Revista Titlane No. 4 UVP | Lenguas Extranjeras

From the Nahuatl that means “Victorious”

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From the Nahuatl that means “Victorious”

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Directorio Presidente de la Junta de Gobierno Mtro. Jaime Illescas López Rectora Dra. María Hortensia Irma Lozano e Islas Director de la División de Artes y Humanidades Mtro. Emmanuel Flores Flores Editora Responsable Mtra. Irma Higinia Illescas Lozano Coordinadora Editorial y de Publicaciones Mtra. Laura Serrano Zenteno Cuidado de la Edición en Inglés Mtro. Emmanuel Flores Flores Diseño Editorial Mtra. Gabriela Arias Limón

Revista de investigación, Titlane, año 2, No. 4, julio del 2018, es una publicación cuatrimestral editada por la Universidad del Valle de Puebla S.C., calle 3 sur # 5759, Col. El Cerrito, C.P. 72440, Puebla, Puebla, Tel. (222) 26 69 488, www. uvp.mx; Editora Responsable: Mtra. Irma Higinia Illescas Lozano. Reserva de Derechos al Uso Exclusivo No. 04-2018012513060700-203, ISSN: En trámite, ambos otorgados por el Instituto Nacional de Derechos de Autor. Responsable de la última actualización de este Número, Mtra. Laura Serrano Zenteno, Coordinadora Editorial y de Publicaciones de la Universidad del Valle de Puebla S.C., calle 3 sur # 5759, Col. El Cerrito, C.P. 72440, Puebla, Puebla. Fecha de la última modificación, 15 de julio del 2018. Las opiniones expresadas por los autores no necesariamente reflejan las posturas de la Universidad del Valle de Puebla, de la Editora Responsable o de la Coordinadora de la publicación.

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Índice

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Pedagogical Translation in Foreign Language Teaching Wendy Gabriela Alvarado Antonio

Lexicalization: a way to renew language Lucía Cabrera Miranda

Pág. 11

Creating positive teacher-student relationships: A way of improving students’ personal and academic life Guivani Muñoz Solórzano

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Pág. 5

Pág. 17

Language variation when learning a Foreign language Iris Alejandra López Iturbe

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Pág. 24

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Editorial

Devi’s phrase represents the ideal beginning for this presentation as writing is not just about writing; it is about increasing the writer’s knowledge and the knowledge about specific disciplines. This magazine fulfills with that premise since the authors have gone through a rigorous process to express their ideas with the intention of sharing knowledge with other people interested in the topics they have reflected on.

To start with, Alvarado talks about pedagogical translation; she discusses the advantages that translation has on teacher a foreign language, focusing mainly on English. She starts her article with the idea that translating positively impacts on people learning this language and tries to defend this position through her ideas. Alvarado defines the concept of translation, then she claims that the EFL classroom needs translation practices; interestingly, this author reflects on the possibility to consider translation as a fifth skill in the language learning process. In addition, she includes the use of dictionaries in translation.

López, in her article Language variation when learning a foreign language, analyzes how three language elements are subject to variation. She gives details on grammar variation at first, later she focuses on vocabulary variation, and finally she deals with prosody variation. She concludes with the idea that language variation is something people need to be aware to avoid confusions.

The third article was written by Miranda. In her proposal, she discusses about lexicalization as a way to explain the renewal process of the language. At the beginning, she clarifies the concept of lexicalization, then she focuses on morphology, semantics, pragmatics, and sociolinguistics; almost at the end, she deals with the characteristics of the renewal process. Her article concludes by expressing that lexicalization is something considered as unstoppable and language users must be aware of the possible changes of words.

Last but not least, Muñoz presents an interesting article on the importance of building positive relationships between teachers and students. Muñoz proposes the importance of adults in the children development at school.

Four interesting topics in this edition are waiting for readers to increase their knowledge.

Emmanuel Flores Flores Director of Arts and Humanities Universidad del Valle de Puebla

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Pedagogical Translation in Foreign Language Teaching Wendy Gabriela Alvarado Antonio

RESUMEN

ABSTRACT For many years, translation played a significant role in the learning and teaching of Foreign Languages (FL). However, with the rise of new communicative methods, translation in the classroom quickly became an abominable method to learn a Second Language (SL). This paper focuses on the positive effects on the role of translation in learning and teaching English. Besides, it is important and necessary to study the methods in foreign language teaching throughout the last decades. Nevertheless, there have been many stories suggesting that students using their Mother Tongue (MT) when learning a foreign language results on students retaining and gaining more vocabulary and knowledge. As (Hurd, 2016) says, students may benefit more when teachers properly implement translation practices in the classroom. Students also obtain extra practice in processing language, particularly when they acquire literacy in both, they are able to compare and contrast the ways in which their two languages organize into the real context (Abadi, 2015).

La traducción jugó un papel importante en el aprendizaje y la enseñanza de idiomas extranjeros. Sin embargo, con el surgimiento de nuevos métodos comunicativos, la traducción en el aula se convirtió rápidamente en un método abominable para aprender un segundo idioma. Este documento se enfocará en los efectos positivos sobre el papel de la traducción en el aprendizaje y la enseñanza del inglés. Además, es importante y necesario estudiar los métodos en la adquisición de una segunda lengua a lo largo de las últimas décadas. Han existido muchas historias que sugieren que los estudiantes que usan su lengua materna cuando aprenden un segundo idioma dan como resultado que retengan y ganen más vocabulario y conocimiento. Como dice (Hurd, 2016). Los estudiantes pueden beneficiarse más cuando los maestros implementan correctamente las prácticas de traducción en el aula. Los estudiantes también obtienen prácticas adicionales en el procesamiento del lenguaje, particularmente cuando, en ambos, adquieren alfabetización, pueden comparar y contrastar las formas en que sus dos idiomas se organizan en el contexto real (Abadi, 2015).

Keywords: Pedagogical translation, foreign language, cognitive activity.

Palabras Claves: Traducción pedagógica, lengua extranjera, actividad cognitiva.

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DEFINING TRANSLATION Translation is a natural and obvious way by which someone can teach and learn a second language efficiently. Translation has many positive effects. It can be used as a learning tool, to practice previous knowledge, to diagnose problems, and to test proficiency. Translation absolutely plays an important part in the different facets of today’s multilingual and multicultural society.

According to Fernández-Guerra (2014) "Translation is indeed an act of communication across languages and cultures, as it is a naturally occurring activity that takes place in the real world" (p.

155). Al-Musawi (2014) states that foreign language learners use translation to ease L2 learning and to obtain new vocabulary.

Cook (2010, as cited in Santamaría, 2016) mentioned that many educators believe translation is such a fundamental basis for language learning.

Translation has been disregarded and neglected in foreign language classrooms since it was viewed as a lacking indicator of old philosophies, particularly those related or derived from the grammar-translation method with the language structures and techniques. The use of translation in second language teaching is often criticized with two main arguments. Zabalbeascoa in 1990 (as cited in Fernádez-Guerra, 2014) said that translation is a nonrealistic way to acquire an second language in which the predominant focus is based on reading and writing and students do not produce oral content. Secondly, Pan and Pan in 2012 (as cited in Fernández-Guerra, 2014) established that, translation can trigger students to make mistakes due to the negative intervention from the mother tongue.

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In spite of the similar arguments previously mentioned, Fernández-Guerra (2014) said that new studies have shown that translation is far from being ineffective and counterproductive, and concludes that Translation In Language Teaching (TILT) can be vastly beneficial in foreign language learning.

TRANSLATION AS A NECESSITY IN EFL CLASSROOM The usefulness of translation in the practice of foreign language teaching is highly important. Angeles Carreras in 2013 (as cited in Laviosa, 2015) discovered that many EFL students perceived

translation activities as entertaining and useful for language learning. He observed that students were quick to participate in discussions about word meaning, leading him to incorporate more translation activities into his classes. According to Delor Mbeudeu (2017), activities such as idiom and proverbs translation could be arranged into pair or group works, these types of exercises can improve two of the four skills, writing and speaking, most importantly develop accuracy, clarity and flexibility.

According Mbeudeu (2017), accuracy is where the discussion takes another interesting connotation since as far there could

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Alcarazo López and López Fernández (2014) say that translation is a naturally occurring phenomenon in all foreign language learners’ mind. They automatically translate texts from the target language into their native language and vice versa. Yang (2015) mentions that even though translation is a very valuable tool to compare the L1 and the L2, students still have to be conscious of the similarities in the language that can help the positive transfer to prevent transfer mistakes. In advanced levels, where students produce translations of complete literary texts, the pedagogical translation acquires much more complex aspects similar to those of professional translation, without losing its didactic character (Alcarazo López & López Fernández, 2014). In these levels we refer to the translation as "the fifth skill" and require greater effort on the part of the student, forcing him to evaluate and reflect on the language at different levels.

SHOULD TRANSLATION BE CONSIDERED A FIFTH LANGUAGE SKILL? One of the most broadly discussed topics among language experts have been which are the most effective and appropriate methods to teach and learn a second language. However, over the years there have been many modern language learning approaches. Al-Musawi says that, “…each prevailing method or approach reflects and represents the ideologies and innovations of the specific period in which it was developed…” (Al-Musawi, 2014).

One of eldest methods in teaching foreign languages has been the grammar translation method, which has been perceived as a negative method due to encouragement of the use of translation as the only tool for learning English (Cook 2009, p. 119, as cited in Hurd, 2016). However, the Grammar translation method is not the only way to bring translation into the classroom. Even though it has been condemned, banning it completely of its use in the learning environments or using it as the only way of teaching a second language will not have positive results on students (Hurd, 2016).

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be a major improvement on learners’ accurate use of words and expressions in writing. Nevertheless, Duff stated that translation activities can be employed to enhance four language skills (p.87).

Translation role in EFL classroom, especially in higher education contexts should be reintroduced. Laviosa (2015), says that translation is seen as an authentic language learning activity, alongside other type of activities and techniques as literature, conversation or role-play (p. 353). Moreover Li establishes, “translation activities help develop communicative skills and cultural awareness, which are crucial for proficiency in a foreign language” (Li, 2014, p.125).

Regarding the use of translation as a teaching tool, Hurd (2016) states the following: It can be argued that translation should by no means be left out of classroom teaching entirely, but rather traditional translation

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mother tongue plays an extremely prominent role, and very often students learn about the target language in the source language, with translation being the most important language learning activity (Codina & Pladevall, 2015).

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exercises should be modified to fit the language learning methods that are considered most effective in the prevailing approaches (p.2).

Which would lead to an appropriate use of translation in the classroom. Hurd (2016) also demonstrated that, even though translation may not be considered as the fifth skill in foreign languages, it is a skill in the sense that its proper use should be taught in class in order to make students use it as a tool in the classroom rather than the key of learning.

According to Bozok and Bozok (2014), despite the unfavorable arguments of translation being harmful rather than beneficial due to the Grammar translation method. The use of the fifth skill is to be a bridge, a tool to break through the language barrier and allow students to achieve their aim of ‘thinking in English’ (Bozok & Bozok, 2014, p. 3913). In addition, the authors mentioned that it is important to have in mind the fact that translation can be adapted to students’ needs and can be taught to use correctly according to the purpose (Bozok & Bozok, 2014).

THE USE OF L1 IN TRANSLATION Reminiscing over the centuries into English language teaching (ELT), one can witnessed shifting views in relation to the use of the mother tongue or L1 in the classroom; while it was generally accepted up to the 18th century within the classroom, such would change following this period. There would be various attempts over time to recognize the mother tongue as an aid for student to learn the target language effectively but, these would largely have limited influence (Schwieter & Ferreira, 2014). Moreover, Codina and Pladevall (2015) argue that the

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Harmer (Harmer 2002, p. 17, as cited in Schwieter & Ferreira, 2014) claims that very often learners go back to their mother tongue when the choice of task is not compatible with their L2 level; as it is natural for them to use L1 to communicate (Schwieter & Ferreira, 2014). Mansor (2017) says that the mother tongue or L1 is used consciously by students in the contemporary classroom, and that this can lead to a significant benefit if orchestrated appropriately by the teacher (Mansor, 2017, p.

17).

On the contrary, there are two main arguments on whether or not to incorporate the mother tongue or L1 in English Language Teaching (ELT). Brown (2001, as cited in Mansor, 2017) argues that learners that used the L1 when learning English will become dependent on L1, and not even try to understand meaning from context and explanation, or express what they want to say in the target language (Mansor, 2017). Secondly, Paradis (2004, as cited in Mansor, 2017) argues that it is essential for L2 learners to learn the target language in a monolingual context or a non-threatening enviroment (Mansor, 2017).

However, despite the strong arguments that many make for not using L1 in the language classroom, Mansor (2017) states that translation can be a vital resource for a language class, since its limited use can have a powerfully positive effect on many learners, especially if their previous experience has had very little L2 use and they have to be introduced continuously to the target language environment (Mansor, 2017). Also, as Codina

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and Pladevall (2015) add, the mother tongue should be used as a tool to notice the differences and similarities between the two languages, to let learners develop and produce their own materials, including their own test, to encourage spontaneity and fluency, to have a beneficial effect on working with others and to receive ongoing and meaningful feedback from learners (Codina & Pladevall, 2015).

meanings of ambiguous words, collocations, and idioms. All of these with sole purpose of teachers encouraging to develop and increase the cognitive and mental capacity of their students.

Undoubtedly, Safiullina and Aleeva (2016) argue that a students’ work of translation that is elaborated using a paper-printed dictionary is not just a work that is neither copied nor downloaded but, it is a result of an honest achievement.

CONCLUSION Translation is without a question a naturally-occurring activity and a persistent feature in foreign language learning and teaching. That although it has been heavily criticized and banned from the foreign language classes in the past, translation has always been used in educational contexts all over the world (Li, 2014).

Using translation as a method to teach a foreign language should not be abandoned since translation is viewed as a valid and important pedagogical tool in FL teaching aimed at enhancing learner’s communicative competence and further strengthening writing, reading, speaking and listening skills (Nagy, 2015).

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Leonardi (2012 as cited in Fernández-Guerra, 2014) says that pedagogical translation aside from being an act of communication, translation is a complex activity which involves linguistic, cultural, communicative and cognitive factors. These factors are all closely related with foreign language learning, thus making translation a necessary, unavoidable and naturallyoccurring phenomenon when learning foreign languages (Fernández-Guerra, 2014). Laviosa (2015) also concluded that translation cannot be taking for granted as language learners are constantly translating into and out of their mother tongue or L1 when learning a foreign language (Laviosa, 2015). Pedagogical translation is a naturally-occurring cognitive, linguistic and communicative learning activity that should be promoted rather than neglected.

THE ROLE OF DICTIONARIES IN TRANSLATION In the amidst of translation studies becoming an independent field of study, there has always been translation tools to aid students’ learning abilities such as dictionaries that have proved to be quite practical in language teaching and learning (Alhaisoni, 2016). Safiullina and Aleeva (2016) state that it is the job of teachers to teach students the proper way to use a dictionary to help develop their learning abilities in a second language. If students learn how to manage a dictionary correctly, than this may be very beneficiary for their studies. Furthermore, Alhaisoni (2016) believes that dictionaries are the most used source that there is where students collect fresh vocabulary.

Moreover, Safiullina and Aleeva (2016) say that students should perform the consecutive exercises during the FL class under the supervision of the teacher; search for words in alphabetical order, plural forms of nouns, same-rooted words, conversed words,

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REFERENCES Nagy, I. (2015). Translation in ESL Classes. Acta Universitatis Sapientiae, 87-107.

Mansor, R. (2017). The Use of the Mother Tongue in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language in Libyan Higher Education. Department of Languages, Linguistics and TESOL Manchester Metropolitan University.

Safiullina, G. & Aleeva, G. (2016). Using Dictionaries in Teaching English as A Foreign Language. International Journal of Environmental & Science Education, 27282734.

Santamaría Izquierdo, A. (2016). The role of pedagogical translation: Practical implications for secondary education.

Universidad de La Rioja.

Schwieter, J. & Ferreira, A. (2014). The Development of Translation Competence: Theories and Methodologies from Psycholinguistics and Cognitive Science, 67-70.

Yang, J. (2015). Research on Application of Translation in English Teaching. Atlantis Press, 87-90.

Abadi, S. (2015). Effects mother tongue language on learning second language learners elementary School.

International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts, 8-12.

Alcarazo Lopez, N. (2014). Aplicaciones prácticas de la traducción pedagógica en la clase de ELE. RedELE. Revista electrónica de didáctica del español lengua extranjera, 26.

Alhaisoni, E. (2016) EFL Teachers’ and Students’ Perceptions of Dictionary Use and Preferences. International Journal of Linguist. 8(6), 31-48.

Al-Musawi, N. (2014). Strategic use of translation in learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) among Bahrain university students. Comprehensive Psychology, 4.

Bozok, O. B. (2014). Prospective English Language Teachers’ Views on Translation Use in Foreign Language Teaching.

International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation, 12.

Codina, C. & Pladevall Ballester, E. (2014). The effects of using L1 translation on young learners’ foreign language vocabulary learning. Revista de la Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona, 109-134.

Delor Mbeudeu, C. (2017). Introducing translation-based activities in teaching English as Foreign Language: A step towards the improvement of learners’ accurate use of words and expressions in writing. The University of Yaounde Cameroon, 76-89.

Fernández-Guerra, A. B. (2014). The Usefulness of Translation in Foreign Language Learning: Students’ Attitudes. International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies, 153-170.

Hurd, E. (2016). The fifth language skill? A comparison of the role of translation in Finnish lukio and the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme. Turku.

Laviosa, S. (2015). Translation and Language Education: Pedagogic approaches explored. Routledge, 352-355.

Li, D. (2014). Beyond Grammar-Translation: Use of Translation Method in Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Using Translation is Still Necessary in EFL Classroom 3.Beyond Grammar Translation: Pedagogical Translation Method (PTF), 67.

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Lexicalization: a way to renew language Lucía Cabrera Miranda

RESUMEN

ABSTRACT

En este artículo se pretende dar explicación al proceso de lexicalización, viéndolo desde diferentes perspectivas y a las partes que conforman este proceso como tal (como lo son la parte morfológica, semántica, pragmática y sociolingüística), así como profundizar y ejemplificar de la manera más basta en el tema. Por otro lado, se busca explicitar el proceso de renovación del lenguaje mediante la lexicalización de palabras a lo largo del tiempo en diferentes épocas, situaciones culturales y ubicación geográfica del lenguaje humano. De la misma forma se contrasta dicha información en antes y después de la ocurrencia de dicho proceso. Todo lo anterior, una vez más basado en ejemplos recolectados de autores que han indagado en el tema.

In this article it is pretended to explain the process of lexicalization from different perspectives and its parts themselves (being so the morphological, semantical, pragmatical and sociolinguistic aspects) as well as deepen and exemplify inside the topic in the vastest way possible. Moreover, this paper aims to explain the renewal process of the language by means of words lexicalization throughout time in different eras and periods of time, cultural situations and geographical position of human language. In the same way the information is contrasted in terms of before and after the occurrence of such process. All the latter, once again based on collected examples from authors who have inquire in the topic.

Palabras clave: Lexicalización, lenguaje, proceso de renovación.

Key words: Lexicalization, language, renewal process.

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INTRODUCTION Times change and so does language. Evolution has always been an intrinsic, non-stopping and instinctive part of the world and its inhabitants.

When it comes to humans and language, a difference can be noticed. The way to write, speak and even think is constantly evolving and lexicalization is one of many processes that occur during evolution which provides the renewal of the language. This particular process opens new gates to the deep understanding of today’s way of expressing and thinking and, as well as evolution, is a constant variable of change and adaptation of language itself. It is to mention that oral languages are not the only ones that go under a lexicalization process, sign languages go through it as well and is as complex as the oral ones.

Within lexicalization comes what is known as the renewal process which concerns adding, changing or substituting the meaning of certain words in a linguistic system or language (Bordet, 2016). All these processes depend on factors like the way the language is structured, the culture and the customs, the geographical location and the exposure of the mother tongue to a second or third language in question.

Therefore, pragmatics worries about the use in context, semantics about the meaning, morphology about the structure of the language and discourse analysis about the register in which words are used. These aspects play an important role when it comes to identifying and analyzing changes and evolution of languages.

The objective of this article is to clear out how the lexicalization process is carried out as well as how it can lead to the language-renewal process in function with other linguistic aspects of the language such as morphology, semantics and pragmatics. All these topics will be revised throughout this paper.

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A VIEW INSIDE LEXICALIZATION Lexicalization has to be taken as a medullary concept since it plays an important role in the maintenance of this topic; therefore, it has to be defined. Many authors have recognized lexicalization as a process of change. According to Zieliński (2015), lexicalization can be defined as an expression that goes under a linguistic change in which it can acquire or lose certain meaning created by pragmatical inference. From the point of view of Juárez (2014): … el fenómeno puede ser entendido, de manera simple, como la relación que existe entre una combinación de elementos o rasgos semánticos (meaning component) y una determinada forma lingüística (surface element) que los expresa o, a la inversa, como la relación entre un único elemento semántico y el conjunto de formas lingüísticas que lo expresan. (p. 114).

The latter refers to present relation between the semantic feature (meaning) and the linguistical surface elements (pragmatics, for example). This combination creates new lexicalized words that take into account the social and linguistical area giving, as a result, meaning to those words.

Lexicalization is produced in function of culture and geographical position as well. "Lexicalization yields a new association of a form and a specific contentful meaning, which is processed holistically…" (Van Rompaey, Davidse, & Petré, 2015).

Being taken the word holistically as key, this adds even more pragmatical weight to this process. Given that is acknowledged that pragmatics change depending on factors as the place and the people in it. Therefore, holistically processed ways

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SEMANTICS

of lexicalizing engage directly with “… relating to the whole of something or to the total system instead of just to its parts…”

(Cambridge, 2018).

Retaking Malaver’s example, but now under the semantic point of view, it is possible to give varied meaning to a lexicalized word. “Esta extensión que parte del uso intensificador ha hecho de ahorita una partícula polisémica…” (Malaver, 2017). That is to say, that ahorita can mean more than just one thing. This turns the word into a polisemical lexicalized term. The use of ahorita according to Resnick (1981) “en Centroamérica, México y Colombia, ahorita intensifica el significado ‘en este momento’, mientras que en Puerto Rico y demás países hispanohablantes se usa para ‘después de un rato’”. Rephrasing the words of Resnick (1981), in Central America, Mexico and Colombia, the meaning of the word ahorita can change in terms of time variation, meaning ahorita in the previous locations ‘right now’ and in places like Puerto Rico and other hispanic countries ‘after a while’. This semantical aspect of the lexicalization process can converge with the sociolinguistical use, as it can be observed in the previous example.

Also, we have to be aware that lexicalization is not a spontaneous occurrence. “Lexicalization is one of the possible stages in a word’s life, occurring at an advanced point of it (if at all). (…) three of those possible phases, the first of them being its coinage, that is, the production of a word which did not exist before…”

(Fernández-Domínguez, 2010).

PRAGMATICS When it comes to the pragmatic aspect of the topic it is necessary to retake the holistic view of lexicalization which includes language itself, culture, geographical position and the time in which the process is occurring. As seen in Bernarda, Olaya, and Ciro (2017) “…entendemos la lexicalización como un procedimiento lingüístico de fijación, que, en la mayoría de los casos, añade significación pragmática al término resultante”.

Pragmatics are one the most influential components of a newly lexicalized word. Indeed, words can imply many things and even affect the way people speak and behave. This gives every place and country its own identity which has to be taken under special attention when dealing with pragmatics and lexicalization as part of the holistic view. Concerning individuality and taking Colombia as an example, “…es en el léxico donde se manifiestan la individualidad y la creatividad de las regiones colombianas” (Bernarda, et al., 2017). The latter reinforcing the idea of every geographical space in which human language develops has a different and unique identity, therefore, every region lexicalizes differently.

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MORPHOLOGY Lexicalization goes in function with morphology and this includes adopting foreign morphemes. A clear example is brought by Zieliński (2015), who carried out an investigation based on the honorific formulas using an Italian suffix -ís(s)imo which was later on adopted by Spanish speakers in Europe during the middle ages. “Su repentino florecimiento está vinculado a la suerte de un elemento morfológico foráneo, el sufijo -?‐‑ís(s)imo, cuya consolidación en castellano se lleva a cabo precisamente entre los siglos XV y XVI…" (Zieliński, 2015). Another and more recent example of the process is the lexicalization of the adverb of time ahorita. This is a case of linguistical change as Malaver (2017) mentions, formed by an adverb of time (ahora) and a morpheme (-ita) takes place in the XIX and XX centuries in regions of Central America like Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Panama, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay which has different uses and meanings depending on the region and intention of employment of the word itself.

When it comes to geographical location, there is a contrast

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between Peninsular and American Spanish that is way notorious.

“Es ya un hecho estudiado que el español americano produce más diminutivos que el español peninsular, no sólo con las bases adverbiales, sino con sustantivos y adjetivos…” (Malaver, 2017).

Meaning that American Spanish produces way more diminutives that Peninsular Spanish in adverbs, nouns and adjectives.

… los cambios que se perciben en el español tijuanense y en el español fronterizo en general, al parecer se dan sólo a través de la incorporación de préstamos del inglés tanto de uso establecido como esporádico en los dialectos fronterizos (Acosta, 2009, as cited in Zamudio 2015, p. 17.).

Meaning that lexicalization from this specific mexican region aparently occur only with the incorporation of American English borrowings being them stablished or not. This phenomenon in particular can be extended to places in Europe where countries

Another example is the Spanish from the northen region of Mexico. Tijuana is a region that converges directly with The United States of America, and this particular reason leads language to accquire, transform or lexicalize words into what Zamudio (2015) calls Tijuanense Spanish. Actually Tijuanense Spanish has a total of 22 (being escrín, mapeador, meicap, jomles, winis and yonke some of the lexicalized words) lexicalized words from American English being bilingualism one of the main reasons of this event.

Yet, as mentioned by Zamudio (2015), this kind of lexicalization process via language borrowings is not exclusive from Tijuana, instead it can be seen throughout all the bordering regions of Mexico. Taking this appearing citation from Acosta (2009) in Zamudio's work (2015):

like Germany, France and Italy converge.

SOCIOLINGUISTICS When it comes to the use of linguistic and social phenomenon, sociolinguistics is the way to go. Lexicalization is not only about meaning or the conditions in which it developes, it is also about culture. Conserning the latter, Zieliński in 2015 suggested that the suffix -?‐‑ís(s)imo adds social status used by and to address to the high-status population from that time. For instance, “… el

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sufijo se convierte en indicador sociolingüístico de la clase alta de una sociedad sumamente jerarquizada y con gusto por lo ceremonial y lo ritual” (Zieliński, 2015). Meaning the latter that the suffix itself not only lexicalized a word but also turned into a sociolinguistic indicator which only high-class society that were keen on ceremonial and ritual practices would use. All the latter in terms of cultural use.

will keep on happening. Taking a look in contemporary American English, the word very has been substituted by words as totally, really and so. Being the latter the most frequently used of them all. Bordet in her paper explains that: Yet, almost as soon as a given intensifier has gained popularity due to its intensifying force, the said intensifying force begins to decline because it is perceived as less expressive. Therefore, a

THE RENEWAL PROCESS

suitable adverb needs to be found to replace the intensifier that was the most frequently used… (Bordet, 2016, p. 3).

The renewal of language is always constant and it refers according to Brodet (2016) that is a process that adds, subtracts or changes the meaning of some words according to the time, the use and the place. All these characteristics depend on the needs of the society in question, that is one of the reason why pragmatics and sociolinguistics have a big impact over this specific topic.

This does not mean that all these words will disappear from a daily basis use in English, they only change in frequency and even among the same group of words previously presented, there is still a chance that one word can replace another one within the same group of words. It all depends of the people using these words, and the time they are occurring.

CONCLUSION

Time and renewing have always been closely engaged and constrained within one another. In terms of time Bordet (2016) presented a paper in which she performed a study of how adverbs of frequency (very, really, so and totally) changed in terms in a lapse of time of 9 years. Giving an example of this temporal phenomenon Tagliamonte and Roberts, (2005) maintained that:

In conclusion, lexicalization is a constant and unstoppable process that concerns with the semantical part of a word (the meaning) that can be adapted to a certain time, location and culture (sociolinguistics). The same happens with the pragmatical aspect. This one deals with culture, society needs and geographical position which will determine the way of exerting the words in certain context. The morphological aspect of this process is also related to foreign borrowings and a holistic point of view. It is essential to mention that the process occurs in every language of the world and societies. Things as the contact of one language with another, the cultural and temporal changes and contrasts as well as the geographical variations can make lexicalization really diverse and determine the process itself.

This process is not spontaneous, it starts with coinage and ends in lexicalization. This process can also be part of the renewal of words, which consists on changing, subtracting or adding meaning to already existent lexemes, and is constrained with time and location.

… the frequency of use of so is now higher than that of really, which makes so the most frequently-used intensifier of this century. Really is therefore relegated to the second position, which makes it the second most frequently-used intensifier.

Totally ranks at number 3 and seems to be on the rise. It may be a potential candidate for the replacement of so if its use continues to expand. Very has the fourth highest frequency of use, but it is not as high as the frequency of use of the adverb so. (p. 7).

What happened with intensifiers was that they changed in use as well as in meaning. By the course of time, according to Mustanoja (1960), the word well has been substituted at least 5 times by words as full, right, pretty, very and really. While it is true that these adverbs are similar, each of them is considered more expressive than the latter.

Now in the 21st century, retaking the study carried by Bordet (2017), she states that this process of renewal still happens and

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REFERENCES

https://doi.org/10.24201/nrfh.v65i1.2828 Mustanoja, T. F. (1960). A Middle English syntax, Part 1.

Mémoires de la Société néophilologique de Helsinki.

Resnick, M. C. (1981). Introducción a la historia de la lengua española. Washintong, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.

Tagliamonte, S. & Roberts, C. (2005). So Weird; So Cool; So Innovative: the Use of Intensifiers in the Television Series Friends. American Speech. https://doi. org/10.1215/00031283-80-3-280 Van Rompaey, T., Davidse, K., & Petré, P. (2015). Lexicalization and grammaticalization: The case of the verbo-nominal expressions <i>be on the/one’s way/road</i>. Functions of Language, 22(2), 232–263. https://doi.org/10.1075/ fol.22.2.03rom Zamudio, V. V. (2015). Veintidós préstamos léxicos del inglés en el dialecto del español tijuanense, 11, 15–33.

Zieliński, A. (2015). De las formulas honoríficas con el sufijo lexicalización de fórmulas honoríficas con el sufijo -ís(s) imo en español. Anuari de Filología. Estudis de Lingüística, 5, 1–18.

Bernarda, M.; Olaya, E. & Ciro, L. A. (2017). Lexicalización de algunos verbos en el español de Colombia. Revista Folios, 46, 163–181. Retrieved from http://www.redalyc.org/ html/3459/345951474013/ Bordet, L. (2016). From vogue words to lexicalized intensifying words: the renewal and recycling of intensifiers in English.

A case-study of very, really, so and totally. Lexis; Journal in English Lexicology, (10), 0–16. https://doi.org/10.4000/ lexis.1125 Cambridge, U. P. (2018). Holistic Meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary. Retrieved May 31, 2018, from https:// dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/holistic Fernández-Domínguez, J. (2010). Productivity vs. lexicalization: Frequency-based hypotheses on wordformation. Poznan Studies in Contemporary Linguistics, 46(2), 193–219. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10010-0100010-x Juárez Montaño, R. H. (2014). Lexicalization patterns and argumental structure in predicates of caused change of location inpredicates of caused change of location in Mexican Sign Language. Signos Lingüísticos, X(20), 108–152.

Malaver, I. (2017). Ahorita: Lexicalization and Linguistic change in the Spanish spoken in Caracas, 1, 27–57.

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Creating positive teacher-student relationships: A way of improving students’ personal and academic life Guivani Muñoz Solórzano ABSTRACT The purpose of this article is to explain the importance of building positive relationships between teacher and student by giving examples of positive outcomes that positive teacher-student relationship brings. The two main stages this article is focus on are preschool and adolescence. Teachers playa an impactful role at preschool level because they are a very important adult figure in children’s live due to the amount of time of interaction.

In adolescents’ academic life, teachers are able to make students feel socially integrated in the school, because teachers are the adult figure students have more interaction with in a period in which students do not need a parental figure but in which any kind of motivation students can receive from one matters a lot.

Key words: Teacher–student relationships, early childhood education, School belonging.

RESUMEN

El propósito de este artículo es explicar la importancia de crear relaciones positivas

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entre el docente y el estudiante mediante la proporción de ejemplos de resultados positivos que las relaciones positivas de docente-estudiante traen consigo. Las dos principales etapas en las que este artículo está enfocado es en preescolar y la adolescencia. Con estudiantes de preescolar los docentes juegan un papel importante, porque son una figura adulta de vital importancia en la vida de los niños debido a la cantidad de tiempo en la que interactúan y en la vida académica de los adolescentes. Los docentes tienen la capacidad de hacer a los estudiantes sentirse integrados socialmente en la escuela, porque ellos son la figura adulta con la que tienen más interacción en un periodo en el cuál los estudiantes no necesitan una figura paterna, pero que cualquier tipo de motivación que puedan recibir, del docente, importa mucho.

Palabras clave: Relaciones docente-estudiante, educación en la niñez temprana, pertenencia en la escuela.

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From the Nahuatl that means “Victorious”

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INTRODUCTION Education has always played an essential role in people’s lives in both personal and professional formation. Most people spend from 15 to 18 years at school preparing for the world of work; thus, without education of quality, it is very difficult to form people capable of performing competently in what should be their area of proficiency. But sometimes it is not about the school parents choose for their children or the amount of money invested in education.

Guaranteeing the efficiency of education depends on both the teacher and the students (Lamb, 2010; Esmaeili, Mohamadrezai and Mohamadrezai, 2015) Students are in charge of taking as much advantage as possible of having a teacher that can answer their questions (Lamb, 2010) and teachers should answer these questions and provide them useful information. In addition, students have certain obligations in the classroom that they must follow for the sake of a competent teaching-learning interaction such as paying attention in class, following instructions, doing homework and so on. However, most of the times, teachers have the responsibility of “making” their students doing that.

In addition, teachers have a very important task that brings positive outcomes in students’ academic achievements and knowledge: the creation of positive relationships with their students. Even though there are certain stages of life in which these bonds cause much more impact on them in comparison to others, it certainly facilitates the teaching process, no matter the level of education and the students’ age.

This article has the objective of explaining what importance the creation of positive bonds

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between teacher and student has in the classroom, why it should not be put aside and be considered not as relevant as focusing on teaching a class as well signalling the impact that teacher-student relationships have in students’ academic and personal life.

THE OUTCOMES OF POSITIVE TEACHER-STUDENT RELATIONSHIP In the past, teachers tried to use every minute of the class to teach something or to give students different tasks so that students would always have something to do (Koca, 2016). Teachers planned their classes for using every second available in a way that the amount of, what they considered to be, important information was transmitted to their students. However, it is believed that spending some time on activities that promote positive relationships with their students bring better learning outcomes to students (Koca, 2016).

Universities obtain also benefits from students’ motivation (Thompson, 2010) that may help them to reformulate their teaching models or to check the progress of existing teaching models. As suggested by Thompson (2010), results that are obtained from studies which measure students’ motivation are suggested to be more valuable for evaluation of the effectiveness of the school than only paying attention to students’ notes in specific subject-matters (U.S history or mathematics), since motivation and students’ academic achievements are related (as cited in Koca, 2016).

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Langer (1997) states that people whose source of information is someone they respect and have a good relationship with are more likely to retain the information, opposed to those situations in which the source is a dubious one (as cited in Gablinske, 2014).

If teachers could create positive relationships with students they will most likely retain the information the teachers have provided them with, since students see them as people they can rely on and people whose words are relevant (Gablinske, 2014).

characteristics as long as students respect their teacher.

Children can be influenced easily by a person they admire. Why not make them admire the teacher? If teachers could give a selfimage that shows teachers as people students can rely on, as a person that commits mistakes and is not afraid of recognizing it for the sake of the class, children will see teachers as “heroes” (TED, 2013). If teachers can become children’s heroes, it would mostly ensure an effective teaching-learning process, but if teachers show themselves as people who know everything and who are leading everything, it will not create a good impression on students. “Children don’t learn from people they don’t like” (TED, 2013).

When the class focuses on students’ needs and especially in the establishment of positive relationships with them, the outcomes are not limited to academic success, the outcomes can be reflected in their behavioural actions; students do not miss classes and they are respectful with both the teacher and their peers (Cornelius-With, 2007).

THE IMPORTANCE ON BUILDING POSITIVE TEACHER-STUDENT RELATIONSHIPS IN PRESCHOOL STUDENTS

A concept that directly related to the teacher-student relationship is motivation. Students can be merely motivated by their drive of learning and hunger of knowledge as well as they can be motivated by the rewards they will get at the end even though the process is not of their liking. However, Urdan and Schoenfelder (2006) suggest that students can become intrinsically motivated if teachers provide them with challenging activities and meaningful information, which can only fulfil these

Creating positive relationships between teacher and students is good and it contributes to the teaching process and students’ academic achievements. Nevertheless, it is important to point out and explain the benefits that creating these relationships when students are at a preschool level bring. The results obtained are a little bit more different than other stages and it is very important to know how and why.

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Another reason why teachers should take into consideration the creation of positive relationships with their preschool students is because in that stage is when the effects of any stimulation act like a snowball, getting bigger and bigger as time elapses.

According to The Oregon State University (2016) “Children who have frustrating or difficult relationships with their teachers also have shown decreased academic success in kindergarten and their challenging behaviors may increase in intensity as they get older…” (p. 7). Another example of this is how determining it is to students the relationships they have with their first ever teachers, since it will work as a clear determining factor of how students’ relationships will be with future teachers (Howes & Hamilton, 1992; Howes, Phillipsen, & Peisner-Feinberg, 2000; O’Connor & McCartney, 2006 as cited in Yoleri, 2015).

One of the biggest differences, in contrast to other periods of students’ lives, is that teachers represent a very important adult figure in children’s lives, sometimes teachers are the most prominent and sometimes they are located just below parents (Ata, 2017 & Yoleri 2015). This is due to the amount of time that children spend time interacting with their teachers. In Yoleri’s (2015, p. 213) words, “Children spend approximately five to eight hours a day with a teacher for almost 11 months”, which is sometimes more time than the amount parents spend with their children.

Studies (Krane, Karlsson, Ness and Kim, 2016; Dewar, 2013) have shown that having such influence over children when they are at preschool helps them overcome common problems that they will face at the moment of entering primary school such as behavioural and emotional problems, as well as helping them in their social skills (Ata, 2017; Oregon State University, 2016; Yoleri, 2015; Barker, 2014). An example of this is the motivation that students bring to their students. A group of German students were applied a test in which they were shown images of their teachers subliminally and the results were impressive. “The kids who have close, affectionate teacher relationships – as opposed to distant ones -- end up solving many problems faster…”

(Ahnert, 2012 as cited in Dewar, 2013, p. 5). It is possible to see that the influence of teachers in kids’ minds go further than the conscious level.

Teachers should have in mind the aspects mentioned in the previous four paragrapsh whenever they do not consider that spending time doing activities with their students to improve their relationships might be a waste of time. However, it is important to consider what The Oregon State University (2016) States: It may difficult for preschool teachers and early childhood educators to spend 15 minutes a week in one-on-one play with each child in their class, Hatfield said, but even small, positive, one-on-one interactions could have a valuable impact over time (p. 18).

Thus, teachers should consider improving their relationships with their students for the sake of both their students and their class.

THE IMPACT OF POSITIVE TEACHER-STUDENT RELATIONSHIPS IN ADOLESCENTS A distinctive characteristic of adolescent is, in this period of their life, they do not feel (and indeed do not need) like they depend on parental models and mentors (Uslu and Gizir, 2016). This distinctive characteristic is why teachers play a very important role in adolescents’ lives; they are the only parental and mature figure students have more interaction with and therefore, teachers can take advantage of this and encourage students to succeed in school, since students still need someone who motivates them to accomplish achievements in school even though as a whole

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they are more independent (Rawatlal & Petersen, 2012 as cited in Uslu and Gizir, 2016).

in the classroom as well as the attitude of aggression towards other peers in the classroom and are more likely to be kind with peers and be more social when the creation of positive bonds takes place specifically between the age of 10 and 11 years of age (Obsuth, Murray, Malti, Sulger, Ribeaud and Eisner, 2017).

Additionally, these effects linger with students for up to 4 years, which will be very helpful for them as they will carry them in a very difficult period form them: their teenager years.

Any kind of motivation and encouragement students receive in their adolescence from part of an adult figure has a strong impact in their lives, whether it is positive or negative. In regards to this, there is a concern about high school students: the percentage

Cambridge (2016) states that the results that positive teacherstudent relationships bring to students are as strong as programmes that are specially centered in boosting positive behaviour on students. Also, it is suggested that it is a good idea to implement programmes that are in charge of preparing teachers so that they are able of coping with situations in which students do not feel confident in their classes and that is possible to apply that knowledge in earlier stages of education (Cambridge, 2016; Poulou, 2017).

It is important to take into consideration the opinions of both sides in teacher-student relationships. However, according to the University of Cambridge (2016) what matters the most is the way students perceive the relationships they have with their teachers, because students who have positive perceptions of their relationships with their students are less likely show any kind of aggressive behaviour up to the age of 15.

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of students that drop out of high school. According to Hygen (2015), around 20% and 40% of students drop out of high school among Nordic Countries (as cited in Krane, et al., 2016). What they found out was that the relationships that students have with their teachers are influential in the increase or decrease of risk of dropping out of high school (Barile et al., 2012; Cornelius-White, 2007; Croninger & Lee, 2001; Lee & Burkam, 2003; Lessard, Butler-Kisber, Fortin, & Marcotte, 2014, as cited in Krane, et al., 2016).

Promoting positive relationships between teacher and students at preschool level has been proved in Cambridge and The Oregon State University to extend its limits out of academic and personal achievement. What teachers also do (consciously or unconsciously) is that they teach their students about social emotional matters (Barker, 2016). This is due to the fact that the skills of school achievement and behavioural competencies are closely related to social emotional skills (Bierman, et al., 2008; Denham, 2006; Raver, 2003; Raver & Knitzer, 2002; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000 as cited in Barker, 2016). This also decreases negative outcomes rates such as drop-out or delinquency.

Furthermore, students at this age experience the need of belonging to a social group and since each classroom in high school is considered to be a social context by itself (Uslu and Gizir, 2016), creating positive relationships with students may help students feel part of that social context and they will feel encouraged to socialise with their peers and even when the rest of their peers reject them and do not let them interact with them, the fact that they have a positive relationship with the student protects them against feeling depressed or having emotional problems (Yeung and Leadbeater, 2009 as cited in Gallucci, 2014).

Unfortunately?, teachers may influence their students very strongly, the older students get, the less effective and shorter the effects that the creation of positive relationships with teachers become. Following Gallucci (2014).

Also, adolescents are less likely to present oppositional behaviour

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As students in early adolescence start developing new ideas about the world and themselves, experiencing physical and emotional changes, and as school typically becomes larger and less nurturing, many students experience a disconnect between the support they receive and the support they need (p. 6).

CONCLUSION To sum up, the teaching-learning process is difficult no matter the point of view it is being seen from. Establishing positive relationships help students and teachers in both aspects; thus, creating positive bonds with students is a useful teaching tool that facilitates the teaching process and provides students with different types of benefits. Whenever teachers are in front of preschool groups or students who are adolescents, they should try to create positive bonds with them as it will bring benefits for both sides and these benefits will be stronger than in any other situation.

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REFERENCES Poulou, M. S. (2017). Students’ emotional and behavioural difficulties: the role of teachers’ social and emotional learning and teacher-student relationships. International Journal of Emotional Education, Special (9) 72-89.

TED (Producer). (2013). Every kid needs a champion [Video file].

From https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=SFnMTHhKdkw&t=180s.

University of Cambridge. (2016). Positive teacher-student relationships boost good behaviour in teenagers for up to four years. Cambridge: Author.

Urdan, T. & Schoenfelder, E. (2006). Classroom effects of student motivation: Goal structures, social relationships, and competence beliefs. Journal of School Psychology, 44, 331-349.

Uslu, F. & Gizir, S. (2017). School Belonging of Adolescents: The Role of Teacher–Student Relationships, Peer Relationships and Family Involvement. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 17 (1) 63-82.

Yoleri, S. (2015). Teacher-child Relationships in Preschool Period: The Roles of Child Temperament and Language Skills. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 9(1) 210-224.

Ata, S. (2017). Preschool teacher candidates’ opinions on the teacher-student relationship. European Journal of Education Studies, 11(3) 89-103.

Barker, E. S. (2015). Promoting Positive Teacher-Child Interactions Through Implementation of a Social Emotional Learning Curriculum with Performance Feedback (Not published degree of doctor thesis). University of Massachusetts, Massachusetts.

Cornelius-White, J. (2007). Learner-Centered TeacherStudent Relationships Are Effective: A Meta-Analysis.

Review of Educational Research, 77 (1) 113-143.

Dewar, G. (2013). Student-teacher relationships: Why they're so important, and what we can do to improve them.

Retrieved from https://www.parentingscience.com.

Esmaeili, Z.; Mohamadrezai, H. & Mohamadrezai, A. (2015).

The role of teacher's authority in students' learning.

Journal of Education and Practice, 6(9) 1-16.

Gablinske, P. B. (2014). A case study of student and teacher relationships and the effect on student learning (Not published degree of doctor thesis). University of Rhode Island, Kingston.

Gallucci, J. J. (2014). Investigating the Effect of Increasing Positive Teacher-Student Interactions on Adolescent Behavior and Teacher-Student Relationships (Not published degree of doctor thesis). University of Connecticut, Storrs.

Koca, F. (2016). Motivation to Learn and Teacher–Student Relationship. Journal of International Education and Leadership, 6 (2) 1-20.

Krane, V.; Karlsson, B.; Ness, O. & Kim, H. S. (2016). Teacher– student relationship, student mental health, and dropout from upper secondary school: A literature review.

Scandinavian Psychologist, 3, e11.

Lamb, M. (2010). 'It Depends on the Students Themselves': Independent Language Learning at an Indonesian State School. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 17(3) 229245.

Obsuth, I.; Murray, A. J.; Malti, T.; Sulger, P.; Ribeaud, D. & Eisner, M. (2017). A Non-bipartite Propensity Score Analysis of the Effects of Teacher–Student Relationships on Adolescent Problem and Prosocial Behavior. J Youth Adolescence, 46 1661-1687.

Oregon State University. (2016). Improving child-teacher interactions can reduce preschoolers' stress levels. Oregon State University: Author.

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Language variation when learning a Foreign Language Iris Alejandra López Iturbe ABSTRACT This article shows how a language variates in three different parts. Grammar, the first variation, which analyze how people in different dialects uses different structures and how they vary from one country to another. Vocabulary, the second part of this paper, in this it will be explained that in all dialects; vocabulary varies no matter that the language is the same, and the variety from one language to another is wide; and the last one prosody variation, which as to do with the way of speaking of each person and that automatically becomes a dialect. Also, this paper presents how the variation of a language has an impact on the learning process of a foreign language.

Key words: Language variation, vocabulary, grammar, prosody.

RESUMEN

Depositphotos_86770216_xl-2015.jpg

Este artículo muestra como una lengua varía en tres partes.

Gramática, la primera variación, la cual analiza como las personas en diferentes dialectos usan estructuras diferentes y como varían de un país a otro. Vocabulario, la segunda parte de este trabajo, en el cual se explica que en todos los dialectos varía sin importar que el lenguaje sea el mismo y que la variación de una lengua a otra es muy amplia; y por último, Prosodia, variación, la cual tiene que ver con la forma de hablar de cada persona y que automáticamente la convierte en un dialecto. Así mismo, este documento presenta como la variación de la lengua tiene un impacto en el proceso de aprendizaje de una lengua extranjera.

INTRODUCTION Language variation is a subject that requires attention on the linguistic part since every language suffers from it, whether in vocabulary, grammar or even in pronunciation. It is not perceivable by ordinary people as they only comprehend the message they receive; however, when a person is not fully aware of the words he or she listens the message may have some difficulties to be understood.

When a language has different varieties it is known as dialect; which is determined by the geographical background, social and regional group (Shareah, Mudhsh & Al-Takhayinh, 2014), but also social status determines the way of speaking. Something that influences the variation of a language is gender; men and women

Palabras clave: Variación lingüística, vocabulario, gramática, prosodia.

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Why is it important to know what a dialect is? This is because many people in Mexico has the wrong idea that a dialect is a language that only indigenous people talk but what they really do not know is that our own language is in fact a dialect.

This part of the article will be focused on grammar as the definition above mention is one the reasons a dialect is considered a variation of a language. Many experts agree that grammar is part of al alternation of different competing grammars; however “… some representatives of functional linguistics also doubt the hypothesis that variation can be a part of grammar…” (Holyk, 2014).

As stated by Terrádez (2017), “El código elaborado se caracterizaría, entre otros aspectos, por un orden gramatical adecuado, un uso variado de conjunciones y cláusulas subordinadas, una elección cuidada de adjetivos y adverbios, un uso del lenguaje conceptual” which means that many people use an elaborate code that controls the usage of conjunctions, subordinate clauses, adjectives and adverbs that people with a high social status uses; in the same manner the author mentions that “…el código restringido presenta características como un uso frecuente de interjecciones, un lenguaje gramaticalmente sencillo, un uso restringido de adjetivos y adverbios, etc.”

(Terrádez, 2017), and it refers to a restricted code that people with a lower social status uses by omitting certain features.

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have a particular way to address to different people, despite their position among friends, or family. It is also known that the age is another factor of this variability.

Another thing that is taken into consideration when talking about language variation is the accent; this creates a problem when a person is studying a second language (Carrie & McKenzie, 2018).

Language variation not only affects people in general, but as mentioned before they when learning a second language, there are some aspects by which students get confused (Song & Wang, 2017). Many students may recognize a dialect because of the accent they hear, but it is not the same recognizing than applying the correct vocabulary in each context.

This is an example of how grammatical variation works in a language not because of the word order in a sentence, but because of how populace omit words they do not know how to use it, or which synonyms use. In addition to Bosque and Bravo (2015) who stated that “… prepositions favoring phase licensing may vary across languages, or even within one single language…” which is a big problem for many foreign language students because in a language a preposition can have lots of meanings but the way a person uses may vary according to the grammatical structure.

GRAMMATICAL VARIATION

VOCABULARY VARIATION

Every Language has its own varieties, but do you know what a dialect is? According to the Cambridge Dictionary (2018):

In our world there are many languages and all of them have their own varieties, one of those varieties is vocabulary. Languages such as, Spanish and English have a lot of synonyms and those words will vary between countries and regions, generations and the use of technology (Fern & Ort, 2016). A person may think that Spanish from Spain, Mexico, Colombia, Puerto Rico, Argentina,

Dialect: a form of a language that is spoken in a part of a country or by a particular group of people and that contains some words, grammar, or pronunciations (= the ways in which words are said) that are different from the forms used in other parts or by other groups.

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From the Nahuatl that means “Victorious”

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Peru, and others are the same; nevertheless, the language of all those countries are completely different, not only for the accent but for the wide range of vocabulary that each of these dialects has (Sobrino, 2018).

Moreover, this variation of the language may lead to difficulties when a person wants to learn a language. In support of Giménez and Roselló (2017) when teachers are explaining a new vocabulary or subject they should explain that languages have many variations and what do they depend on. For example, many words in Spanish in Mexico have suffered changes in the north because of the closeness with USA, so the teacher needs to explain to the students that the English from USA is not entirely the same as the one in England nor Australia.

Of greater importance, in the XXI century there is one factor that influences the variation of the language, the internet.

Nowadays most of the people have access to internet most of them use Facebook, WhatsApp, or Twitter, and the use of these platforms are another factor of language variation as noted in Donoso and Sánchez (2017). Ever since these platforms were created no one has stopped using them, they have become a way of communication and with them a whole new vocabulary that people use every day.

Equally important, the variation in vocabulary in each dialect is very wide, and a factor that influences this variation is age; when a person is a baby all of us started to make noises which later became words, then our lexicon became wider as we started to grow and use it even more. However, the language that a person uses now was not the same as the one ancient people used to use when they were young.

Moreover in a language the age contributes the accent variation; “… age is a determining factor in the pervasive use of non-standard language…” (Pérez-Sabater, 2015, p. 114) as mentioned the way adult people speaks is different as the way young people speaks is completely different. Herrero (2010) stablished three variants but the most important for this article is the first one that stablishes “… aludiendo a los factores sociales como la edad, el sexo, el nivel cultural, la clase social, etc.”; that refers to the social factors that influences the way young people expresses (as cited in Salas, 2017 p.188).

The use of technology as stated by Torrado and Font (2016)

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“Students working within the context of digital educational platforms usually relax their level of writing correctness and show an inconsistent or careless management of spelling in their written exchanges” which is not students fault, as technology moves forward people cares less about writing, and started to create new words in order to save characters in their messages; such as “Where R U?” instead of “Where are you?”, or “@ my house”, but it is not only that; with the arrival of emojis people do not use words anymore they now uses emojis to express, feelings, actions and reactions; all these leads to a lack of vocabulary when writing and even when expressing an utterance.

PROSODY VARIATION According to Giles (1973) “Accent refers to a manner of

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attitudes, can inform our interpretations of accent evaluations.”

Every time a person produces an utterance people are evaluating the sense, the tone and the intention of that utterance; this is called prosody which according to the Cambridge dictionary (2018) is “…the pattern of rhythm and sound in poetry, the rhythm and intonation (= the way a speaker's voice rises and falls) of language.” Prosody is the responsible for speaking variation, why? Because of the different intonation people apply to an utterance when they are speaking this is how people recognizes the place where they come from. For example, in Mexico it easy to say when a person is from the north of the country because the way of speaking there sounds like if they were singing affected by the geographical region.

A factor that is a big influencer on this variety is the social stratification; which according to Rahman (2014) “… after having better education, well-paid job or through some other factors, a person’s economic condition can be changed in a better position and he might shift his class to “middle income” or “upper middle income” from the “lower-middle income” this social divisions are the determiners from the variation, but how does this divisions affect the language? “A person’s speech variation along with some other non-linguistic features such as dress codes, body language, power…” (Rahman, 2014 p. 17) it is believed that people from lower income do not use the same features as people in upper middle income, sometimes affected by “… social rank, income, skills and education…” (Rahman, 2014 p.17).

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pronunciation associated with particular group memberships, be it social, regional, ethnic, and so on” (As cited in Giles & Rakić, 2014); in many countries people can easily distinguish where a person is from, however Carrie and McKenzie (2018) mention that “… studies in speech perception typically focus on social, rather than regional, variation and generally use experimental procedures…”.

This section of the article will focus on the many accents a language can have. First, English has so many accents, but the most common are American English and British English, for people that are learning a language or are in contact with those languages is easier to differentiate when a person is talking in American or British English. In Carrie and McKenzie’s work (2018) “Variety recognition items can be incorporated into research on speech perception, perceptual dialectology and language

Now, when learning a new language people should be aware of the different dialects a language has, to be in contact with the accent and to be careful on how to pronounce words or even sentences, and teacher should provide students with the different accents and variations of the language that students are learning.

CONCLUSION In any case language variation or dialects are something that every person in this world should be aware of; this does not mean that one variation of a language is better than the other one, or that a language is better than another one, but that each one of them has its own characteristics and these characteristics make it unique; not only because of the wide vocabulary it has. Also,

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people should learn how to differentiate between how to speak to a parent or a person in a higher position than to a friend that is close to us, because nowadays many people speaks to every person in the same way.

In a foreign language context when a person is learning a new language he or she should be aware of the many variants a language has because when they discover a new word it can starts to get confused and this leads to stop learning this language; which should not be the case. When reading all that information about this topic the new information was very fulfilling, and very enriching.

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Retrieved from http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/W171202 Fern, E. & Ort, M. (2016). La influencia de la variable generación en la variación lingüística de Mérida (Badajoz). Análisis y resultados de nuevas actitudes. Revista de Investigación Lingüística, 18(May).

Giles, H. & Rakić, T. (2014). Language Attitudes: Social determinants and consequences of language variation. In Social Dimensions of Language Variation: Social Causes and Consequences of Language Variability, pp. 11–26. https:// doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199838639.013.030 Giménez Folqués, D. & Roselló Verdeguer, J. (2017). El español hablado en Valencia. Interferencia lingüística y enseñanza de la lengua. Foro de Profesores de E/LE, 13, pp.

144–153. https://doi.org/10.7203/foroele.v0i13.10845 Holyk, S. (2014). Language variation and grammatical change, pp. 17–24.

Pérez-Sabater, C. (2015). Discovering language variation in WhatsApp text interactions. Onomazein, 31(1), pp. 113–

126. https://doi.org/10.7764/onomazein.31.8 Rahman, A. (2014). The Influence of Social Classes on Language Variations: A Study on the people of Dhaka city.

BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh, pp. 1–58.

Salas Alvarado, J. (2017). Factores que influyen en la creación y utilización de la jerga adolescente en tres colegios de la zona de Puntarenas. Káñina, (2), pp. 183–200. Retrieved from http://www.scielo.sa.cr/pdf/kan/v41n2/22152636-kan-41-02-00183.pdf Shareah, M. A. Q. A., Mudhsh, A. D. & Al-Takhayinh, A. H. (2014). An Overview on Dialectal Variation. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 5(6), pp.

2250–3153. Retrieved from www.ijsrp.org Sobrino Triana, R. (2018). El español de Puerto Rico: percepciones dialectales y actitudes lingüísticas.

Cuadernos de Investigación Filológica, 44(0). https://doi. org/10.18172/cif.3436 Song, Y. & Wang, J. (2017). Actitudes lingüísticas hacia las variedades del español. Estudio empírico a partir de estudiantes universitarios de ELE en Pekín. Círculo de Lingüística Aplicada a La Comunicación, 72, pp. 201–216.

Terrádez, M. (2017). La incorporación de la regla variable en la enseñanza de E/LE. Foro de Profesores de E/LE, 13, 284–290. https://doi.org/10.7203/foroele.13.10853 Torrado, M. & Font, C. (2016). Interlanguage or technology?

Capitalization in a learner corpus of English as a foreign language. Opción, 32(12), pp. 784–793. Retrieved from http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=31048903037

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