Breeding Resilience: Thriving in Orange Air Vol. I

Breeding ResiliencE

Architectural Design Research Submitted to the Department of Architecture in partial fulfillment of the degree Masters of Architecture at the National University of Singapore November 2019

by Viany Sutisna A0144790B under the supervision of Tsuto Sakamoto

Breeding (v) : 1

2

cause an organism to produce offspring, especially in a controlled and organized way rear and train (someone) to behave in a particular way

Resilience (n) : 1

the capacity to recover quickly from difficulties; toughness

Acknowledgements I would like to extend my gratitude to the following people who have helped me in the process of this thesis-prep. The project would not be what is today so far, if not for the support from many.

To my family, especially Mum, for your boundless love, compassion and support in all that I do.

To my studiomates, Bona, Nijel, Hogen, for our late night studio sessions and meaningful conversations over Tuesday dinners.

To friend and role model, David, for always being available when in need for a second opinion and for your valuable feedback.

To friends who have kept me sane, Deb, Gerald, Faith, Ben, Pan, Janine, Abraham, Mo. Last but certainly not the least, to my supervisor, Tsuto, thank you for your patience and generosity with your time and your endless insightful comments.

Contents 6

Abstract Overview Chapter 01 Introduction 1.1 1.2 1.3

Breathing as Survival Air as Sustainability Site Context, Hyperobjects, Ecology without Nature

Chapter 02 Politics of Air 2.1 2.2 2.3

Global Scale Regional Scale Local Scale 2.3.1 Fiery Lands 2.3.2 Gasping for Air 2.3.3 Staying above water

Chapter 03 Air as Commodity 3.1 3.2

Carbon Credit Carbon Colonialism vs Indigenous Sustainability

Chapter 04 Architectural Approach 5.1 5.2 5.3

Architectural Issue Proposal Site Choice

Appendix Bibliography

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Abstract 2

The thesis begins with the phenomena of the Southeast Asian haze that blankets Singapore and Malaysia with thick smog, as seen from satellite images, an annual phenomenon that persists despite the efforts of numerous parties to limit its occurrence. Specifically, the context of interest is a complex ecosystem of the peatlands in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, where raging fires occur and pungent haze persist.

A rather dystopic future is speculated through the examination of existing site narratives and climate change projections, of frequent El Nino events, rising tides and temperatures, and extreme fluctuations of drought and flood. Living on the land is a constant struggle and the air we breathe for survival becomes highly lauded. In despair, humans form a symbiotic relationship with algae, an organism that can sequester carbon emissions and produce oxygen for breathing.

The thesis becomes a speculation of how a community could adopt a new ethos of living and coexist in a much more ambivalent relationship with nonhuman actors, as part of a coping alternative in the age of the Anthropocene.

Hierarchies and pre-existing notions between actors become redefined and redistributed to ensure survival of both species. The adaptations and coping mechanisms towards climate as an irreversible condition gives rise to a new aesthetics and culture.

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OVERVIEW 4

Chapter 01

focuses on an introduction of the issue of air that is at hand and the accompanying literature that will be used for discussion in the thesis.

Chapter 02

discusses the politics and conditions of the air at the global, regional and local scale.

Chapter 03

explores the emerging carbon trade as an emerging commodity in the Anthropocene.

Chapter 04

delves into the core architectural issue, project speculation and potential architectural proposal.

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Image Sources: (pg 8) Second Battle of Ypres | Facts, History, & Outcome,” Encyclopedia Britannica, accessed November 17, 2019, https://www. britannica.com/event/Second-Battle-of-Ypres.

“Image: Gas Masks, American War Photo,” accessed November 17, 2019, https://www.google.com/ imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.world-war-pictures.com%2Fimages%2Famerican-world-war-posters%2Fwusa017. jpg&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.world-war-pictures.com%2Fwar-poster%2Fwusa017&docid=o1AcIB_gKHKJ4M&tbnid=yLW71ebsNPWgeM%3A&vet=1&w=500&h=375&bih=784&biw=997&ved=2ahUKEwip2JGanu_lAhV8xjgGHWc7AwUQxiAoAXoECAEQGQ&iact=c&ictx=1. (pg 10) NASA Earth Observatory. Retrieved from https://mothership.sg/2019/09/nasa-satellite-photos-indonesia-haze/

01 INtroduction 6

The Battle at Ypres 1915 8

1.1 Breath as Survival Air is the life-giving element on which we depend. We cannot see, feel or smell the element air and yet it is impossible for one to deny the need to breathe at all1.

Out of sight, and out of mind, they say.

Inherently, it only comes into consciousness1 when we realise that the air we breathe has gone bad.

The haze makes the invisible air unavoidably tangible. The colour of the sky changes into a dusty grey, covering our landscapes with a blanket of grainy pollutant particles. The visible colour of the air as a result of the scattering of light in our atmosphere warn us of the quality of the air we inhale.

The smell of smoke becomes omnipresent as miniscule gas particles diffuse evenly throughout the atmosphere. Humidity makes particles in the air grow in size, impairing our eyesight. The air becomes thick and heavy, putting pressure on our lungs to filter good air from bad air.

In his book Terror from the Air, Peter Sloterdijk describes the chlorine gas attacks at Ypres in 1915 that knocked the life out of young soldiers in a green smoking horror2. The resemblance of the haze to this calamitous event in history is almost uncanny, as the very element that gave life has now been compromised. Perhaps the only difference is that while the soldiers in Ypres faced green gas, this one is orange.

In this new air, our breath is no longer effortless, and our survival becomes laborious.

Peter Sloterdijk, Terror from the Air, trans. Amy Patton and Steve Corcoran (Semiotext, 2009).

Graham Harman, Object-Oriented Ontology: A New Theory of Everything, Pelican Books (London: Pelican, an imprint of Penguin Books, 2018).

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The 2019 haze as seen from NASA satellites.

1.2 Air as Sustainability By extension, air is equivalent to sustainability.

The composition of gases in our atmosphere control multiple cycles and processes on which the state of the Earth depends. Water vapour and greenhouse gases act as a thermal blanket around the planet. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth’s average temperature would be a freezing -18 °C, a temperature in which many species would thrive3. In this perspective, the air has been responsible for the sustainability of all species on Earth.

Humans have shown unprecedented power of modifying the climate through gaseous composition in the Anthropocene age, increasing the amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, in the air through the combustion of carbon matter. The burning of the forests and carbon stocks in peatlands that result in haze also contribute to a large portion of carbon emissions.

What will happen to the earth once it goes past the 1.5°C4 tipping point set by climate specialists?

3 “NASA GISS: Science Briefs: Greenhouse Gases: Refining the Role of Carbon Dioxide,” accessed November 11, 2019, https://www.giss.nasa.gov/research/briefs/ma_01/.

4 Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change (IPCC), “IPCC Special Report on Global Warming,” 2018, https://www. ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/06/SR15_Full_Report_High_Res.pdf.

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Map of Central Kalimantan 12

1.3 Site Context, Haze as Hyperobject and Ecology without Nature Central Kalimantan is the site in which matters of haze are at hand.

The haze as a hyperobject is overwhelming. It is unquantifiable, uncapturable and seemingly infinite, as a substance that resembles a size much smaller than dust, but is “massively distributed in time and space relative to humans.”5 The thesis research explores how humans have opted to rationalise and respond to the hyperobject haze, through constructs of science, economics and politics which have resulted in an increasingly distanced and anthropocentrically-scaled perspective of how the haze should be solved.

However, the maintenance of such narrowed views and the inability to grasp haze, has manifest in the human realm in the form of denial and blame of neighbours, and an invisible arena of international politics. The anxiety of securing long term sustainability also seems to have driven the creation of institutions to regulate the collective gas emissions of countries, introducing market mechanisms to control the composition of the air. Everyone is on a frantic mission to suppress emissions and madly searching for ways to pay for the carbon crimes we have committed.

The air is no longer an innocent element but an active medium involved in the economics and politics of human survival.

Timothy Morton, Hyperobjects: Philosophy and Ecology after the End of the World, Posthumanities 27 (Minneapolis London: University of Minnesota Press, 2013).

6 Timothy Morton, Ecology without Nature: Rethinking Environmental Aesthetics, 1. Harvard Univ.

Press paperback ed (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 2009).

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While these disciplines are supposedly attempts for environmental justice, the thesis speculates possible outcomes of the “gap” between these systems and a true understanding of ecology itself6as inspired by Timothy Morton’s writing on Ecology without Nature. Moreover, while some have the privilege and choice to discuss matters at a distance, vulnerable communities are pushed to the forefront of these changing environments. Thus, comparisons across three scales – the global, regional and local – provide a clearer understanding of the discrepancy between the intangible matters of long-term sustainability and tangible matters of in-themoment survivability. Finally, the thesis examines the differences between the coping mechanisms of actors at different localities (the city versus the village) and speculates how it may give rise to unexpected, emergent strategies of climate crisis adaptations and subsequently, an alternate aesthetics.

It is strange to laud the importance of air, but there is no denying that air is pervades our survival through our breath and our sustainability as a species amongst others on this earth.

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Image Sources: (pg 24) Kapil Kumar, “#BestOfTravel Best Places in Singapore in 1 Day- Marina Bay, Garden By The Bay, Singapore Flyer,” Tripoto, accessed November 16, 2019, https://www.tripoto.com/trip/best-places-in-singapore-in-1-day-marina-bay-garden-bythe-bay-singapore-flyer-and-merlion-593d25cf8a1a1.

“S’pore Ranked 4th In List Of Countries With Worst Air Quality - Goody Feed,” accessed November 16, 2019, https:// goodyfeed.com/spore-ranked-4th-in-list-of-countries-with-worst-air-quality/.

“Singapore Flyer,” accessed November 16, 2019, https://www.visitsingapore.com/see-do-singapore/recreation-leisure/viewpoints/singapore-flyer/.

“No Haze Expected Today; Shift in Winds Will Blow It Away, Singapore News & Top Stories - The Straits Times,” accessed November 16, 2019, https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/no-haze-expected-today-shift-in-winds-will-blow-it-away.

“Pocket Friendly Things to Do in Singapore for Enjoying,” Jrrny (blog), accessed November 16, 2019, http://jrrny.com/ pocket-friendly-things-to-do-in-singapore-for-enjoying.

“Dirty Air: Singapore Grand Prix Fans Brave the Haze,” RNZ, September 20, 2019, https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/ world/399231/dirty-air-singapore-grand-prix-fans-brave-the-haze.

“Singapore,” TrekEarth, accessed November 16, 2019, http://www.trekearth.com/gallery/Asia/Singapore/Central/Central_Area/Singapore/photo887827.htm.

“Haze Season Is Finally over: NEA,” Singapore Business Review, accessed November 16, 2019, https://sbr.com.sg/ healthcare/news/haze-season-finally-over-nea. (pg 28) Thilo Frank. Retrieved from https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/olafur-eliasson-interview-the-danish-icelandic-artist-on-his-new-tate-modern-show-f8tkztfqn Frank Augstein. Retrieved from https://www.ft.com/content/054f388c-a227-11e9-974c-ad1c6ab5efd1 Patrick Nguyen. Retrieved from https://arrestedmotion.com/2019/07/previews-olafur-eliasson-in-real-life-tate-modern-london/ Otto Saner. Retrieved from http://celbestnews.com/fashion/olafur-eliasson-tate-modern/ Bjorn Vaughn. Retrieved from https://www.lensculture.com/projects/162012-yellow-days

02 Politics of air 16

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2.1 Global Scale

Carbon emissions, palm oil plantations, biofuel exports The global politics of the air centre around the element of carbon and the molecule carbon dioxide. Indonesia receives the global limelight in being the developing country that releases as much carbon dioxide as developed and industrialised countries such as China and the US7. The large cloud of carbon dioxide as a result of the peatland fires in 1997 was even seen from NASA’s satellites8. In 2015, the forest fires emitted 884 million tonnes of carbon dioxide9.

Indonesia’s first response to global accusations on its carbon emissions was to blame external factors such as the El Nino effect, a naturally occurring climate cycle which prolongs the dry season and reduces rainfall, causing fires to be especially persistent and difficult to extinguish. Secondly, they scapegoat small scale indigenous farmers who still use traditional slash and burn methods of farming to fertilise their land10.

While these factors may have played a part in the incidence of fire, palm oil exports are at the root of land degradation and deforestation. Large scale land grabbing and colonisation of indigenous customary lands is done through the use of fire and the under guise of the seasonal haze, making it difficult to catch the culprit who set the initial flame11.

Aside from these methods, bribery is still effective in Indonesia, allowing private palm oil companies to expand their concessional area on protected or indigenous lands.

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Ironically, the demand for palm oil only exists to satisfy the global thirst for biofuel from in the first place, believed to be a more sustainable alternative to fossil fuels as it releases 20% less amount of carbon dioxide when combusted12. This factor has singlehandedly made Indonesia the largest exporter of palm oil within the last few years, and demand is expected to increase by 55% on the new local mandate13. The methods in which palm oil is processed and harvested makes the label of sustainability questionable as emissions can reach ten times more than using petroleum. Additionally, while institutional bodies such as the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) are created to regulate the practices of companies, they are often hypocritical in nature as palm oil companies themselves make up the stakeholders in charge of the regulations implemented14.

Based on Indonesia’s pledge to reduce emissions by 30% in 203015, the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (UN IPCC) have put pressure on Indonesia to stick to their promise. However, with Indonesia’s internal politics aside, the demand for biofuel from privileged countries who can afford to be ‘green’ is what drives a developing country such as Indonesia to extract these resources in the first place.

Who is to blame for the deterioration of the Earth’s air composition?

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Image 1.0 Aerial drone footage. Palm Oil Plantation at Lamuntih, five hours drive from Palangkaraya.

“Indonesia World’s No. 3 Greenhouse Gas Emitter: Report - Reuters,” accessed November 10, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/environment-climate-indonesia-dc/indonesia-worlds-no-3-greenhouse-gas-emitter-report-idUSJAK26206220070604.

8 “Carbon Bomb: Indonesia’s Failed Mega Rice Project | Environment & Society Portal,” accessed November 10, 2019, http://www.environmentandsociety.org/arcadia/carbon-bomb-indonesias-failed-mega-rice-project.

9 V. Huijnen et al., “Fire Carbon Emissions over Maritime Southeast Asia in 2015 Largest since 1997,” Scientific Reports 6 (May 31, 2016): 26886.

10 “Indonesia’s Forest Fires: Everything You Need to Know | Guardian Sustainable Business | The Guardian,” accessed November 10, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2015/nov/11/indonesia-forest-fires-explained-haze-palm-oil-timber-burning.

11 Paul K. Gellert, “Palm Oil Expansion in Indonesia: Land Grabbing as Accumulation by Dispossession,” in Current Perspectives in Social Theory, ed. Jon Shefner, vol. 34 (Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2015), 65–99, https://doi.org/10.1108/S0278-120420150000034004.

12 Heather Rogers, Green Gone Wrong: Dispatches from the Front Lines of Eco-Capitalism (London: Verso, 2010).

13 “Indonesia Biodiesel Demand Seen Jumping Nearly 55% on B30 Mandate : Biofuels Digest,” accessed November 9, 2019, https://www.biofuelsdigest.com/bdigest/2019/07/17/indonesia-biodiesel-demand-seen-jumping-nearly-55-on-b30-mandate/.

14 Rogers, Green Gone Wrong.

15 Indonesia Pledges 29 Percent Emissions Cut by 2030,” accessed November 9, 2019, https://phys.org/news/2015-09-indonesia-pledges-percent-emissions.html.

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“You will know who the real culprit is behind these illegal fires, just see who begins planting on the land once the dry season is over.”

– Pak Nazir Foead, Head of Peatland Restoration Agency

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Singapore vs Singapore during haze season (Image sources: refer to pg 16) 24

2.2 Regional Scale

Transboundary haze, blame, hotspots The haze from Indonesia’s Sumatra and Kalimantan affects its neighbouring countries, Singapore and Malaysia, finger pointing of who should be responsible for the bad air quality ensues every year.

Singapore’s agenda to maintain a clean and green city is powerless once the haze shrouds the city with a dusty grey blanket. The haze even reaches the virtual realm of Facebook and Instagram where people post photographs and complain about the Pollutants Standard Index (PSI) levels. These matters have even given rise to cross-country legislation. In 2014, a law called the Transboundary Haze Pollution Act allowed Singapore to fine Indonesian or foreign companies responsible for contributing unhealthy haze levels in Singapore an amount of SG$100,000 for each day, up to a maximum of SG$2.0 million16.

“For 11 months, they enjoyed nice air from Indonesia and they never thanked us. They have suffered because of the haze for one month and they get upset.”

– Former Vice President Jusuf Kalla, on the 2015 haze episode17

In the case of Malaysia and Indonesia who share borders between West Kalimantan and Sarawak on the island of Borneo, data wars are common with each country meticulously identifying the location of hotspots18 or which country owned the company responsible for the fires19, thus shifting the blame elsewhere.

The air becomes the determinant factor in avoiding regional disagreement and maintaining international relations.

“Singapore Launches Legal Action against Five Indonesian Firms over City-Blanketing Haze,” South China Morning Post, September 26, 2015, https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/southeast-asia/article/1861579/singapore-launches-legal-actionagainst-five-indonesian.

17 “Indonesia’s Vice-President Jusuf Kalla Criticises Neighbours for Grumbling about Haze, SE Asia News & Top Stories - The Straits Times,” accessed November 10, 2019, https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/indonesias-vice-president-jusufkalla-criticises-neighbours-for-grumbling-about-haze.

18 “‘The Facts Speak for Themselves’: Malaysia Minister Yeo Bee Yin Slams Indonesia’s Denial of Haze, SE Asia News & Top Stories - The Straits Times,” accessed November 10, 2019, https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/malaysia-ministeryeo-bee-yin-slams-indonesias-denial-of-haze-the-facts-speak-for.

19 “Indonesia Claims Four Malaysian Firms behind Open Burning | The Star Online,” accessed November 10, 2019, https:// www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2019/09/14/indonesia-claims-four-malaysian-firms-behind-open-burning.

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Image 2.0 The twenty minute motorcycle ride on the wooden bridge to Desa Tanjung Taruna. Bird nest farms can be seen from the distance.

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Let’s play a game. Which one is which?

(Image sources: refer to pg 16) 28

2.3 Local Scale

Peatlands, survivability, livelihood While global and regional politics can afford to deny and refute blame, locals living on the land deal with immediate matters of survival on a day-to-day basis. The threat of constant fire is attributed to the vast stock of degraded tropical peatlands*, Indonesia’s superlative other than being the largest exporter of palm oil. The PSI levels during the 2015 haze reached a value of PSI 290020, causing more than 140,000 cases of respiratory illness and an estimated 100,000 deaths.

The similarity between Olafur Eliasson’s project21 and the 2015 haze is striking. The dazzling orange atmosphere and the foggy appearance both veil the dark silhouettes of people in a variety of forms. Though both possess visual resemblances of the other, conditions are starkly different. The museum offers safety and the privilege to explore these artificial environments at will. Visitors are subjected to the aesthetic features of the orange mist while distanced away from pollution and harmful substances. In contrast, the haze dominates and restricts bodies at its own autonomy and self-rule, choking lungs and obstructing breathing. While both environments subject humans to similar atmospheres, one provides you with choice, the other does not.

Though it is undeniable that villagers face hardship with their current environmental conditions, a certain resilience has emerged from their constant exposure. Their resiliency is attributed to their short-term, day-to-day mentality and their surrendering attitude to natural systems, that has prevented them from falling into the trap of rationalising their condition through human-centric constructs such as politics or economics. The immediacy and lack of choice of their condition strips them away of the distancing screen22 in which city dwellers, politicians, scientists possess when disputing transboundary air quality and emissions. In maintaining a minimal “gap”23 between them and nature, resiliency in coping with nature itself is bred amongst the villagers.

Peatlands are a type of waterlogged, wetland soil, formed through incomplete decomposition of plant material under anaerobic condisions, which make them good carbon sequestors. However, because of damage through drainage, deforestration and land conversions, peatlands are responsible for 10% of carbon emissions, through they are only 3% of the world’s land cover. *

20 Viral: Stunning, Heartbreaking Photo of Man Going Fishing in Toxic Yellow 2,900 PSI Haze in Central Kalimantan | Coconuts Jakarta,” accessed November 10, 2019, https://coconuts.co/jakarta/lifestyle/viral-stunning-heartbreaking-photoman-going-fishing-toxic-yellow-2900-psi-haze-central/.

21 “ “Olafur Eliasson the Weather Project: About the Installation | Tate,” accessed November 11, 2019, https://www.tate.org. uk/whats-on/tate-modern/exhibition/unilever-series/unilever-series-olafur-eliasson-weather-project-0.

22 Morton, Ecology without Nature.

23 Morton.

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Image 3.0 Aerial drone footage.

Mega Rice Project Canal of 20 m width, located behind Desa Gohong.

2.3 Local Scale 2.3.1 Fiery lands Peatlands, fire, Mega Rice Project In 1995, the Mega Rice Project was initiated by former President Suharto* to convert one million hectares of peatland swamp forest, seen as unproductive lands, into paddy fields in the name of food self-sufficiency for the nation and his own political reputation. Plots were allocated as incentive for people to move from crowded areas such as Java to fringe areas such as Kalimantan as part of a larger transmigration scheme. Large canals which reached up to 20 - 30 m wide in some areas were cut into peat domes**, draining away the water contained inside them. An assessment carried out a year after the project had started revealed that only a quarter of the land was suitable for the Javanese dry rice method of farming as peat soil was acidic. The project was eventually abandoned24. (See Mega Rice Project) The legacy of its failure remains commemorated every year with most fire hotspots occurring on these degraded peatlands.

Continuous drainage of peatlands resulted in the exposure of dry organic matter, in other words, fuel. Peat in losing its water retention capacity becomes hydrophobic and extremely susceptible to fire.

Underground fires remain active, eating away at the peat for months unless flooded with water. At the onset of the El Nino effect, rainfall becomes sparse and droughts become even more extreme. Palm oil and logging companies continue their business-as-usual models.

President Suharto was the second president of Indonesia who served for 31 years, and observed as a dictator. ** Peat domes are formed when peat accummulates dead organic matter and retains water. Once the peat dome is disturbed, water will continuously drain out of the no longer closed ecosystem. *

Alue Dohong, “Hydrology Restoration of Ex Mega Rice Project Central Kalimantan Through Canal Blocking Techniques: Lessons Learned and Steps Forward,” 2005.

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BEHAVIOUR of PEAT

TYPES OF FIRE height of water table Crown fire - tree canopies & ladder effect

Dead plant material, tree debris, animal bodies accumulate in depression from nearby river channels

height of water table Marshy vegetation begins to form under anaerobic conditions and slow microbial decomposition.

Surface fire - spreads through bushes and woody debris

height of water table Healthy peat is formed after many years (1 cm/year). Water level is retained following the height of the peat dome.

height of water table

Ground fire - underground smoke & difficult to put out

Ignition point

1

Artificial canals are dug into the peat and begins to drain the peat dome. Peat ecosystem is disturbed.

height of water table Peat dome begins to shrink irreversably and water is drained away, exposing dry organic matter.

Peat Soil

Surface fire

Peat soil Surface fire

20cm Smoldering direction

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Surface peat fire

CO2 CO2 height of water table The drained peat is susceptible to fire during drought and from man made causes. Peat loses its water retention and soil becomes eroded.

Peat soil Surface fire

Overhanging Smoldering direction

20-60 cm

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Underground peat fire

CO2 CO2 height of water table Fire only stops when peat dome reaches the level of the water table.

Land subsidence and carbon release. Peat becomes hydrophobic.

Peat is a terrestrial landform that forms at a rate of 1 cm every 1000 years. Peatlands are an effective carbon sink, and when compressed under pressure and heat over many years eventually becomes coal. Drainage by canals and fires irreversibly damage peat and release all stored carbon, like Pandora’s box.

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REWETTING TECHNIQUES: DAMS

Embankment

Peatland Surface x

Pump

New Water Surface River

Old Water Surface

Pumping Hoist Pulley & rope

PVC pipe Water level above the block Water level below the block

Flow direction

Wooden board or metal plate

Poles

Poles

Side View

Front View

Sluice Plastic board

Spillway Water level above the block Water level below the block

Flow direction

Plastic Board

I. Nyoman N. Suryadiputra et al., “A Guide to the Blocking of Canals and Ditches in Conjunction with the Community. Climate Change, Forests and Peatlands in Indonesia Project.”

(Wetlands International, 2005).

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Lateral support

Poles

Poles

Front View

Side View Plastic Dams Vertical planks

642135

Canal profile

Plank Dam

Horizontal support Water level above the block Water level below the block

Pipe

Vegetation Canal profile Mouth of pipe

Compressed peat or mineral soil

Composite Dam

The threat of the fire has manifested in an institutional obsession with rewetting the land with techniques such as blocking canals to maintain a high water table, constructing deep wells and backfilling canals in order to prevent water drainage25 (see Peatland Restoration Agency). Paradoxically, it seems as if living with the constant threat of fire has become a norm.

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Image 4.0 An example of canal blocking done by Peatland Restoration Agency in Desa Garung.

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Large billowing clouds of white smoke arose from the field dotted with coconut trees. Two tiny figures seen carrying large leaves and walking with purpose.

Viany : How did it start?

Pak Junaedi : They did it on purpose. I dont know who did it, all I know is it was on purpose.

You can tell. I was fixing the electricity pole on the roadside opposite when I started seeing smoke from behind the tree.

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Image 5.0 Fire witnessed by the side of Trans-Kalimantan highway, during site visit.

Viany : Where is the firefighting crew?

Pak Junaedi : There are no deep wells around this area. We use these big leaves to hit the ground until the fire is put out. See, they’re pulling out paddy from the perimeter to create a border to prevent fire spread.

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2.3 Local Scale 2.3.2 Gasping for Air Livelihood, work, breathing apparatus Haze as a worsening condition has become part and parcel of living on the land. Villages have persisted living along the riverbank, despite the volatile conditions, finding patches where the land is less acidic and where there is sufficient irrigation for their crops along the riverbank. Villagers make a living out of small businesses, such as making rattan crafts or bee farming, and rely on small-scale plantations such as rubber, Sengon wood, and fisheries dependent on the changing water tables during tidal inundation. Villagers who do not make enough stable income are forced to work at palm oil plantations and live in their worker barracks. During dry season, villagers work in the field during the day, and put out fires during the night*.

Pak Andri : If you know a few months back, during the fires earlier this year, we would work on our fields during the day, and work to put out fires during the night.

See, we still have our equipment and pumps there. (Pak Andri points to two sets of hoses and water pumps on the porch.)

Pak Andri : (Pause.) Yes, we do get tired, working all day and all night. But if there is a fire behind our village, what are we to do? Bigger fires will affect us more. We hope there will be no fire, no disaster like that in our village.

Information collected through local interviews during site visit. *

Badan Restorasi Gambut, “Profil Desa Peduli Gambut Desa Gohong” (Badan Restorasi Gambut, 2018), https://brg. go.id/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/ Fix-Gohong-kahayan-Hilir-pulang-pisau. pdf.

27 “Viral: Stunning, Heartbreaking Photo of Man Going Fishing in Toxic Yellow 2,900 PSI Haze in Central Kalimantan | Coconuts Jakarta.”

28 “Red Skies over Jambi Due to High Concentration of Pollutants, Says Indonesia’s Met Agency - TODAYonline,” accessed November 10, 2019, https://www.todayonline. com/world/red-skies-over-jambi-due-highconcentration-pollutants-says-indonesias-metagency.

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Villages consist of mainly indigenous groups who have resided on their ancestral lands, amongst a multitude of trans migrants from Bali and Java who were historically part of Suharto’s transmigration program26. Interviews reveal villagers will continue working in their fields despite the haze to earn income to be used for a day-to-day basis. Their dependence on nature as their free supermarket has also prevented them from moving up social classes.

In the nearby city of Palangka Raya, haze levels in 2015 reached up to PSI 290027, turning the sky into an orange abyss, like that of Olafur Eliasson’s Weather Project exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA). In the 2019 haze, the sky turned the city of Jambi in Sumatra blood-red, much like that of planet Mars28. The choking air is reported to have claimed the lives of babies and elderly.

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“In all honesty, we cannot really afford to think about the haze. What is important is that we work; haze does not become an issue. If we do not work during the haze, how will we earn money to eat for the day?

Whether we like it or not, haze or no haze, we will continue working. We cannot fight nature.”

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Village Livelihood 41

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Image Source: Bjorn Vaughn. Retrieved from https://www.eco-business.com/news/hazy-figures-cloud-indonesiaspeat-restoration-as-fire-season-nears/ Bjorn Vaughn. Retrieved from https://news.mongabay.com/2016/09/se-asian-governmentsdismiss-finding-that-2015-haze-killed-100300/

43

Specimen 1: Oxygen Houses (Image Sources: refer to pg 54)

44

Specimen 2: Oxygen Mobiles (Image Sources: refer to pg 54)

Breathing Apparatus When the haze stops being a distant matter and is present at hand, the crisis for oxygen and fresh air is evident. In Singapore, N95 masks are the holy grail in haze mitigation. In Kalimantan, several coping methods aside from N95 masks were discovered to produce what little oxygen is possible.

Specimen 1: Oxygen Houses There are six Oxygen Houses in the city of Palangka Raya, situated in clinics, hospitals and unused rooms in institutional buildings such as army function halls. Oxygen Houses offer free 15-minute oxygen treatments using oxygen tanks attached to a gas mask, for which patients lie down and breathe. Often, Oxygen Houses are crowded with long queues. Villagers staying 4 – 5 kilometres away are expected to go to the city to receive treatment. Those who can afford to remain indoors with the air-conditioner blasting, or drive to the nearest hospital or clinic to get treatment, while those who are even more privileged, take short holidays to nearby cities to escape the haze, as seen from the demand spikes for hotels during the worst haze periods.

Specimen 2: Oxygen Mobiles Oxygen vans are made available in the city at the dial of the Oxygen Mobile hotline, offering housebound people small doses of fresh air to reduce the effects of the haze. Societal inequalities are made stark when comparing coping methods employed towards haze.

*

All information collected through local interviews, site visit, and personal communication.

45

Specimen 3: DIY Breathing Apparatus

(Image Source: Personal Communitcation with Tika from JPIC Kalimantan)

Specimen 4: Wet Cloth filter in bottle

(Image Source: and screenshot from Youtube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8x1pCMPwLCg&t=361s)

Specimen 5: Anti-haze Classrooms (Image Source: Personal Communitcation with Tika from JPIC Kalimantan)

46

Breathing Apparatus Specimen 3: DIY Oxygen Breathing Apparatus Using an aquarium aerator to draw particle-heavy air into water and breathing the water-filtered air.

Link to video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nViCSF1yE60&t=289s Specimen 4: Wet Cloth filter in bottle Using a wet cloth as a filter for particle-heavy air and attaching it to a makeshift mask.

Link to video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8x1pCMPwLCg Specimen 5: Anti – haze Classrooms JPIC Kalimantan, which stands for Justice, Peace, and Integrity of Creation, is a non profit organisation based in Palangka Raya City, Central Kalimantan. JPIC has published an Anti - Haze handbook for schools to follow. Main suggestions include covering large windows with wet cloth as an air filter and the installation of an aquarium with water plants to help purify the air.

Website: http://jpickalimantan.org/

*

All information collected through local interviews, site visit, and personal communication.

47

Dry Season 48

Rainy Season

(Image Sources: refer to pg 54)

2.3 Local Scale 2.3.3 Staying above water Flood, climate projection, adaptation Following the three-month drought period, the village enters a period of rain from October to April*. Within a few weeks, fiery lands have become flooded with three to four metres of water in some areas. In 2018, raging floods from river overflow entered their homes up to about one to two metres*. Their current adaptations of stilt housing three to four metres in height have already become obsolete as water pervades their homes. Their response in adaptation is a raised platform inside their homes to place their belongings*.

Despite what “city dwellers” would term disaster, villagers remain accepting of their fate and surrender as they are to the environment.

In the near future, the conditions are set to worsen. The Indonesian Climate Change Sectoral Roadmap (ICCSR) Initiative predicts that by 2100, the El Nino effect will happen every two years instead of a cycle of three to seven years. Fluctuations between periods of drought and flood is predicted to be more extreme, peatlands will be irreversibly damaged with increasing drought, and losing its water retention thus worsening flood events, as the number of haze episodes multiply. With sea levels rising between 40 - 150 centimetres, any low-lying area between 0 – 5 metres above sea level are predicted to be flooded by 3 – 4 metres of water28. Central Kalimantan being only around 5 - 7 metres above sea level, is included in this list.

While some may dispute that the villagers’ inability to see long term impacts could be at their demise, the thesis poses that the key to their resiliency lies in their surrendering attitudes towards hardship and adaptive attitudes towards ecology.

*

Information collected through local interviews during site visit.

“Indonesia Climate Change Sectoral Roadmap 2010,” accessed November 9, 2019, https:// www.bappenas.go.id/files/2013/5229/9917/analysis-and-projection-of-sea-level-rise-and-extremeweathe__20110217130224__1.pdf.

28

49

120

100

Number of hotspots

80

60

Dry Sea

40

20

NON - El Nino Years Hotspots

Rainfall

Ground Water Level

0

120

100

Number of hotspots

80

60

Dry Sea 40

20

El Nino Years Rainfall

Hotspots

Ground Water Level

0

January

February

March

April

May

Fig. 1.0 (above) The table above compares the number of hotspots, rainfall and ground water level during El Nino and Non El Nino years, from data collected at Palangka Raya research centre. A large drop in water table, longer period without rainfall and an extreme increase in the number of fire hotspots can be observed during an El Nino year as compared to Non - El Nino years. With the climate projection, these conditions of extreme drought and high frequency of fires will be observed every two years, instead of 3-7 years. Further peat damage will occur, making it hydrophobic and losing its water retention abilities. (Graph aapted from: Erianto Indra Putra, “The Effect of the Precipitation Pattern of the Dry Season on Peat Fire Occurrence in the Mega Rice Project Area, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia,” Tropics 19, no. 4 (2011): 145–56, https://doi.org/10.3759/tropics.19.145.)

Fig. 2.0 (right) The Elevation Above Sea Level (ASL) that depicts Central Kalimantan as prone to flooding as per the upcoming predictions considering the already critical situation in some villages. With peat no longer able to retain as much water, the situation is projected to become even more critical.

50

June

120

Peak Fire Period

Precipitation (mm) / Ground water level (cm)

100

Fire Season

ason

80

60

40

20

0

120

Peak Fire Period

Precipitation (mm) / Ground water level (cm)

100

Fire Season

ason

80

60

40

20

0

July

August

September

October

November

December

Elevation Above Sea Level (ASL) (Image Source: Open Street Map)

51

52

Image 6.0 Small boat or klotok used by local villagers for water transportation in both canals and rivers.

53

Image Sources: (pg 44) Dok Biro Komunikasi dan Pelayanan Masyarakat Kementerian Kesehatan RI. Retrieved from https://www.gatra.com/detail/news/445790/kesehatan/kabut-asap-dinas-kesehatan-kaltengsediakan-rumah-oksigen Dok Humas PKS Kalteng. Retrieved from http://pks.id/content/butuh-udara-bersih-warga-ramaidatangi-mobil-oksigen-pks Dok Biro Komunikasi dan Pelayanan Masyarakat Kementerian Kesehatan RI. Retrieved from https://today.line.me/id/pc/article/Mobil+Oksigen+udara+bersih+bagi+warga+yang+terkena+ka but+asap-3R992Z Toto Sutiyoso. Retrieved from https://pasangmata.detik.com/contribution/170541 Yesi. Retrieved from http://www.ulasancantik.com/aksi-peduli-dari-rumah-zakat-untuk-bencanakarhutla/ Jeri Ripaldon. Retrieved from http://www.muhammadiyah.or.id/id/news-17542-detailmuhammadiyah-kalteng-dirikan-rumah-oksigen.html Muhammad Hamim. Retrieved from https://www.borneonews.co.id/berita/137806-pemkabkotawaringin-timur-siapkan-rumah-oksigen (pg 48) Anon. Retrieved from http://www.kalamanthana.com/2018/05/01/banjir-kiriman-makin-tinggisekolah-di-tanjung-taruna-diliburkan/ Kabar Kalteng. Retrieved from http://www.kabarkalteng.com/2019/05/desa-taruna-banjir-debit-airsudah-1.html

03 AIR AS COMMODITY 54

55

56

3.1 Carbon Credit What is the price of air?

The threat of global warming has given rise to a new commodity to be traded on the market – the right to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases, measured as one unit of carbon credit. The scheme is part of the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) that proposed a marketoriented mechanism to slow worldwide carbon emissions. While the Kyoto Protocol sets a limit on how much emissions a participating country can emit29, flexibility mechanisms allow for alternatives in which these emissions can be reduced, essentially by implementing an emission-reduction or carbon-stock enhancement project in developing countries30. An example of such a project is the Katingan Mentaya Project31 in Central Kalimantan that has just started selling its credits to Volkswagen.

Through the demand and supply of carbon credits, the condition of the air is rationalised through a pricing system in which the ‘invisible hand’ of the free market economics32 is expected to determine the equilibrium of the most efficient allocation of resources in society. In other words, the air that determines our planetary sustainability becomes nothing more than a commodity. Our survival depends on if the commodity air is profitable enough. Sustainability becomes detached from real conditions in nature and instead rely on invisible human constructs of price regulation.

UN IPCC is the United Nations body for assessing climate change science. Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement to reduce carbon emissions and greenhouse gases.

“Emissions Trading | UNFCCC,” accessed November 18, 2019, https://unfccc.int/process/the-kyoto-protocol/ mechanisms/emissions-trading.

30 “Mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol | UNFCCC,” accessed November 18, 2019, https://unfccc.int/process/the-kyotoprotocol/mechanisms.

31 E.O Sills, REDD + on the Ground: A Case Book of Subnational Initiatives across the Globe. (Bogor Barat: Centre for International Forest Research (CIFOR), 2014).

32 “Climate Negotiations and the Invisible Hand of Carbon Chaos,” accessed November 18, 2019, https://www.downtoearth. org.in/news/climate-change/climate-negotiations-and-the-invisible-hand-of-carbon-chaos-59266.

29

57

3.2 Carbon Colonialism Peatlands being an effective carbon sink that can sequester 8-12 times more carbon dioxide per tonne33 as compared to mineral soil on average, has been recognised for its potential in becoming a site for such projects, especially with the sheer amount of it in Kalimantan, reaching up to 20 – 30 metres in depth*. A full restoration of the peatlands is valued at an estimate of 300 million Euro per year by the Central Kalimantan Peatlands Project (CKPP)34. Institutions such as the Paris Agreement in 2015 and the special Global Warming report that advise global temperatures increases capped at 1.5°C ensure stable demand for carbon credits. Both demand and profitability give incentive to private companies to capitalise on this natural resource as with any other good.

What would it look like if profitability preceded environment and humanity? “...They have criminalised the villagers of Tumbang Mangkutup, who were accused of theft and arrested. In fact, the accused collected timber from their ancestors’ forest and used it only to build their houses; it is not fair. The Mawas Project was established without acknowledgement of the communities and has taken over the community’s forest; it’s not fair.”

- Pak Sigae Enus, community leader of Desa Tumbang Mangkutup With carbon as an emerging commodity, indigenous lands such as sacred forests have become integrated into global webs of resource exploitation for their carbon absorption capacity, similarly marginalising indigenous people. Land grabs in poor countries fall victim to green projects supported by institutions such as the UN IPCC and REDD+ programs35. Ironically, in other countries, green initiatives are increasingly responsible for the loss of indigenous land36, rather than palm oil companies.

KFCP is the Kalimantan Forests and Climate Partnership launched to demonstrate “credible, equitable, effective approach to reducing greenhouse emissions from forest degradation” which ended in 2014. *

58

In contrast to the Western ideologies of sustainability, the indigenous who live in the forests of Central Kalimantan are largely governed by their religion in terms of their interactions with nature and its living systems. Specifically, the indigenous under the Kaharingan religion live with an abundance of pamali or bans to maintain balance and harmony on earth as it is depicted in heaven37. For example, kaleka are a patch of forest which cannot be cut down passed down from generation to generation, seen as permanent family gardens. Large fruit trees remain untouched to be passed to the next heir in the family. The indigenous also pay respects to spirits which inhabit their forest, and even construct small houses for spirits known as tajahan as a form of offering to bring good harvest their land. In terms of ecological preservation, these gardens and sacred forests are classified as genetic pools of biodiversity38.

In terms of seasons, the indigenous utilise their own calendar, which capitalise on the movement of constellations and the instinctive behaviour of animals such as the mating and laying season of crocodiles to alert them to the beginning of the dry or wet season, and when it is best to begin planting or harvesting.39 Thus, their understanding of ecology and its cycles are much more refined and their culture inherently aligned with natural cycles. Environmental activists label the indigenous as true figures of sustainability. (See Indigenous People)

“... since the KFCP* Project came into Mantangai village, we have repeatedly warned the KFCP leader working in our village that a traditional ritual has to be held before any activity is undertaken in the peatland of Sei Mantangai Hulu or Bagantang Island … but no responses have been given.”

- Pak Umbe Ipe, traditional leader of Desa Mantangai Hulu While both indigenous and Western methods aim for sustainability, the discrepancy between them begs a question of which methods are truly sustainable. The dynamics between modern day discoveries and methods supported by science are contrasted with primitive ideas of sustainability as a result of ancestral tradition and rituals.

While one body of knowledge manipulates the intangible composition of air from a larger perspective in the name of global sustainability, the other deals with the intricacies of balance and harmony in tangible nature as a form of ensuring survivability in the present and for years to come.

Central Kalimantan possessing aspects of both, becomes a site that negotiates both scientific and primitive forms of knowledge as humans negotiates the climate.

59

33 Alue Dohong and Paul Dargusch, “Peatland Conservation and Restoration Policies and Oil Palm Development in Ex-Mega Rice Project Central Kalimantan” (August 4, 2014).

34 CKPP Consortium, “Provisional Report of the Central Kalimantan Peatland Project,” 2008, https://www.wetlands.org/ publications/provisional-report-of-the-central-kalimantan-peatland-project/.

35 Julia Dehm, “Carbon Colonialism or Climate Justice? Interrogating International Climate Regime from a TWAIL Perspective,” Windsor Yearbook of Access to Justice 33, no. 3 (May 1, 2017): 129, https://doi.org/10.22329/wyaj.v33i3.4893.

36 Nafeez Ahmed, “Carbon Colonialism: How the Fight Against Climate Change Is Displacing Africans,” Vice (blog), December 1, 2014, https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/kbzn9w/carbon-colonialism-the-new-scramble-for-africa.

37 Bulkani, Ilham, and Saiffullah Darlan, “Pukung Pahewan : The Effort of Natural Resources Conservation in Dayak Ngaju Community,” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 314 (August 9, 2019): 012042, https://doi. org/10.1088/1755-1315/314/1/012042.

38 “Alue Dohong’s Official Blog (Sustainability of Tropical Peatland Ecosystem): Kearifan Lokal Dayak Dalam Perlindungan Flora Dan Fauna Endemik,” Alue Dohong’s Official Blog (Sustainability of Tropical Peatland Ecosystem) (blog), May 23, 2009, https://aluedohong.blogspot.com/2009/05/kearifan-lokal-dayak-dalam-perlindungan.html.

39 Sukardi Wisnubroto and Rosich Attaqi, “Pengenalan Waktu Tradisional ‘Bulan Berladang’ Kesamaannya Dengan Keadaan Meteorologis Dan Pemanfaatannya Untuk Pertanian,” Jurnal Ilmu Tanah Dan Lingkungan 1, no. 1 (n.d.): 61–66.

04 architectural APPROACH 60

61

62

4.1 Architectural Issue At its core, the thesis looks at breathing and the element of air as central to human survivability and the Earth’s sustainability. It wrestles between the intangible dynamics of carbon trading and the tangible effects of climate change on villager livelihood. Both modern and primitive forms of knowledge supported by scientific data and indigenous cultural practices intermingle for the sake of resiliency in the context of the Anthropocene.

With the overwhelming and unsolveable hyperobject haze, the issue is no longer about a distancing away from nature, removing it from human space, nor solving the haze with anthropocentrically scaled concepts such as politics, economics or science. The climate projections are also projected to manifest in significant, almost apocalyptic cycles. The thesis proposes that survival and sustainability in this age is about coexistence, adaptation and tolerance of living with the environment. With this premise, a consideration of the non-human entities in our environment is necessary.

Relationships between human and non-human actors become vital to each other’s survival, and how both may learn to symbiotically coexist with equal rights40 as discussed in Michel Serres’ book The Natural Contract, and negotiate new forms of hierarchy and dependency. A fragile, contingent and incessantly dynamic relationship is harnessed through these object-object interactions41. At the same time, the coping mechanisms employed to ensure the survival of species result in an emergence of an aesthetics rooted in resiliency.

The complex ecosystem of the peatlands in Central Kalimantan with its wild occurrences of forest fires and haze, provide the context necessary to realistically deduce a rather dystopic future related to these issues.

40

Michel Serres and Felicia McCarren, “The Natural Contract,” Critical Inquiry 19, no. 1 (1992): 1–21.

Harman, Object-Oriented Ontology

41

63

SUSTAINABILITY

Indoor Algae Farms Superfood

SURVIVAL

Outdoor Algae Farms Carbon Credit / Regional Haze

Charging Points Oxygen Production / Rise of the Neo-Indigenous

Flood Containment Algae Breeding

Rewetting during Drought Algae Harvesting

RESILIENCE

Primitive Algae Farms Small Scale Farming

64

4.2 Proposal For Breeding and Sustainability The project proposes an algae farm as a source of carbon credits in which a private company shall invest, consisting of both indoor and outdoor systems of farming.

Algae is suitable for generating carbon credits as it absorbs more carbon dioxide than a big tree within a smaller area. Moreover, algae can be harvested to make value-added products such as green superfood.

For Breathing and Survivability Algae as a photosynthesizing medium generates oxygen as a by-product. It is speculated that villagers would require what little oxygen they can get to continue working in the fields under hazy conditions. Hence, algae is integrated into their existing breathing apparatus, as the villagers exhale carbon dioxide on which the algae feeds. While some may contest that the oxygen yield through the algae breathing aid is minimal, integrating algae into their existing breathing apparatus is seen as an affordable and feasible extension that improves survivability. To accommodate for the timely replacement of algae tanks for top up or exchange, charging points, will be provided around the village which could echo the form of existing shrines or tajahan, symbolizing the beginning of an emergent culture of the neo-indigenous*.

Given that outdoor algae systems will be constructed on irreversibly damaged peat which no longer functions to retain water, they can be used as flood basins to contain excess water during floods. During dry season, the algae will be harvested, the water drained to rewet the peatlands. Algae tanks located within the Ex - Mega Rice Project Canals also act as canal blockers for maintaining a high water table. The infrastructure thus also has a role in climate mitigation at the regional scale.

Neo-indigenous is used to describe the new ethos of living, coping mechanisms and culture that arises as a response to the irreversible climate conditions and to the mixing between indigenous practices and Western ideas of sustainability, as an attempt to possess resilience. *

65

66

Newfound Relationships The new system results in a much more nuanced, interdependent and unique set of ambivalent relationships between human and non-human actors42.

Villagers use algae to breathe amid the haze, while villagers are subject to bearing the weight of the algae tanks while working in their fields, partially restricting their movements. Breathing has become laborious. At the same time, algae receive carbon dioxide from the villagers and use it to multiply. There is an unexhaustive ambivalence of who is keeping who alive.

Villagers work in the carbon credit business to produce carbon credits for privileged city dwellers or private companies. While the city dweller subjects the villager to this task, wearing the algae breathing aid as breeding tanks for algae production, the villager indirectly becomes more resilient compared to city dwellers in facing changing climatic conditions as they continuously adapt. Thus, the primitive has become the advanced in this context.

Lastly, city dwellers depend on algae to offset their carbon emissions, in the form of carbon credit schemes, allowing algae to slowly colonise the surface of the earth.

Yet, algae, remains a mere commodity to be traded.

As a result, existing hierarchies are reshuffled based on their dependency. Algae or nature is elevated as both villagers and city dwellers recognise their dependence on algae for survival and sustainability. Villagers become more adapted and advanced in responding to climatic conditions through close interactions with algae, while city dwellers keep nature at a distance.

Harman.

42

67

68

69

Protected forest Village forest Swamp Settlement Palm Oil plantation Paddy fields Rubber plantation

4.4 Site Choice The site of choice is Desa Gohong / Gohong Village, one of the villages in the existing Peat Care Villages Scheme implemented by the Peatland Restoration Agency, which currently spans along the Kahayan River. Given that there is no Google StreetView available around this area, having been to the village was an obvious factor in site choice.

70

Aside from that, the village also possesses all types of peatland zoning: protected core zone, buffer zone and development zone, which provides a suitable prototype testbed for this new system. The site is also in relatively close proximity to the Ex-Mega Rice Canals and provides opportunity to capitalise on existing abandoned infrastructure. The canal becomes reinvented and a new land pattern emerges, to be visible from satellites. This pattern mechanism is reminiscent of the patterns made during construction of irrigation canals by the various groups of people on the land, which can be identified from satellites.

The emergent growth can then be extended to other villages along the river.

71

72

Pattern A A possible growth emerging parallel from existing water tributaries.

Pattern B A possible growth emerging perpendicular from existing water tributaries.

Pattern C A possible growth emerging perpendicular from the main river.

73

74

75

The emergent growth can then be extended to other villages along the river, following the existing Peat Care Village Scheme implemented by Peatland Restoration Agency.

76

77

78

79

80

81

Algae Breathing Aid (work in progress) 50 cm x 60 cm The effect of an eternal haze is created using a large spotlight with an orange filter and a reflective cloth backdrop. The heat and the smell of the spotlight is in addition to its strong orange light. Four 1.5L bottles were combined together and filled with chlorella vulgaris, each having their own air stone, two bottles each connected to an air pump attached on each side. Four pipes connect to the mouthpiece, which you inhale.

82

83

Appendix

APPENDIX 84

Appendix

1.0 Palm Oil Working conditions Concessions 2.0 Peatland Restoration Agency Peatlands and Carbon Stock Restoration Goals Interventions 3.0 Mega Rice Project Mapping Analysis 4.0 Carbon Credit Katingan Mentaya Project Clean Development Mechanism Joint Implementation REDD / REDD+ 5.0 Indigenous People Elements of the Indigenous Indigenous Calendar

85

Appendix

1.0 Palm Oil The palm oil boom has not only increased the incidence of land grabbing but also subjected workers at plantations under bad living conditions in the worker barracks located in the field. Electricity, water and food is limited, and the fertiliser used in the plantation is harmful for women’s fertility and can cause blindness if the eye is affected.

*

86

All information collected through local interviews, site visit, and personal communication.

Appendix

PALM OIL CONCESSIONS

Sumatra

Borneo

WOOD FIBER CONCESSIONS

Sumatra

Borneo

PEAT DISTRIBUTION

Sumatra

Borneo

87

Appendix

Palm Oil Production and Exports 100

90

70

60

WORLD

50

40

INDONESIA

30

20

10

2020

2018

2016

2014

2012

2010

2008

2006

2004

2002

2000

1998

1996

1994

1992

1990

1988

1986

1984

1982

1980

1978

1976

1974

1970 1972

MALAYSIA LEGEND Malaysian Palm Oil Production (Million tons) Indonesian Palm Oil Production (Million tons) World Palm Oil Production (Million tons)

2013

30.9%

2012

30.9%

2011

34.1%

2010

35.1%

15.1%

9.8%

17.2

22.8%

2009

34.8%

17.0%

7.5%

18.5%

22.3%

12.9%

2.7%

16.6%

13.7%

19.6% 8.4%

10.4%

33.8% 15.9%

13.8%

28.1%

28.0%

LEGEND India

88

China

Malaysia

Europe

Other Countries

0

Volume of Palm Oil Production (Million tons)

80

Appendix

2.0 Peatland Restoration Agency The Peatland Restoration Agency was set up in 2016 by President Joko Widodo, after the onset of the 2015 haze. The agency is in charge of the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of peatland restoration in Indonesia.

In September, a talk was held in Yogyakarta regarding peatland restoration. The following drawings and diagrams are the result of attending the seminar and conducting an interview with Pak Alue Dohong, Deputy for the Construction, Operation and Maintenance in Indonesia’s Peatland Restoration Agency.

89

Appendix

PEAT AND CARBON STOCK 100

120 88.6

90

100%

100

68.5

70

80

77.3% 57.4

60

46.9% 50

60

56.2%

44.1

40

46.9% 40

30

24.8

20.7

18.8 24.2%

20

20

14.4% 10

0

6.4

Global

Southeast Asia

Indonesia

LEGEND Total Peat Area (Million hectares) Total Peat Carbon Stock (Giga Ton Carbon) % Total Peat Area against Global Peat Area % Peat Carbon Stock against Global Peat Carbon Stock

CARBON CONTENT IN PEAT 300 - 700 tons/Ha/metre depth

90

150 tons/Ha

3000 tons/Ha

2000 tons/Ha

Mineral Soil

Sumatra

Kalimantan

Kalimantan

6.4 6.4% 3.0 3.8% C. Kalimantan

0

Percentage (%)

Total Area (Million hectares) and Carbon Stock (GtC)

80

Appendix

Restoration Targets

7 Provinces = 12,932,498 ha of Peat Riau Jambi South Sumatera

Central Kalimantan West Kalimantan South Kalimantan Papua

Order of Priority

Restoration Target 2.5 Mha

1 2

Ex - burnt 2015

3

Protected Function without canals

4

Non - protected Function with canals

Conservation Areas 0.337 Mha

Production Forests 0.234 Mha

Production Peatlands 0.250 Mha

5

Non - protected Function without canals

Protection Areas 0.352 Mha

Forest Other Land Use 0.162 Mha

Protection Peatlands 1.15 Mha

Protected Function with canals

National and Regional Government 0.689 Mha

Communities, NGOs, CBOs 0.396 Mha

Concessions 1.4 Mha

2016 - 2020 restoration GOAL = 2,492,527 ha of peat

0% 30%

20%

20%

20%

10%

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

Classification of Land Cover 12.9 million ha

12% 41%

100%

Classification of Land 2.5 million ha

Progress as of 2019 2.5 million ha

16% 47%

Open land = 1,540,000 ha Vegetation = 6,100,000 ha Forested area = 5,320,000 ha

28%

24% 56%

Cultivation area without permit = 396,943 ha Cultivation area with permit = 1,410,943 ha Protected area = 684,638 ha

76% Rewetted area = 600,000 ha Unrewetted area = 1,900,000 ha

91

Appendix

92

Appendix

93

Appendix

100m

100m

Coverage area of one deep well

100m

100m Thrower hose

100m

100m

Rewetting - Deep wells, Canal Backfilling & Revegetation

100m

100m

No.

Length of thrower hose

Area covered per well (ha)

1

50 metres

0.79

2

100 metres

3.14

3

150 metres

7.07

4

200 metres

12.56

5

250 metres

19.63

Area covered (A) = πr^2 Where: π = 22/7 = 3.142 r = radius length of the thrower hose

Deep well

Soil from surroundings

Fill up the canal

Canal Backfilling

River

Revegetation/Nurseries on dams

94

Appendix

MONITORING SYSTEMS Measuring Stick b

Peat Surface

Water Level

a Peat Soil

150 - 200 cm

Funnel

120 cm

Top of pipe

PVC Pipe (1.5inch thick)

Holes (Enter water)

Measuring Cylinder

h Water Level Height of ground water =a-b Canal Bottom

Rain Gauge

Ground Water Table Depth in Peat

Height of Water in Canal

Solar panel

Rain gauge Soil dampness Water table

Real time monitoring

95

Appendix

TUANAN

PALANGKARAYA BLOCK E

BLOCK B Sebangau National Park

BLOCK A

BLOCK D

KUALA KAPUAS BLOCK C

Java Sea

A compiled map of all the interventions in the Ex-Mega Rice Project site.

96

South Kalimantan

Appendix

97

Appendix

Detected fires by month January

March

February

April

June

May

2019

2018

2017

2016

2015

2014

2013

Statistics 2019

By Land Use 15% pulpwood 11% palm oil 5% logging

On Peatland

On Primary Forest

33% peatland

Hotspot mapping of the fires in Kalimantan, showing the worst fires occur in the months of July-October, located in Central Kalimantan.

98

33% primary

On Moratorium Areas 28% moratorium

On RSPO

On PO Concessions 0% RSPO

Appendix

Detected fires by month July

August

September

October

November

On Primary Forest

On Moratorium Areas

On RSPO

December

2019

2018

2017

2016

2015

2014

2013

Statistics 2019

By Land Use 15% pulpwood 11% palm oil 5% logging

On Peatland 33% peatland

33% primary

28% moratorium

On PO Concessions 0% RSPO

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Appendix

3.0 Mega Rice Project During the Suharto period, there was a transmigration program to reduce the density in other parts of Indonesia and also feed the nation through rice self sufficiency. He began to carve out 1 million hectares of agricultural land from the peatlands of Kalimantan. Thousands of workers were employed to carry out the feat of excavating 4,600 kilometres of drainage canals, but the construction of the canals led to peat dome drainage and left the land nutrient poor and dried out. The wasteland burns almost every year.

“The lands are already cleared, and the canals have been built, but they are abandoned,” Nazir Foead, Head of Peatland Restoration Agency, said.

Alue Dohong, “Hydrology Restoration of Ex Mega Rice Project Central Kalimantan Through Canal Blocking Techniques: Lessons Learned and Steps Forward,” 2005.

Image Source: Jenny Goldstein. Retrieved from http://www. environmentandsociety. org/arcadia/carbon-bombindonesias-failed-mega-riceproject

100

Appendix

DEPTH OF PEAT

PALANGKARAYA

KUALA KAPUAS

> 3 metres 1 - 3 metres 0 - 1 metres

101

Appendix

TIDAL INUNDATION

PALANGKARAYA

KUALA KAPUAS

Salinity Intrusion Coastal area Tidal in wet and dry season Tidal in wet season Non tidal in dry season Non tidal in wet and dry season

102

Appendix

DESA PEDULI GAMBUT / PEAT CARE VILLAGES SCHEME

PALANGKARAYA

Mengada

Katunjung

Mebanju Tanjung Taruna

Tunjang Nusa

Sei Ahas Katumpuk

Plang

Sungai Jaya

Katumpang

Sapiren Sawa Kejang

Simpur

Penda Garung Gohong Kalawa Mantaren Buntoi Kanamat Barat Wondagung Gendang Barat

Kamamit Jaya

Kamamit Baru Pangkor Hulu Taha Jaya Mulya Sari Pangkor Hulu

KUALA KAPUAS

Taha Baru

Tako Hulu Pentok Sanggang Bahaur Hulu Permai Tako Muara Dendang Gadabung Jaya Bahaur Hulu Sei Hambawang

Bahaur Hilir

Bahaur Tengah

Bahaur Basantan

Belantik Glam Bahaur

Pasanan Papuyu Baruna Papuyu II

Sei Bakau

Sei Pundak Camatan

Conservation Zone Protected forest Production forest Peat Care Villages

103

Appendix

DESA Tanjung Taruna Commodity

Jan

Feb

Mar

April

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Feb

Mar

April

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Feb

Mar

April

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Mountain paddy Corn Watermelon Rubber Baung Fish Papuyu Fish Sepat Fish Saluong Fish Lais Fish Blawan Fish Kihung Fish Gabus Fish Toman Fish Kerandong Fish Kapar Fish Catfish

DESA Garung Commodity

Jan

River fish Mushroom Rubber Honey Seasonal fruit

DESA Gohong Commodity Mountain paddy Rubber

104

Jan

Appendix

4.0 Carbon Credit One carbon credit is equivalent to the right to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide.

Under the Cap and Trade system by the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change, participating countries must commit to a limit on how much emissions released. Businesses in these countries who find it hard to maintain the limit, are allowed flexibility mechanisms by buying credits from companies who have extra credits or by buying from carbon credit producing projects usually in developing countries. This flexibility mechanism is called Join Implementation.

REDD stands for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation of forests. REDD+ is a specific type of voluntary program that aims to reduce deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries.

Katingan Mentaya Project is such a program in Central Kalimantan.

E.O Sills, REDD + on the Ground: A Case Book of Subnational Initiatives across the Globe. (Bogor Barat: Centre for International Forest Research (CIFOR), 2014).

105

Appendix

Katingan Mentaya Project

KASONGAN

KASONGAN

Asem Kumbang

Asem Kumbang

Baun Bango Tumbang Runen

Baun Bango Tumbang Runen

Jahanjang

Jahanjang

Tumbang Bulan

Satiruk

Teluk Sampit

Ganepo Rawa Sari Makarti Jaya

Telaga Parupuk Tampelas

Galunggang

Tumbang Bulan

Hanaut Bapinang HuluBamadu Bahaung Penyaguan Bapinang Hilir

Hanaut Bapinang HuluBamadu Bahaung Penyaguan Bapinang Hilir

Babiran Hantipan Bantian Bapinang Hilir Laut Serambut

Seragam Jaya

pat

Galunggang

en Ko pat tawa ri en Ka ngin Tim tin gan ur

SAMPIT

Karuing

bu

Tampelas

Terantang Terantang Hilir Batuah

Ka

Ganepo Rawa Sari Makarti Jaya

Telaga Parupuk

Ka

Seragam Jaya

Karuing

Ka bu

SAMPIT

bu pat en Ka Ko bu pat tawa ri en Ka ngin Tim tin gan ur

Terantang Terantang Hilir Batuah

Tewang Kampung Mendawai

Babiran Hantipan Bantian Bapinang Hilir Laut Serambut

Tewang Kampung Mendawai

Satiruk

Teluk Sampit

Carbon Credit businesses require an Environmental Restoration Concession certificate in order to operate in Indonesia. The proposed concession to restore the whole peat dome before 2012 is shown on the left image. On the right, the lost to palm oil concession area is shown. The speculated reason is due to internal affairs such as bribery or corroption, or politics.

106

Appendix

Katingan Mentaya Project on the left, Sebangau National Park in the middle, with Mega Rice Project on the most right.

107

Appendix

5.0 Indigenous People Kaharingan Religion The indigenous people follow the Kaharingan religion. There are many names for god, but most know their god as Ranying Hatalla Langit, which means the Almighty Power (Kuasa yang Maha Besar). The upper realm of heaven is known as Sangum Saran Danum, where balance, peace and prosperity exist. Similar to the first man figure known as Adam, in Christianity, Ranying Hatalla Langit also sent the first man named Raja Bunu (King Bunu) to earth. The religion propagates the maintenance of the ideal system on earth as it is in heaven. Humans and the environment are not seen as separate and thus, those who treat the environment well will be rewarded, while those who damage the environment will be punished. This philosophy of a ban, or pamali, is the implementation of the belief to maintain the balance and harmony on earth as it is in Saran Danum Sangjang, or heaven . Usually these areas will be demarcated using yellow cloth or flags, and placing offerings in small houses or shrines, called tajahan. This gives the area a haunted impression and thus people will tend to stay away.

The Kaharingan religion was integrated into Hinduism in 1980 due to its lack of recognition. While some oppose the integration, others willingly accept it as it provides much more ease in applying for high-ranking jobs, receiving aid, and securing rights for burial.

Rituals Their regular rituals includes one that is conducted every Thursday called Baserah.

Other rituals include those for naming babies and marriages. They also have a death ritual called Tiwah, which is rather costly as it involves the stabbing of many wildstock in the middle of a circle surrounded by the family members of the dead relative.

Man and Nature Indigenous people have a concept called Pukung Pahewan, especially applied by the Ngaju people in Central Kalimantan. Pukung means island or region, while Pahewan means prohibition. When an area has been determined as a Pukung Pahewan, characterized by the presence of a certain species of tree (ie. Diwung/ Handiwung tree, Lunuk/Banyan tree, Beringin tree) believed to be inhabited by spirits. This zoned area of Pukung Pahewan preserves large trees that can produce seeds and become sanctuaries for animals who have lost their habitats to farmland and settlements. The indigenous respect the rights of other organisms in Pukung Pahewan, through the belief that all organisms possess a spirit or soul. Indigenous people believe that some animals (ie. Deer or Karahau) are sacred and are the 108

Appendix reincarnation of spirits and thus must not be hunted. The existence of this zoning concept is evidence against the misleading claims that shifting cultivation carried out by the indigenous are damaging.

There are four main types of Pukung Pahewan : 1. Tajahan Small houses to put offerings for spirits living in the area, usually accompanied by small statues.

2. Sepan Pahewan A natural water source maintained for animals to come and drink. The indigenous will use this space to fulfil their own hunting needs.

3. Pukung Himba Leaving large trees for spirits to move into, indirectly promoting rich biodiversity.

4. Kaleka Permanent family gardens passed down from generation to generation, seen by environmentalists as a genetic pool.

Elements of that indicate Pukung Pahewan 1. Handiwung wood The tree trunk usually grows wild like bamboo, with 5-30 tillers, reaching up to 30 metres in height. The tree trunk is hard and can last hundreds of years. This species is especially prevalent in peatland areas and marshy land. Sometimes, wood from this tree is used for weapons, such as arrows, spears, small knives, as it is believed to be capable of driving away black magic.

2. Antang Small houses to put offerings for spirits living in the area, usually accompanied by small statues.

3. Karamat The Karamat is a small house where small offerings are presented. Usually, Karamat is found when people open fields, which indicates the rotating pattern of indigenous farming. Old abandoned fields will grow new vegetation, fruit trees, and become forest. In such overgrown forests, the new generation of farmers often finds old Karamat.

Alue Dohong’s Official Blog (Sustainability of Tropical Peatland Ecosystem). “Alue Dohong’s Official Blog (Sustainability of Tropical Peatland Ecosystem): Kearifan Lokal Dayak Dalam Perlindungan Flora Dan Fauna Endemik,” May 23, 2009. https://aluedohong.blogspot.com/2009/05/kearifan-lokal-dayak-dalam-perlindungan.html.

Bulkani, Ilham, and Saiffullah Darlan. “Pukung Pahewan : The Effort of Natural Resources Conservation in Dayak Ngaju Community.” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 314 (August 9, 2019): 012042. https://doi. org/10.1088/1755-1315/314/1/012042.

109

Appendix

Fendria Wadi. Retrieved from https://biodiversitywarriors.org/m/ katalog.php?idj=4948

Marko Mahin. Retrieved from https://markomahin.blogspot. com/2016/05/local-wisdom.html

Davide Vadala. Retrieved from http://www.nomadtravellers.com/ visit/dayak-longhouse-eheng

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