Explore Webster’s questioning of contemporary 5 gender expectation in The Duchess of Malfi
By Rosie Tetlow NH
How the Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment 8 German Idealist Movements sowed the seeds for socialist thought and revolution in the 19th and 20th centuries
By Shaurya Mitra SH
How did a designer of the 21st century impact 16 your approach to fashion design?
By Selina Bilgen J
What are the Chinese Global Aspirations? 22
By Max Chong M
How does mathematics protect your 27 privacy online?
By Avignon Lam B
Goodness, truth, and beauty in Plato’s Republic: 33 exploring the “three transcendentals” and their relevance today
By Lavinia Martin NH
Exploring the Potential of Artificial Leaf 36 technology for sustainable energy By
Azariah Almeida NH
Present and Future of the Amazon Rainforest 40 By Sophie Feng FD
Foreword
Welcome to the second edition of the Uppingham Research Journal. After the successful publication of the first issue, we unveil the second edition, enriched by the thoughtful feedback from our scholarly exploration. This edition continues to champion the voices of student scholars, whose dedication to exploring complex topics across science, humanities, art, and technology is nothing short of inspiring, and this continues to motivate the academic rigour in which we take pride as a group.
As you explore this issue, you will discover a diverse collection of essays, each thoughtfully selected from their respective fields. As Plutarch said ‘The mind is not a vessel to be filled, but a fire to be kindled’, so we are particularly reminded that learning should not be confined narrowly to a handful of subjects. The Uppingham Research Journal provides an opportunity for pupils to extend their academic outlook, and we are committed to valuing the work of our peers.
We are thrilled to introduce art and design into our collection of subjects inspired by the diverse interests of readers and contributors. Backed by the expansion of our group of editors, it is exciting to see the proliferation of essays being submitted, clearly successful in motivating the intellectual curiosity of the pupils, as well as the collaborations offered within our school community. From this, we are confident that the erudite ambitions will resplendently flourish without an end.
In introducing this edition, I express my gratitude to our contributors for their endeavour and commitment to the journal. It would not be as successful as it is without their engagement in such intensive intellectual collaboration.
We extend our appreciation to Mr Addis. We are honoured to have his support and guidance in organising the journal and promoting the first issue within the school community.
Max Chong Uppingham Review Journal Founder and Head Editor
Explore Webster’s questioning of contemporary gender expectation in The Duchess of Malfi
By Rosie Tetlow (NH)
Within his play The Duchess of Malfi (1614), John Webster offers his own rendition of Giovanna d’Aragona’s story, the real Duchess of Amalfi, widowed in 1498, critiquing power structures, raising questions on the nature of humanity, and subverting misogynistic beliefs that justified systematic oppression. Webster inserts contemporary English discourses into an Italian narrative and society: the paradox of feminine authority in a male dominated environment; physiological justification of social disparity, and the fear of feminine sexuality in a nation clinging to elite exclusivity despite the budding social mobility characteristic of early modern England, highlighting the sexism derived from misanthropic attitudes towards anyone outside their own. He develops a fluidity between man and woman through the merging of the Duchess and her incestuous brother, and then goes even further by elevating the Duchess through her rationality and competence relative to her brothers: the deranged Ferdinand and hypocritical Cardinal.
The Duchess – being a female ruler – is inserted into the paradox of having jurisdiction within politics, yet no authority over the natural and domestic spheres. Through an exploration of this contradiction, Webster lays bare and subverts contemporary cynical positions on female rulers, which had been exacerbated by the monarchs Mary Tudor (1553-8) and Elizabeth Tudor (1558-1603). Whilst Mary’s infamous love life proved disastrous, her sister remained celibate, producing no heir, notably stating that she was “already bound unto a husband which is the Kingdom of England,” perhaps influenced by the notoriously poor examples of marriage she was surrounded by (especially, of course, for the female). Webster inserts this contemporary English standpoint into the realm of Italian society in his semi revenge-tragedy. Whilst Elizabeth illustriously rejects John Alymer’s quick fix solution of being “subject to” her husband as a wife, yet “ruling over” him as a magistrate, Webster’s Duchess enters an egalitarian relationship with the man she loves against her brother’s wishes (controllers of her natural body): both opposites, yet nonetheless both empowering. Elizabeth’s choice could serve as proof of the paradoxical difficulty female rulers face by rejecting submission within the domestic sphere, as it may impinge on their authority. If the Duchess is the antithesis of Elizabeth Tudor in marriage, she is perhaps paired with her sister, if operating under the assumption that Mary was romantically involved and complicit in sexual relations with James Hepburn. Her Protestant marriage ceremony angered not only Catholics who felt Mary wasn’t committed to her religion, but the Protestant Lords as well, with whom Bothwell was unpopular, which contributed to her imprisonment and eventually, death. In the way that Mary antagonized the Catholics and Protestants, the Duchess antagonizes the Cardinal and Ferdinand. Webster brings to light the incongruity of the Duchess having to make decisions considering political implications due to her position (or rather, having her brothers make decisions as controllers of her natural body), and her love for Antonio.
Renaissance medical theorising was greatly influenced by the antiquitous Aristotle-Galen belief that man’s sperm contains the key to life and women (the “infertile man”) as the seed beds. These physiological differences were used to justify contemporary social disparity, and Webster, by combining the physical feminine and masculine bodies of the Duchess and Ferdinand both as filial twins and through sexual experience creates a less dichotomous distinction between the two genders, contradicting contemporary physiological beliefs, and therefore subverting the subsequent social disparity. This shared body is evident in Ferdinand’s words: “or my imagination will carry me // To see her in the shameful act of sin.” The non-consensual implication of the personified “imagination” forcing him perhaps indicative of him having visions from his sister’s perspective, rather than the male’s or looking in removed from the situation, contributing to Ferdinand’s visceral reaction, “I have this night digg’d up a mandrake.” According to ancient folklore, a demon inhabits the root of the mandrake, and would attack and kill whoever uproots it: Ferdinand is equating the pain of a brutal death with his revelation of the Duchess’ sexual relations. However, it was also believed that the roots brought success in a variety of areas, most notably in this case the control of their own and other people’s destinies, foreboding of the role he plays in the Duchess’ imprisonment and death.
Webster further subverts the perceived inferior role and ability of women through Ferdinand’s psychological deterioration following the death of the Duchess, contradicting Juan Luis Vive’s (14931540), “the head of the woman is man.” Further playing upon the idea that the twins are physically connected, without his feminine counterpart, Ferdinand cannot cope, and as a result of “melancholy humour” imagines himself “transformed into wolves” (lycanthropy). As the rational head of his and the Duchess’ shared body, he should maintain an element of composure, and Webster sets up a comparison in dignity between Ferdinand and the stoic Duchess, who kept a hold on her identity even in the face of death: “I am Duchess of Malfi still,” thus subverting feminine inferiority. Furthermore, Ferdinand morbidly begins to “dig up dead bodies,” perhaps a grotesque attempt at finding another body for him to share after his sister’s death, tying into the idea of creating a fluidity between genders. Ferdinand choosing strangulation as the method of the Duchess’ death is significant when considering Juan Luis Vive’s words, as it suggests he is trying to separate the part of the body that he can regulate (the head), from the sexualised part he cannot regulate (the body). As for his motivations, Webster establishes that this desire for control is derived from Ferdinand’s incestuous love and lust. This is evident through Ferdinand’s double entendre, “before you would vouchsafe to call for the keys,” “keys”, being a phallic symbol, conveying his disgust over Antonio and the Duchess’ sexual relationship. The fact that he enters the room just after the Duchess states, “I entered you into my heart,” suggests that Ferdinand wishes he were the one within her “heart”, as well as her body.
In Sexual and Social Mobility in The Duchess of Malfi, Whigham states, “by men of lower states coupling with the Duchess, they are coupled with him and contaminate him, taking his place.” Not only is he jealous of whomever sleeps with the Duchess, Antonio “contaminates” Ferdinand sexually and socially through he and the Duchess’ shared body, communicated through his scathing hissing, “some strong-thigh’d bargeman, // Or one o’ the’ wood-yard that can quoit the sledge.” Webster is not only highlighting the social disparity between genders through Ferdinand’s impulse to control the natural female body, but also highlighting class consciousness within the enclosed aristocracy, as conveyed through the cardinal’s speech, “Shall our blood, // The royal blood of Aragon and Castille, // Be thus attainted?” This reflects the contemporary insecurity evoked by the social mobility of early modern England: wealth began to trickle down from the established families into the pockets of yeomen, lawyers, merchants, etc., which was unprecedented. Critiquing high society’s exclusion, Webster lays out an innate equality among all men: not wealth, nor birthright, nor power, can shield the weaknesses of the human mind. Ferdinand – a prince – aside, the madmen brought to torment the Duchess come from a range of backgrounds: “a mad lawyer; and a secular priest; // A doctor… an astrologian… an English tailor… a gentleman-usher… a farmer”; the anonymity of the characters being labelled first madman, second madman, etc. allowing the characters to be defined by their psychology rather than their status. Like Ferdinand, they experience a Darwinian reversion: “As ravens, screech-owls, bulls, and bears,” as well as speaking in prose to further indicate their mental deterioration. Described as having “the devil… among them”, Webster is explicitly satirizing gender inequalities, as “Hell is a mere glass-house, where the devils // are continually blowing up women’s souls on hollow irons.” Webster is combining concepts of devolution, hell and the abuse of women, as all abusers within the play succumb to this same fate.
Webster also explores the hypocrisy of double standards through the Duchess’ older brother, the immoral Cardinal, a character immediately introduced as despicable through the transgressive affair with Julia. Ironically, he is antagonised by the prospect of the Duchess remarrying, wishing to maintain the family’s honour, “high blood”, and purity whilst guiltlessly using religion as a means to preserve his political power. Despite this, he appears aware of the place his sins will take him: “That’s the greatest torture souls feel in hell: // In hell that they must live, and cannot die,” in fact wishing it upon himself, “I account this world a tedious theatre, // For I do play a part in’t ‘gainst my will.” The Cardinal’s meta description of life creates a parallel between the stage, life and hell through its longevity, and its torturous substance, which Webster
emphasizes through the dark, candlelit stage of the Blackfriars Theatre where the play was first performed. As an indoor theatre, Webster was able to use the claustrophobic literal darkness of the stage as a metaphor for the ethical darkness within the play, contributing to this idea of the stage being a microcosm of hell. Ironic, as it is the Cardinal’s job to achieve the Kingdom of God on Earth (Jacobean playwrights often dramatized Italy as the centre of Catholic authority, which Webster does here in order to expose the corruption of the Roman church, representative of the anticlericalism of the Catholic church within the sixteenth and seventeenth century after many believed it was more interested in holding authority and monetary power rather than in helping people find salvation) and linking to the madman’s description, “Hell is a mere glass-house, where the devils // are continually blowing up women’s souls on hollow irons”: the stage becomes the “glass-house,” and the oppression faced by the female character falls below the moral capacities of the mortal realm. Webster is exposing and scrutinising female vulnerability in a society dictated by men, as the systematic oppression displayed in the semi revenge tragedy is intrinsically linked with hell, rendering it a systemic sin.
Webster also subverts contemporary anxieties surrounding female sexuality, voiced by the brother’s attitudes on ideas on women and family honour. Female sexuality was largely considered a grotesque subject, conveyed by Shakespeare in Othello’s speech, “O curse of marriage, // That we can call these delicate creatures ours, // and not their appetites.” Ferdinand also expresses this belief when he stated, “And women like that part which, like the lamprey, // Hath ne’er a bone in’t,” – being a phallic reference. Moreover, widows, being experienced in sexual acts, were largely considered to be more susceptible to these carnal desires, as laid out by Joseph Swetnam in The Arraignment of Lewd, Froward and Unconstant Women (1615): ‘it is more easy for a young man or maid to forbear carnal acts than it is for a widow,’ resulting in previous artistic depictions of the Italian Duchess being much less sympathetic renditions of the Duchess’ situation. The brother’s combination of misogynistic attitudes on widow’s sexualities, and that a marriage should be made by the family rather than the individual in order to upgrade familial power are overthrown by the desire to marry for compatibility and love, which is further strengthened by the Duchess placing her relationship with Antonio over elite exclusivity. She states in Act 1, Scene 1, “I do love my husband with a love as rare // As two dolphins yoked together,” meaning they have no choice but to move in tandem, presenting the Duchess as someone who seeks out marriage for love, rather than to satiate desire.
Overall, Webster explores the complexity of inflexible contemporary gender expectations, and the Duchess’ complete rejection of its linear nature. He weeds out the (considered innate) physiological, psychological and sexual limitations of the female gender, allowing the concept of woman to grow beyond its secondary perception. The binary distinction of masculine superiority and feminine inferiority is blurred through combining the twins, and then their separation through reversing the conventional gender roles. Consequentially, Webster’s The Duchess of Malfi could and should be labelled a feminist play, through its subversion of contemporary gender expectations.
How the Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment German Idealist Movements sowed the seeds for socialist thought and revolution in the 19th and 20th centuries
By Shaurya Mitra (SH)
Abstract
The Enlightenment and German Idealist Movement profoundly impacted all the strands of the socialist movement. This impact occurred through four modalities: direct philosophical inspiration, popularisation of ideas, transformation of the intellectual landscape, and catalysation of societal progress. The first mode of influence, direct philosophical inspiration, refers to Marx’s adoption and transformation of Hegel’s dialectic by analysing the progression of history not through abstract ideas but material forces. Secondly, the influence of Hegel’s idealism on Marx’s analysis of how individual experience and ideology are tied to social and historical context, which acts as the foundation for his analysis of capitalism. Thirdly, Rousseau’s idea of the social contract and general will influenced the formulation of Proudhon’s criticism of capitalism and subsequent advocacy for anarchism. The second mode of influence, the popularisation of ideas, refers firstly to the influence of Hegel and Voltaire’s analysis of Religion’s political role on Marx, who developed these ideas as part of his assertion that religion had become incorporated into the oppressive mechanisms of capitalism. Secondly, it refers to the popularisation of materialist and empirical approaches in philosophy by Locke and Hume, later serving as the basis of socialist analysis across the whole movement. Thirdly, Rousseau’s influence on both earlier utopian socialism and later scientific socialism, through his positive conception of human nature which, went against the dominant philosophy of the time. The third mode of influence is the transformation of the intellectual landscape. This was explicitly expressed through emergent ideas of liberalism, pioneered by Locke, which influenced reformists such as Bernstein, leading to ideas of achieving the socialist abolition of private property inside the confines of liberal democracy. The fourth mode of influence is the catalysation of societal progression, expressed in the Enlightenment’s contribution to the bourgeois revolution in Europe, the second last step towards socialism according to Marx’s historical materialism. This essay isn’t evaluative but analytical. It isn’t trying to assess the merit of socialist, Enlightenment, or German Idealist ideas but rather to establish any causal linkages between them to show philosophical influence or connection.
The philosophies of the Enlightenment and the post-Enlightenment Idealist movement had a profound impact on socialist analysis in the late-19th to mid-20th century. This impact extended to all significant strains of socialism, Marxism, Anarchism, and Reformism. The philosophers and theories that had an impact include Hegel’s dialectical idealism, Rousseau’s humanist ideals, Voltaire and Hegel’s analysis of religion’s political role, Locke’s liberalism, and Empiricist and Materialist Analysis, pioneered by Locke and Hume. However, the philosophical impact of specific ideas may be limited to shaping the intellectual environment in which socialist theory was developed rather than direct philosophical inspiration. Despite these limitations, their influence is apparent, and the Enlightenment likely had a more significant impact than German Idealism.
I. Marx’s adoption of Hegel’s dialectical method in explaining class relations and the progress of history.
Marx was the greatest contributor to the theory behind scientific socialism, and he was significantly impacted by the Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment Idealist movement through Hegel. Marx’s political views differed greatly from those of Hegel (a conservative), but from him, he received the majority of his philosophical inspiration. He significantly influenced Marx’s early intellectual development, and Marx later wrote a critique of his “Philosophy of the Right”. Hegel’s dialectical idealism is centred around historical development and driven by opposing forces’ conflict. Marx adopted Hegel’s dialectical method to understand societal change and development. Hegel’s dialectical method is a philosophical approach that involves a triadic process of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. It is primarily part of idealist philosophy, where the conflict of opposing ideas (thesis and antithesis) leads to a higher, more complex idea (synthesis). Hegel used this dialectical method to explore the evolution of human thought and history. Marx adopted this triadic structure of thesis-antithesis-synthesis to think about social and historical change, specifically to analyse the contradictions and conflicts inherent in society.
Similarly to Hegel, Marx believed that a process of change and development marked history. However, while Hegel’s dialectic focused on the evolution of human thought and the realisation of freedom, Marx applied the dialectical method to the material world and social relations. This was the critical transformation that Marx made, shifting the focus from idealism to materialism. For Marx, the driving force behind historical development was not the clash of abstract ideas but the conflict between social classes and their material interests. Thus, the dialectical method became a tool for understanding the dynamics of class struggle and societal change.
The transformation gave rise to what Marx called “historical materialism”. Marx’s historical materialism posits that history represents the idea that the economic base shapes class relations (the struggle between classes with fundamentally different material interests) and the superstructure (which refers to ideology, politics, and culture). The superstructure is often seen as a reflection of the underlying economics, which is used to justify the (then) dominant economic base. The dialectical method was applied to form an understanding of the contradictions and conflicts arising from the inherent inequality and exploitation within the capitalist system. Marx’s application of the debate here was as such: Thesis: Capitalism emerges as an economic system, providing opportunity and creating growth; antithesis: As it developed, contradictions and conflict would emerge; synthesis: The class struggle between the Bourgeoisie and Proletariat arises due to these contradictions, New thesis: Communism is gradually established through the dictatorship of the proletariat. Marx’s dialectic thesis about societal change tends to align with Hegel, but with the difference that material and economic forces are the fuel, not abstract ideas. A more minor example of Marx’s application of the debate can be seen in his analysis of commodity fetishisation. Thesis: Under capitalism, commodities are produced with the goal of exchange in a market. They have both use value (utility) and exchange value and are the building blocks of production and trade. Antithesis: A commodity’s exchange value depends on the socially necessary labour time required to produce it (labour theory of value). Synthesis: The source of the value (labour) is hidden in the exchange process, leading to commodity fetishisation (the mistaken idea that the value of a commodity is intrinsic and the subsequent failure to appreciate the labour behind it). Hegel’s influence isn’t restricted to the philosophical method but to specific ideas, particularly parts of his idealism.
II. The influence of Hegel’s idealism on Marx’s analysis of Capitalism. Marx’s philosophy was also partially influenced by Hegel’s idealism. Hegel emphasises the idea that our perception filters reality. He uses this when developing the idea of the absolute spirit. Marx adopts this idea as part of his analysis. Human perception isn’t a passive reception of external abstracts but a process where the method of perception (the mind) influences the result of what is perceived. Thus, the way we perceive things is influenced by the social and historical context. The dominant economic base gives rise to an ideology that reflects its principles. This ideology isn’t a neutral system of thought but a product of social and historical factors. Marx accuses Hegel of being influenced by the (then) current political economy of his views on authority and the state. Hegel advocated for a constitutional monarchy, as he saw the monarch as the embodiment of unity and thought they could reconcile the conflicting interests of the classes. Authority is, for him, reasonable and necessary for maintaining society, particularly the authority of the monarch (and the ruling class). The state expresses this authority, comprising social structures that give people roles depending on their societal position (paternalism). Marx doesn’t criticise authority as a concept (briefly agreeing with Hegel) but rather criticises its allocation within society. He sees the state as the ruling class’s tool to maintain social order. Within the capitalist mode of production (private ownership of the means of production, wage labour, etc), authority is concentrated in the hands of the bourgeoisie. The dictatorship of the proletariat refers to the seizing of the means of production by the workers. It is meant to transfer political authority to the workers to suppress the bourgeoisie (and other overthrown classes) while they use the state apparatus to reorganise society. The target of socialism (the transitionary phase between capitalism and communism) is to abolish class and, by extension, abolish
disbalances in individual authority. Marx disagrees with Hegel about the nature of the state, but Hegel’s influence is evident in Marx’s idea of subsuming the state’s authority to establish communism. However, Marx does speculate that the state would not be necessary in a communist society and would thus dissolve. Marx went on to expand significantly on the theory behind scientific socialism and was likely responsible for the majority of the (political theory in the) socialist movement in the late 19th to the mid-20th century.
III. The adoption of Rousseau’s humanist and democratic ideas by Proudhon’s Anarchism. Altruistic and anti-hierarchical concepts, particularly the idea of the social contract as articulated by Rousseau, along with the ideas of figures like Voltaire, sowed the seeds for the humanist values that sat at the foundation of socialist movements. Rousseau believed that a just society should be based on a social contract. The idea was that people would live by agreements on moral behaviour and political rules. These rules should be heavily scrutinised and subject to reason. The social contract would serve as the basis of legitimate government, where authority was derived from the people’s general will. The desire for a representative government is a central aspect of the revolutionary sentiment in Marxism, as there is a significant concern over the government only serving the material interests of the bourgeoisie. Concerns over illegitimate government also appear in other areas of the movement, especially in Anarchism, where the abolition of the state is a central tenet. Rousseau develops the idea of the “general will”, the collective or common interests of the people. Rousseau’s emphasis on the common good and the idea that inequality results from the corrupting influence of society resonated with later anarchist thinkers such as Proudhon. Proudhon criticised private property along similar lines as Rousseau, arguing that it was the root of societal inequality (although Rousseau was not critical of private property specifically, and the criticism was extended by Proudhon). Proudhon also incorporated the idea of general will, suggesting that fulfilling it requires revolution. The existing state served the material interests of the bourgeoisie, and communal ownership of the means of production better served the interests of the masses (referring to the proletariat). Under collective ownership (according to Proudhon), resources would be distributed more equitably within society. There are many ways in which this could be implemented depending on the broader context of the specific system. These include state ownership, labour syndicates, etc. However, Proudhon argued for a decentralised system comprising unified communes or cooperatives. Democracy would occur much less, and authority would be much less concentrated. This aligns with Rousseau’s vision of a small republic with direct democracy and strong participation. Inside a small republic, citizens wield greater political power through direct democracy. Still, there is also less friction as there are fewer groups and, therefore, fewer potential conflicts (regarding misaligned interests). Rousseau presents this as an alternative to large, centralised states, and it inspires Proudhon’s anarchism. This is also where Proudhon and other anarchists diverge from the Marxist-Leninist analysis.
IV. Minor influence of Locke’s liberalism on reformist strains of socialism. Lenin was a Marxist Revolutionary, the leader of the Bolshevik Party, and a key figure in the Russian Revolution of 1917. He contributed significantly to Marxist theory, particularly to the process of the revolution and post-revolution society (although his views differed from previous Marxists in certain areas). He represented the revolutionary side in the debate between revolution and reform, which had created a fissure within the broader movement. His intellectual opposition came mainly from Kautsky and Bernstein, both associated with the German Social Democratic Party. Reformism refers to the evolutionary strand of socialism, which seeks to gradually bring about an equal society while working within the confines of political institutions (such as a parliament). The influence of liberal ideas (particularly thinkers like Locke) is apparent here. While evolutionary socialism tremendously differs ideologically from liberalism, liberal ideas served as a background for them to develop. Locke is often seen as the founder of Liberalism, declaring that a government is only legitimate if the people consent to be governed. He sees the state as the enforcer of the social contract, protecting people’s rights, including
private property. Reformists aim to eliminate private property but work based on the democratic principles echoed by liberals. Marx refers to liberal democracies as dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, as the political system will always serve their interests. In contrast, reformists like Bernstein argued that the bourgeois-democratic apparatus could be used to further the interests of the working class, as democratic participation would be effective in bringing about reform.
In this sense, reformists view liberal democracies (set up based on the traditional liberal principles of individual rights, liberty, etc) as being genuinely democratic. Reformists share Locke’s idea that political institutions would gradually adapt to society. Liberalism is fundamentally individualistic, while socialism (reformism here) is collectivist. Locke desires a state based on the individual, while reformists seek to fulfil the will of the collective. The end goal of reformism is different from liberalism. Although it uses the same democratic institutions as a means to an end, it will eventually undermine them in the reform process. Liberals view democratic institutions almost as ends in themselves. Locke’s analysis stops (mostly) at the implementation of liberal democracy. Thus, the influence of liberalism isn’t philosophical or ideological but somewhat functional. Ideologically, the two have a significant difference (individualism vs collectivism).
Further to the left, Lenin (and other revolutionaries) oppose these ideas and diverge very strongly from this philosophy. Lenin argued for a vanguard party (representing the proletariat’s interests), establishing a one-party state where power was centralised and counter-revolutionary forces were actively suppressed. The vanguard party does, in a sense, act antithetically to the notions of individual rights and the parliamentary system. We might conclude that the influence of Locke’s liberalism is limited strictly to reformism and has to do with functionality rather than the core philosophy.
V. The influence of Hegel and Voltaire’s analysis of religion’s political role on Marxism. We can see the impact of Enlightenment ideals through other thinkers such as Voltaire, who criticised monarchy and religious institutions extensively. Voltaire’s criticism of aristocracy is especially relevant, as socialism grew an anti-monarchy element in the 19th century. This is visible in that socialist revolutions occurred mainly in semi-agrarian countries where an oppressive aristocracy or dictatorship was being overthrown. The USSR and China were agrarian before the revolution, and China was still under an authoritarian republic with hints of landlordism. This was in contrast to Marx’s prediction that revolution would occur mainly in the heavily industrialised imperial core. Voltaire’s advocacy for the separation of church and state and his criticism of arbitrary authority resonated powerfully with socialists who sought to challenge oppressive societal structures. We see his impact on socialist movements through figures such as Marx and Lenin, arguing that religion was the opiate of the masses. Socialism in the early 20th century developed a vital atheistic aspect, which manifested itself later in states such as the USSR, which made great efforts to reduce religiosity within society. The Marxist-Leninist ideology of the Soviet government led them to see religion as a tool used by the ruling class to appease the workers. This ideological conflict remained present post-revolution and was amplified by the fact that they saw the Russian Orthodox Church as a potential enemy. Aside from anti-religious sentiment, hints of the societal ideals promoted by Rousseau and Voltaire manifested very early on with philosophers such as Henri de Saint-Simon and Robert Owen, who argued for the reorganisation of society in favour of coordination and planning. Marx later incorporated the idea of religion as a force against the rational progression of society in his analysis of capitalism.
Marx sees religion as an integral part of the capitalist superstructure, one that is used to keep the workers docile and that contributes to their alienation. Alienation here refers to a social separation. Religion contributes most to alienation from oneself, seeing yourself as a mere instrument of labour and being disconnected from your creativity or the values that define you. Religion is a distracting force that prevents people from assessing their material conditions. Their material conditions are the source of their alienation; thus, the distraction furthers their alienation. This distraction is particularly potent in the case of alienation from oneself as religion replaces one’s identity (one created from the realisation of one’s material conditions and position in society) with one’s religious identity (Protestant, Catholic, etc.). This disconnects them from their values and ethics, which might contradict their religion. We can see Hegel’s influence here, although they diverge significantly in their analysis. For Hegel, religion is one of the modes through which individuals try to comprehend their relationship with the absolute. The absolute spirit is the culmination of history’s dialectical process, the highest stage of self-consciousness. Marx suggests that religion acts against the rational progression of history (through its contribution to preserving capitalism). At the same time, Hegel sees it as one of the ways through which history unfolds.
Furthermore, Marx views religion as a part of human objectification, which has become perverted. Objectification (according to Marx) is the process by which human beings externalise their essence to produce valuable objects; the means of this is labour. It is a natural part of our potential, subverted under capitalism due to alienation from the process and product of labour. Religion is an externalisation of our essence (the need for meaning, connection, etc), but it is perverted in that it is aligned with and contributes to our alienation. Both philosophers similarly view religion, but they differ significantly when analysing its function in society. Marx is much closer in his views to Voltaire or Hume, the latter of which directly argues that religion is irrational. Hegel likely had a minor impact on Marx’s views of religion, suggesting that the Enlightenment generally had a more significant effect on socialist views of religion (which was developed mainly by Marx) than the German Idealist Movement. Still, both were crucial in the development of these ideas.
Voltaire argued that religious institutions often subvert parts of their message that are more socially radical or play them up when it is more convenient. He described the clergy as more concerned with material matters than spiritual ones. This plays into Marx’s argument that religious institutions are ultimately set up to serve the interests of the capitalist class. However, there is a significant difference between the two views. Voltaire sees religion as an almost permanent part of society and thus preaches religious tolerance rather than an explicitly anti-theistic message. For Marx, religion is a temporary part of the superstructure that will be eliminated as part of society’s movement towards a more rational position (historical materialism). According to him, religion would not be needed in a communist society, and it would disappear. Marx recognises that religion is a more significant social trend but that its incorporation into the hierarchy is evident. Voltaire recognised the political role of religion, citing the alliance between the Church and the Monarchy in France. Marx expands on this idea with his criticism, suggesting that the role of religion is to justify hierarchy and keep workers docile with the promise of the afterlife, suggesting that it promotes false consciousness. Marx’s ideas go beyond Voltaire, as he examines religion not as an individual entity but as part of capitalist society’s oppressive mechanisms. Both of them, however, suggest that religion is an oppressive force (politically and socially) and that religious dogma gives people false ideas about their position in society and their material reality.
VI. Locke and Hume’s empiricist and materialist approaches impact socialist theory. The Enlightenment marked the rise of empiricism and materialism, championed mainly by Locke and Hume. Empiricism is the philosophical doctrine that knowledge is derived from sensory experience. This, in many ways, laid the groundwork for socialist thought. The empirical approach was applied to daily life, where socialist thinkers examined the material reality that members of the proletariat faced daily (the
material conditions). This was to serve as the basis for political theory instead of abstract moral ideals. The idea promoted class consciousness, where workers realised their exploitation, the first step towards the proletarian revolution. Marxism argues that a successful proletarian revolution occurs based on heightened class consciousness, as the proletariat must recognise their shared material interest and challenge the prevalent ideology of private property. Locke (while a proponent of private property rights) argues that individuals have a right to the fruits of their labour. This idea became central to socialism, as the means of production are owned privately under capitalism. Thus, the product generated is owned by the bourgeoisie, which owns the means of production; the bourgeoisie can exploit the workers. The exploitation of the workers refers to the extraction of surplus value by capitalists; additional value generated beyond the value of the worker’s labour is appropriated as profit. The central idea of socialism is the collective ownership of the means of production. The method of realised may vary depending on the system, from state ownership to worker’s cooperatives. The relationship one has with the means of production determines one’s class; thus, the abolition of class occurs through the implementation of this idea. We can also see the influence of Hume’s critique of natural rights. Hume is sceptical of the right to private property and believes these ideas are not grounded in empirical evidence but in human conventions. A natural, logical derivative of this would be advocacy for collective ownership over the means of production. Materialism, which draws heavily from empiricism, became an essential component of socialist thought, particularly regarding economic factors and how they shaped behaviour and social development. This philosophy entirely infiltrated the landscape of socialist thought in the 19th and 20th centuries, which was diverse.
Apart from Marxism, empiricist and materialist ideas also influenced other strains, such as Reformism or Anarchism (as previously discussed). Reformists such as Bernstein applied these principles to the practical realm. They tried to argue for an evolutionary form of socialism, where reforms would progress society within the existing capitalist system. Bernstein’s empirical approach made him question the revolutionary aspects of classical Marxism. Marx took a deterministic view of history, where the proletarian revolution was inevitable. Bernstein rejected this analysis, suggesting that contradictions inherent in capitalism would lead to concessions (made by the bourgeoisie), which would collectively create a more egalitarian society.
In contrast, Anarchists such as Kropotkin emphasised an individual’s social experience while arguing for the abolition of the state as a necessary step towards the emancipation of the proletariat and the subsequent elimination of class. His empirical analysis led him in a different direction, leading him to the belief that the state was a tool used by the bourgeoisie to maintain control over the means of production. Even when contrasting the differing ideas within the broader movement, it is evident that the empiricist and materialist approach presented by Enlightenment philosophers such as Locke and Hume did, in this sense, catalyse the development of socialist theory.
VII. The influence of Rousseau’s optimistic view of human nature on utopian and scientific socialism. Before Marx and Engels, the dominant strain in the movement was utopian socialism. Utopian socialism refers to the vision of an idealised society achieved through the peaceful surrender of the means of production by the bourgeoisie. Utopian socialism works backwards by envisioning the desired state and injecting romantic notions of achieving it against concerns about practicality. In contrast to this, scientific socialism is derived from a materialist analysis of capitalism and solves problems based on practicality. Marx and Engels rejected utopian socialism, but regardless, it still influenced later developments within the movement. The two central utopian socialists were Fourier and Owen. Fourier was greatly influenced by the emphasis on reason and the tempered optimism of the Enlightenment. Central to the Enlightenment was the view that reason would ultimately prevail and society would continue progressing into a more egalitarian formation. This view was espoused by philosophers such as Rousseau, who argued
that human nature was fundamentally sound and rational, but societal institutions had corrupted it. This idea became central to Fourier’s vision of cooperative communities, which he believed would arise peacefully. The process could only be peaceful if a positive view of human nature were asserted. Favourable views of human nature are crucial to scientific socialism as well (as will be discussed later). Owen was in part influenced by Fourier but developed his ideas in greater theoretical depth. He argued that rational planning and greater social coordination could improve worker conditions. Owen failed to address the problem of ineffective reform and lacked the overarching narratives (historical materialism, class struggle, exploitation, etc) that Marx would later derive in his analysis. Despite this, the influence of the Enlightenment on utopian socialism is apparent.
Marxism relies on the idea that human nature is fluid and shaped by class relations and the mode of production. Marx argues that our behaviour is shaped by the economic base, suggesting that selfish acts are not an expression of our “humanity” but rather an expression of the profit motive under capitalism. Behaviour isn’t directly tied to the superstructure or the economic base but is indirectly influenced by them. Marx proves the idea of a fluid human nature through his analysis of precapitalist socioeconomic formations. According to his historical materialism, the first shift in society occurred from primitive communism to a society based on slavery. This happens primarily due to the advent of agriculture and the broader development of productive forces. The ability to produce a surplus value (beyond subsistence) creates a disbalance between people, giving rise to classes. Our initial (or intrinsic) nature is generally cooperating, and any developments caused by changes in the mode of production override this template to shape our behaviour. Rousseau’s influence is evident here, as both philosophers believe that societal institutions cause selfish behaviour. He suggests that private property and wealth accumulation by the ruling class (caused by private property) leads to the corruption of human morality, as wealth is generated at the expense of others, and envy arises in those who are disparaged. Marx’s analysis is very similar to this, except for Rousseau’s proposition of innate human goodness; Marx does not assert this, instead suggesting that human nature is more fluid.
VIII. The Enlightenment’s catalytic role in the rational progression of society. Apart from direct philosophical inspiration, the Enlightenment contributed to the bourgeois revolution in Europe, creating a socially liberal intellectual environment where socialist theory could develop. Perhaps the most dynamic and pragmatic role that the Enlightenment had in catalysing the socialist movement lay in this contribution. The philosophy of the Enlightenment (especially Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Locke) did contribute to the French Revolution (and other revolutions across Europe in general) and the continued growth of capitalism. The emergent ideas of liberalism led to greater “philosophical and political freedom”, allowing people to resolve intellectual problems more openly (although it was by no means perfect, as there were still quite a few restrictions). This was the environment in which Marx wrote and the period preceding the Russian Revolution. Marx called the French Revolution a bourgeois revolution, referring to the overthrow of feudalism in favour of a socio-economic formation favouring the bourgeoisie’s interests (capitalism). Marx wasn’t denying the role of the working class in the revolution but rather suggesting that the bourgeoisie had co-opted the revolution’s gains. The bourgeois revolution caused by the Enlightenment across Europe is in the socialist paradigm, one of the stages in the rational progression of society (historical materialism). It is a necessary step towards communism (the culmination of societal progression). The Enlightenment and its philosophy are part of the socialist mode of thought. Without the Enlightenment, the socialist idea of the rational evolution of society cannot exist.
To conclude, it can be demonstrated that philosophy developed during the Enlightenment sowed the seeds for the socialist movement. While German Idealism and Hegel influenced Marxist thought, it is fair to conclude that, on balance, the philosophies of the Enlightenment had more pervasive influence across the different strains of socialist thought and theory.
References
Serial No. Type of Source Description
1 Original text Critique of Hegel’s “Philosophy of Right” – Marx, 1843.
2 Original text Economic and Philosophical manuscripts – Marx, 1844.
3 Original text Socialism: Utopian and Scientific – Engels, 1878.
4 Original text The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte – Marx, 1852.
5 Original text Evolutionary Socialism – Bernstein, 1909.
6 Original text State and Revolution – Lenin, 1917.
7 Original text The Social Contract – Rousseau, 1762.
8 Original text The Second Treatise of Civil Government – Locke, 1689.
9 Journal article Proudhon and Rousseau – A. Noland, 1967. https://doi.org/10.2307/2708479
10 Journal article The Making of a “Bourgeois Revolution” – E. J. Hobsbawm, 1989. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40970532
11 Journal article Alienation and Empiricism in Marx’s thought – L. D. Easton, 1970. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40970024
12 Journal article Karl Marx’s attitude towards religion – N. Lobkowicz, 1964. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1405231
How did a designer of the 21st century impact your approach to fashion design?
By Selina Bilgen (J)
A 21st-century designer who not only impacted but completely enlightened my mind about the possibilities of fashion design would have to be Alexander McQueen. Alexander McQueen was born and raised in Lewisham, London. He was born on the 17th of March 1969 and died on the 11th of February 2010. He left school at 16 with only one O-level in art. He went on to take a tailoring course at Newham College and then a two-year apprenticeship with the traditional tailors of Savile Row. It was there he learnt the craftsmanship and skills of garment construction. In 1990, McQueen ambitiously moved to Milan and, against all odds, landed a job with the Italian designer Romeo Gigli. 2years later, with financial support from his aunt, McQueen earned himself a place at the prestigious art school Central Saint Martins in London, where he studied for a degree in art and design.
At the end of their degree at Central Saints Martins was a graduation fashion show where designers would be expected to showcase an entire collection in representation of themselves and their creative vision. McQueen’s collection was called “Jack the Ripper Stalks His Victims”. This was referring to Jack the Ripper’s Whitechapel victims of 1888. Jack the Ripper was an unidentified serial killer active in and around the impoverished Whitechapel district of London; his victims were all female. His motives remain unknown; however, it is thought his motives were sexual sadism and rage. McQueen’s collections were always highly personal; he stated in an interview, “If you ever want to know me, look at my work”. One of McQueen’s relatives owned an inn where one of Jack, the ripper’s victims, stayed.
McQueen’s collection embodied the stomach-churning discomfort of this story by lining coats with human hair and draping red beaded threads across models’ bodies to look like the spurting blood from the arteries of the victims. the beads would catch the light and shine in a raw yet beautiful way. All the beauty that came from McQueen’s work was always paired with a retching pain and deep darkness. his colour palette was pale pink, blood red and black to convey this narrative of the innocence of these women to the violence they were subject to and finally to their death. Here are some images from this collection.
From this collection, McQueen was noticed by Isabella Blows, who was the Fashion assisting director of Tatler and the Sunday Times. She fell platonically in love with McQueen and the collection; she bought the entire collection for £5,000, and this was the beginning of a very intimate and long friendship.
Between 1996 and 2003, McQueen became the youngest person to have won the British Fashion Designer of the Year award. not only that, during this period, he won the award four times. In 1992, he launched his own label called Alexander McQueen, and in 1996, he succeeded famous designer John Galiano (who had moved to Dior) as creative director of Givenchy. McQueen made headlines with every single collection he produced, but these headlines weren’t always positive; his work was often not well received and thought to be incredibly vulgar and distasteful. British Vulgarity is not what one thinks of when picturing the prestigious and historic French fashion house of Givenchy. People in the fashion world were confused and concerned about the new appointment of Alexander McQueen as creative director, especially because he was British, and the French did not like the idea of a Brit taking over one of their fashion houses. His first collection for Givenchy in 1997 was called the “Search For the Golden Fleece”. This collection was highly anticipated, and the pressure for McQueen to deliver was immense; the entire fashion community were eagerly waiting to see what he would release down the Givenchy catwalk at the 1997 Paris Fashion Week. The colour palette for this collection, which is white and gold, was taken from the Givenchy label. McQueen used unbelievable silhouettes and strict tailoring to empower the women he would send down the runway with all his collections McQueen strived to empower the women he was dressing and to give them this extraordinary strength. This collection was no exception McQueen made his models look in a way in which no Givenchy model had ever come close to looking before. Many pieces had a militaristic or czarist feeling, and he accessorised many models with sheep horns creating an other-worldly look which he later became famous for.
McQueen’s first collection for Givenchy was not successful publicly. People feared for the brand’s future and felt offended by what McQueen had put out. McQueen did not take on the position as a creative director because he loved Givenchy; he took the position because he “loved fashion”. He felt strongly about staying true to who he was as a designer and not changing because he was being paid highly and in a “fancy setting”. During this period, McQueen was working between London and Paris as creative director of both Alexander McQueen and Givenchy, producing on average 14 collections per year. McQueen was deeply hurt by the reaction to the “Search for the Golden Fleece” and felt the media and the entire fashion world were against him, and this angered him. He did suffer very badly from paranoia; however, this was true; he made all the big headlines, but they weren’t often positive. All the money he earned from Givenchy he put straight back into his own label in London. In the winter of 1997, McQueen released his first collection from his own label after his debut in Paris at Givenchy. This collection was “full McQueen”, meaning it was completely unfiltered by others’ opinions and the authentic creations of Alexander McQueen; this was in response to the reaction McQueen received from the “Search for the Golden Fleece” collection. He was no longer trying to alter himself for the fashion world as he felt they were all against him anyway, so he may as well do precisely what he wants. I think this approach is very admirable. Most people, after working their hardest and releasing deeply emotional and personal pieces to the world and then being slated in the press, would become more scared and more introverted within the pieces they were releasing.
The collection was inspired by H.G. Wells’s novel, The Island of Dr. Moreau, about a vivisectionist who creates humanoids out of animals. The Model’s hair was made to look directly representative of wild animal manes, and the makeup was dark and sharp to give the Model a feline look facially.
In the spring of 1999, McQueen made runway history. A moment that is even today is still regarded as one of the most innovative, creative, and beautifully unique moments in the history of runway fashion. For this show McQueen had envisioned the incorporation of robots. McQueen embraced the new and exciting future of technology and brought it into his work whenever possible; whether it was robots in his shows or creating abstract digital prints for his fabrics, he embraced it. For the finale of his spring 1999 show McQueen dressed Shalom Harlow in a crisp white paper layered dress that has left to the last minute and only been made the night before through improvisation. she staggered gracefully as if she were a wounded gazelle onto a rotating platform in the middle of the show floor, where she would be spun around whilst being sprayed with black and neon green paint by car paint-spraying robots. All the McQueen models did more than wear the clothes and walk down the runway. They became actresses and embodied the unusual female creatures McQueen had envisioned within his mind.
Shalom acted as if this was a surprise to her and moved in sync with the robots to create a stunningly harmonious moment of performance art between the robots and her, with the conjoining parallel being both their contribution to the creation of this piece of art made in that moment. McQueen stated that the first time he ever cried at one of his shows was watching Harlow being spray painted.
In 2001, McQueen put on a monumental show called VOSS. The audience sat around a mirrored cube, which, when illuminated at the start of the show, revealed itself to be the inside of a mental hospital holding cell. This show was inspired by Voss, which is the name of a Norwegian town that is famous because of its wildlife habitat. Nature, specifically birds, was a huge source of inspiration for McQueen. The show was also about mental illness and illness in general. One of McQueen’s long-serving makeup artists went in for surgery prior to this show, and when McQueen went to see her in the hospital, she said that he called her blood-stained bandages “f---ing wicked”. The pieces were gothic and theatrical, which is very true to the Alexander McQueen style, and to quote Vogue, “McQueen was at his very best”. Models wore bandages around their heads and were unable to see the audience from inside this cell, which further enhanced the unsettling nature of the show. The models would press themselves up against the glass to stare at the audience, which created a confrontational atmosphere. In this collection were bloodred feathered gowns with black undertones and dresses made from shells that were snapped like the breaking of bones on the runaway. Birds, feathers bandages all mixed together in a dark and distorted collection about how human mental illness visually interacts with wildlife.
McQueen’s final collection was called Plato Atlantis When it debuted on the runway in October 2009, it was advertised as the first livestreamed fashion show. Hosted on Nick Knight’s Show studio platform, the stream was revolutionary. This show has become legendary; the show studio site of streaming crashed due to the volume of viewers. Plato’s Atlantis was a display of biomorphic and biophilic fashion. McQueen was giving insight into the future of digital fashion. This show was such a large milestone in how technology would interact with fashion in the future. Still, 10 years on, we are yet to reach as large a milestone as Plato Atlantis was for digital fashion. This collection was the most futuristic and innovative version of McQueen that we had ever seen. This collection was taken to new levels of extraordinary beauty through the colourfully bursting abstract digital prints used for all the garments. In terms of looking otherworldly, this is the furthest McQueen had taken his vision. the models in this show looked like they had stepped off a different planet completely. Looking like the most unusual yet strikingly beautiful creatures to have ever walked a runway. This collection is known to be the best Alexander McQueen delivered. Shortly after this show, Alexander McQueen took his own life, and as he stated at the beginning of his career, “If you want to know me, look at my work” I believe this collection was his way of telling the world he was moving to a different place. And he delivered this message in such an unbelievably unforgettable and artistic manner, in true McQueen fashion.
I have talked about a few of the many ground-breaking collections produced by Alexander McQueen. He pioneered so much innovation and imagination within his career. He was years ahead of his time, creating pieces and collections the designers of today can only dream about emulating. No other designer has ever been able to create garments that emotively moved audiences to the same extremities as McQueen. His shows were dark but honest. he never delivered art that he didn’t believe in and that he didn’t have a deep personal connection with. This is something I think is rare to find in designers of the present day, this wholehearted truth to self within their work, no matter how dark or honest. His garments themselves were a hybridisation of human and animal forms. When I first learned of Alexander McQueen, I was 9 years old, and for me, it was a daunting enlightenment into the world of fashion. I didn’t yet understand his work, but what I realised was that fashion had absolutely no boundaries and was something so much greater than clothes.
What are the Chinese Global Aspirations?
By Max Chong (M)
Abstract
The rise and decline of nations and the unprecedented speed of globalisation are the sources of promoting a revolutionary change in the international order. Globalisation not only encouraged political interactions and cultural exchange but also resulted in the emergence of countries such as the PRC. The basis of globalisation is often related to the principle of liberalism and democracy, which contradicts and constrains China’s desire to immerse itself in such a process. Regional economic integration has been increasingly popular in Chinese foreign policies to pursue a radical change in the principle of globalisation, such as preventing the monopoly of liberalism in globalisation. It is reasonably justified that such political and economic integration aims to protect the interests of the ideological minorities. Still, the lack of consultation with the majorities may lead to suspicion of Chinese aggression, whether the integration is about targeting and damaging the sovereignty of the members of the alliances or a type of modern colonialisation. In this essay, we shall discuss three aspects of the Chinese government’s global aspirations: China’s strength, international targets, and the construction of strategies. We shall also look at the relationship between the emergence of China and international order, and how China plans its development route to social harmony and prosperity.
1. Evolution of international order
Since the 2008 Financial Crisis, the supreme and leading status of Europe and the US in globalisation has faced unprecedented challenges; there is a misconception from traditional leading powers that the rise of emerging countries equates to severe competition of interest. It is also increasingly pronounced that the conventional monopoly of globalisation has been taken for granted by the younger generations, and it can be seen that they are preventing the rise of emerging powers but in no relevance to solving their problems, such as the sustainability to maintain their leading status in the process of globalisation. These misconceptions have reflected two issues about the international order. First, is it necessary to have an international order led by the United States and European powers? According to Ikenberry¹, a liberal international order can be more or less organised around a hegemonic state, which can be more or less hierarchical in character. It can also be seen as less open, rules-based, and progressively oriented. However, the US has excessively focussed on hegemonic order when designing the strategies against the Soviet Union during the Cold War, attempting to integrate Russia into a US-led international system. Second, it is questionable whether the leading power of the global order must itself follow Western liberalism, and whether there are standardised values in order to be qualified to be one of the leaders.
However, it is evident that China has stepped forward to compromise on the Western value orientation. For example, Deng’s 1978 reform and opening-up policies, as well as the establishment of special economic zones such as Shenzhen and Zhuhai. The reforms did allow some degree of decentralisation, allowing autonomy in decision-making in particular zones, and this has evolved into Xi Jinping’s thoughts on socialism with Chinese characteristics. In particular, there is an emergence in the concept that trade and exchange are becoming the constituents of modern Chinese society; it is often thought that the compromise to liberal international order will allow the Chinese to facilitate infinite economic cooperation with the Western powers. In fact, this concept was proven wrong when the US sought to offer alternatives such as the Build Back Better World Initiative 2021, and Italy’s recent expression of concerns about Chinese geopolitical motivations in the Belt and Road Initiative in 2019. The Belt and Road initiative, initially introduced in 2013 to open up trade routes and regional cooperation, has exposed the questionable intention of Djibouti’s debt to China, and lease of Hambantota Port in Sri Lanka, whether it is a form of facilitation of regional cooperation or a form of controlling over the strategic assets (Djibouti has the Americans’ only military base in Africa; Hambantota port is crucial for Chinese access to Indian
¹ The end of liberal international order? G. John Ikenberry, International Affairs, Vol 94, Issue 1, Jan 2018
Ocean). The secrecy of the intention contributed to the “disqualification” of China being seen as a “liberal country”, which is frequently shown as the source of Western suspicion, despite a series of unprecedented attempts to compromise to liberalism.
2. Chinese Integration to the World
In the 1978 Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, it was a breakthrough that China officially abandoned the core value of communism - the central belief in class conflict. Deng, expressed his desire in the 12th National Congress of the CPC (1978), to build a prosperous community and aimed to double the Gross Domestic Product before 2000. It is reflective of the three largest missions of the regime, which include “anti-hegemony, complete unification of the country, and modernisation”. Chinese achievement in the late 20th century met all the goals that had been set by Deng; the consistent expansion of its economic productivity, progress of opening-up reform and outstanding production performances had given China and its leaders the unprecedented confidence in the national strategic developments. The establishment of the diplomatic relationship between the United States and the PRC in 1979 was an official sign that China had obtained the qualification to be a respected power, contributing to the qualifications to reconstruct the international order later on.
Yet, there were several circumstances during the late 1980s, where Deng had been expressing his concerns about the matter of peace across the world. In the 1980s, it was a turning point in the attitude of Chinese premiership, and there was a significant rise in ambitions to expand their control over the continent. First, the country has replaced class conflict with a focus on economic planning and development, replacing dogmatism with a pursuit of sustainability and productivity. This series of revolutionary policies was implemented just because it was believed that similarities with Western mainstream liberalism contribute to peace, and peace gives time for China to shape itself to be a potential world leader. Before the 1989 political instability of China, there was a tacit agreement within the regime that peace must be prioritised in order to fulfil their ambitions to expand global influence. Taiwan, has been the most controversial territorial dispute of the 20th century; its plan for reunification has not been discussed as much as it is now during the Xi Jinping era. The attitude of China, at this point, sees the United States as a role model and hub for opportunities; a stable Sino-American relationship is ultimately crucial. At this point, their aspiration is to manipulate the opportunity when the US is experiencing a transition from a manufacturing-based to a technological-based economy so that China can develop itself to be a world factory, especially an export-based economy.
In 1989, it was a turning point in the plans of the Chinese regime, exposing the fragility of the relationship between the Western powers and China. The normalisation of relations between Moscow and Beijing, was significant to the result of consistent suspicion from Western countries; on the other hand, the Tiananmen Massacre caused a tragic damage to the political image of the communist party; these two events occurred in 1989 were the most significant factors which result in the re-balancing China’s reliance to the two superpowers during that period. Given China’s inevitably unstable political aftermath, Deng was not reluctant to achieve China’s promotion at a global level. Instead, there has been an accelerating trend in market reforms and its entrance to the World Trade Organisation (2001). “Zhuada Fangxiao”² (Grasping the large, letting go of the small), a market reform which indicates policymakers should focus on maintaining state control over the largest state-owned enterprises (grasping the large), as well as the idea that central government should relinquish control over smaller and unprofitable state-owned enterprises (letting go of owned enterprises). This semi-economic liberalism provides an alternative for investments, which allows them to experience Chinese economic productivity; however, the ultimate reason is that this series of reforms enables the formation of alliances with developing Middle Eastern countries. In 1993,
2 After the NPC: XI Jinping’ Roadmap for China (March 11, 2014)
China introduced a “strategic partnership” with Brazil. In 1994, China introduced a “constructive strategic partnership” with Russia. It is evident that the 1989 political instability did not lead to a wave of unpopularity from overseas. Still, it marked a milestone in which China has developed independence, which proves that China has adequate power to “negotiate” rather than “acquiesce”. In 1998, the year after the handover of Hong Kong, China introduced an “overall strategic partnership” with the United Kingdom. The consistent expansion of its alliance network is characterised by its aspiration - “partnership rather than alliance.”³
The term “Responsible major country”⁴ has been increasingly utilised to express their eagerness and aspiration for global peace. It reflects the reassurance that China has no intention to promote global schism and antagonism. Still, it also reflects that their consistency of alliance expansion is likely to result in a series of contradictions to the norms set up by Western supremacies. After the 2008 Financial Crisis, China introduced a bilateral currency swap agreement with South Korea, worth 180 billion yuan at the time, enhanced financial stability and facilitated bilateral trade and investment between countries. The agreement has been a strategy to internationalise the yuan. First, the internationalisation of the yuan has a direct conflict of interest with the US; the US dollar makes up about 40% of international payments by value, represents about 59% of global foreign exchange reserves, and is involved in 88% of all foreign exchange transactions, which means that the rise of yuan will reduce the proportion of US transactions in the long term. If US dollar supremacy is weakened, the US can no longer benefit from seigniorage, which no longer enables Americans to print money without leading to domestic inflationary pressures.
The pursuit of international peace, series of economic alliances, and responsibilities reflected the radical change from traditional isolationism to global perspectives. “Zili Gengsheng” (self-reliance - slogan in 1945) and the Great Leap Forward were widely promoted in China in the 1950s to stabilise the country and achieve self-sufficiency. However, the expansion of Chinese global influence has led to a rise in China Threat Theory. China Threat Theory was historically related to the racial discrimination that occurred in the United States back in the 19th century, such as the implementation of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and 1884. However, the modern China Threat Theory is shifting towards an anti-communism perception and a tool to preserve liberalism in the Far East. It is increasingly challenging for China to achieve its ambitious economic targets and maintain a high degree of peace outside its territories. China has consistently imitated the international system, such as its support of the World Bank and the Paris Agreement on Climate Change.
3. Shared Future For Mankind
“Building a Community with Shared Future of Mankind” was frequently cited by Xi Jinping during his address at the Moscow State Institute of International Relations in 2013. The idea embodies its vision for a fair, equitable, and global order built upon the spirit of openness and inclusiveness. This concept shares many similarities with Marx and Engels’s visions that criticise the capitalist class structures, which prevent individual flourishing from being facilitated. (“In place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and class antagonisms, we shall have an association, in which the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all.”). The importance of social harmony in Chinese society has been proven by the fact that the concept of a “shared future of mankind” was included in the Chinese Constitution in 2018 and is recognised as the basis of Chinese international relations.
In the 19th CPC National Congress in 2017, Xi outlined the concept that the unity of the Chinese people is vital to realise the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation. The pursuit of unity in China, represents the belief that the people, party, and army should be united upon the evolution into the modern socialism with
3 Xinhuanet, June 2023,; Gov.cn, November 22, 2021, China shifting approach to alliance politics
4 Central Conference on Work Relating to Foreign Affairs (December 28, 2023, Ministry of Foreign Affairs)
Chinese Characteristics, as well as the consistent expansion of the economy. It is believed that it is the people’s responsibility to fight for economic growth and national rejuvenation, and it is the party’s responsibility to evolve the political system upon the change of its condition in practice. With the lesson from the Tiananmen Square Massacre in 1989, it reinforced the fact that economic reforms do not need to be synchronised with political liberalisation, as people’s living standards improved based on the openingup of the Chinese economy (1978), the strict control over political life diminished the field that allows challenge against the magistrates’ authority. Xi, in the 2017 National Congress, also mentioned that China is moving to the centre stage and making contributions to humankind, which involves pursuing major countries’ diplomacy with Chinese characteristics, giving a new option for other countries and nations who want to speed up their development while preserving their independence. To a certain extent, this involves a double standard when China thinks a country can preserve their independence if it follows Chinese characteristics, but it becomes an exploitation of autonomy if it follows Western liberal characteristics. It is also becoming clear that the party is aware that in order to promote Chinese wisdom and approaches to the centre stage, it is inevitable that the United States control in the international organisation will be loosened, the “win-win cooperation” tends not to exist if a cooperation relies on a series of compromise from one group and it’s own interest.
Xi, has openly called for China to reform global institutions and rewrite existing norms in ways that reflect Beijing’s values and priorities. The way that the leader achieves this is by building a solid reliance on international organisations. China’s monetary contributions to the United Nations have been significantly rising, and it is currently the second largest contributor in the world. Moreover, the concept of a shared future for mankind was promoted to be highly similar to the UN’s vision for global governance; the high participation of China in the UN-led Global Development Initiative is crucial in promoting its vision to the world. This engagement presents Western countries with direct exposure to Beijing’s values and priorities, which are integral to these initiatives. Given the international commitment and its membership in the UN, western countries often find it challenging to reject these China-led programs.
4. Sources of Chinese Global Aspirations
At the end of the Qing Dynasty of China, the Taiping Rebellion of 1850 and the defeat in the Opium War of 1841 marked the commencement of Pandemonium in China. The period of instability and the series of humiliations was maintained until the 1960s. In China, the concept of territorial integrity has been advocated to reinforce the determination of the regime to recover from the national humiliation, and showcase the unwillingness to compromise when it comes to territorial disputes. Ancient Chinese philosophies, such as legalism, have stressed the need for strict regulations to control society and the importance of unity. The desire for territorial unity has been the most crucial factor of an ordered society and social harmony. For example, the intention for re-unification with the Taiwan region was deemed essential to maintain a cohesive society. Pelosi’s Taiwan visit in 2022 was considered a violation of the PRC’s sovereignty; the series of provocations has reinforced the emergence of re-unification so that the order in the Taiwan region can be restored, notably, national patriotism and loyalty to the Communist Party. In polarisation to economic disputes and cooperation, the Chinese attitude on territorial disputes has no existence of compromise, as there is no evolution on such attitude than that of the economic reforms. It remains a spark contrast that constant territorial disputes with neighbouring countries are not proportionate to its desire for global harmony, which is one of its international aspirations. For instance, Senkaku Island Disputes (or Diaoyu Islands or Pinnacle Islands) have been a factor that led to the controversial Sino-Japanese relationship. The provocation of the surveillance and coast guard ships has been described as “ playing an almost cold war-style game of cat-and-mouse, with Chinese boats sometimes darting past the maritime boundary, pursued by the coast guard.”, by the New York Times in 2012.
Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism are considered to have the most extensive influence on contemporary Chinese politics. After the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE), the Han Dynasty was established, and embracing Confucianism allowed them to project a more benevolent image and justify their rule through moral legitimacy. The second generation of Confucianism retains centralised control and some aspects of coercion, after the massive suppression of legalism during the period of Emperor Wu (Han Wudi). However, During the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE), Confucian teachings were reinterpreted and incorporated elements of Buddhism and Taoism; there was also a series of focus on the cultivation of personal virtue in harmony with the cosmic order. Confucianism faced a significant decline during the late Qing Dynasty, notably the abolishment of the imperial system in 1905, followed by a surge of attitudes desiring the abandonment of Confucianism. Chen Duxiu, one of the founders of the Communist Party, has argued that Confucianism was partly responsible for China’s inability to modernise and compete with Western Powers. However, when the Communist Party’s aspirations evolved, the period of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) marked the revival of Confucianism, and it is consistently considered a source of social ethics, harmony, education, and diplomacy.
In contemporary Chinese society, socialism and Confucianism are consistently developed and altered by changing social needs and norms. Since the end of the Chinese Civil War, followed by the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the government relied on Marxism as the foundation of the regime. From the 1953 First Five-Year Plan, which had strict control over the industries and economy, to a Confucianist-heavy-influenced concept of a shared future for mankind, It is very reflective of the trend that Chinese global aspirations will continue to stem from Confucian philosophy, especially when it comes to the pursuit of peace and significance of morality. According to Lahtinen, Confucianism is now in the development phase of pursuing a dialogue between civilisations and globalisation. Economics, science, technology, communications, love, and marriage, through the dialogue is out challenge to survive. The conflicts encountered in modern globalisation are global and require cooperative solutions informed by diverse cultural perspectives. The contradictions between Western political and social norms and the increasingly ambitious Chinese global policies can be resolved similarly to how Legalism challenged Confucianism and how Confucianism shared its prestigious status with other views, such as Rousseau’s Social Contract Theory.
Bibliography
Anja Lahtinen (2022). China’s Global Aspirations: Chapter VI, Page 63-73
Linda Jaivin (2022). The Shortest History of China
G. John Ikenberry. (2018). The end of liberal international order? International Affairs. Vol 94, Jan 2018
Daniel S. Markey (2020). China’s Western Horizon: Beijing and the New Geopolitics of Eurasia
How does mathematics protect your privacy online?
By Avignon Lam (B)
1. Abstract
Encryption is the basis of modern Internet security. With an increasing amount of data transmission through the Internet per year and the rapid development of new technologies, developing new encryption methods is especially important in order to protect our personal data. This essay explores the math and techniques used by common encryption algorithms such as the DH key exchange and RSA encryption, and also newly developed quantum cryptographic methods such as Shor’s algorithm, and lattice-based encryption.
2. Introduction and brief history
The word encryption originates from the Greek word ‘Kryptos’ meaning secret and is the act of converting a message into another message which does not contain meaningful information unless decrypted using the right method. This is particularly useful on the Internet as it allows private data such as your bank account details, your passwords or personal information to be transferred securely without a high risk of being intercepted and known by other people.
The history of encryption dates back as far as to 2000BC when Egyptian noblemen used uncommon hieroglyphs in order to make the message look more important. Since then, encryption has been used to protect and transfer sensitive information such as military orders or trade secrets such as pottery materials. Examples include the Atbash cipher by the Hebrews in 600BC, the scytale device by the Spartans in 500BC, and the Caeser cipher by Julius Caeser in 100BC, arguably one of the simplest yet most famous encryption algorithms.
Cryptoanalysis, the act of deciphering encrypted messages, first saw its use by AlKinda, a Muslim Mathematician in 800AD, where he used the frequencies of letters occurring in languages to break ciphers, developing what is now known as frequency analysis. Cryptoanalysis then played a huge role in the world wars, from Room 40 decrypting miltary plans such as naval warfare strategies or diplomatic plans such as Germany attempting to ally Mexico against the US in WW1, to Bletchley Park decrypting the German Enigma machine in WW2.
Encryption algorithms also developed along with cryptoanalysis methods. The development of computers and the Internet meant that more messages had to be encrypted and transmitted through safer methods as computers could now easily decrypt messages. This saw the development of several improved algorithms, such as the DH key exchange, RSA, ECC, or lattice-based encryption, the last one designed against potential quantum computers.
We will now discuss the mathematics behind the modern encryption algorithms used to protect online data. A considerable amount of these algorithms use what is known as modular arithmetic. In simple terms, modular arithmetic can be thought of like counting on a clock; 13:00 is the same as 1:00. This can be written as 13=1 (mod 12). We can also say that for any integers a and n, a=a+n (mod n). Some of these encryption algorithms also rely on the strength of so-called trapdoor one-way functions. These functions are easy to compute but take a very long time to reverse unless you have specific information, hence they are secure.
3. The DH key exchange
The DH key exchange (full name Diffie–Hellman–Merkle key exchange) is an algorithm created by Whitfield Diffie, Martin Hellman, and Ralph Merkle in 1976. It allows two (or more) parties to share a secret shared key via a public key and their own private keys, and hence securely exchange information through symmetric encryption afterwards. A key, in this context, can be thought of as an encryption and decryption algorithm,
A scytale device
An enigma machine
or numbers representing these algorithms. This was an important discovery as this allowed secret shared keys to be generated on public unsafe channels without exposing the key to any eavesdroppers, meaning that people no longer had to physically exchange keys like before the seventies. The algorithm also introduced the idea of a public and private key, which would see its usage in many other further algorithms later.
So, how does it work? Let’s say there are two people, Alice, and Bob, with their own private keys. To demonstrate the algorithm, we will be using small numbers. Let the private key of Alice, a, be 15 and the private key of Bob, b, be 13. Alice and Bob then agree on a modulus p, and a generator g, via a public unsafe channel. In this case, p = 17 and g = 3. Keep in mind that p must be prime, and g must be a primitive root of p, meaning that ∀ 0<k<m<p, k,m∈N ,gk mod p≠gm modp. Another way of saying this is that for every positive integer k less than p, there exists some positive integer m less than p such that k≡gm (mod p), and each k corresponds to a unique m, and vice versa. To start the algorithm both parties first create their public key by taking ga or b mod p. Hence in this case Alice’s public key, A = 315 mod 17 ≡ 6, and Bob’s public key, B = 313 mod 17 ≡ 12. They then exchange their public keys A and B to each other via the public unsafe channel. They both then calculate the value of recieved public keyown private key mod p. Alice will get 1215 mod 17 ≡ 10, and Bob will get 613 mod 17 ≡ 10. They both get the same result and now have a secret shared key. This process can be simplified and can be represented as a diagram with colours instead of keys.
But why do they end up with the same key? Well, firstly we know that the public keys A= ga mod p and B= gb mod p. To get the shared key Alice does Ba mod p, which is equivalent to taking (gb)a mod p or gab mod p. Bob does a similar calculation, where Ab mod p ≡ (ga )b mod p= gab mod p, hence both Alice and Bob will always end up at the same key. For more parties to exchange information, the calculating then exchanging procedure is repeated until all parties end up with the same secret key gabcd mod p.
Why is this secure? Let’s say that an eavesdropper Eve is monitoring the public unsafe channel and obtains any data transmitted through it. Notice in this algorithm, Eve only obtains p, g, A, and B (17, 3, 6, 12 respectively), but not the shared key gab mod p (10 in the example). Indeed, for small numbers such as those used in the example above, Eve can easily compute the shared key by trying g raised to different powers (mod p), (i.e. trying 3¹ ≡ 3 (mod 17),3² ≡ 9 (mod 17),3³ ≡ 10 (mod 10),…, until she reaches 3¹⁵ ≡ 6 (mod 17)). This allows her to use a brute force attack to find the private keys (i.e. in this case, as A = 6, she has found that a = 15). She can then use these private keys to compute the secret shared key (i.e. computing 313×15 ≡ 10 (mod 17) in this example). However, in practical use, the algorithm uses much larger values of a, b, and p, which can go up to 617 digits (or 2²⁰⁴⁸). Computing with such a large number would take a very long time, much more than the human lifespan. This is because there is no efficient algorithm for computing such a reverse operation of finding a and b. This is known as the discrete logarithm problem, a trapdoor one-way function, and its runtime increases exponentially as the digits of p increase, and it is what makes the algorithm secure.
4. RSA encryption
The RSA encryption algorithm was publicly published by Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman in 1977 hence the name. Although Clifford Cooks had described a similar algorithm in 1973, it was classified by GCHQ and was unknown until 1997. It uses asymmetric encryption, meaning that the encryption key is different to the decryption key. This is different to the DH key exchange earlier where the same secret key is used by both parties to encrypt and decrypt information. In this case, the public encryption key contains a very large semiprime (the product of two primes), and the private decryption key is dependent on the
semiprime. An eavesdropper cannot compute the private key unless they have the prime factorisation of the semiprime, however there are no efficient algorithms for doing so, ensuring its security.
So, how does it work? We bring back Alice and Bob, in this case, Bob wants to send a message to Alice.
Firstly we generate Alice’s keys:
1. Choose 2 prime numbers, again we use small numbers for simplicity. Let us have p = 53 and q = 59.
2. Calculate the semiprime n by multiplying the primes, n = 53 x 59 = 3127.
3. Calculate (p-1)(q-1), which we denote φ(n), which is (53 - 1)(59 - 1) = 3016.
4. An encryption key, e is then chosen where e is an odd number coprime to φ(n). Although in actual practical use the value 65537 is often used, to simplify things we let e = 3.
5. Calculate the decryption key d by finding a positive integer k where d = kφ(n)+1 is also an integer. In this case, when k = 2, d = 2011.
e
The public encryption keys would be n and e, and the private decryption key would be d.
Then we move on to the data transmission part:
1. Bob encrypts and send Alice a message m, in this case m = 89.
2. He calculates a value c where c= me mod n, in this case c = 89³ mod 3127 = 1394.
3. He then sends the value of c through a public channel to Alice, where Alice does the calculation cd mod n. Here the calculation 1394²⁰¹¹ mod 3127=89, successfully decrypting Bob’s message.
4.
Before we explain why the algorithm works, we have to explain a few concepts.
Euler’s totient function:
Denoted by the notation φ(n)or also called the phi function, this function simply calculates the number of positive integers less than n which are coprime with n, or in more formal definition, the number of integers k where 1≤k≤n where gcd(k,n) = 1. For a semiprime n = pq, out of the n integers from 1 to n, there are q multiples of p and p multiples of q, however n, or pq is a multiple of both, hence φ(n) = n - p - q + 1 = (p-1)(q-1) for a semiprime n.
Reduced residue systems and Euler’s theorem:
A reduced residue system is simply a subset of integers which contain φ(n) elements, all of which are unique (mod n), and are coprime to n. For example, a reduced residue system mod 10 could be {1,3,7,9} or {11,13,17,19}. Notice that {3,9,21,27} is also a reduced residue system mod 10. This is an example of the property where if {r₁ ,r₂,r₃,…,rφ(n) } is a reduced residue system mod n and gcd(a,n) = 1, then {ar₁, ar₂, ar₃,…, arφ(n) } is also a reduced residue system mod n. This means that the set of remainders of each element divided by n will be the same for both sets. Hence, we can say that r₁ r₂ r₃…rφ(n) ≡ ar₁ ar₂ ar₃…arφ(n) (mod n). Also ar₁ ar₂ ar₃…arφ(n) = aφ(n) r₁ ,r₂,r₃…rφ(n) , so we can equate to get that aφ(n) r₁ ,r₂,r₃…rφ(n) ≡ r₁ ,r₂,r₃…rφ(n) (mod n). As gcd (ri ,n) = 1 ∀ 1 ≤ i ≤ (n), we have gcd (r₁ ,r₂,r₃ rφ(n) ,n)=1 also. As a result, we can cancel the r₁ ,r₂,r₃ rφ(n) terms on both sides and we are left with aφ(n) ≡ 1 (mod n) ∀ gcd (a,n)=1. This is Euler’s theorem.
Now we can explain how asymmetrical encryption in RSA works.
From above, we can get (aφ(n) )k=akφ(n) ≡ 1k=1 (mod n) ∀ gcd (a,n)=1, k∈N, then multiply both sides by a to get akφ(n)+1 ≡ a (mod n). In our example of RSA where n is a semiprime, we have mk(p-1)(q-1)+1 ≡ m (mod n). We then choose d and e such that de=k(p-1)(q-1)+1, meaning d=k(p-1)(q-1)+1) as described above. By doing this we have m^de≡m (mod n), allowing us to use the private key to decrypt the encrypted message.
The safety of RSA is dependent on the inability of an eavesdropper Eve to obtain the decryption key d. In RSA encryption, an eavesdropper would be able to obtain information about the public keys e, n, and the encrypted message c. As we can see from earlier, the value of d depends on e and φ(n), which for a semiprime n, requires knowledge of the factorisation of n. The most basic way to factorise a number is to check every single prime number until the square root of the original number. For large values of n up to 2¹⁰²⁴, this can take an extremely long time. For example, an optimised factorisation algorithm (e.g. general number field sieve) would take around 2700 core years of computing power to factorise a number with 250 digits (~2⁸²⁹), making it impractical unless equipped with thousands of computers. This is because as far as our current factorisation algorithms go, the processing time scales up exponentially. Factorising such large integers can also be thought of as a one-way trapdoor function, as it is easy to multiply two primes, but difficult to factorise the large product, hence protecting online data transmission.
5. Quantum computers and Shor’s Algorithm
But now what if I told you that quantum computers could potentially easily factorise these large semiprimes? This is due to Shor’s algorithm, proposed by Peter Shor in 1994. This algorithm allows a large enough quantum computer to factorise a large semiprime, and if implemented, will undermine most of data security, compromising important data such as bank details, government data and more. Although as of now quantum computers are too small to run these algorithms on large numbers, it is still a rising threat that has to be addressed. Hence research has been done to develop several quantum-proof encryption algorithms, with lattice-based encryption being the most prominent.
Before we go onto Shor’s algorithm, we first explain Euclid’s algorithm.
Developed by Euclid in 300BC, the algorithm uses a systematic way to find the greatest common divisor of two numbers. For 2 numbers a and b where a≥b, we find the remainder, c, of a divided by b (or in other words, the number c obtained by subtracting a by b repeatedly where 0≤c<b). We then repeat the process again to b and c, then again to the smaller numbers, until we get 0, in that case the greatest common divisor will be the smallest number. For example, to calculate gcd (83076,28819), we first calculate the remainder of 83076÷28819, which is 25438. Then the remainder of 28819÷25438 gives us 3381. Further repetitions give 25438÷3381=7…1771, 3381÷1771=1…1610, 1771÷1610=1…161, and finally 1610÷161 gives us 10 with a remainder of 0, showing that the greatest common divisor is 161. This works as for any a,b,d,n,k∈N where d is greatest common divisor of a and b, and a=nd,b=kd,a-b=(n-k)d which is still a multiple of d.
We then move onto the main part of Shor’s algorithm.
To find the factors of a large number N, Shor’s algorithm first uses Euclid’s algorithm on 2, N and uses another algorithm to check if N is a power of a prime. If N is even or is a power of a prime, then the problem is solved as a factor has been found. However, if it is not either of those above, we then choose an integer a at random where 1<a<N. We then use Euclid’s algorithm to find gcd(a,N). If the result isn’t 1, then we have found a factor of N. If the result is 1, then by Euler’s theorem we known that ∃ r∈N,ar≡1 (mod N). We then find the lowest value of such r, also known as the order of a mod N. This implies that N is a divisor of ar-1, or N | ar-1. This means that N|(ar2--1)(ar2-+1). However, as we want to find integer factors of N, r must be even. If we get an odd value of r, we simply just restart the process by using a new random value of a. Also note that when r is even, N∤a r 2--1 as N | ar2--1 would imply that ar2-≡1 (mod N), contradicting the earlier assumption that r is the smallest integer n which an mod N≡1. We then compute gcd (ar2- -1,N). If the result is 1, then N | ar2-+1, we cannot
obtain a factor of N and we restart, choosing a new value of a. If the result is not 1, then we have found a factor of N, allowing factorisation. It turns out that when choosing an integer a between 1 and N exclusive, the probability of getting an even r and gcd (ar2--1,N)≠1 is larger than 50%, provided that r is even and is not a power of a prime. This is a much better improvement than just guessing prime factors, as it allows us to turn a random guess into potentially a factor.
We then demonstrate the algorithm with a small example.
1. First choose a number to factorise, in this case 77.
2. We know that 77 is not even, nor is it a power of a prime.
3. Then choose a random integer a=8.
4. As gcd(8,77)=1, we know for some integer r, 8r≡1 (mod 77). It turns out that r=10.
5. Hence we know that 77 | (8⁵-1)(8⁵+1).
6. We now find gcd (8⁵+1,77), which gives 11. We have found a factor of 77, and the other factor would then be 77÷11=7.
Although you could run this algorithm on a classical computer, the time taken to find the integer r such that ar≡1 (mod N) (step 4 in the previous example) would take so long that it would be faster to just check every prime number. However, this algorithm can run much faster on a quantum computer. While a classical computer consists of bits that can be either in a state of 1 or 0, a quantum computer contains quantum bits, or qubits, that can exist as a superposition of 1 and 0 at the same time. This means that n qubits can exist at a superposition of 2n states at one time. Running an operation on the qubits would affect all the superposed states at the same time, allowing much faster computation. However, when we want to obtain a result from the qubits, or measure them, they will only return a single answer, which would be only one of the 2n states with some probability each. We can however manipulate the qubits in order to produce the desired answer. To do this we first have to explain the cyclic nature of the group of an integer raised to powers modulo N. For integers a,b,c,N,r, ar ≡ 1 (mod N ) and ab ≡ k (mod N) would imply that acr+b=(ar) c ab ≡ (1c)k=k (mod N). This shows that this group with generator a modulo N is cyclic with order r.
Now we have shown the cyclic nature of the group we move onto the quantum algorithm.
1. Firstly we create a superposition with states |0⟩, |1⟩, |2⟩, |3⟩,… and so on.
2. We then raise our random guess a to the power of these qubits, and store the remainder of division by N, or ar mod N, in another set of qubits. These qubits then become entangled and become |0⟩|rem₀⟩,|1⟩|rem₁⟩,|2⟩|rem₂⟩,….
3. As we know that the remainder repeats every r numbers, we can just measure a random remainder remb=k. This yields us a superposition of states |b⟩,|b+r⟩,|b+2r⟩,|b+3r⟩,….
4. We can then use the quantum Fourier Transform, a quantum version of the Fourier Transform as the name suggests, to find the frequency of these terms, which would be ¹ -r. We then simply take the reciprocal of the result, therefore finding r to continue the algorithm.
As of now, the largest quantum computers only have around 1000 qubits, in which some of them have to be used to reduce quantum noise that may cause errors, hence the threat of breaking RSA is still not too close. Although quantum computers have only been able to factorise 15 and 21 through Shor’s algorithm now, the development of quantum computers is expected to grow faster, hence countries such as the US have launched schemes through government agencies like NIST, initiating the development of quantum resistant encryption.
Out of the few quantum resistant algorithms that were developed, the most successful ones were lattice based. We first give a brief explanation of what lattices and basis vectors are. Basis vectors are a set of
vectors which are linearly independent, meaning that every point in the vector space can be represented a single unique combination of these basis vectors. In a 2D space, basis vectors would simply be any 2 noncollinear vectors, such as (1,0), (0,1), or (1.23,12), (56,45.6). Generally speaking, the number of elements in a set of basis vectors for a vector space would be the same as its dimension. Now a lattice is simply the points in the vector space which can be represented as integer combinations of the chosen basis vectors. For example, for basis vectors (1,0), (0,1), the lattice would simply be all the points in a Cartesian grid with integer x and y coordinates. Now how these lattice-based algorithms work is that each user has an ‘good’ set of basis vectors as their private keys (e.g. (1,0) and (0,1)). Their private keys would then be some random vectors on the lattice which can form a set of basis vectors with the same lattice (e.g. (1,2), (1,3)). Encrypting a message is akin to picking a point on the lattice and moving it slightly away from the lattice point, and decrypting the message can be thought of as finding out the unique combination of basis vectors that make up the chosen lattice point. This is obviously much harder with random ‘bad’ basis vectors like the ones in the public key and much easier with ‘good’ basis vectors such as the ones in the private key. Now although computers can easily do this in 2D, as we go up to higher dimensions up to 1000D, the number of lattice points scale up exponentially, and so does the difficulty. As of now neither classical nor quantum computers have an efficient way of solving the problem, hence it is thought to be quantum resistant.
6. Conclusion
To conclude, there are several algorithms for modern cryptography, the DH key exchange, RSA encryption, and lattice-based encryption, which all rely on the difficulty and time taken to undo a one-way trapdoor function based on hard mathematical problems. The first two (and their variants) are commonly used on the Internet, such as TLS, VPNs, emails, or banking encryption. However, due to Shor’s algorithms being able to factorise a large number, or solve the discrete logarithm problem through quantum computers therefore breaking RSA and DH, lattice-based algorithms are being developed, and may become more popular in the future.
Bibliography
A brief history of cryptography, Cypher Research Laboratories Pty. Ltd., 2013 https://www.cypher.com.au/crypto_history.htm
The mathematics of encryption, American Mathematical Soc., 2013 https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=GbKyAAAAQBAJ Modern Cryptography, Khan Academy, 2013 https://www.khanacademy.org/computing/computer-science/cryptography/modern-crypt
A Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures and Public-Key Cryptosystems, R.L. Rivest, A. Shamir, and L. Adleman, 1977 https://web.archive.org/web/20230127011251/http://people.csail.mit.edu/rivest/Rsapaper.pdf
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How Quantum Computers Break The Internet... Starting Now, Veritasium, 2023 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-UrdExQW0cs
What is Lattice-Based Cryptography & Why You Should Care, Joël Alwen, Medium, 2018 https://medium.com/cryptoblog/what-is-lattice-based-cryptography-why-should-you-care-dbf9957ab717
Goodness, truth, and beauty in Plato’s Republic: exploring the “three transcendentals” and their relevance today
By Lavinia Martin (NH)
“The final outcome of education, I suppose we’d say, is a single newly finished person, who is either good or the opposite.”
Plato’s kallipolis
The main purpose of Plato’s Republic was to discover the meaning of justice, and to prove that it is in every individual’s best interest to try and be just. The book is an account of a conversation between the Greek philosopher Socrates, famous for his argumentative method of exploring ethics and his tragic death by hemlock, and five eager listeners, with Socrates most likely acting as a mouthpiece for Plato’s own views. In order to best explore the presence and purpose of justice in society, Socrates creates an imaginary city, his kallipolis (“beautiful city”). Plato concludes that justice reigns when the soul and society exist harmoniously; that is, when each part of the soul can perform its proper function without interference, with reason ruling over the spirited and appetitive parts, and with each class of society performing its own function without encroaching on the functions of another class, with the rulers at the top of the hierarchy, the auxiliaries second, and the workers third. Only when both the individual soul and the collective society are in harmony and balance can justice be achieved in society.
Integral to his argument is the existence of truth, goodness and beauty. These concepts are regarded in the Catholic tradition as the “three transcendentals”: nonphysical, conceptual, even spiritual realities which extend beyond the simple, sensory experiences of human existence. In philosophy, transcendentals can be seen as the raw properties of being. For ancient Western philosophers like Plato, the true, the good and the beautiful were objective and identifiable to the well-educated seeker (we shall come onto what comprises a suitable education momentarily). We have seen how Plato concluded that justice was the harmony of the tripartite soul and the tripartite society. Where do the transcendentals come into all of this? For a society to be just, there must exist the harmony of truth, goodness, and beauty; and for the soul to be just, there must be harmony of the three correlatives, logos (reason, corresponding with truth), ethos (morality, corresponding with goodness), and pathos (emotion, corresponding with beauty).
Allegory of the Cave
In Book 7 of the Republic, Plato introduces us to his famous “Allegory of the Cave”. Through this allegory Plato explores the dangerous difference between reality and interpretation, and seeks to describe an education which helps men and women in the pursuit of truth. Plato invites us to imagine a group of men who have spent their entire lives tied up in a dark cave, looking at a blank wall. Behind them, there is another wall; behind that wall, men walk up and down, parading in the air statues of animals and other objects; and behind the men, a fire burns, casting shadows of the statues on the wall in front of the prisoners. The prisoners, who are entirely unaware of what is going on behind them, believe that they are seeing the real things on the wall ahead of them. Naturally, it never occurs to them that these silhouettes are really twice removed from the real object: they are simply the shadows of the statues of the objects.
One of the men tied up manages to rid himself of the chains which tie him into the cave, and, turning around, he sees the fire and the statues being waved around. Eventually he accepts that the things he thought were real all his life were just shadows, and now he believes the statues to be the true objects. After he finds a way out of the cave, he realises that even then he was wrong, because these were just statues of things, not the things themselves. And finally, he looks up to the sky and sees the Sun (which here represents the Form of the good). He realises that it is only because of the light which the Sun provides that he can see things as they truly are. But, when he goes back into the cave to encourage everyone else to come outside with him and experience reality as it really is, they do not believe his stories of the outside world. Socrates even suggests that they would try to kill him if he insisted further, so desperately do they want to stay in the familiar world of the cave.
The purpose of education
Socrates claims that the aim of education should be to move a person as far away from the cave as possible. It should teach the soul to pursue the right desires and goals, and to reach understanding of the Form of the good. The sort of person who is successfully changed by this kind of education, who can recognise and appreciate the good, true and beautiful, is fit to be a ruler of the kallipolis, a “philosopher-king”. Plato discusses the importance of instilling virtue in a person through education, claiming that the highest purpose of education should be to create adults who firstly are capable of understanding the good and the true, but moreover, who want to understand it: people who continually try to improve themselves, who cannot help but pursue truth and the good and cultivate beauty. The philosopher explains that this lengthy education mainly consists of rigorous grounding in maths and dialectic, with maths acting as the preparation for the highest form of study, dialectic. If they have not been properly grounded in mathematics before being introduced to philosophical dialectic, Socrates says, a person will argue simply for the sake of arguing, like a child might, without actually intending to discover any truth or get anything out of the conversation. (Consider the hysterical and entitled students of today, who will literally scream over any voice of reason or attempt at discussion, so adamant are they to disrupt society and wreak chaos unquestioned and unprohibited.)
Plato also advocates that children should be exposed only to beautiful art, literature and music – he believes that anything that falls short of this standard is actually a corrupting influence on impressionable young minds. He has been criticised for his seemingly authoritarian leanings in wanting to ban children from reading certain books. But Plato certainly did not mean censorship as it is recognised today. Rather, he was simply suggesting that adults should be selective with what they expose their children to, which few people will actually disagree with. The literature which Plato suggests we give our children is that which is beautiful and wholesome and good. He does not suggest any kind of preferred curriculum and make it mandatory for the imaginary citizens of his kallipolis, which could indeed be interpreted as somewhat sketchy; rather, he holds that anyone with an understanding of the good will agree on what is beautiful, because beauty, like truth and goodness, is completely objective. To Plato, then, there is no dispute to be had. For any given book or piece of artwork or music, there is, as Plato sees it, a right or wrong answer as to whether it aligns with the three transcendentals or not. It is not a question of taste or suppressing other people’s opinions in favour of Plato’s. It is simply that everyone, once educated to pursue the good and true, will agree on what is objectively good or objectively bad precisely because it is objective, and will only want to present their children with that which is good.
To return to the Allegory of the Cave, there are many in the cave who don’t consider trying to escape, who don’t want to know what is over their shoulder that they can’t see. Perhaps many societal problems today are the result of a kind of neglect of the soul, in childhood as well as throughout people’s lives. The virtuous soul which Plato wants to cultivate – in the formative years while souls are still malleable – cannot help but seek truth, goodness and beauty. Virtue could almost be measured by the extent to which an individual attempts to break free of their bonds, turn from the wall of shadows and seek knowledge of the good.
The transcendentals today
In opposition to Plato’s philosophy, in many Western societies of today, relativism has become the dominating ideology. We are now told that goodness, truth and beauty, morality, art, virtue, and even reality are subjective. It is now considered elitist to suggest that one piece of art is objectively better than another, or to argue that one culture can be more virtuous than the next. Even the universally and mathematically correct principle that “2 + 2 = 4” has been decried as racist. This is where we begin to see enormous problems with relativism. This is where no one can accuse another of wrongdoing, so long as the actions of the wrongdoer align with their own personal definition of morality. It is where privileged “feminists” ignore violence against women from other countries in the name of “cultural sensitivity”. It is where meaningful
discussions around ethics are rendered pointless, because no person’s way of thinking is allowed to be considered better than another’s. The idea that there is no such thing as objective truth or morality leads to absurdity. Truth is binding and binary. For all their distortions and contortions, opponents of this view cannot function in the world. They necessarily assume that objective facts exist in their every action and interaction with their surroundings. They may sit in their comfortable office chairs and postulate that even math is subjective, but they would be the first to object if their salary was a decimal point in the wrong direction.
Just because there are tricky questions where it is difficult to come to the right answer, does not mean that there isn’t a right answer. Once you have genuinely seen and understood the good, you cannot unsee it. The man who breaks free from the cave and sees the Sun shining on real objects cannot take himself back into the cave and look at the shadows on the wall and believe them to be true again – it simply does not make sense. If you understand the good, it permeates every fibre of your being; it is nonsensical to act in opposition to it. Those who have been brought up on a morally relativist ideology can neither understand the good nor acknowledge the possibility of its existence, and so they cannot begin to seek it.
And where does the concept of beauty fit into all of this? Once we accept that truth and goodness are objective, we can agree that what is beautiful is not simply a matter of opinion. We can state with confidence that Bach’s music is intrinsically good and objectively beautiful. If Debussy isn’t immediately gratifying, perhaps I need to learn and grow and gain more wisdom in order to appreciate it. Can it really be doubted that Renaissance architecture is objectively better than the depressing, concrete streets of Russian Brutalism? To take a walk in beautiful autumnal nature, to marvel at the complexities of biology and physics, hear the sad beauty of Albinoni’s Adagio or witness the simple magic of a mother with her child – we are surrounded by beauty, we cannot help but gravitate towards it. We ought to strive to recognise it, to preserve it, and to create it. What is beautiful is good, and what is good must be true, and what is true is necessarily beautiful. The three are intertwined and inseparable.
Conclusion
The world of cancel culture, blatant intolerance, subjective reality and relative morality is an incredibly dangerous one. The best that we can do to resist it is to approach life from a position of good faith – to give the benefit of the doubt as far as possible, to be humble and openminded. If something seems at odds with how you immediately feel about it, the best way forward is to try and understand what was meant, rather than arrogantly and presumptuously dismiss it. Similarly, the purpose of studying literature or music is not to decide whether you liked it or not – we should not choose things because they are easy or likeable. And what is more, it is becoming increasingly important to stand up for our beliefs, for what is true and for the objectivity of life and reality. Relativism tells us that our opinion is just as worthy as anyone else’s, and so, if we disagree with something, we are well within our rights to put our fingers in our ears and never learn or grow from anybody else’s experience or view. But this is dangerous both for the individual and for society. It is time for a revitalisation of Plato’s transcendentals: for a recognition that some things are true, and others are not; some actions and some values are good, and others are not; some things are beautiful, others not; and that this may be uncomfortable but it is the truth. Ultimately, opinions are irrelevant. We must not be encouraged to dismiss or destroy something purely because we do not understand it.
The Artificial Leaf: Exploring the Potential of Artificial Leaf Technology for Sustainable Energy
By Azariah Almeida (NH)
Abstract
The artificial leaf has been developed as a revolutionary technology that draws inspiration from natural photosynthesis to harness solar energy in order to produce fuel sustainably. In this article, I explore not only the development of artificial leaf technology and its potential applications but also its technological limitations due to availability of materials and engineering challenges. The discussion also extends to the environmental implications of the device and its potential to lessen climate change by producing clean and renewable fuels.
I. Introduction
Carbon dioxide levels in the earth’s atmosphere are currently higher than at any other point in human history which has led to the greenhouse effect to accelerate, raising the global temperature and affecting human and animal habitats. The high carbon dioxide levels in the earth’s atmosphere are mostly due to the burning of fossil fuels as an energy source. The artificial leaf is a man-made device designed to mimic the process of photosynthesis in the endeavour to convert sunlight into chemical energy. In 2011, American chemist Daniel Nocera first utilised semiconductor materials, catalysts, and electrolytes to create the artificial leaf¹. The concept was an attempt to find a new renewable and clean energy source that would simultaneously reduce our reliance on fossil fuels and contribute to the fight to lower carbon emissions and slow down the process of global warming.
II. The Photosynthesis Process
Firstly, the biochemical process of photosynthesis is used by almost all organisms² in the plant Protista and Mo. Sunlight is absorbed through top layers of leaves, while carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and water from the soil is drawn up. Photosynthesis occurs in the intracellular organelle, the chloroplast, in which the light-dependent reaction takes place³. Light energy from the sun energises electrons within chlorophyll molecules, moving them along a chain within the chloroplasts. This redox reaction means lost electrons in the chlorophyll molecules are replaced with electrons from water, splitting the water molecules and producing oxygen.
Furthermore, this process of photosynthesis in energy conversion is highly efficient. Not only do leaves contain chlorophyll pigments that absorb light energy from the sun, but also accessory pigments, such as carotenoids, that allow for the capture of a larger portion of the light spectrum⁴. The biological catalyst, Rubisco, is a protein also found in the chloroplasts that are involved in the carbon fixation reaction⁵– the conversion of carbon dioxide into organic molecules. The presence of enzymes speeds up the chemical reactions taking place. The stomatal openings of the leaves are regulated in order to control the gas exchange and minimise water loss through transpiration while optimising the carbon dioxide uptake. Lastly, the final product of photosynthesis, glucose, is a highly energy-dense molecule. The energy absorbed from sunlight is stored in glucose to be used at any time by the plant in cellular respiration that releases said energy.
The process of photosynthesis the leaf utilises and its efficiencies in energy conversion have inspired the research and production of the artificial leaf. However, instead of the aim of producing glucose to store energy for plant use, the artificial leaf will produce a form of energy stored as hydrogen that can be used as fuel for a myriad of purposes.
¹ Nocera, D.G. (2012). The Artificial Leaf. Accounts of Chemical Research, 45(5), pp.767–776. doi:https://doi.org/10.1021/ar2003013.
² Spanner, H. (2022). Photosynthesis: What is it and how does it work? [online] www.sciencefocus.com.
Available at: https://www.sciencefocus.com/nature/how-does-photosynthesis-work.
Available at: https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/photosynthetic-cells-14025371/#:~:text=During%20the%20process%20of%20photosynthesis.
⁴ Dowd, M. (2019). What Four Accessory Pigments Are Necessary for Photosynthesis to Be Carried Out? [online] Sciencing.
Available at: https://sciencing.com/four-accessory-pigments-necessary-photosynthesis-carried-out-10064523.html.
⁵ Jensen, R.G. (2000). Activation of Rubisco regulates photosynthesis at high temperatures and CO2. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, [online] 97(24), pp.12937–12938. doi:https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.97.24.12937.
III. Components and Function of the Artificial Leaf
The first artificial leaf made by Nocera in 2008 consisted of a thin sheet of semiconducting silicon⁶ (what most solar cells are made of) that, on one side, is covered with a cobalt-based catalyst that released oxygen and on the other with a layer of a nickel-molybdenum-zinc alloy, from which the hydrogen is released. The device is placed in a water container under direct sunlight, beginning the process. The semiconducting silicon absorbs photons from the sunlight that energise electrons within the semiconductor – in a similar way to electrons within chlorophyll molecules. Like the electrons in chlorophyll molecules, electrons are excited into entering a higher energy state, initiating the process of electrolysis.
At the anode, the water is oxidised, losing electrons, and producing oxygen gas with the equation, 2H₂O→ O₂+4H++4e -
While at the cathode, hydrogen ions from the water gain electrons to form hydrogen gas with the equation, 4H++4e→2H₂. The cobalt catalysts are present to facilitate and encourage the efficiency of this process by reducing the energy required for the reactions to occur. This original device employs the use of inexpensive materials that are also earth-abundant, like silicon, cobalt, and nickel, while other attempts require more expensive elements like platinum.
Another, more recent version of the device was produced by a research team at the University of Cambridge in 2019, that rather than producing just hydrogen, it produced syngas⁷ – a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide that can be used as fuel to produce other chemicals⁸. This new device is made up of a cell with two semiconducting photoelectrodes that produce electricity, which in turn power the catalyst-driven reaction. The first electrode is a cathode made of a photovoltaic perovskite along with a cobalt catalyst, at which the electricity is generated, triggering the cobalt catalyst to split the carbon dioxide, producing carbon monoxide and oxygen. The photovoltaic perovskite is a material used in solar cells that converts solar energy directly into sunlight⁹. The second electrode is the anode, comprised of the photocatalyst bismuth vanadate that, after absorbing sunlight, begins the oxidation of water, producing hydrogen.
However, more recently, in 2022, the same team produced an upgraded version that produces alcohol fuels such as propanol and ethanol¹⁰. The addition is a special catalyst formulated of copper and palladium, which means when the device is immersed in water under sunlight, it begins to produce alcohol. However, it produces just microliters of alcohol per square centimetre area, making it inefficient at producing larger volumes of fuel, and it is still under development.
IV. The Current Environmental Issue
The main objective of producing the artificial leaf was to find a cleaner energy source and fuel alternative to fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide levels are currently higher than at any other point in human history¹¹ and are rising due to the burning of fossil fuels for energy. Fossil fuels are energy sources such as coal and oil that were produced from the decomposition of carbon-based organisms millions of years ago. The carbon contained within the fuels is released when burnt, combining with oxygen in a combustion reaction, forming carbon dioxide and water vapour. The levels of carbon dioxide in the air are currently rising because we
⁶ Chandler, D. (2011). ‘Artificial leaf’ makes fuel from sunlight. [online] MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Available at: https://news.mit.edu/2011/ artificial-leaf-0930.
⁷ Patel, P. (2022). Floating Artificial Leaf Turns CO2 Into Fuel. [online] IEEE Spectrum. Available at: https://spectrum.ieee.org/artificial-leaf-hydrogen-syngas.
⁸ Speight, J. (2019). Synthesis Gas - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. [online] www.sciencedirect.com. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/ earth-and-planetary-sciences/synthesis-gas#:~:text=Unconventional%20gas&text=Synthesis%20gas%20(also%20known%20as [Accessed 25 Jan. 2024].
⁹ U.S. Energy Information Administration (2023). Photovoltaics and electricity - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). [online] www.eia.gov.
Available at: https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/solar/photovoltaics-and-electricity.php#:~:text=Photovoltaic%20cells%20convert%20sunlight%20into.
¹⁰ Patel, P. (2023). Artificial Leaf Brews Liquid Fuel From Carbon Dioxide - IEEE Spectrum. [online] spectrum.ieee.org.
Available at: https://spectrum.ieee.org/artificial-leaf.
Available at: https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-atmospheric-carbon-dioxide.
release more than we or natural processes (such as photosynthesis) remove. Greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, absorb and radiate heat and gradually over time, increase the Earth’s average temperature. The greenhouse effect is natural, but because of the increase in such gases, the earth’s energy budget (flow of energy) is tipped out of balance, increasing the average temperature. The increase in the earth’s average temperature has widespread effects on the environment and ecosystem, leading to rising sea levels, climate change, and altered animal behaviour. It is not only emissions from burning fossil fuels that affect the earth, but also the production process of the fuels. The industry utilises miles of land to build wells, pipelines and various facilities, degrading land and affecting its nutrient levels and biodiversity. Many manufacturing facilities, such as coal mining, often run toxic by-products or excavated rock and soil into nearby bodies of water, polluting drinking water and ecosystems.
In 2015, 195 countries signed the Paris Agreement, which pledged to limit the Earth’s average temperature from increasing past 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels (years from 1850 to 1900), when the global temperature lingered around 13.5 degrees Celsius¹². However, in 2022, the average global temperature was recorded at 1.15 degrees Celsius above preindustrial levels¹². According to the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), to keep global temperatures below the 1.15-degree mark, we would have to reach net zero emissions by 2050 – meaning we would have to keep the earth’s energy budget balanced¹². In 2018, 89% of global CO2 emissions were from fossil fuels and industry¹³, which is why scientists need to find new sources of energy that are cleaner and sustainable in the long term.
V. The Use of Hydrogen Fuel
Although hydrogen is the most abundant molecule in the universe, it does not occur naturally on Earth, meaning it has to be separated from compounds like water or fossil fuels. Hydrogen fuel is currently used for rocket fuel but can also be considered as a clean alternative to oil and gas for other purposes such as heating and transport, unlike fossil fuels that release carbon dioxide and other pollutants like sulphur dioxide when burnt, hydrogen only releases water vapor in the combustion reaction, 2H₂ (g)+ O₂ (g)→2H₂ O(g). Because it provides a source of energy without contributing to greenhouse gas emissions, it is an attractive alternative to help balance the energy budget.
Firstly, hydrogen can be used as a clean fuel for fuel cell vehicles, converting the hydrogen into electricity and producing only water as a by-product. Road transport is currently accountable for almost half of the world's final oil consumption. Moving the fossil fuel dependency to hydrogen produced from artificial leaves can help decrease this percentage and decrease total CO2 emissions.
Secondly, the manufacturing and industry can utilise hydrogen fuel¹⁴. Due to energy-intensive processes often used, emissions and consumption of fuel are high in this division. By replacing fossil fuels with hydrogen fuel, the artificial leaves could help decarbonise industrial activities and create a more environmentally friendly and sustainable sector.
Thirdly, artificial leaves could produce hydrogen to be used for residential purposes, e.g. heating and electricity. With the production of artificial leaves on a small scale, the devices could generate hydrogen locally and provide homes with a clean and renewable energy source.
¹² Chu, J. (2023). Explained: The 1.5 C climate benchmark. [online] MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Available at: https://news.mit.edu/2023/explained-climate-benchmark-rising-temperatures-0827.
¹³ ClientEarth Communications (2022). Fossil fuels and climate change: the facts. [online] www.clientearth.org.
Available at: https://www.clientearth.org/latest/news/fossil-fuels-and-climate-change-the-facts/.
¹⁴ Energy Information Administration (2020). Use of oil - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). [online] Eia.gov.
Available at: https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/oil-and-petroleum-products/use-of-oil.php.
Although the potential benefits are significant, the adoption of artificial leaves may not be immediate due to numerous scientific and economic challenges.
VI. Challenges and Real-World Applications
Researchers faced many challenges when the artificial leaf was developed, such as the availability of catalysts. Some models of the device required platinum, increasing reliance on the precious metal. However, other elements like nickel and cobalt, which are earth-abundant, have been found to be replacement catalysts to help make the device more cost-effective and accessible on a larger scale.
However, despite this, several factors limit its widespread sustainability.
Although many early versions of the leaf were tested successfully on a laboratory scale, scaling up the production poses engineering and logistical challenges.
Firstly, producing the devices to meet the energy demands of entire communities or industries would not only require a large number of materials and resources but also require durability and stability for practical use, meaning the devices would need to be able to withstand extended periods of operation without deteriorating.
Secondly, the overall sustainability of the technology is debatable as the energy required to produce the artificial leaves must be taken into account. The energy input for the production of the devices is mostly derived from non-renewable sources, offsetting the environmental benefits of the operational phase (producing hydrogen fuel). To achieve true sustainability, we would need to use renewable energy sources, from the production to the operation of the devices.
Most importantly, the competition facing artificial leaves is high as industries and countries are dependent on fossil fuels and non-renewable energy sources. Countries such as Kuwait and Saudi Arabia have been 100% reliant on fossil fuels, not only in consumption but also economically¹⁵. Furthermore, well-established renewable energy sources, such as hydropower, accounting for more than 54% of global renewable power¹⁶, will be chosen over artificial leaf technology unless clear advantages are demonstrated in terms of cost, efficiency and environmental impact.
VII. Conclusion
In conclusion, the artificial leaf, inspired by the efficiency of natural photosynthesis, has made it possible to produce clean and sustainable fuel through harnessing sunlight. As the earth continues to confront the consequences of climate change and the need for sustainable energy becomes urgent, the artificial leaf provides a possible solution. By producing hydrogen from the splitting of water, it supplies not only a clean but also a versatile fuel that may be used in various sectors like transportation and industry. However, before the artificial leaf can be used to its full potential, its efficiency and sustainability must be maximised through utilising only renewable energy in its production so that it may be favoured over other (perhaps more costefficient) non-renewable energy sources.
¹⁵ WorldAtlas (2015). Fossil Fuel Dependency By Country. [online] WorldAtlas. Available at: https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/countries-the-most-dependent-on-fossil-fuels.html.
¹⁶ Denchak, M. (2019). Fossil Fuels: The Dirty Facts. [online] NRDC. Available at: https://www.nrdc.org/stories/fossil-fuels-dirty-facts#sec-burning.
Present and Future of the Amazon Rainforest
By Sophie Feng
Abstract
The Amazon rainforest is a crucial part of Earth’s climate system in maintaining the stability of our planet through managing the effects of climate change as a carbon sink, along with its rich biodiversity, impacting the global water cycle. However, the present Amazon faces increasing disturbances caused by human activities and accelerating climate change, a potential tipping point in Earth’s climate system. Without the Amazon, the world wouldn’t be the one we know today. Therefore, in this essay, I will explore the comparisons between the past and present Amazon, the reasons behind the patterns shown by the present Amazon, and what Amazon's future might be.
Introduction
‘Incredible, important, diverse, endangered, fascinating, wild, vulnerable, gigantic, green’ are only a few of the innumerable words I think could describe the Amazon rainforest, the largest tropical rainforest on Earth. It has excellent biodiversity in animals and plants, rivers, local communities, and Indigenous territories and is home to various industries, cities, and many kinds of literature associated with nature. If we refer to the Earth as a person, the Amazon rainforest is undoubtedly the lungs of Earth. It is vital for South America and all of humanity to manage the effects of climate change by absorbing carbon as a carbon sink. However, Amazon is in a vulnerable position now, facing various threats to its biodiversity and the indigenous population, which is reliant upon it due to increasing human activities. This makes me wonder what the future has in store for the Amazon rainforest. We certainly do not want to see it turning into a dry savannah.
1. Understandings of the Amazon Rainforest
‘The Amazon is recognised as a potential tipping element in the Earth’s climate system, is a crucible of biodiversity and acts as a large terrestrial carbon sink.’⁵ The largest rainforest on Earth accounts for 54% of the world’s primary forest cover. (approximately 6.7 million square km around the size of the USA), covering nine countries in South America (Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela, Suriname, Colombia, Bolivia, Guyana, and French Guiana), 70% of the rainforest is found in Brazil. There are an estimated 390 billion different trees, divided into 16,000 species, found in the Amazon Rainforest, which has been around for 55 million years.⁶ Most of Amazonia is dominated by tall, evergreen, hardwood trees (high interception and evapotranspiration rates) with high average annual temperatures between 25°C and 30°C and slight seasonal variation in temperature. The high average temperatures respond to intense insolation throughout the year, creating perfect conditions for photosynthesis and high rates of evapotranspiration (60% of rainfall recycled into the atmosphere), leading to the formation of clouds, which will fall as rainfall. Moreover, the high temperatures allow the atmosphere to hold large amounts of moisture (absolute humidity and relative humidity are high), making the Amazon very humid. The significant cloud cover ensures that the maximum temperatures do not reach the extremes of subtropical desert climates. However, there will be less cloud cover due to deforestation and climate change in areas close to human activities, leading to higher risks of droughts and wildfires.
On the other hand, the Amazon has a high average annual rainfall (>2000mm) and a short dry season, resulting in high-intensity, convectional rainfall. Yet the dry season may extend due to the lack of evapotranspiration of water into the atmosphere due to deforestation, which results in less precipitation. Not to mention that the Amazon rainforest acts as a significant carbon sink to store carbon in its biomass, accounting for approximately one-tenth of the terrestrial ecosystem carbon stocks as well as 15% to 25% of global net primary productivity(averaging 2500 grams/m²/year). Approximately 100 billion tonnes are locked
⁵ Lenton, T. M. et al. Tipping elements in the Earth’s climate system. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 105, 1786–1793 (2008).
⁶ Countries Sharing the Amazon Rainforest - WorldAtlas
up in Amazonia, with 2.4 billion tonnes of CO2 taken in per year and 1.7 billion tonnes released yearly with rapid exchange of carbon between the atmosphere, biosphere, and pedosphere.
Amazonia’s humid equatorial climate creates ideal conditions for plant growth and boosts nature’s talent for designing various types of animals, from Macaw to Milton’s Titi. The Amazon accounts for 10% of the Earth’s biodiversity, with 34% of mammals and 20% of birds that inhabit the Amazon not being found elsewhere. This displays the vulnerable position the Amazon rainforest will be under from threats posed by human activities.
‘Humans have lived in the Amazon for at least 12,000 years, and the biome was historically a centre of cultural and technological innovation.’⁷ Countries benefit from the Amazon by developing it, and it is home to 34 million people, including 385 indigenous groups.⁸ Many rely on its rich natural resources and services in South America and across the globe.
Amazon generally requires attention and protection, but we should avoid exploiting it. In the next paragraph, I will explore the different types of human activities in the Amazon and their consequences where large rainforest dieback is possible.
⁷ State of the Amazon: Ecological Representation in Protected Areas and Indigenous Territories. WFF living Amazon Report 2014
⁸ For a Living Amazon! | WWF (panda.org)
Macaws in Amazon Milton’s titi in Amazon
Amazon Rainforest
2. Human activities in Amazon Rainforest
With the disappearance of our predators, there is nothing to restrict humans from expanding our population. On current projections, there will be 11.2 billion people on Earth by 2100.⁹ As the population grows, there will be higher demands for food and water, urbanisation, and more transport infrastructure. The Amazon is a source of natural resources and services that could benefit people and satisfy demands in many aspects. Consequently, deforestation occurs for agricultural purposes (soy production), logging, cattle ranching, urbanisation, transportation purposes, dams, and mining in the Amazon, boosting the economies of countries in Northern South America. As a result, more than 75% of the Amazon rainforest has been losing resilience since the early 2000s.¹⁰ Furthermore, the longer dry-season length and higher frequency of droughts and wildfires push the Amazon closer to a critical threshold of rainforest dieback - which we do not want to see. Noticeably, the loss in resilience and biodiversity accelerates in regions with less rainfall and parts of rainforest closer to human activity.
2.1. Deforestation
There is a double incentive for deforestation: people benefit from timber and benefit again from farming the land that’s left behind. It satisfies demands for agricultural purposes (soy production), logging, cattle ranching, urbanisation, transportation purposes, dams, and mining. Hence, as the needs increase, deforestation escalates. When fewer salts and organic fibres are emitted through transpiration, this means fewer condensation nuclei - inhibiting the formation of clouds and reducing rainfall.
Deforestation in Amazonia averaged around 17,500 km²/year between 1970 and 2013.¹¹ Deforestation soared when Bolsonaro was in power in Brazil from 2019 to 2022; he was famous for their pro-business policies, patriotic principles, and conflict with the rationale of environmental protection, leading to the loss of a football pitch-sized rainforest every minute every day. Invasions of indigenous territories increased by 135% in 2019, and more than 34,000 square km disappeared from the Amazon during the period ruled by Bolsonaro. It is an unbelievably large number, surpassing the size of the entire Belgium, not to mention the loss of trees in wildfires.¹² Thus, the Amazon rainforest's Net Ecosystem productivity (carbon uptake influx) has been declining rapidly over the last four decades as a carbon sink, releasing substantial amounts of Carbon into the atmosphere and contributing to global warming. Bolsonaro was heavily criticised for his policies on the Amazon Rainforest. On the other hand, Da Silva, who became the new Brazilian President in 2023, has an incentive to create a ‘new Amazon dream’ and promised zero deforestation by 2030, which will be extremely hard to do.¹³ Surprisingly, the Brazil Amazon deforestation dropped 34% during the first six months of President Da Silva.¹⁴ This demonstrates the immense importance of who is in power and the extent of whether policies are environmentally friendly to deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest.
Transport contributes significantly to deforestation, as around 95% of forest clearance is near transport networks. The roads act as a crucial connection with migrants and a tool to increase land values, attracting wealthier investors and catalysing the rate of deforestation. For example, near the Manaus-Potro Velho highway (the primary route in an area to the south and east of the Amazon), 80% of the Brazilian clearing is taking place in the arc of deforestation.¹⁵ On the other hand, cattle ranching is another critical factor influencing deforestation in the Amazon. As the global demand for beef rises due to the expanding global population, it ultimately leads to more cattle ranching activities in Brazil, providing 14% of global beef supplies in 2019. Therefore, 40% of the Brazilian cattle must be moved to the Amazon region with a change
⁹ World population projected to reach 9.8 billion in 2050, and 11.2 billion in 2100 | United Nations
¹⁰ More than 75% of Amazon rainforest near tipping point, may transform into dry savanna: Study (downtoearth.org.in)
¹¹ Geography OCR textbook, page 112
¹² Earth’s future depends on the Amazon. This month, it’s up for a vote. – Vox.com
¹³ Brazilian president Lula pledges ‘new Amazon dream’ at rainforest summit | Amazon rainforest | The Guardian
¹⁴ In Lula's first six months, Brazil Amazon deforestation dropped 34%, reversing trend under Bolsonaro | AP News
¹⁵ Geofactsheet #437: Loss of Rainforest in the Amazon: an ongoing issue
to extensive cattle farming methods, resulting in 70-80% forest destruction. Transportation and cattle ranching are the two significant contributors to deforestation.
Not to mention, deforestation and ecosystem degradation in the Amazon may facilitate the spread of infectious diseases and increase the likelihood of the emergence of zoonotic diseases.¹⁶
Deforestation is occurring across the entire Amazon.
2.2. Impact on the Indigenous population
The Amazon has been for at least 12,000 years and home to more than 40 million people living in rural and urban areas across eight Amazonian nations.¹⁷ Yet, it is greatly affected by the consequences of climate change, deforestation, and policies that involve the protection of the Amazon rainforest. The indigenous population, who rely on the rainforest, will be deeply influenced by the consequences of altering their lifestyles. As the Amazon rainforest changes and becomes less stable, the associated knowledge systems linked to and sustain Amazonian biodiversity are disappearing. The degradation of forests threatens the indigenous people’s traditional territories and undermines their abilities to sustain themselves through hunting, gathering, agriculture, clothing, and traditional medicines.
¹⁶ The Amazon and Disease: how rainforests protect our health - Amazon Aid
¹⁷ Saving the Amazon rainforest – in 10 steps | World Economic Forum (weforum.org)
Indigenous population living in Amazon.
Wildfire in the Amazon
Drought in the Amazon
2.3. Increasing intensity and frequency of extreme weather events
Extreme weathers such as droughts and wildfires are posing more significant threats and are appearing at higher frequency and intensity nowadays because of the increasing dry season length. The increase in dry season length may be due to deforestation and climate change, leading to less evapotranspiration into the atmosphere and, therefore, a decrease in cloud formation and precipitation. The wildfires not only lessen the forest’s ability to uptake carbon but also emit large quantities of particulate matter and other pollutants (e.g. Carbon monoxide), affecting human health. During two major droughts in 2005 and 2010, the Amazon temporarily transitioned into a carbon source instead of a carbon sink, which increased tree mortality.¹⁸
Positive feedback (Localised fire feedback) plays a crucial role in amplifying the droughts. It is associated with destroying trees and a higher chance of transforming the fire regime from localised fire to ‘mega-fires’. As large trees die, significant amounts of greenhouse gas would be released from the biosphere to the atmosphere, contributing to global warming.¹⁹
3. Future of the Amazon
The future of Amazon will be in danger if humans continue to exploit the Amazon and release enormous amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Scientists predict that the Amazon rainforest will be cut down until it can no longer produce enough moisture, degrading into a dry savannah in the 2030s, a vastly different ecosystem comprising a mixture of grassland and trees.²⁰ By 2050, temperatures in the Amazon will increase by 2-3°C if human activities continue to expand. A 2°C rise in temperature could see 20-40% of the Amazon die off within 100 years, a three °C rise could kill 75%, and a 4 °C rise could kill 85%. These impacts will be devastating! Once the transformation is complete, there will be catastrophic species loss and even altering the global water cycle. Therefore, to prevent the Amazon from becoming a savannah and reaching a critical point, we must manage it by reducing deforestation and restoring rainforest biodiversity. The wilder and more diverse the forests are, the more effective they are at absorbing carbon from the Atmosphere.
We cannot cut down rainforests forever; anything we cannot do forever is unsustainable. By continuing to do things unsustainable, the damage ultimately accumulates to a point where the entire Amazon and Earth system collapses. Therefore, we must halt deforestation in the Amazon, manage the impacts caused by afforestation and reforestation projects, and protect it through legislation and improved agricultural techniques. In this essay, I will focus on afforestation and deforestation projects.
Afforestation and deforestation projects
Afforestation projects restore the ecosystem by regrowing the deforested land with native species and combining tree planting with economic timber models where projects grow trees scheduled for harvest. These projects harvest timber they plant and still earn carbon credits because they commit to maintaining the average amount of carbon stock throughout the project. For example, Fazenda São Nicolao in Mata Grosso, Brazil, is a project funded to capture carbon and restore biodiversity through planting 26 native species over almost 2000 hectares of previously deforested land for cattle grazing since 1999.²¹ The reforestation projects protect the rainforest and provide employment and economic opportunity for local communities, acting as powerhouses of carbon capture. Another successful case of Afforestation in rainforest was seen in Costa Rica. A century ago, more than 75% of Costa Rica was covered with forest. By the 1980s, uncontrolled logging reduced forest coverage to under 25%. The government decided to act by offering grants to landowners to replant native trees.
¹⁸ Brienen, R. J. W. et al. Long-term decline of the Amazon carbon sink. Nature 519, 344–348 (2015).
¹⁹ Road paving, fire regime feedbacks, and the future of Amazon forests - ScienceDirect
²⁰ Amazon rainforest reaching tipping point, researchers say - BBC News
²¹ Biodiversity studies through public-private partnership (PPP): The case of Fazenda São Nicolau in the northwest of Mato Grosso Rodrigues, D. J1., Vaz-de-Mello, F. Z1 . and Silveira R. M. L.1,2
In just 25 years, the forest has successfully returned to cover half of Costa Rica.²² The return of trees successfully absorbs as much as two-thirds of carbon emissions from the atmosphere back into the biosphere.
Deforestation projects such as the Parica Project and REDD scheme have significantly reduced biodiversity loss and trees. The Parica Project is a sustainable forestry scheme producing commercial timber, helping to sequester carbon and reduce run-off. The REDD scheme (Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation) is a payment made via carbon credit to tribes like the Surui who stop logging and protect rainforests in return for credits which companies can buy. Deforestation is controlled by these projects effectively, and the transition into a dry savannah can be prevented by combining efforts from governments and local communities.
Conclusion
The Amazon rainforest displays immense significance to the global community by regulating the global climate system. However, as the population grows, human activities also increase - resulting in the exploitation of the Amazon. This essay explores the consequences created by human activities in the Amazon rainforest, such as deforestation, loss of biodiversity, impact on indigenous communities and increasing frequency of extreme weather events – decreasing the ability to maintain the stability of the Earth’s climate system. Amazon's future will become a dry savannah in 2030 if zero management exists. Therefore, global efforts and a combination of the power of governments and local communities are essential to prevent a devastating future.
²² How Costa Rica Reversed Deforestation and Became an Environmental Model | Earth.Org
