Appendix

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Tables and figures

Table 8: System of governments according to Matthew Soberg Shugart/ John M. Carey (1992)

government criteria examples system

„pure” presidential

premierpresidential

presidentparliamentary the popular election of the president the president appoints (or nominates) the government subject to the approval of the assembly the president cannot dissolve the assembly the assembly can remove the executive the popular election of the president the prime minister can be removed by the Assembly the president „usually” nominates the prime minister the president can „usually” dissolve parliament the president can „usually” call early elections the president has „less often” a legislative veto Either “pure” presidential with the following additions: the popular election of the president the president appoints (or nominates) the government subject to the approval of the assembly the president must not dissolve the assembly the assembly can remove the government Or premier-presidential with additions: the popular election of the president the prime minister can be removed by the assembly the president „usually” nominates the prime minister the president „usually” can dissolve parliament the president „usually” can call early elections the president has „less often” a legislative veto the president can remove the government or individual members of the government USA

France of the 5th Republic

Weimar Republic, Sri Lanka since 1977

pure parliamentary

parliamentary „with president” the parliament majority determines the government and legislation the head of state cannot influence the composition of the government the head of state cannot dissolve parliament [sic! – J.M.] the head of state cannot influence legislation as the purely parliamentary system, but the head of state is elected by the people England

Ireland, some postcommunist systems

Table 9: Systems of government according to Arend Lijphard (1984)

government criteria examples system parliamentary chief executive (e.g. Prime Minister, Premier, Australia, Chancellor, Ministerpräsident, Taoiseach) is Austria, Belgium, appointed by the legislative Canada, Federal chief executive depends on the confidence of Republic of the legislative Germany, Denmark, France (IV), Great Britain, Holland, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden presidential chief executive (President) is appointed by Finland, France popular vote (directly or via electoral colleague) (5th), USA chief executive is not dependent on the confidence of the legislative hybrid the executive is appointed by the parliament Switzerland the executive branch is not dependent on the confidence of the parliament

Table 10: System of governments according to Arend Lijphart (1994)

government criteria examples system pure the collegial executive the majority of Western parliamentarism is appointed by the legislative, and European democracies depends on the confidence of the (including France 1986–legislative 1988), Australia, Canada, India, Israel, Jamaica, Japan, Malaysia, New Zealand, Turkey, Nigeria (1960–1966) pure the one-person executive most Latin American presidentialism is appointed by voters, and democracies, France (5th is independent of the confidence Republic except 1986–of the legislative 1988), Nigeria (1979–1983), Philippines, South Korea, USA, Cyprus mixed forms of (a) the collegial executive democracy is appointed by the legislative, and is independent of the confidence of the legislative Switzerland (b) the one-person executive is appointed by the legislative, and is independent of the confidence of the legislative Lebanon (c) the collegial executive is appointed by voters, and is independent of the confidence of the legislative Cyprus 1960–1963; (d) the one-person executive Uruguay 1952–1967 is appointed by the legislative, and depends on the confidence of the legislative no empirical example (e) the collegial executive is appointed by voters, and depends on the confidence of the no empirical example legislative

Table 11: System of governments according to Alfred Stepan/ Cindy Skach (1993)

government criteria examples system pure the chief executive is dependent on the democratic parliamentary confidence of the majority of the legislative countries after the the executive can, usually in conjunction Second World War with the head of state, dissolve the legislative pure presidential the legislative has a specific electoral USA mandate, which is the source of its legitimacy the chief executive has a specific electoral mandate, which is the source of its legitimacy semipresidential- the chief executive is directly elected by the France hybrid people (5th Republic), the chief executive „must” have a majority in Portugal the legislative mixed cases No criteria mentioned, apparently these Switzerland, of democracy are the countries that do not fit into the Finland (1925– threefold division. Switzerland has an 1988) executive appointed by parliament, which is then independent of parliament. As far as Finland is concerned, it is only implied that the President, who is independent of parliamentary confidence, is de facto not elected by the people but by parties in parliament.

Figure 1: Social preconditions of the post-communist transformation

non-Western societies in Eastern Europe post-communist authoritarianisms

the political system of arbitrary rule (no legal limitation of power) and traditional (pre-modern) societies

transitional authoritarianism no division of economy and politics, otherwise partly autonomous

facade character of political institutions, no rule of law, omnipresence of the state subject political culture, striving for democratic legitimacy

totalitarian ideology, “pathological modernisation”: no autonomy of social subsystems, no political and social pluralism, centrally planned economy

communist totalitarianism

Western-influenced societies in Central-, South-Eastern- and North-Eastern Europe before installation of communist states of external origins

partial experience with constitutional state (power limited by law) and modern society: autonomy of the economy and politics (autonomy of social subsystems in general), autonomous forces of society advancing autonomy of social subsystems, weak, but functioning constitutional state, developing middle class and emerging civil political culture

post-communist democracies

Name index

Acquarone, Alberto 19 Adenauer, Konrad 94 Arendt, Hannah 17, 25 Aron, Raymond 17 Augstein, Rudolf 71 Bagehot, Walter 60 Berdiajev, Nikolai 22 Berija, Lavrentij 15 Bismarck, Ottovon 30 Breshnev, Leonid 25 Brzeziński, Zbigniew 17, 35, 36 Burke, Edmund 99 Bush, George 41 Carey, John M. 61 Ceauşescu, Nicolae 40, 46, 48, 91 Djilas, Milovan 10, 12 Engels, Friedrich 9, 63 Friedrich, Carl Joachim 17, 35, 36 Gellner, Ernest 11, 26, 63 Gerasimov, Gennady 46 Gomułka, Władysław 25 González Enriquez, Carmen 91 Gorbachev, Mikhail 42, 44, 45, 48, 70 Grass, Günter 71 Gurian, Waldemar 18 Halecki, Oskar 4 Hayek, Friedrich Augustvon 7 Higley, John 92 Hitler, Adolf 18, 27 Holmes, Stephen 61 Honecker, Erich 70 Jaruzelski, Wojciech 26, 44, 48 John, Paul II 43 Khrushchev, Nikita Sergeyevich 14, 15, 24, 25, 36 Kisielewski, Stefan 89

Klaus, Václav 67 Koestler, Arthur 26 Kohl, Helmut 71, 72 Kołakowski, Leszek 18, 47 Kravtchuk, Leonid 47, 78, 79 Krenz, Egon 70 Kutchma, Leonid 78, 80, 82, 85 Kwaśniewski, Aleksander 57, 58 Laski, Harold J. 60 Lengyel, Győrgy 92 Lenin, Vladimir I. 9, 15, 18, 21, 27, 63, 76 Leonhard, Wolfgang 29 Lijphart, Arend 61 Linz, Juan J. 19, 42, 60, 61 Loewenstein, Karl 50, 51, 81 Lukashenka, Aleksandr 49, 76, 78, 84, 87 Maizière de, Lothar 71 Marx, Karl 9, 63 Mazowiecki, Tadeusz 45, 46, 58 Mečiar, Vladimir 84, 92 Mielke, Erich 70 Modrow, Hans 71 Mussolini, Benito 15, 19 Nowak, Leszek 10 O’Donnell, Guillermo 60 Orwell, George 26, 28 Osiatyński, Wiktor 59 Przeworski, Adam 82 Putin, Wladimir 76, 79, 80, 84, 85, 87 Reagan, Ronald 41 Sakskoburggotski, Simeon 94 Sartori, Giovanni 50, 60, 62 Schröder, Gerhard 79 Shevardnadze, Eduard 79, 80, 82, 85 Shevtsova, Lilia 80 Shivkov, Todor 24, 46, 91 Shugart, Matthew S. 61 Shushkevitch, Stanislav 47 Skach, Cindy 60 Spiro, Herbert J. 48 Stalin, Joseph V. 9, 13, 14, 15, 18, 21, 26, 27, 36, 37, 38 Steffani, Winfried 51, 52 Stepan, Alfred 60 Svetlov, Vitalij 46

Voslensky, Mikhail 10 Wałęsa, Lech 56, 57 Weber, Max 90 Wojtyła, Karol 35 Yeltsin, Boris 45, 47, 49, 59, 60, 76-80, 85, 87 Zinovjev, Aleksandr 31

Geographical index

Afganistan 56 Albania 13, 52, 115 Asia 13, 14 Auschwitz 27 Australia 137, 138 Austria 137 Baltic Sea 59 Baltic states 35 Belarus, Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic 13, 35, 36, 37, 66, 89, 99–100, 103, 104, 105, 106, 110 Belgium 137 Berlin 63 Bucharest 87 Bulgaria 13, 36, 37, 63, 67, 68, 91, 105, 114, 115, 116, 118, 121 Canada 137, 138 Caucasus 35, 61 Central Asia 52, 107 Central Europe 13, 14, 15, 34, 35, 62, 86, 88, 90, 120, 123, 140 Central European states 57, 89, 115 Central Germany (Mitteldeautschland) 21 Chernobyl 56 China, People’s Republic of China 34, 37, 52 Crimea 97 Croatia 116 Cuba 34 Cyprus 138 Czech Republic 13, 67, 68, 87, 88, 90, 105, 115, 116, 122, 123 Czechoslovakia 21, 26, 35, 37, 38, 39, 50, 54, 55, 63, 65, 67, 90, 98, 99, 100, 121, 123 Częstochowa 59 Denmark 137 Donbass 97 East Central Europe 13 Eastern Belarus 36 Eastern Bloc 14–16, 56, 65, 83, 91, 95

Eastern Europe 13–15, 88, 104, 105, 120, 140 Eastern Ukraine 36 Elbe 13, 91 England 71, 137 Estonia 13, 61, 88, 90 Eurasia 13 Europe 13, 34, 35, 59, 63 European Community 92 European Union, EU 88, 89, 90, 105 Federal Republic of Germany 44, 52, 71, 83, 91–93, 97, 105, 118, 121, 137 Finland 71, 137, 139 France 34, 35, 71, 74, 75, 136, 137, 138, 139 Galicia 36 Georgia 26, 98, 99, 102, 104, 105, 106, 108 German Democratic Republic, GDR, Eastern Germany 13, 21, 50, 54, 55, 63, 71, 83, 86, 90–93, 96–97, 98, 99, 100, 117–118, 121, 122, 123 German Empire 71 Germany 14, 30, 34, 35, 38, 58, 90–92, 94, 114 Great Britain 35, 137 Harvard University 46 Holland 137 Hungary, Hungarian Socialist Republic 13, 37, 39, 54, 55, 57, 61, 62, 63, 67, 68, 88, 90, 98, 99, 113, 115, 116, 121 Iceland 137 Imperial Russia 34 India 138 Ireland 137 Israel 137, 138 Italy 31, 50, 137 Jamaica 138 Japan 137, 138 Kaliningrad 13 Kraków 50 Kremlin 37, 43, 52, 90, 99, 105 Latin America 71 Latvia 13, 61, 90 Lebanon 138 Lithuania 13, 61, 90, 98, 99 Luxembourg 137 Malaysia 138 Mittelosteuropa 14 Moldova 13 Mongolia 35 Moscow 37, 52, 61, 62

New Zealand 137, 138 Nigeria 138 Nord Stream 105 North Caucasus 52 North Korea 52 North-Eastern Europe 14, 15, 34, 35, 86, 88, 90, 120, 140 Norway 137 Occident 25 Ostmitteleuropa 14 Philippines 138 Poland, People’s Republic of Poland 13, 26, 35, 36, 38, 39, 45, 48, 50, 52, 54, 55, 57, 59–60, 61, 62–63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 71–79, 88, 89, 90, 98, 99, 105, 113, 115, 116, 121 Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 36 Portugal 139 Prague 16, 38, 54 Romania 13, 37, 63, 65, 67, 68, 87, 114, 115, 121 Rus’ 34 Russia, Russian Federation 13, 33, 34, 61, 63, 66, 67, 68, 72, 78, 98, 99–100, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 109, 110, 116 Serbia 116 Siberia 52 Slovakia 13, 67, 68, 90, 98, 106, 116, 122 Slovenia 90 South Korea 138 South-Eastern Europe 13–15, 35, 86, 88, 120, 140 Soviet Union, USSR, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 15, 25, 29, 34–38, 41, 46, 52, 55–57, 60, 61, 62, 63, 68, 71, 89, 91, 95, 121, 123 Spain 104 Sri Lanka 136 Sweden 137 Switzerland 71, 137, 138, 139 Third Reich 29, 44, 50 Turkey 138 Ukraine, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic 13, 35, 36, 37, 61, 63, 87, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102–104, 105, 106, 108, 109 United States of America, USA 35, 44, 57, 62, 71, 80, 106, 136, 137, 138, 139 Uruguay 138 Vatican 31 Vietnam 34 Vladivostok 13 Warsaw 43, 52, 62, 63 Weimar Republic 71, 136 West Germany 88, 92, 93, 117, 118

West 16, 22, 23, 25, 29, 38, 52, 55, 63, 83, 89, 93, 105, 118 Western Ukraine 36 Yugoslavia 13, 35, 68, 121, 122