. and T. K. Bhatia (eds.). (1996) Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. San Diego, Cal.: Academic Press.

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Schmidt, R. (1990) ‘The role of consciousness in second language learning’. Applied Linguistics; 11:17-46.

Schwartz, B. (1993) ‘On explicit and negative data effecting and affecting competence and linguistic behavior’. Studies in Second Language Acquisition; 15:147-63.

Skehan, P. (1998) A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Spolsky, B. (1998) Conditions for Second Language Learning: Introduction to a General Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Stevick, E. W. (1980) Teaching Languages: A Way and Ways. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.

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White, L. (1989) Universal Grammar and Second Language Acquisition. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia, Pa.: John Benjamins.

White, R. V. (1988) The ELT Curriculum: Design, Innovation and Management, Oxford: Basil Blackwell. (A fairly detailed and comprehensive survey of various current types of syllabus and how they are used) Wilkins, D. A. (1976) Notional Syllabuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Yalden, J. (1987) Principies of Course Design for Language Teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Discusses different options in course and syllabus design, and the theories underlying them; illustrated by case studies) Zahorik, J. A. (1986) Acquiring teaching skills. Journal of Teacher Education (MarchApril). pp 21-25.

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