A Building Usability Evaluation Tool-Kit: “Environments for Aging”
1 2013 Presentation By: Tahseen Hussain, EDAC
Building Usability Evaluation Tool-Kit: “Environments for Aging�
Table of Contents Introduction to the Usability Matrix
Page 4
Usability Matrix
5
Definition of Terms
6
Usability Matrix as a Design Tool for the Architect Building Usability Evaluation Tools for the Researcher Usability Observation Tool
20 21 21
Coding Analysis Table
23
Usability Matrix as a Research Tool
25
Directions for Future Research
26
2
A Building Usability Evaluation Tool-Kit: “Environments for Aging” The term “usability” is widely used in fields such as product design, information technology, and web design. Building usability is about the entire occupant experience however, occupants that “use” architecture barely realize its usability unless the discomforts of the environment overwhelm the experience. Building usability is critical in designing for the elderly. Architects have the responsibility of creating not just aesthetically pleasing but also “usable” spaces. Healthcare architecture demands both precise research and creative intuition to consider the design usability of “healing spaces.” The designer’s intuition, the researcher’s analysis, and the user’s feedback all need to incorporate a growing body of literature on healing spaces to create effective, efficient, and user-satisfying spaces. The process of successfully incorporating theoretical concepts and ideas addressed in the literature into the specific design requirements of a project requires layers of interpretation and analysis in order to synthesize appropriate design solutions. The Building Usability Evaluation Tool-Kit: “Environments for Aging” provides usability analysis tools to aid the designer, and the researcher to assess the usability of the built environment. This tool-kit specifically addresses the usability of “Environments for the Aging” however, these same tools can also be applied or slightly modified to apply to other building typologies.
3
Introduction to the Usability Matrix
The Usability Matrix is an analytical tool designed to frame “architectural dimensions� which influence stress within the three standard usability parameters: 1) effectiveness, 2) efficiency, and 3) user satisfaction (Dilani, 2012; ISO,1998). Environmental forces that either negatively or positively impact the perception of stress influence the healing taking place within the environment (Ulrich, 1991; 1997; Evans and McCoy, 1998; Dilani, 2012). The architectural dimensions used in the matrix were categorized under the usability parameters of effectiveness (the success of design in addressing its functional requirements through details and specific design features) or efficiency (the number of resources required to perform a programmatic function such as travel distances, square footage, and required adjacencies). In the matrix, the parameter of effectiveness (y axis) and efficiency (x axis) multiply to create user satisfaction. The user satisfaction unit is subdivided into three additional subunits of physical comfort, social comfort, and psychological comfort. These units can further be divided by user type. The matrix shown on the next page is divided into three user types: staff, patient, and visitor. The Usability Matrix demands both critical thinking and creativity in order to be successfully used by both designers and researchers. Prior to using The Usability Matrix, one must understand the terms used in the matrix. A glossary is provided that cites and defines the architectural dimensions used in their original context from the literature. In addition, evidence and specific literature addressing the elderly in reference to architectural dimensions for the design effectiveness parameter is provided. A strong foundation and grasp of the literature are key to the successful design implementation of usability.
4
5
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Usability Parameter Effectiveness: Stimulation Design Effectiveness
Stimulation
Complexity
Intensity
Variety
Definition
Stimulation is the surrounding sensory information that impinges the user (Evans and McCoy, 1998).
Complexity or the richness and diversity of a scene reflects “how much is going on in a setting”. It instigates the viewer to spend more time looking at the scene to gather more information (Kaplan, 1988).
Intensity describes environments in which break time/locations are not available, stimulating stress which can negatively impact performance (Ross and Ok-Choon, 1996)
Variety is a number or range of things of the same general class those are different or distinct in character or quality (Mermium-Webster Dictionary). People prefer moderate to small amounts of variety however maybe uncomfortable with large amounts of variation (Evans and McCoy, 1998).
Aging Environment Evidence/ Examples
“Sensory stimulation which can promote interest, participation and interaction can increase socialization, self-concept, concentration, and alertness” (Spaull, Leach, & Frampton, 1998). Age can impact the familiarly and recognizability of an environment (Hammitt, 1979). “An involved scene engages the viewer to become more familiar with their surroundings” (Hammitt, 1979).
When patients are unable to physically remove themselves from stressful stimuli “psychosocial withdrawal may result whereby individuals become apathetic or engage in self-stimulating behaviors.” (Norberg, Merlin, & Asplund, 1986).
Facilities for the aging should have "a warm reassuring environment by using a variety of familiar, non-reflective finishes and cheerful, varied colors and textures, keeping in mind that some colors are inappropriate and can disorient or agitate impaired residents" (Carr, 2011)
6
DEFINITION OF TERMS
"”the familiarity of the unfamiliar” is used to identify the spatial experience of older people on the move and “unfamiliarity of the familiar”, and is used to identify the experience of older people ‘aging in place"(Spaul and Hockey, 2011).
Novelty
Novelty describes a new or unfamiliar environment which may enhance stress and “fear-induced behaviors” (Nikaido and Nakashima, 2009).
Mystery
“How much further information does a scene promise if you could walk deeper into it (Herzog, 1984)?
Positive distractions such as landscape scene with mystery can diverge attention from actual doors in a dementia care unit.
Noise
Noise is “a loud unpleasant sound that can cause stress by elevated blood pressure and hearing loss” (Westman and Walters, 1981).
Noise can minimize an older person's hearing capacity in normal everyday conversations. Door buzzers, heating and cooling systems, call systems contribute to unnecessary noise (Hiatt, 1991).
Light
Daylight is shown to have a very positive effect on psychological wellbeing. A lack of daylight can cause “physiological and psychological difficulties” (Dilani, 2009).
Daylight awareness can promote the circadian rhythm and promote good sleep hygiene. Good night time lighting for bathroom trips help prevent falls.
7
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Stimulus from the external environment which can cause fear, anxiety, aversion, pleasure, pleasantness, relaxation and so on, and also induce a stress response of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, causing increased circulating adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) (Nikaido and Nakashima, 2009).
Body odors, cleaning chemicals, and lack of air circulation/ ventilation can create foul odors if facility is not properly maintained (Hiatt, 1991).
Bright colors particularly at the red end of the spectrum have strong stimulation qualities (Evans & McCoy, 1998).
"The human visual system changes with aging and one of the most important changes is the decrease of spatial contrast sensitivity" (Kutas, Kwak, Bodrogi, Park, Lee, Choh, & Kim, 2008).
Crowding
Crowding or uncomfortably close interpersonal distances can increase stimulation (Evans and McCoy, 1998).
Although crowding will increase stress among humans, a study showed that mentally impaired and hospitalized elderly interacted at much closer distances than what is typically observed in younger adults. A crowded setting was described as “cozy”. Interaction between the elderly groups also involved higher levels of “instant touch and bodily contact” than what would be expected from younger adults (Aiello, Headly, Thompson, 1978).
Visual Exposure
Visual exposure is the degree to which a person is visible to others in a certain setting (Evans and McCoy, 1998).
Preview rooms (rooms with a large window or opening) in nursing facilities allow activities to be previewed before commitment.
Odor
Color
8
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Usability Parameter Effectiveness: Coherence Design Effectiveness
Definition
Aging Environment Evidence/ Examples
Coherence makes the picture plane of a scene easier to understand through organization and thematic structure (Kaplan,1998).
Age is negatively associated with accurately identifying the location (Spaul and Hockey, 2011).
Legibility
Legibility is the ease with which one can understand the spatial layout or plan of a space (Evans and McCoy, 1998). If one can easily form a cognitive map of a location,it a legible place (Kaplan, 1988).
How identifiable is a space? Legibility or identifyability is an essential environmental preference especially for the elderly. A sense of "familiarity of a new or unfamiliar environment for a geriatric adult can be identified by its legibility, navigability, accessibility, security and hospitality" (Spaul and Hockey, 2011).
Organization
A system or pattern of light and dark that can arrange a number of objects or areas into a more manageable number of objects or areas (Kaplan, 1988).
Organization can help make the environment more familiar.
Thematic Structure
Thematic structure brings attention to an important part of a picture plane through a sudden change in brightness, pattern or texture to highlight a significant area or boundary. If the attention drawing element in the scene is not important or if something else captures the viewer attention first, then coherence is lacking in the scene (Kaplan, 1988).
Thematic structure can help make the environment more familiar.
Coherence
9
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Repeated elements, patterns or textures that can identify an area or portion of the picture plane (Kaplan, 1988).
Predictability can help make the environment more familiar.
Landmark
Landmarks (usually set in a prominent spatial location, point of access or cultural significance) are distinct elements in a space which can make a space easier to organize, recognize, and create a memorable experience (Sorrows and Hirtle 1999).
“To what extent does the setting contain distinctive or memorable objects or features that could serve as useful landmarks to help you find your way around in the setting?” (Hertzog, 2003)
Distinctiveness
Distinctiveness of a scene enhances the cognitive involvement of a scene making it more familiar and (Hammitt, 1979).
“Visual distinctiveness” is more helpful in identifying a scene than whether or not a geriatric individual is actually familiar with the scene (Spaul and Hockey, 2011).
Exterior Vistas
“Designer can significantly improve the quality of the user's experience by choosing a predetermined parametric set of viewing parameters (vistas).” (Hanson, Wernert, and Hughes, 1997) “Vistas of 50 feet or more allow us to change our focal length, important to both eye health and comfort“ (Nair & Fielding, 2005)
A pleasant exterior view is an effective way to make an interior scene more distinctive and can enhance the involvement and restorative components of the scene for the elderly.
Predictability
10
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Usability Parameter Effectiveness: Affordances Design Definition Effectiveness
Affordances
Sudden Perceptual Changes
Ambiguity
Aging Environment Evidence/ Examples
“Visual cues” which enable user to understand the functionality of an object or space (Evans and McCoy, 1998).
Misaffordaces in the elderly is related to perceptual dysfunction and is linked to the risk of falls. Geriatric population which is cognitively impaired holds even stronger risks than the general geriatric population (Buri, Picton, & Dawson, 1990).
"Rapid changes in visual access produced by movement across a sharp vertical or horizontal barrier can cause marked disorientation” and misaffordances (Evans and McCoy, 1998). Sudden perceptual changes can often occur in corners, entryways, and stairs (Evans and McCoy, 1998).
Sudden perceptual changes are associated with “changes in the walking and behavior patterns of cognitively impaired geriatric population putting them at a greater risk of fall (gait examples include: wandering back and forth, changes in walking speed, changes in gait patterns, shuffling and taking large strides) (Buri, Picton & Dawson, 2000).
Ambiguity about design function occurs when there are unclear or absent cues or too many cues competing with one another (Evans and McCoy, 1998).
Ambiguity of a coffee table among cognitively impaired elderly: Coffee table was perceived to be a chair resulting in individuals sitting on it and tripping over it (Buri, Picton & Dawson, 2000).
11
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Perceptual Cue Conflict
Competing “visual cues “may allow an individual to miss judge distance or size of an object or spatial area obscuring one’s perception of depth (Evans and McCoy, 1998).
Problems with perception of space, including depth, width, size and personal space were identified among cognitively impaired elderly. Perceptual cue conflicts include: changes in floor patters/ materiality creating illusion of a raised floor, reflective flooring material that may make it look as if the area was wet, lack of color contrast in a room making it difficult to differentiate walls/ floor etc. (Buri, Picton & Dawson, 2000).
Feedback
Feedback provide “visual cues”/ evidence about building performance (Evans and McCoy, 1998). Feedback can also be known as "perceived affordances" ex: icon on a computer screen one clicks to start a program (Norman, 1999).
If proper feedback is not received when using a space, furniture, or item, vulnerable populations are likely to feel less independent and helpless.
12
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Usability Parameter Effectiveness: Control Design Effectiveness
Definition
Aging Environment Evidence/ Examples
Control
Control deals with the ability to manipulate the physical environment to one’s likes or regulate one’s exposure to his/her surroundings (Evans and McCoy, 1998).
“Negative consequences” that come with aging may make the elderly feel they have less control over their environment (Aiello, Headly, Thompson, 1978). Loss of control over ones environment is often identified with one's independence (Feingold & Werby, 1990)
Boundaries
Boundaries maybe physical barriers or implied barriers through the placement of columns, or other strong visual elements, or by the implied visual completion of a space (Moore, 1986).
The placement of “territorial boundaries” in bedrooms of institutionalized geriatric adults showed increased selfsatisfaction and decreased maladjustment (Nelson & Paluck, 1980).
Crowding is associated with density forces blocking one’s goals, or interrupting one’s behavior as a result of the cognitive overload (Schmidt and Keating, 1979).
Crowding that is influenced by uncontrollable and unpredictable environments can negatively impact behavior and elderly functioning (Aiello, Headly, Thompson, 1978).
control of temperature and light levels in a space
Light to the bathroom at night is very important. Geriatric adults may have a higher temperature discrimination threshold than younger adults (Collins, Exton-Smith, Doré, 1981).
Crowding
Climatic & Light Controls
13
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Depth
Depth of a view is related to” judged enclosure” (Stamps, 2007).
Responsiveness is the “clarity and Responsive- speed of feedback” that occurs when ness using a setting or object (Evans and McCoy, 1998).
Territoriality
Territoriality can be suggested with “symbolic barriers, actual barriers, detectability, traces and social climate” (Brown and Altman, 1983). There are three type of territories: public territories (city sidewalks, bus seats), primary territories (personal space), and secondary territories (shared space) (Brown and Altman, 1983).
Symbolism
“Human need to extend symbols such as social dominance, territory, and sexuality away from their bodies into the built environment. The emotional associations with such symbols may underlie aesthetic feelings” (Greenbie, 1982).
Flexibility
Flexibility allows the adjustment of perimeter openness with moveable partitions, social control with moveable or semi-fixed furniture, the freedom to choice between a variety of spaces McCoy, 1998).
Distance and allocated space must easily be understood and appreciated. Is the space enclosed in all directions? Is there a way out? Can I see what is doing on in the next room? Unresponsive environments can make elderly and other vulnerable populations feel helplessness (Evans and McCoy, 1998)
Geriatric adults have a strong sense of residential territory and easily distinguish between personal and communal spaces therefore; clear territorial demarcations in elderly residential areas can help “regulate residential behavior; provide interdependence, security, and a sense of community" (Zaff & Devlin, 1998).
Territorial traces around a residence can often symbolize personal space, ownership and pride (Nelson & Paluck, 1980).
Movable furniture, variety of architectural spaces
14
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Privacy is the “ability to regulate social interaction” (Evans and McCoy, 1998).
Nursing home patients marked strong preference for their own room where social interaction can be better controlled (Weber, Brown, Weldon, 1978).
Functional Distances
“In studies of the impact of physical environment on interpersonal behavior, functional distance represents the possibility for interaction between persons in any two residences” (Corsini, 2002).
Functional distances can provide “defensible spaces”. “Defensible spaces” such as steps, sidewalks or a porch are secondary spaces that allow grounds for “informal social networks” and can provide elderly opportunities to learn to be able to distinguish between a neighbor and other outsiders (Zaff and Devlin, 1998).
Focal Point
A focal point provides an area for socialization and group interaction, usually include activity generators and reside in neutral territories with good visual access (Evans and McCoy, 1998).
“Preview rooms” or shared spaces with strong visual accessibility in nursing homes function as focal points in their environment.
Spatial Hierarchy
A building with a strong sense of spatial hierarchy will include a wide variety of spaces ranging from places that provide privacy and solitude to more public spaces for social interaction (Evans and McCoy, 1998).
“Patients indicated a marked preference for their own room relative to common areas. This finding suggests an ethological model emphasizing preference of patients for more private space and smaller public areas” (Weber, Brown, Weldon, 1978).
Privacy
15
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Usability Parameter Effectiveness: Restoration Design Effectiveness
Definition
Aging Environment Evidence/ Examples
Restoration
A restorative environment helps people recover from mental fatigue and usually has a special connection to nature as nature plays a vital role in “human functioning” (Kaplan, 1992).
Nature scenes/ gardens are given stronger environmental preference than the built environment. Restorativeness is also strongly associated with familiarity among elderly (Berto, 2007). Incorporating nature views, walkways, in an aging environment can allow a senior adult to remain connected to nature.
Minimal Distraction
Minimal distraction can enable better performance in cognitive tasks than an environment with other visual or auditory distractions. Ex. “Closing the eyes helps people remember” (Vredeveldt & Hitch & Baddeley, 2011).
Background noise such as radio or bells can cause stress and negatively influence behavior.
Stimulus shelters are area which can provide solitude and break from over stimulating activities (Evans and McCoy, 1998).
A stimulus shelter needs to be distinct, either physically or conceptually, from everyday environments”, be able to “engage the mind and promote exploration”, and must compatible with ones intended purpose for a break (Berto, 2007).
Stimulus Shelter
16
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Solitude
Solitude is a factor which enhances restoration when safety is controlled while company can enhance restoration through its association with safety (Staats and Hartig, 2004).
In order to have a sense of community among the elderly, a strong feeling of independence and individualism needs to exist within an elderly residence. Through having choice, “a sense of belonging and emotional safety” is created (Zaff & Devlin, 1998).
Fascination
“Fascinating stimuli attract people and keep them from getting bored, but most important they allow people to function without having to use directed attention” (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1981)
Fascination can be created by design elements such as window views, burning fireplaces, aquarium, moving water (Evans and McCoy, 1998).
17
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Usability Parameter: Efficiency Design Efficiency
Adjacencies
Definition "An adjacency is a user groups' functional relationship requirements to all other user groups or among functional areas" (Pena and Parshall 2001).
Allocated dimension refers to the spatial configuration size in relation to Allocated Dimensions function requirements. Circulation Alignment Proximity to Circulation
Circulation system is designed so that funtional tasks are planned and arranged in an optimally efficient layout. Proximity to circulation describes the nearness or vicinity to area of main traffic.
Furniture arrangement must support the activities that take place in a space such as conversation, movement, rest and/or solitude. The visual Furniture Arrangement composition factors of the furniture arrangement such as visual balance, alignment, and its focus point in addition to the furniture design itself influence usability (Merrell, Schkufza et al. 2011).
Pathway configuration or "Landmark placement" refers to "distinctive landmarks, particularly when placed Pathway Configuration at decision points affect cognitive strategies for wayfinding." (Evans, 1984)
18
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Usability Parameter: Efficiency
Design Efficiency
Definition
Floor plan complexity refers to "the number of links and nodes a plan contains" (McCormick, 1996)."Landmarks at nodes and vistas along links should be added to reduce plan complexity" (McCormick, 1996) "Plan configuration was found to exert a significant influence regardless Floor Plan Complexity of signage, because the wayfinding performance of participants with access to signage in the most complex settings remained equivalent to, or significantly poorer than, those in the simplest settings with no signage" (O'Neill, 1991).
Interconnectedness
Accessibility
Placement of doorways and passages regulate “internal accessibility of spaces” (Evans and McCoy, 1998).
Accessibility is the "ease at which a first time visitor can find and enter the building/ designed area" (Pena and Parshall 2001).
Prevention of errors refers to "a continuous improvement method that Prevention of Errors studies why and how errors occur and looks for ways to keep them from happening again (Tooling University, 2012).
Signage
Signage can aid “wayfinding efficiency“ in complex floor plans. Graphic signage encourages high travel rates among building users where as textual signage produces the least errors during travel (O'Neill, 1991).
19
Usability Matrix as a Design Tool for the Architect
A simple way a designer can use the matrix in his/her design development is to ask two questions: “To what degree is the effectiveness of the (effectiveness term in the y axis) in relation to (an efficiency term in the x axis) providing (physical/ social/ psychological) comfort to the (user type)?” and “How can the design feature be improved?” Depending on the design typology and context, some units in the matrix will be more applicable than others. For example, when analyzing the usability of a nursing home, one may ask: “Does the flooring materiality of then nursing home area drastically contrast with outside concrete (perceptual cue conflict) when entering the facility (accessibility) to pose physical or psychological discomforts for the residents?” Through asking detailed questions such as the example provided, the designer can use this tool as a think tank to organize and develop design concepts and strategies. At the design development phase, it helps to note the functions of a particular area and its featuring design characteristics in the “Notes” section of the Usability Matrix. Specific design features connected to the architectural dimensions can also be written on the x and y axes. Because the design is a development in progress, this process may be more loosely structured than the way a researcher might analyze an already existing building. The Usability Matrix becomes an organization tool to allow the designer to clarify, refine, and further develop more effective, efficient, and usersatisfying designs. It helps the designer to continue to write about the design while using the Usability Matrix and color in units that are most applicable to the design. Analysis from the tool can then be directly applied to sketches and models in design development.
20
Building Usability Evaluation Tools for the Researcher: Usability Observation Tool
The Usability Matrix holds strong potential as an aid for researchers of the built environment. The researcher can use The Usability Matrix to analyze the usability of an existing building. By gathering some initial data in a behavioral observation and integrating this data within the Usability Matrix, the researcher can further analyze and assess the potential and merits of the built environment. The initial data collection during the behavioral observation needs to grasp the systems and environment/behavior dynamics of the environment. The provided Usability Observation Tool notes the objects within the environment, the tasks that occur with use of the objects, and the types of interactions that need to occur between people to perform these tasks. Additionally, the tool notes the spatial attributes of the behavioral patterns that coincide with the attributes. The Usability Observation Tool template is provided on the next page. During the observation, The Usability Matrix can be used as a reference next to The Usability Observation Tool. This allows the researcher to be in the space and be able to connect back to the literature at the same time to ensure all necessary information is observed and collected for further analysis.
21
Building Usability Evaluation Tools for the Researcher: Usability Observation Tool Objects
Tasks
Interaction
Spatial Attributes & Noted Behaviors
22
Building Usability Evaluation Tools for the Researcher: Coding Analysis Table
After the behavioral observation, it is helpful if the researcher codes the “spatial attributes and noted behaviors� section under the usability dimensions: effectiveness, efficiency, and user satisfaction. The categorization allows the spatial needs of each observed task to be viewed from three different usability angles. A Coding Analysis Table template is provided in the following pages. When classifying the collected data, the researcher may find that more information can be described about the space than what was directly observed and written down. The Coding Analysis Tools can help the researcher start to fill in usability blanks that were left under developed during the observation. Also please note that the analysis is still in its initial stages and a particular observation may seem like it could fit in more than one category. This is because the information needs more dissection.
23
Effectiveness
Tasks
Ergonomic and Design Details
Efficiency
Travel Distances , Access, Spatial Dimensions/ Spatial Needs
User Satisfaction Psychological, Social, & Physical Comfort
24
Building Usability Evaluation Tools for the Researcher: Usability Matrix After the collected data have gone through an initial coding and analysis, the information is ready to be further analyzed in the Usability Matrix. Each level of analysis yields more and more criteria in design analysis. The Coding Analysis Table provides baseline criteria to connect project specific design features to the architectural dimensions within the usability parameters. By writing in these design features next to the architectural dimensions in the x and y axes, the Usability Matrix can then restructure itself to adapt to the specific design qualities, providing an all-encompassing usability checklist for the researcher. Similar to how a designer uses the Usability Matrix, the researcher can incorporate the gathered data into the matrix by asking similar questions about the design, such as, “To what degree is the effectiveness of the (effectiveness term in the y axis) in relation to (an efficiency term in the x axis) providing (physical/social/psychological) comfort of the (user type)?” Or “How may this design feature impact the users?” When developing a Post-occupation Evaluation (POE) survey, the questions need to be reformatted with appropriate jargon for building users to understand. As these questions are thought out and written, this complex analysis can be visualized in the Usability Matrix by coloring in areas where the design issues are applicable, leaving blank units where a design feature is not relevant to that particular design.
25
Directions for Future Research
This tool-kit can be an excellent starting point for any designer or researcher. A broad range of topics are introduced; all of which can be further researched and explored. Creating standard graphic and representational techniques for the architectural dimensions will further assist designers and researchers in their analyses. As more and more case studies and projects are examined with this tool-kit, tools can be further developed and refined. It is important to be constantly thinking of new ways to apply the concepts addressed in the literature into innovative design solutions; as Albert Einstein once said, “Imagination is more important than knowledge.�
Questions or comments? Please feel free to contact the author at this address- tahseenarchitect@live.com.
26
References
27
References
28
References
29
References
30