Table of
What is Chicha? By Geoffrey Clarfield
The ancient rootd of Chicha By Geoffrey Clarfield
Chicha as an amalgam of cultures Arturo Quispe
Chicha in Peruvian cultural context By Arturo Quispe
The new entrepeneurial class By Oswaldo Morales
Development in Peru By Arturo Quispe
What do we call “Chicha�?: Three opinions By Hugo Neira
Credits and special thanks to the authors
By Geoffrey Clarfield
What is
The sounds, graphic art and the mestizo lifestyle that goes with the music is the latest revolt of the Peruvian masses
Along with a fine roster of Peruvian bands such as “Los Wembler’s de Iquitos” and “Tutuma,” this year’s Smithsonian Folklife Festival-goers will be able to meet and visit with the renowned Peruvian graphic artist Pedro “Monky” Tolodeo at work in a studio recreated on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. Monky’s street posters have become synonymous with the syncopated, high energy beat of a music genre, called chicha, that embraces the migrant population thriving in the capital city of Lima. It is a music that draws energy from the streets. Monky, a pioneer of the poster movement, has designed advertising placards for a whole range of Peruvian pop bands in bold phosphorescent colors.
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The brightly colored pages are pasted on walls and barriers in the streets and throughways of Lima’s neighborhoods. Chicha is a combination of music, visual art and life style derived from the cultural backdrop of Peru’s migrant people from los Andes and mixed race, urban proletariat, some of whom have made money in late-20th-century oil boom in the Amazon, and who have flooded the city with their informal suburbs or “shantytowns.” This dramatic process of displacement and immigration has inspired a form of pop music and pop culture, which distinguishes these new urban immigrants, from the resident middle and upper classes, who look to Western Europe for their cultural models.
Born in 1962 in the rural province of Junin, Monky eventually made his way to Lima as a cook and laborer. Before the move to the capital, he crafted posters in one color only, but after the move, he expanded his palette into a wildly vibrant range of bold neon colors. He says that his creations are influenced by landscapes, traditional sculpture and traditional costume.
One of the most famous icons of chicha was a singer named El Chacalon, who began his career in 1977 and was the anti-hero of working youth, representing everything the cultural and economic elite of the country despised. Like Elvis Presley in post war America, he was flamboyant, electric and rebellious, and he gave a voice to the working class and the dispossessed. When he died in 1994, at the height of his popularity, 20,000 people showed up at his funeral.
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THE MUSICOLOGY OF CHICHA
Formal musicologists might label what Peruvians have come to call chicha as a variety of related but different musical styles. Much of the repertoire consists of souped-up versions of the Huayno song style of the Peruvian highlands. Unlike the more traditional highland singing style, in chicha there is very little melisma, or long melodic improvs on a single vowel as in opera. The verse and chorus structure exhibit traits, such as the call and response and the multi-rhythms of African music. If you listen closely to the guitar riffs, you can even pick up a hint of the Afro pop of Nigerian Fela Kuti. Peruvians might say that if it sounds like chicha, it is chicha.
The lyrics are imbued with the trials and tribulations of immigrants coming to the city, largely of Andean and Mestizo background, with their many themes of love and death and tales of the daily struggle. There’s nothing esoteric about chicha. It is grounded, raunchy and in your face—a bit like the honky tonk of the country-and-western music in the United States. While the music is a phenomenon of the working class, and from a musical point of view, those 1960s style electric guitars cannot be stopped and the drums just roll on.
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The dance itself inspires is characteristic of pre-Columbian Indian cultures, closer to what outsiders see as a restrained shuffle, nay than the “ecstatic”and also dramatic movements of the Afro-Cuban dancers that Americans are used to. So, Chicha is truly a mixed genre that speaks to late 20th and early 21st century Peruvian life, culture and art.
Beyond the musical expression of Andes migrants to Peru’s capital, the music is part of what one writer has named as “horizontal revolution,” where new forms of culture emerge from mixing the themes of various ethnicities in new urban Lima contexts, including its traditional poster art, with a graphic style transformed from a traditional “square font” to ones whose letters and flow are much rounder. As the style erupted so quickly on the scene, there was enormous competition among bands to get people to come to their concerts at venues that were called “chichadromos”. The typography used in promotional posters was often correlated with a particular band.
As the promotional posters became more popular, a number of key families, such as the Urcuhuaranga brothers, managed to set up their own print shops to design and produce posters for their clients. Some say that the florid designs of the posters have their origins in the Peruvian textile patterns from central Andes. Monky and others like him have made posters for some of the bigger names in Peruvian pop music such as, “Chacalón,” “Los Shapis” and “Alegría.” When asked where his creativity comes from, he says, “I invent my creativity, I do it my own way, personalized. Also depending on the feel and requirements of the personality of each group. My creativity is independent. My work [matches] with the music and the environment, and the class of people, each person has their name, has their style, and my style goes along with that.” [10]
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By Geoffrey Clarfield
The Ancient
Although chicha is the latest incarnation of Peruvian popular music, its roots are centuries old. In 1553, the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro murdered Atahualpa, the king of the Incas, and entered the capital city of Cuzco as the conqueror of the Incan Kingdom of Peru. Soon after, the Inca revolted and the Spanish put down this revolt savagely. These two events changed every aspect of Peru; its demography, economics, politics and religion. It also changed its music.
As ethnomusicologist Mr. Bruno Nettl describes in his book, “Folk and Traditional Music of the Western Continents”, with the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors, music and their musical instruments (both Folk and Classical) from Spain were brought to the palaces and households of colonial Peru. Church organs, lutes, viols, European flutes and trumpets were imported and reproduced locally. Missionaries have introduced Gregorian chant, choral hymns and early forms of the guitar to remote rural areas.
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PHOTOGRAPHY OF MACHU PICCHU IN CUSCO - PERÚ, SYMBOL OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF INCA EMPIRE
As most of the early Spanish immigrants were men who married local women, the melodies that were common to Spain mixed and alternated with native Andean melodies. Eventually, even the poorest of the poorest Andean person, took on the stringed instruments of the Spaniard, such as the guitar, but modifying them so that they could accompany the distinctive five tone (pentatonic) scales that are still so hauntingly characteristic of the music of the descendants of the highland Inca, the Quecha and Aymara Indians of Peru’s mountainous areas. Slaves imported by the Spaniards brought their choral harmonies and sophisticated polyrhythms to the Latin America’s coastal regions. During the 20th century, their creole descendants gave birth to cumbia, a highly African influenced popular music that burst out of Colombia in the latest decades, transforming popular music of neighboring countries like Peru. During the last 40 years, cumbia became wildly popular in Peru and then, it collided with the highland Inca tradition (and a few other styles like, Cuban pop music as well as wah-wah pedals and electric guitars, that came down from the United States) giving birth to the musical and artistic style called chicha. Not surprisingly, this inclusive music style is named after the Incan beverage of the same name. Cumbia also has a musical version from Amazonia illustrated by Noe Fanchin of Chicha band “Juaneco Y Su Combo,” and who was known for taking Ayahuasca, a hallucinogen brew, perhaps to express his solidarity with Peru’s lesser known, lowland Amazonian Indians.
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Chicha culture and
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By Oswaldo Morales
Chicha culture, rejected by some and praised by others, represents today the great convergence of cultures that live in Lima. This culture, in addition, is the great impulse that represents the great entrepreneurs of our day. In Peru, a culture of informality has been disseminated for years, which is associated with “going around the law” to obtain its own benefit. There is a lack of commitment to others that, in some cases, borders illegality. For this reason, the term “Creole” became popular to define the liveliness of popular culture. A culture that has lived together for years with formality, understood as respect for the rules of conduct and laws dictated by the State.
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In recent decades, Peru has suffered a social and economic revolution due to acute crises. One of the biggest conflicts that Peru has experienced occurred in the 80s with the appearance of a terrorist movement that was born in the department of Ayacucho, located in the Peruvian highlands. Terrorism spread rapidly to other parts of the country, even reaching the capital of Peru. As a result of the violence unleashed in the provinces, many Peruvians decided to migrate to the cities, mainly to Lima, in search of peace and opportunities for a new beginning. However, Lima wasn’t prepared to receive a large amount of human tide and tried to resist the “invasion” without being able to fight against it. The magnitud of the population was so great that public services collapsed and the immigrants were forced to create “new cities” in the peripheries of the capital. These recent new districts were called “young towns”, as they represented the dream of a better future for the children of migrants.
THE RISE OF ENTREPENEURS AND CHICHA CULTURE
As economist Hernando de Soto relates in “The Other Path”, these immigrants were forced to create their own rules and new means of work. The first walkers who crowded and occupied the Center of Lima constitute a first stage of the fight against adversity. Although they were initially seen as invaders and as a danger to formal businesses, over time they were formalized to form the basis of many family businesses that, given the growth and success of their businesses, decided to take the big step of formalization. Today we can observe surprisily that the second and third generation of migrants became successful entrepreneurs. Faced with the crisis and the adversity, Peru had became a country of entrepreneurs, reaching the first place in a ranking of entrepreneurship: until today our country remains among the first in the world according to the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor portal.
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With this economic and social success, the culture generated by this new class has varied its connotation from informal to chicha culture. It is called “chicha” because, as the great chef Gastón Acurio states, chicha is a beverage from Peru that can be enjoyed in any corner of the country -in different manifestations- and that represents all Peruvians. It is also chicha because it tells us about a mixture of ingredients that, in this particular case, refers to the Peruvians of the coast, mountains and jungle, who decided to leave their land to achieve the dream of development and a better life for their children.
There are great representatives of this chicha entrepreneurial culture, one very known example could be the owners of the AJE group, which was initially called ‘Kola Real’, a company with origins from the department of Ayacucho; a province ravaged by terrorism and not supplied by the main brands of soft drinks.
We have observed that, based on caothic informality in Peru, there is a new culture called chicha, which manifests itself with its own rules and which in turn responds to a need for development to create a truly different future in the city. Chicha culture has conquered Lima with its effort, and has become a development engine that generates a new entrepreneurial class.
Under these circumstances a new drink bottled in empty bottles of other sodas emerged and was sold at a accesible price to the new market. A company that grew to make the leap to other countries and even dare to compete in markets as large and different as that of India.
“It
is Chicha becase it tells us about a mixture of ingredientes that, in this case, refers to the peruvians of the coast, mountains and jungle who decided to leave their land to achieve the dream of development and a better life for their children”
Oswaldo Morales
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Chicha culture
In these years of change of century, in the country, concern has been made alive by what has come to be called “chicha culture” At this juncture this is related to situations that have occurred in two different areas: politics and culture. First, in the political sphere, there have been three events that have marked the political scene and the national concern of the end of the century:
1. The “Chicha” newspapers became a
pasquine of lies, deception and were always concealing information
2. The
fraudulent second re-election of President Fujimori, who badly appealed to all kinds of arguments, conspiracy, black mail and deception was anointed with a third unconstitutional mandate
The first fact linked the term chicha with falsehood and deception; in the case of the second and third, their association was with the lack of scruples and the flexibility of the values. In sum, the three facts of the political sphere are inserted within the framework of the flexibility of norms and values that are widespread throughout society: which has transgressed the institutionality of norms; questioned ethics and values, highlighting an instrumental rationality. The second, in the cultural field: along with the previous one, and thanks to the great acceptance of technocumbia, has been associated with chicha as a music that “democratizes”, given its insertion in all strata of the society, and media. All this set of facts has been associated with the so-called “chicha culture”.
3. the sudden conversion of opposition
parliamentarians to the ruling party, the so-called transfugues, people who denied or renounced the principles that led them to parliament. All this happened to the sound of famous technocumbia “El baile del chino”. [18]
By Arturo Quispe
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But also, over two decades, from 80s to 2000s, the negative meaning for the term “chicha” has been built. This has served to qualify all types of situations that are linked to transgression and outside the established, badly done. or informality. In such a way that “chicha” was acquiring a negative content value. We will see that has been frequent - yet it is - to read and/or listen to some political analysts and specialists from all over the world, especially in the media, the term “chicha” associated to all areas:
1. The economics: “Chicha credit, chicha
economy, chicha budget, chicha train”
2. The politician: “Chicha mayor, chicha,
chicha president, chicha constitution, chicha path, chicha political party”
3. The social: “Chicha assembly, chicha organisation” 4. The cultural: “chicha creation, chicha
colors, chicha style”
5. The show: “Chicha cheerleader, chicha
vedette, chicha show program”
6. The sports teams: “Alianza Lima was
a strident chicha soccer team without compass and rythm”
7.
To architecture: “Chicha architecture, chicha house, chicha designs”
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Also everyday and in colloquial speaking:, people use expressions like “nothing to do with chicha things” and also “you are pure chicha”. And so, we can continue to find or invent more associations with the term chicha (Perupaz magazine called Peru “1994 has been a chicha year in Peru”; “... this Peru deeply corrupt and bumpy and lax and deranged”.
But always with that negative sense that has fitted it. In the beginning of the new millenium, in a polarized political context, the environment has become qualifying as: “chicha elections, transfugas, chicha newspapers, chicha president”; always with that negative sense.
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Also within the task of the market: “The” shrinking “of the Peruvian market and marketing” (Management, July 30, 2000). “We’re in a chicha country and the things that one does abroad look at it” (Oblitas at: Todo Sport.com).
By Arturo Quispe
However, we can say that chicha is rather syncretism, the mixture of all the cultures of the country nested in the capital city. It isn’t exactly Andean, although it’s mostly, it’s not properly city, it’s the mixture and overlapping of every culture based in the country, including Creole. In such a way that, in certain contexts, some aspects of Chicha have been misrepresented: that it is strictly linked to the badly done, unscrupulous, criminal, anomic. So, it’s its negative sense the most widespread. But what is “chicha culture”? How was it generated? How does the term chicha acquire a negative connotation? So, it’s accurate to call this whole set of events as “chicha culture” or perhaps, it’s a important human manifestation that has been configured as a transit from an aristocratic-Creole society towards a more popular, confluent, democratic-cut society, in which all the living cultures of the country coexist, and do you agree more with the changes produced in the last 50 in Peru? After all, what is the so called “chicha culture” telling us, what meaning does it acquire, for the culture in Peru, for Lima in particular? To explore your understanding of the so called “chicha culture”, we’ll see in these lines the dimensions that it comprises, the social construction of the negative meaning of chicha term and the cultural meaning it acquires for the country and Lima in particular.
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DIMENSIONS OF CHICHA CULTURE
Over time, the manifestation of Chicha has been configured, in a kind of culture that has involved a series of aspects or dimensions. Therefore, we can say that Chicha has the following dimensions:
1. the aesthetic-cultural: strident colors, combination of foods, mix of traditions and cultures, etc., which more often than not has been associated with bad taste from different cultural canons.
2.
the informal, the mix, pandemonium.
3. the flexibility of norms and values: the unscrupulous, outside the norms, etc.
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It can be said that from these socially constructed dimensions, they extend in all areas of society: both social, political, economic and cultural. And, of course, as I have already pointed out, in certain contexts one of its aspects is relieved. In these last two years it is the political sphere that is on the national scene, it is here that we have been able to account for some of the dimensions linked to its negative meaning.
Chicha in Peruvian
CULTURAL CHANGE SINCE THE SECOND HALF OF THE 20th CENTURY
To have a clear idea of the meaning of the term “chicha culture” in Peru, and in Lima in particular, it must be seen in a wider context, in a process of shaping culture in the country during the 20th century, and inquire what have been the changes that occurred in those years to produce a kind of culture like the so-called chicha. From the second half of the 20th century onwards, a type of culture was created, product of the new circs that the country was going through, and Lima in this case in particular.
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Basically, it was due to the migrations from people from Los Andes that arrived in the city since 1950, the second great migratory wave as Mr. Bourricaud said (1989), “poor provincials from different parts of the country arrived in the capital with many expectations”. They were located in distant places of the city, conquering their own spaces, popularly known as “invasiones” (Blondet, Degregori and Lynch, 1986), and creating human settlements and popular districts.
That is, they “widened” Lima in its four large areas (north, south, east, west) (Sánchez, Calderón, 1980). If in the 40s 28.5% of the population of Lima was a migrant, in 1961 they were already 46%, and in 1972 it became 46% of migrants in Lima. (Golte and Adams, 1990). There was the “cholification” of Lima and the emergence of cholo (Quijano, 1980), the new Lima was amalgamating their values, beliefs, customs, traditions, etc. to these new city circumstances (Quispe Lázaro, 1993). They sought to identify with the new social reality of Lima in the midst of a cultural hotbed that transcended the singularity and provincial localism.
They assimilated into the city. This fact produced a double process: On one hand, Lima was adapting these new inhabitants to its rhythm and its logic; and on other hand, the new Lima were adapting Lima to their values, customs and traditions. Through this process, all the instances of society took over (Mar, 1984) generating changes in all areas: social, geographical, economic, political, cultural, transforming the stately and aristocratic Lima, Creole and mazamorrera. Over time this type of cultural manifestation has been called in many ways: Andean culture, Chola culture and Chicha culture.
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Influenced sectors of the city has been described as: Andean Lima, Lima chola or the andinization of Lima, cholification of Lima, etc. Lately, also, it has been called Lima chichera or to indicate that it has been extended to the entire city, it has been called the “enchichamiento” of Lima. The intention was, with these and other designations, to characterize the city in the current circumstances from some element, which has occurred in the course of these years in Lima. In that direction, one of the appellants that has been mentioned most to qualify the type of culture of Lima, of these years, is the term chicha. Chicha culture.
For a better understanding of Chicha, it is not only necessary to consider it as a manifestation of anomalies, to call it somehow, of informality, something badly done or related to laxity of the norms or the unscrupulous. But it will also consider as a manifestation of a set of situations that correspond to a society in state of transformation, a period of transit from an aristocratic-creole society into other type of society which configuration is seen as a democratic, where all cultures cohabit, within a modern social context all this is also due to the reconfiguration of the city, the geographical space and its social composition.
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Hence, what has been called like chicha is that amalgam of every single cultural expressions, the hotbed of the past and present, reminiscent of the creole and aristocratic culture and its permanent conflict with the Quechua and Amazonian Andean culture.
CHICHA CULTURE AS A SIGN OF OUR TIME
We will say that, Chicha culture in Peru, in the absence of an appropriate name, is called the cultural syncretism of the last 50 years in the country. It is a culture that has several dimensions, a weight that the most widespread is linked to the anomic, informal and unscrupulous. However, the other dimensions allude to a culture pattern pretty different from the traditional aristocratic, expresses the mixture of all cultures.
We experience it always on a daily basis: the combination of meals, the diffusion of strong colors, the vitality of the different cultures nested in the capital, etc. In addition to being an inclusive feature, that is, the significant presence of every culture, without prejudice to any. Hence, we’ll say that Chicha is the manifestation of the cultural change that the country has undergone since the second half of the twentieth century in Peru, in Lima in particular, making the culture even more democratic and popular.
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We are still on that path of permanent change, there is nothing conclusive yet, we only attend its external manifestations of everyday life, what step builds a kind of becoming. We can only see that we are, apparently, in transit towards something other than the aristocratic and heritage, where the popular, this time, does have a presence. But we still do not know exactly what will result, or what direction it will take, or who will be the future course, or how long it takes this kind of change towards, we suppose, something is going better in the participation and union of all cultures in a democratic way and without exclusions. Meanwhile, Chicha continues to move to society as a whole.
Three opinions:
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By Hugo Neira
A CULTURE, A SOCIAL STYLE AND AN IDIOSYNCRATIC ATTITUDE
The present chronicles are interested in «cultures». In Peru, there are several. We are not talking about the Amazon, or the Aymara merchants that have flooded the provinces of Arequipa and Moquegua. I am nothing contrary or against to that traditional anthropology. But I think that we should rather be interested in urban cultures, for obvious reasons. So, a really overwhelming majority of Peruvians live in cities. There are several “cultures” in city. Regarding the issue of the choledad, in Guillermo Nugent, it was a great success in 1992. But while remaining a somewhat easy gloss of Octavio Paz, The labyrinth of the choledad. I never liked the title, it sounds like “cochineo”. Apart from that, it’s a great essay. Today, we speak, very often, of the “achorado”, or of the combi culture and of the chicha culture. This note refers to the latter.
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We are still on that path of permanent change, there is nothing conclusive yet, we only attend its external manifestations of everyday life, what step builds a kind of becoming. We can only see that we are, apparently, in transit towards something other than the aristocratic and heritage, where the popular, this time, does have a presence. But we still do not know exactly what will result, or what direction it will take, or who will be the future course, or how long it takes this kind of change towards, we suppose, something is going better in the participation and union of all cultures in a democratic way and without exclusions. Meanwhile, Chicha continues to move to society as a whole.
Let’s start, then, by defining the concept itself. It is a way of specifying the theme we address. All knowledge is inevitably reducing. Here the central theme is that of culture, particularly urban. It happens that since the forties of the last century, anthropologists - the American Boas, the Polish English who was Malinowski - studied the indigenous Australians, American and South American Indians, and African villages, but their successors began to observe, study and describe to urban communities, migrants, marginal groups, ethnic minorities of urban subcultures and countercultures.
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The latter, of young people in conflict with the dominant culture of their elders. In other words, anthropology and sociology, in the United States of America, leave the countryside and return to the city. A decisive change is that of Howard Becker, Outsiders (1993). They went on to study youth fashions, in that they must read Marvin Harris, which it’s translated since a long period of time. I would add also the works of Frenchman Pierre Bourdieu. The distinction is from 1979.
The concept of culture is varied. But since 1871, it means “a set of habits or customs acquired by the human being in society.” Concept of the British anthropologist E. B. Tylor, “all technical skills, the social symbols of every human society.” And that is how in this huge society that is Lima, concepts such as the chicha culture appear. For brevity, I reduce this note to three contributions. The chicha culture according to Arturo Quispe Lázaro. Then, one of my students who dealt with that theme. And what it says is chicha Danilo Martuccelli in Lima and its arenas. I do not know Mr. Arturo Quispe Lázaro personally, but I have downloaded his text from the Internet. Start from a political angle, when not! He writes in 2000, and the first is “chicha newspapers.” First, «Pasquines of lies, deception and concealment of information». Then, Mr. Quispe Lázaro deals with “the fraudulent re-election of President Fujimori, when he aspired to a third term, does the reader remember? And Quispe points out that technocumbia and the “Chinese dance”, like chicha, are born with the music that democratizes. Then, the concept Chicha is applied to a huge symbology. Quispe Lázaro observes the term polysemy. “Chicha credit, chicha train, chicha president, chicha colors, chicha architecture, chicha vedette, chicha cheerleader”.
Of the “market shrinking”. And of the teacher and writer Abelardo Sánchez León, “this Peru, deeply corrupt and chichero” (Quehacer magazine).
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Then, what is chicha for Quispe Lázaro? The amalgam of cultures. «In the aesthetic cultural, strident colors, combination in the meals, bad taste. The informal, the mix, the flexibility of norms and values, the unscrupulous. He doesn’t say it, but we can use it in that meaning. Chicha Judiciary. Out of the rules. In conclusion, a negative connotation. According to Quispe Lázaro, because the urban and Lima produce «under the atmosphere of a social and cultural convulsion» what he calls «la chicha, traditional confrontation between two types of culture, the Andean and the coastal».
Third point of view is Danilo Martuccelli. Professor of sociology at the University Paris Descartes. In the 2015 book, Lima and its arenas. The concept, whether we like it or not, European curiosity, makes it known throughout the world. What does Martuccelli say? Well, he say that Chicha is first a musical expression, with “an imaginary of fusion.” Secondly, «Chicha goes on to designate a generalized culture, social style and idiosyncratic attitude. Notice that Creole was also a music in its beginnings. Felipe Pinglo, then, «the night already covers with his black crepe». “The Creole, the 30s.”
Second point of view from Mabel Patricia Ordonez, a Peruvian, one of my former students. She maintains that the origin is the great migration of the province to Lima, “from the terrorist attacks in andean cities.” «The chicha culture truly belongs to the provincial population that sees Lima as the promised land». It links it to the Gamarra emporium, to the moto taxis, to the high areas of the hills, to the cones. He recognizes that “it is a world where social services are lacking.” The chicha culture is a first step, although it expects “the formality of that population based in Lima.”
As the kind reader will appreciate, the French’s ability to synthesize. And his insight. I have said spirit of synthesis and something else, intellectual honesty. Does the reader know that Quispe Lázaro quotes? Anyway, for the Sorbonne teacher, who knows the city of Lima and its people, “Chicha is a kitsch, whose expression is on Marina Avenue, a place of confluence of urban young people. The chicha are the hostels, as a place of peace and sexuality before the maelstrom of the city ». And here this modest effort stops.
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Credits ARTICLES (In order of appearence)
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Geoffrey Clarfield Oswaldo Morales Arturo Quispe Hugo Neira
PHOTOGRAPHY (In order of appearence)
Carmen Villavicencio Ruiz Elliot Tupac Joshua Cogan Perú21 Newspaper Kawsani Tours Alinder Espada MiBanco Bank El Comercio Newspaper El Trome Newspaper Carga Máxima Studio
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Andina.com.pe Getty Images La Candelaria Perú Ralph Rinzler Folklife Archives Smithsonian Institution Eleazar Cuadros Choque Gael Turine / MAPS This is Colossal Uber blog