Ideas Magazine_Volume 5

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IDEAS

Exploring Global Cities New Delhi

FALL 2022

MAGAZINE

FALL 2022

M E E T T H E T E A M 03 I N T R O D U C T I O N CONTENTS S O L V I N G D E L H I ' S A I R P O L L U T I O N C R I S I S A H I S T O R I C A L P I C T U R E O F N E W D E L H I ( 1 9 1 1P R E S E N T ) I M P R O V I N G S A F E T Y I N N E W D E L H I T H R O U G H P U B L I C M U L T I - M O D A L T R A N S P O R T S Y S T E M S A N E N V I R O N M E N T O F E V I C T I O N : I N V E S T I G A T I N G T H E P O L I C Y , P A S T , A N D P E R S P E C T I V E S B E H I N D E V I C T I O N S I N N E W D E L H I I N N O V A T I V E S O L U T I O N S T O T H E H E A L T H C A R E C R I S I S I N N E W D E L H I 04 05 18 12 25 B I B L I O G R A P H Y 32 40

TEAM STUDENT EDITOR

Faculty Instructor and Editor:

Dr. Ashima Krishna

Student Authors:

Brendan Duffy

Cole Higgins

Karim Hijazi

Pavit Hooda

Marielle Jackson

Ko Min thaw

Shreya Rastogi

Nikhil Sadavarte

Sarah Staller

Emmalia Swihart

Justin Wu

Olivia Mapes

Olivia Mapes is a freshman at Purdue University, double majoring in Creative Writing and Literature with a minor in French. She has been working at the Purdue Exponent since Oct 2022. Olivia is student editor for the Fall 2022 issue of Ideas Magazine.

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INTRODUCTION

Ideas Magazine was an experiment in pandemic-era pedagogy and outreach in what was then Honors College at Purdue University. It was imagined and developed in Fall 2020 as a way for students to present interdisciplinary perspectives on a range of topics covered by visiting scholars Each volume was created and developed by student editors and mentored by faculty. Volume 1 was led by Dr. Kristina Bross. Volume 2 in Spring 2021 semester was led by Dr. Emily Allen. Volume 3 and Volume 4 were led by Dr. Ashima Krishna. Everything about the magazine in its first four iterations has been a collaborative effort between the instructors and student editors.

This latest version of Ideas Magazine builds on prior efforts and reimagines the same interdisciplinary conversations, this time through the lens of a specific class. Students in the Fall 2022 iteration of HONR299 Community of Inquiry explored the theme of 'The Global City' and heard from experts on various aspects of the city of New Delhi in India. Throughout the course, students explored various themes related to the urban environment in the context of specific global cities: urban history, inequity and exclusion, transportation, housing, health, environment, and governance, and discussed how each of these intersect in important and meaningful ways in our urban environments. They then had the opportunity to read New Delhi-specific scholarship related to these themes and subsequently had inperson or virtual conversations with scholars who work in and around these topics. In this volume, students delved deeper into some of the conversations they had with subject matter experts working on aspects of New Delhi: Dr. Anish Vanaik (urban history), Dr. Geetam Tiwari (transportation), Dr Deepasri Baul (equity and inclusion), Dr Sushmita Pati (housing), Mr. Thomas Crowley (environment), and Dr. Dunu Roy (governance). This volume presents a culmination of student research and perspectives on specific themes that they worked on in groups.

I would like to commend the student editor for this magazine, Olivia Mapes, for designing this volume of Ideas Magazine and curating the content and layout

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Authors

Pavit Hooda

School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Marielle Jackson College of Science

today New Delhi today is buzzing center of social, economic, and technological growth, but how did it get there? The city experienced massive changes including independence from the British Empire, multiple Master Plans to reestablish the city’s structure, massive growth, and huge technological advancements in recent years. The history of New Delhi tells a story of the interventions that have pushed the city into the modern era, as well as the challenges that have come with it.

Past New Delhi

The history of New Delhi paints a remarkable picture of how a city with beginnings in the British Empire has evolved into one of the largest hubs of modern-day urbanization. Since 1911 the city has experienced massive growth in population and physical expansion. As of 2022, New Delhi is one of the most crowded cities on earth with a current population estimated at 32 million people. [1] The history of this city comprises layers of transitions across the twentieth and twenty-first century that have shaped New Delhi into what is seen

New Delhi was commissioned by the British Empire in 1911 to facilitate the transfer of the British-India capital from Calcutta to Delhi. [2] It took 20 years of construction to form a new city that was supposed to embody the ideals of the British Empire Its layout displayed a rational and functional landscape with linear streets, manicured lawns, and sterile government buildings and residential sectors-slightly interrupted by the traditional fortified settlement to the north. This was the city of Shahjahanabad (also called Old Delhi), a walled city that had served as the capital of the Mughal Empire from 1648 to 1857. [3]

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A H I S T O R I C A L P I C T U R E O F N E W A H I S T O R I C A L P I C T U R E O F N E W D E L H I ( 1 9 1 1 - P R E S E N T ) D E L H I ( 1 9 1 1 - P R E S E N T )
"India Gate" by Lamrawat, licensed under by CC BY-NC-SA 2 0

When compared to New Delhi, “Old Delhi” was drastically different. Where New Delhi was sterile and new, Old Delhi was full of history and tradition. The city was full of congested, busy, twisting streets comprising a functioning urban community.

By the 1930s a major intervention was needed. Old Delhi suffered from severe overcrowding, which displayed adverse health effects in citizens Many diseases such as tuberculosis were increasing exponentially in the city along with extremely high infant mortality rates [4] Due to pressure from the public in 1935, the Government of (British) India commissioned A.P. Hume, an English civil servant residing in Delhi to prepare a report discussing tactics to relieve congestion. [5] His results were not pleasant to the government or the residents. He found many sections of the city lacking any filtered water supply or drainage, as well as a lack of housing for approximately 100,000 people. [6] His report recommended the institution of an Improvement Trust, as well as a plan to decrease congestion--this applied to the multiple jurisdictions that comprised Old Delhi. [7] These jurisdictions were comprised of what is today the New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC), which housed the Lutyens’s section of the imperial capital and included government buildings; and the Delhi Municipal Committee (DMC) where the majority of the rest of the city’s residents resided. [8] This meant that if the plan was to be successful it would need to be implemented on both government-owned land as well as privately owned. The Delhi

Improvement Trust (DIT) was founded in 1937 to attempt to fix the issues that A.P. Hume had identified. [9] The DIT formulated goals centered around slum clearance, road widening, and settlement extension, as well as water drainage and sewage.

India underwent another massive change during World War II with the extensive expansion of the Central Government. India also played a major role in World War II; hundreds of thousands of officers and soldiers were recruited for the Indian armies who heavily fought on all fronts of the war, from Burma to Indonesia and Libya to Iraq. [10] India also became a central base for supplying clothing, food, ammunition as well as other goods to allied armies comprised of British, American, and British dominions [11] In terms of expansion of the goals from the DIT in 1937, almost all of the work being conducted was paused to aid the Allies in the war effort. This resulted in a severe shortage of housing during that time because the new construction of housing was placed on pause while a significant increase in soldiers arrived in Delhi. [12] After the war, things did not get better. A result of the food rationing that occurred during the war caused Delhi to spiral into a severe food crisis in 1946, as well as labor strikes following soon after [13]

Only two years after the end of World War II came The Partition of British India in 1947. This led to the creation of two independent states of India and Pakistan. The event was followed by one of the bloodiest and most violent migrations

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"Headlines announcing the Independence of India" by Shankars under CC BY 2 0

and ethnic cleansing in history. [14] India gained independence from Great Britain on August 15, 1947, when the Indian Independence Bill took effect. The event should have been celebratory as India was finally free from over a century of British colonial domination. Instead, approximately two million people lost their lives, and fourteen million refugees needed to migrate quickly. [15] The Partition of India in 1947 split the Indian subcontinent into independent Hindu-majority India and Muslimmajority Pakistan As the Punjab and Bengal provinces separated, around seven million Hindus and Sikhs as well as seven million Muslims suddenly found themselves in the wrong country. [16] During the partition, a significant influx of Pakistan- displaced persons took refuge in Delhi, where there was already a shortage of housing.

After independence, the first goal of the Indian government was to create housing for them. The Central Public Works Department undertook these issues and began a program that consisted of building thousands of single or double-story houses to be tenements and living spaces for displaced persons as well as low-income groups. [17] During this time private developers along with cooperative societies began to develop large areas of land to sell as housing to middle and high-income groups [18] By 1950 the Government of India accounted for 300,000 refugees that had been placed under quota for Delhi, but many still remained as “squatters” who lived on government land as well as land belonging to the DIT that had not been developed yet. [19] In 1955 large numbers of non-refugee migrants also began arriving in Delhi during the large-scale construction of the Nehruvian capital. At this point, it became apparent that changes needed to be made to the city. New Delhi no longer had British authorities residing in the government buildings and sectors, and the population had been steadily

increasing due to the large influx of migrants and refugees. The city was overcrowded and in need of an official plan to reevaluate the city’s function and layout. This paved the way for The First Master Plan in New Delhi which introduced the beginnings of the current hub of modern-day urbanization.

The plan began in the late 1950s with a group of Indian architects and town planners who were working with a newly established Town and Country Planning Organization (TCPO) They received approval from the Central Government as well as the Delhi Administration in 1961 [20] The plan covered a 20-year period that would stretch from 1961 to 1981 and was composed of four principal plans. The first principle was known as functional balance; where the new city would be laid out to accommodate residential and community areas in close proximity to employment centers. [21] The second principle attempted to decongest Old Delhi by separating the sections of overcrowded residential areas that were interwoven with industries. The third principle included attempting to preserve Delhi’s role of being a major center of public employment, which would be gained with the limiting of industrialization occurring [22] Lastly, the fourth principle was the development of neighboring areas, which included the building of seven ‘ring towns’ around the urban center of Delhi in hopes of relieving the city strain from the influx of immigrants. [23] Of the four principals, most were not completed within the 20-year goal due to a multitude of reasons that included deviations from the plan at the insistence of the Central Government as well as the Delhi Administration. [24] The one success was the component of land use, specifically the implementation of separating residential areas away from interwoven industries. The lack of success with the first Master Plan led to the second attempt in 1981.

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The second Master Plan consisted of another 20-year stretch from 1981 to 2001 where new principles were formed. [25] These included revised goals from the previous master plan, as well as increased infrastructure in housing areas to account for the significant population growth. The other main topics of the plan were to continue to strengthen the spacial aspects of the city. [26] This was attempted through dispersing of economic activities at the city and regional levels to try to enforce a pattern of land use The final goal of the plan was to project the image of the city of New Delhi as the national capital At this time the city lacked the visual impact that other main capitals around the world had. This plan pushed New Delhi into the twenty-first century where the perspective of the city changes and New Delhi can now be viewed through a lens of modern-day urbanization.

PRESENT NEW DELHI

When considering all the major cities in the history of human civilization, New Delhi is unique in its recent and vast expansion as a city. Being the capital of one of the most populated countries on the planet, New Delhi is a hotspot for societal and economic activity And following the trend towards urbanization throughout the world, New Delhi’s resilience to the consequences of high population density environments is becoming ever so more important. With the high levels of activity present in New Delhi, efforts such as environmental protection and the metro transportation system need to keep up with the growth of the city. These programs need to be elevated into focus for the city to pursue a healthier future for its residents and local environment.

From around the year 1985 to the present day, New Delhi has shown unprecedented growth as a city By the year 2050, the United Nations

“projects India will add 400 million urban dwellers, which would be the largest urban migration in the world for the thirty-two-year period”. [27] Taken by the Earth observatory satellites from NASA, Figures 1 and 2 show the land region of New Delhi in the year 1989 and 2018 respectively. [28] The figures display how most of the expansion is on the borders of the city. This is due to how urbanization transitioned the rural areas that were scattered around the city From the years 1991 to 2011, the number of urban households in this region almost doubled while the rural settlements have been cut in half [29] This high degree of urbanization in and around New Delhi is due to the heightened amounts of economic activity that comes with higher population densities and more technologically advanced infrastructure. There has been a global shift towards focusing economic activity on technological advancements in the service and information technology sectors–-away from agricultural goods or farming. [30] This shift is evident in the current economic climate of New Delhi and the direction the industries in the city are going in.

Although New Delhi’s growth comes with great advancements to the city and the whole nation of India, this rapid urban development has come with its own growing pains. One consequence is the high regional average temperature of urban

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areas. Referred to as the urban heat island effect, man-made structures absorb heat and radiate it during the night, increasing the average temperature of the local atmosphere and surface by up to 9 degrees Celsius [31] Warmer temperatures interfere with the natural processes that occur in the local ecology of cities such as New Delhi And this can ultimately affect local wildlife and the agricultural output of the surrounding areas of the city.

In addition to this temperature increase, New Delhi suffers from intense air pollution due to the increased human activity in and around the city. In recent years, “ cars, coal-fired power plants, and cookstoves keep New Delhi reliably near the top of the list of the world’s most polluted cities”. [32] To make matters worse, there is a period in late September when the rice farmers of the local rural regions burn their fields to clear them to grow wheat, their next crop Smoke from this crop burning enters the atmosphere of the city and creates harmful smog that affects the health of the residents and the urban ecology of New Delhi. However, according to the local government, farmers burning their fields made up only 4 percent of the annual air pollution of New Delhi, and the rest is actually due to local factors such as vehicles, coal plants, and other industries. [33] And from such causes, an analysis of the Air Quality Life Index has shown a “72 percent

increase in pollution from 1998 to 2016 in that [New Delhi] region, which is home to about 40 percent of India’s population”. [34] The current levels of air pollution in the city have a detrimental effect on its residents Therefore, drastic efforts from New Delhi’s municipality and residents are an urgent necessity to protect its air quality from these concerning trends

One area the city has taken action in is the transportation sector. Vehicles used to transport people and goods are one of the major causes of these environmental problems. Therefore, New Delhi has advanced its transportation system in the city to make it sufficiently robust enough to handle these high degrees of activity. This system is called the Delhi Metro, and it is a mass rapid transit (MRT) system that connects New Delhi’s activity hotspots. It provides a means of transportation for those coming or going to New Delhi’s numerous satellite cities “The metro is a public transportation system that can transport great amounts of people between their destinations, it has a total of 286 stations” [35] This mitigates the need for private vehicles that produce carbon emissions and transport fewer people. In fact, in 2021 alone, “the metro saved 269 million hours of travel time”. [36] In addition to the hours of travel time saved for the residents of New Delhi and its neighboring cities, the infrastructure of the metro was designed to be environmentally friendly. These ‘ green buildings’ have “reduced CO2 emissions by [450,000] tons”. [37] These advancements in the metro system have been a step forward in the right direction toward a cleaner atmosphere for New Delhi However, a lot more development needs to be made in the metro system for it to accommodate the ever-growing demands and the worsening conditions of its air quality

New Delhi’s urban ecology is a subject of high importance as the city continues to grow into

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one of the world’s most populous hotspots of societal and economic activity. As shown by Figures 1 and 2, Delhi’s rapid urban expansion is visibly evident in the past thirty years, and this trend continues to this day. These interventions have been a success but with challenges that have surfaced This influx of population and activity comes with a huge cost to the local environment, and this is evident in the unsafe air quality of the city and the increased temperatures of the local region. Efforts such as a robust metro system have been put in place to combat such consequences to the local environment and economy; however, a lot more

REFERENCES

needs to be put into action for New Delhi to truly live up to its great potential as a powerhouse for cultural and economic growth in India. The history of New Delhi has told a remarkable story of many interventions that have occurred throughout the past century, as well as the challenges that have emerged These events have shaped the city of New Delhi into its current mold, one of the largest centers of modern-day urbanization. The narrative of the city is not finished yet, but history pauses here. The future holds the next vital steps for one of the world's largest mega-cities.

[1] US Census Bureau. “India Independence Day (1947): August 15, 2022.” Census.gov, 2 Aug. 2022, https://www.census.gov/newsroom/stories/india-independence-day.html.

[2] Stephen Legg. “Chapter 1: Imperial Delhi.” Spaces of Colonialism: Delhi's Urban Governmentalities, Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Malden, MA, 2007, pp. 1–36.

[3] Legg. “Chapter 1: Imperial Delhi.”

[4] Diya Mehra. “Planning Delhi Ca. 1936–1959.” South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, vol. 36, no. 3, 2 Sept. 2013, pp. 354–374., https://doi.org/10.1080/00856401.2013.829793.

[5] Mehra. “Planning Delhi Ca. 1936–1959.”

[6] Mehra “Planning Delhi Ca 1936–1959 ”

[7] Mehra “Planning Delhi Ca 1936–1959 ”

[8] Mehra “Planning Delhi Ca 1936–1959 ”

[9]Mehra “Planning Delhi Ca 1936–1959 ”

[10] Nath, V Planning for Delhi GeoJournal 29, 171–180 (1993) https://doi org/10 1007/BF00812814

[11] Nath, V Planning for Delhi GeoJournal

[12] Nath, V Planning for Delhi GeoJournal

[13]Mehra “Planning Delhi Ca 1936–1959 ”

[14] Ishtiaq, Ahmed “The 1947 Partition of India: A Paradigm for Pathological Politics in India and Pakistan ” Asian Ethnicity, vol. 3, no. 1, Mar. 2002, pp. 9–28., https://doi.org/10.1080/14631360120095847.

[15] Stanford University. “Partition of 1947 Continues to Haunt India, Pakistan.” Stanford News, 11 Mar. 2019, https://news.stanford.edu/2019/03/08/partition-1947-continues-haunt-india-pakistan-stanford-scholar-says/.

[16] Stanford University. “Partition of 1947 Continues to Haunt India, Pakistan.”

[17] Nath, V. Planning for Delhi. GeoJournal

[18] Nath, V. Planning for Delhi. GeoJournal

[19]Mehra. “Planning Delhi Ca. 1936–1959.”

[20] Nath, V. Planning for Delhi. GeoJournal

[21] Nath, V. Planning for Delhi. GeoJournal

[22] Nath, V. Planning for Delhi. GeoJournal

[23] Abhijit, Datta. “Delhi.” Cities, vol. 1, no. 1, 3 Aug. 1983, pp. 3–9., https://doi.org/10.1016/02642751(83)90051-3.

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[24] Datta. “Delhi.”

[25] Mehra. “Planning Delhi Ca. 1936–1959.”

[26] Datta. “Delhi.”

[27] Kasha, Patel. “Urban Growth of New Delhi.” NASA, 27 Sept. 2018, https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/92813/urban-growth-of-new-delhi.

[28] Patel. “Urban Growth of New Delhi.”

[29] Patel “Urban Growth of New Delhi ”

[30] Matthias, Bruckner et al “Frontier Issues: The Impact of the Technological Revolution on Labour Markets and Income Distribution | Department of Economic and Social Affairs ” United Nations, United Nations, 31 July 2017, https://www un org/development/desa/dpad/

[31] Patel “Urban Growth of New Delhi ”

[32] Nilanjana, Bhowmick “In New Delhi, Burning Season Makes the Air Even More Dangerous Can Anything Be Done?” Environment, National Geographic, 3 May 2021,

https://www nationalgeographic com/environment/article/new-delhi-burning-season-makes-air-even-moredangerous-can-anything-be-done

[33] Bhowmick. “In New Delhi, Burning Season Makes the Air Even More Dangerous. Can Anything Be Done?”

34] Bhowmick. “In New Delhi, Burning Season Makes the Air Even More Dangerous. Can Anything Be Done?”

[35] Bhavya, Mishra. “Welcome to Delhi Metro Rail Corporation(DMRC): Official Website.” Welcome to Delhi Metro Rail Corporation(DMRC) | Official Website, 6 Oct. 2022, https://www.delhimetrorail.com/.

[36] Guest Contributor. “Water to Waste Management: Delhi Metro Helps Citizens Go Green in These 5 Ways.” The Better India, 22 Aug. 2022,

[37] Guest Contributor. “Water to Waste Management..."

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IMPROVING SAFETY IN NEW DELHI THROUGH PUBLIC MULTI-MODAL TRANSPORT SYSTEMS

Authors

Shreya Rastogi School of Management

Karim Hijazi College of Liberal Arts

Cole Higgins

School of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Imagine walking to the bazaar to buy groceries for dinner A speedy two-wheeler zips past, and you can hear the continuous and scattered honking of cars near the main road, off in the distance You reach the vegetable stall as you notice an elderly woman and her granddaughter paying the auto-rickshaw driver and proceeding to pick vegetables next to you. In the midst of bargaining on the price of carrots, you hear the shrill cry. A motorcyclist had unfortunately trampled a bicyclist on the narrow road.

Transportation can be dangerous if not handled correctly. In fact, the situation described above is close to reality for the people in New Delhi. From 2017 to 2019, in Figure 1, over 450,000 people in India died due to road accidents. [1] Furthermore, the infrastructure of New Delhi promotes a dependence on private transportation, which leads to a high amount of traffic Increased traffic then increases the number of road deaths, especially for people whose safety is not supported by the other modes of transportation and road infrastructure. When city planners construct road infrastructure to fit the needs of personal vehicles rather

than people, these people are put at a greater risk of crashes which can result in injury or death As seen in the figure, in 2019, about 33% of deaths involved two-wheelers, and another 14% of deaths involved pedestrians [2] This is likely because walking and driving two-wheelers are some of the most common ways to travel short distances. Additionally, these modes of transportation leave people more susceptible to injury as they provide relatively low protection compared to other modes such as cars, trains, or buses. One solution to reduce the dangers of transportation is to employ the use of multimodal public transportation.

GAPS IN POLICIES

To determine what actions the government has taken to tackle issues in personal safety with regards to transportation, we delve into some prominent government policies and identify some areas of improvement The National Urban Transportation Policy of 2006 had a vision to move people rather than vehicles. Ideally, this was to be done through expanding road space for public transportation, improving traffic performances through management, and mitigating the growth of private vehicles in the city. [3] Although New Delhi has implemented stricter road rules since then, traffic congestion is still prevalent as the growth of private vehicles continues. The Smart Cities Mission of 2015 was set in place to improve the quality of life of residents in cities by promoting sustainable environments and smart solutions in public transportation They wanted to do this by introducing smart parking and intelligent multimodal systems [4] However, these

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implementation strategies are arguably counterproductive to the vision of the policy since smart parking would likely be implemented in communities or public spaces with parking garages, which again promotes private vehicle use and does not help mitigate traffic.

Furthermore, the Metro Rail Policy of 2017 highlights the demand for high quality public transportation systems to cater to the urban population growth. With the metro system being the backbone of an integrated multimodal system, the policy envisioned incorporating other forms of public transportation under this system. In 2017, New Delhi saw a significant expansion in its highway system, which is another identified opportunity for integration within the proposed system [5] And finally, the Motor Vehicles Act of 2019 (an amendment to the same act from 1988) increased penalties for violations on the streets, [6] hopefully decreasing injuries related to personal motor vehicle/two-wheeler use. Being cognizant of the steps that have been taken to tackle issues in personal safety in transportation and identifying the steps that can be taken to improve the existing policies may aid in improving traffic flow and traffic-induced injuries in New Delhi.

https://www ncbi nlm nih gov/pmc/articles/PMC84754 67/#Sec6title

What is Multimodal Transportation?

Multimodal access to public transportation should be a fundamental design cue to any urban designer or civil engineer, regardless of the city. It is a great way to utilize various modes of transportation to make urban living more efficient and safer for people residing in the area or more appealing of a move for people wanting to relocate to a more urban area. [7] Multimodal transportation makes urban living a hassle-free experience, especially for people who choose not to drive as their primary mode of transportation. Therefore, incorporating a modern and functional form of multimodal access to public transit will help people who prefer other forms of transportation, i.e., personal modes

A multimodal public transportation system is very accommodating, given how many modes are permitted and can be utilized daily. However, while the modes of transportation are accommodating, the city's infrastructure must also accommodate the people. In an ideal scenario, there would be various factors in the land surrounding the central public transportation center. Firstly, if it is an outdoor station for the bus or train, there should be many benches for people to sit on if they are there for a while. [8] Secondly, the sidewalks,

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Figure 1: Reproduced from Verma, Ashish, Harsha Vajjarapu, and Gayathri Subramanian. Mode-Wise Road Accident Comparison 2017-2019. September 25, 2021. National Library of Medicine.

bike paths, and multi-purpose lanes need to connect or flow nicely with the public transport hub or station; so people can quickly get off their personal vehicles easily and safely. [9] Thirdly, there should be greater access to bike and scooter parking in the stations so people can safely park their bikes or scooters and proceed on their route with public transportation. [10] However, suppose people want to avoid parking their bikes (or other forms of personal vehicles at the station) In that case, the service they want to take should accommodate that and provide enough space for them and their vehicle There should also be various amenities offered at the stations for users to use, such as showers and changing rooms.

There are various advantages to a functional system of public multimodal transportation. Firstly, there are countless health benefits to promoting the use of personal non-motorized modes to get around a city. Since people will be walking or cycling around, residents will have increased cardiovascular exercise. Increased cardiovascular exercise has many benefits: better overall brain function, better joint longevity, decreased chances of heart diseases, and reduced likelihood of heart attacks [11] It is also one of the most efficient ways to lose weight [12] Another great advantage of having a functional multimodal system in urbanized areas is its positive environmental effect. The significant impact it will have on the environment stems from improving air quality in cities like New Delhi and reducing greenhouse gasses emitted into the atmosphere. For instance, the EPA's Inventory of Greenhouse Gas Emissions report stated that the year 2017 reported nearly 17% of greenhouse gas emissions in the United States came from automobiles, pick-up trucks, and light utility

trucks. [13] Constructing complete roads and sidewalks will help to promote multimodal transportation and will, in turn, help to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide being pumped into the environment. These are two main reasons why all cities, and New Delhi, should plan to incorporate in their subsequent master plans, multimodal forms of transportation as they will help to modernize the cities and make them more efficient in the process.

Recent Developments and Achievements

With regard to multimodal transportation in New Delhi and improving safety, there have been many recent developments and achievements. These achievements have been reached by various groups and people, ranging from large tech companies to urban designers and engineers.

This shows how great of a market multimodal modes of public transportation are, as more and more people are trying to get involved to help make New Delhi as safe and accommodating as possible. The first key achievement was made by the Urban Designers of the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC). They successfully incorporated various forms of transportation for travelers to use at the Chhatarpur metro station, which is a part of the Delhi Metro Network This successful integration of multimodal transport in Chhatarpur is vital for the future of public transportation in New Delhi, as they were able to merge various forms of transportation for citizens to use seamlessly. For instance, they added more cycling and walking paths, more accessible access for automobiles to pick and drop people off, designated parking for rickshaws to pick and drop people off, more parking for bicycles and cars, and barrier-free safe pedestrian parking.

[14] By incorporating safer bike paths, walking

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paths, and designated parking, the Chhatarpur Station is becoming a much safer and more accommodating place, as people who use bikes and walk no longer will have to walk or cycle on the street; instead, they will have their own safely designated lane Hopefully, DMRC will recognize how useful this is for the safety of their passengers, and they will incorporate these lanes into their other stations.

The second key achievement and development was made by a high-tech New Delhi firm called SmartE. Their primary focus revolves around making traveling around busy cities easy with their recent development of electric rickshaws. Like your regular rickshaw they can hold up to two passengers plus the driver, but these rickshaws rely on a rechargeable battery to move them around. It is very similar to electric scooters, but they can hold more people. SmartE, alongside the DMRC, successfully integrated these electric rickshaws into various metro stations along the Delhi metro network [15] There are a lot of significant advantages that come with these electric rickshaws.

Firstly, they are a great mode of transportation for “last mile” travel, meaning people will utilize this service for traveling to a place that is close by or within a mile radius of the metro station, they can go farther, but this is what they are primarily used for. Secondly, since they are electric, they help reduce overall emissions that would otherwise be polluted in the air by cars or motorcycles. Thirdly, they are a safer alternative to ordinary rickshaws or taxis.

They are equipped with a real-time GPS tracker, and all the drivers are professionally trained to operate the machine Lastly, they are reported to have reduced last-mile transpiration by nearly 75%, meaning they are very cost-efficient and affordable for all users. [16] These electric

rickshaws are a great innovation and will help thousands of travelers daily These are only some of the key achievements that have been happening in New Delhi regarding Multimodal transportation, and they are truly outstanding. The metro stations in New Delhi are becoming increasingly modern, efficient, and safe, and these key achievements are only the start of what is to come.

THE FUTURE OF MULTIMODAL TRANSPORTATION AND PERSONAL SAFETY IN NEW DELHI

As New Delhi works to improve transportation, it can look to other cities and programs that have implemented multimodal integration. For example, the Vastral Ring in Ahmedabad, Gujrat, effectively tackles the safety problem for pedestrians crossing the street Its circular design allows pedestrians to safely bypass traffic on the highway from four sides through stairs, elevators, and escalators, making it accessible for all types of people, including the elderly and disabled. Additionally, it is optimally located near the metro, and public bus stops, where a multimodal integration of public transportation can occur. [17] To focus on New Delhi’s actions in particular, the Station Access and Mobility Program (STAMP) recently launched a new challenge in 2022 where start-

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"File:Chhatarpur Metro station jpg" by Ashish itct is licensed under CC BY-SA 4 0

ups in the area would submit their proposal and work to tackle issues in public transportation safety STAMP wants to “drive multimodal integration and data-driven transport planning across the city” with two main projects [18] They want to create a mobility-as-a-service platform allowing commuters to plan their travel in and out of the city in advance. They also want to leverage existing last-mile services like SmartE to improve metro connectivity and accessibility through such partnerships. [19] With new programs like these, hopefully, the future of New Delhi entails a seamless integration of multimodal transportation systems that empower individuals to feel safe while using public transportation.

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Parmar, Jignesh Ahmedabad Vastral Ring July 18, 2021 Ahmedabad Mirror https://ahmedabadmirror com/firstpedestrian-overbridge-with-4-escalators-2lifts/81803411.html. "Non-polluting transport solutions such as the electric eco-rickshaw in Agra, India, improve air quality and reduce emissions." by USAID IMAGES is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

REFERENCES

[1] Ashish Verma, Vajjarapu Harsha, and Gayathri Harihara Subramanian, “Evolution of Urban Transportation Policies in India: A Review and Analysis.” “Transportation in Developing Economies” (Springer International Publishing, 2021), 9.

[2] Verma et al, 9.

[3] Verma et al, 5.

[4] Verma et al, 6.

[5] Verma et al, 8.

[6] Verma et al, 8.

[7] U S Department of Transportation, “Multimodal Access to Public Transportation” (United States Government, 2015)

[8] Steve Dearing, “The Future of Transportation Part 4: Anticipating Changes in Multimodal Transportation” (OHM, 2022)

[9] Dearing, “The Future of Transportation Part 4 ”

[10] Dearing, “The Future of Transportation Part 4 ”

[11] Heart and Vascular Team, “From Head to Toe: The Benefits of a Cardio Workout” (Cleveland Clinic, 2021)

[12] Tennessee Department of Health, “Multimodal Transportation” (Tennessee State Government, 2017)

[13] The United States Environmental Protection Agency, “Smart Growth and Transportation” (United States Government, 2020)

[14] International Association of Public Transport, “Two Indian Projects Win Special Recognition Awards in UTIP GPTS 2019” (UTIP, 2019)

[15] International Association of Public Transport, “Two Indian Projects Win…”

[16] International Association of Public Transport, “Two Indian Projects Win…”

[17]. Jignesh Parmar, “First Pedestrian Overbridge with 4 Escalators, 2 Lifts.” (Ahmedabad Mirror, 2021)

[18] Subhadeep Bhattacharjee, “STAMP Delhi 2022.” (WRI India, 2021), 1.

[19] Bhattacharjee, “STAMP Delhi 2022.”

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AN ENVIRONMENT OF EVICTION: INVESTIGATING AN ENVIRONMENT OF EVICTION: INVESTIGATING THE POLICY, PAST, AND PERSPECTIVES BEHIND THE POLICY, PAST, AND PERSPECTIVES BEHIND EVICTIONS IN NEW DELHI EVICTIONS IN NEW DELHI

New Delhi’s housing market has been dealing with a very serious issue: evictions of those residing in informal housing settlements. These evictions are carried out under the guise of being better of the community. This begs the question: Does the greater good of the community not include equitable access to residential land? How can the removal of a family from their home be framed as an act of public interest? [1] Evictions occur in New Delhi for a multitude of reasons including policies, acts, and upper-versus-lower-class attitudes regarding housing for the poor

Looking at the current issues with eviction in India requires stepping back and understanding the recent state of the world. India and the rest of the world have been dealing with the aftermath of a global pandemic, and India’s housing crisis was hit hard by COVID-19. Many low-income families were forced out of their homes and had their settlements demolished with a lack of resettlement options. But eviction issues have predated the pandemic; forced evictions have occurred between 2000 and 2010 in many of the city’s low-income areas.

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Nitya Prabhakar College of Health and Human Sciences Brendan Duffy School Mechanical Engineering Authors
Number of JJs in Each Cluster 2014 DUSIB http://mitdisplacement org/delhi-1
Paul, Rana. Evictions near Batla House, New Delhi. September 24, 2020. Thewire. https://thewire.in/urban/covid-19-forced-evictions-delhi.

This was the primary explanation for the 25% decrease in the population of New Delhi’s two central districts. [2] Legal cases have also shaped the current political situation regarding housing; in the Industries Case of 1996, relocated hazardous industries to the outskirts of the city became legally synonymous with moving the poor out of the city center. [3] In the 2002 case of Almitra Patel vs the Union of India, the court remarked that New Delhi should be the showpiece of India, essentially saying that aesthetics are valued over people [4] There was also the case of Hemraj vs the Commissioner of Police and Others in 2006, where the Delhi High Court ordered the demolition of Nangla Maachi, which housed 15,000 people, but was deemed illegal encroachment (unauthorized occupation).

[5] Lastly, in Okhla Factory Owners Vs. Government of the NCT of Delhi, the court refused to hold the executive responsible for its failure to provide low-income housing starting in the 2000s, thus eroding the right to settlement. [6]

In addition to this, New Delhi’s population has grown at the fastest rate among cities in India. A study published in 2003 estimated the population of New Delhi was projected to be around 27 million by 2021 [7] In actuality, New Delhi’s population in 2021 was 31,181,000 people [8] In the 2003 study, 27 million seemed daunting from an urban viewpoint. The combination of a rapid population increases and socio-economic changes have created a shortage in housing, especially for the poor and low-income households. Almost half of New Delhi’s population lives in conditions of poverty.

[9] In terms of housing, this means that they are crammed into overcrowded slums and hutments. These slums are forms of informal housing, the other types of housing are traditional and formal housing. The formal housing delivery systems used in New Delhi can be split into four stages The first of these stages

is planning; this includes plan preparation by the Delhi Development Authority, a subset of the Ministry of Housing serving as the preeminent authority on matters of urban development. [10] The land assembly stage follows this and consists of land acquisition, payment to landowners, and finance to agencies. Under the Land Acquisition Act of 1894, the New Delhi government is required to acquire the land before passing it over to the Delhi Development Authority [11] The role of this agency is to create availability for development Implementation is the third stage, which is composed of land development and housing construction. The responsibility of land development and housing construction falls upon the government and various sectors: public, private, and cooperative. In this stage, off-site development is done by the Municipal Corporation of Delhi, whereas on-site development is handled by the Delhi Development Authority. [13] The final stage in formal housing is disposal. Housing disposal is also handled by the government; this is the least developed part of the formal housing system. The only agencies which provide individual loans are the Housing Development Finance Corporation, and the National Housing Bank The rate of interest on these loans has been extremely high (16% in 1998); however, the situation is looking up, especially after the COVID-19 pandemic. [13]

Predating the pandemic, there were three other back-to-back disruptions: demonetization, RERA, and GST. [14] The RERA stands for the Real Estate Regulatory Authority which functions under the Real Estate (Regulation & Development) Act of 2016. [15] While there has been a hike in interest rates recently, the increase is relatively short-term and matches the demand for housing at the times of increase. The informal housing system is in stark contrast to the rigid, governmental nature of formal housing Informal housing can be defined as

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squatter settlements, quasi-legal settlements, and unauthorized colonies or community-based subdivisions. These have evolved out of the traditional developments of the old city and rural settlements (known as urban villages in Delhi). [16] The majority of the economically underprivileged population lives in informal housing that is unprotected by law. The strict expenses correlated with formal housing make it hard to access, and the unprotected nature of informal housing in the face of governmental policy creates high levels of situational insecurity

To understand this “situational insecurity” of informal settlements is to understand the city’s history of housing and eviction policy. This begins with the Master Plan of 1962, a proposal instituted by the Delhi Development Authority for the “large-scale acquisition and development of land” that “focused on thinning the densities within the old city” to maximize land use while conserving the beauty and sanitation of New Delhi’s center. As a result of this edict, the denizens of New Delhi’s central districts were distributed throughout six “ring towns” along the city’s peripheries. [17] However, such relocations only applied to “authorized colonies”; communities that did not meet the DDA’s economic and environmental approvals were not recognized as components of the city Ergo, unauthorized persons were evicted from their homes and forcibly relocated out of the newly-sorted New Delhi. Further from the business districts than ring-town citizens and without formal recognition from their government, these individuals were forced further into poverty and their informal housing situations became slums. Consequently, the number of slums grew from approximately 110 to 1,797 in the six decades following the Master Plan. [18] In essence, the Master Plan “created illegality where it did not exist” and only stimulated the development of slums [19]

The DDA’s failure to accommodate those evicted through the Master Plan reflects an anti-slum bias that exists to this day. Following a boom in the real estate sector at the turn of the century, a “Master Plan 2001” was formulated to mitigate slum expansion as populations exploded. [20] Yet the DDA’s ambitions could not compete with the city’s growth; “by the late 90s, the city’s population increased by 3.4 million people, well beyond MPD (Master Plan Delhi) demographic projections” [21] Yet rather than adjusting Master Plan policy, the DDA refused to acknowledge certain low-income groups as legitimate citizens, forcing them beyond MPD-defined areas. As such, the quantity of slums grew exponentially. Exacerbating the problem was the DDA’s subsequent refusal to admit these individuals as construction workers due to their illicit residences. Such a failure to recognize that urban improvement “could only be realized by the labor of large numbers of the working poor, for whom no provision has been made” significantly hindered the DDA’s efforts. [22] Ignorance of the poor persisted in the Master Plan 2021, with politicians such as the administrator statesmen Jagmohan claiming that “ no document was bad but they were all marred in their implementation” [23] Indeed, New Delhi’s Master Plans promised equal housing rights; however, authorities’ refusal to collaborate with the evicted stalled this effort and prompted the spread of slums. Worse, it has reinforced an ideological barrier between what New Delhi’s rich and poor envision of an improved national capital.

As aforementioned, the upper-class-driven reformation that was the Master Plans only factored in what politicians wanted, not what citizens needed. The resulting disparities between the ideals of electors and their electorates create contrasting “Upper” and “Lower” perspectives, respectively, of urban housing and development “Upper” perspectives

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are those held by politicians, governing bodies, and individuals with the adequate resources to constitute an upper socioeconomic class. Conversely, “Lower” perspectives include the opinions and ambitions of slum-dwellers and other lower-class individuals who may not receive adequate political representation. When these perspectives clash, the development of slums and worsening of conditions therein are only propagated. Evictions and their related impacts due to these “Upper” versus “Lower” outlooks can be explored along three avenues: the beatification of public areas, mitigation of pollution, and centralization of governmental districts.

A major tenet of the Master Plans is that the “beautiful city and its pleasing architecture . . . should pervade the design of all public buildings”. [24] This “Upper” notion is not unfounded, as clean, sanitary, and aesthetically pleasing urban areas encourage the higher quality of life and sophistication expected of a national capital. However, when viewed from a “Lower” perspective, these endeavors are merely efforts to evict encroachers from public places. For instance, on January 30th, 1995, enraged house owners and police beat and killed an 18-year-old slum-dweller named Dilip for defecating in an Ashok Vihar colony public park Open defecation is strictly prohibited in New Delhi, yet Dilip’s slum of 10,000 evicted households only shared 24 public toilets, one per 417 people. [25] Dilip’s actions were thus out of a necessity entirely disregarded by the DDA. Rather than constructing more latrines, the Authority leveraged funding from high-class neighborhoods near the park to build a wall barricading Dilip’s slum. [26] While this reflects the “Upper” outlook of cleaning the park by barricading the poor out, the “Lower” are left without fundamental access to defecation. The DDA’s efforts in Ashok Vihar parallel broader

efforts by politicians to clean up public areas by ostracizing the poor. Thus, the “Upper” solution of building a barricade violates the “Lower” need for adequate latrines, dirtying slums and public areas alike.

Another means by which the DDA has ventured to “clean” New Delhi is by replacing slums with high-income housing along the city’s natural resources, especially rivers. The “Upper” mentality behind such actions is that slums are contaminated and propagate the pollution of major rivers like the Beas Sutlej, Ganges, and Yamuna In fact, the opposing “Lower” mentality is true; “the poor don’t pollute to the degree claimed simply because they cannot”. [27] A study conducted by Jawaharlal Nehru University researchers Sreoshi Gupta and Sourabh Ghosh evidenced that most slum dwellers only consume 16-18 liters of water per person whilst the middle and rich class use as much as 450 liters per person. [28] As access to resources increases, so does the capacity to pollute. Thus, instead of the poor contaminating the rich, it is actually the rich who are contaminating the poor. Evicting slum-dwellers only intensifies safety hazards, as many are relocated downstream where the effects of pollution are compounded On March 3rd, 2003, the Delhi High Court mandated the eviction of many unauthorized structures on the Yamuna yet permitted “recognized” residences to remain. [29]Over 200,000 people were evicted downstream without any means of equitable resettlement. [30] By 2010, pollution from highincome housing on the Yamuna generated floods in 50% of the khadir, land immediately adjacent to the river. [31] The thousands of slum-dwellers who illegally relocated downstream were thus exposed to floods of highly-polluted water. Again, the discrepancies between “Upper” and “Lower”

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perspectives have caused widespread pollution and a loss of living quality, highlighting a cause for change.

Thirdly, the Master Plan’s prioritization of government infrastructure in the central district has had disastrous impacts on the urban poor. This is also due to “Upper” perspectives that lower-class individuals can simply be relocated without regard for their future circumstances. This is evident in the forcible eviction of 40 women and 60 children from the Palika Hostel on October 16th, 2004 Under the pretense that the hostel premises were needed to build living quarters for its employees, the New Delhi Municipal Council “violently assaulted several women occupants and . . . threw all the food, utensils, blankets, and other belongings of the homeless women on to the street”. [32] When questioned about where the evicted would be relocated, the NDMC responded that “‘social work’ is not its responsibility” and suggested that the women move to the Nirmal Chaya shelter. [33] Not only is Nirmal Chaya distant from the women’s areas of employment around the Palika Hostel, but the distant shelter does not cater to children.

NDMC’s eviction and lack of applicable housing for the evicted women and children underline the lack of consideration that New Delhi’s authorities give to their lower class. While an “Upper” perspective sees the Palika eviction as a necessary move towards better reorganizing government structures, a “Lower” perspective sees a loss of living space and livelihood. New Delhi’s poor cannot simply be relocated to produce more space in central, governmental districts. If individuals are to be evicted, ensuring an appropriate rehabilitation location and guaranteeing jobs in the region will fulfill housing goals more sufficiently than disregarding the poor.

Despite the DDA’s intentions to improve housing by beautifying public areas, mitigating river pollution, and prioritizing central districts for government purposes, they have consistently undermined and ignored the voice of the lower class. As a result, the poor are forced further into poverty and slums become evermore horrid. While the hundreds of thousands of evictions into “unauthorized” communities remain a colossal ethics concern, contemporary measures are being made to safeguard housing rights Following the Palika Hostel evictions, the Housing and Land Rights Network (HIC-HLRN) issued an Urgent Action Appeal on the basis that the NDMC violated the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. [34] This caught the attention of UN Special Rapporteur Miloon Kothari, who stated that the evictions had indeed violated the women and children’s international right "to adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living”. [35] Involving the UN into what was a municipal matter hitherto helped sway “Upper” perspectives to meet “Lower” necessities; on March 20th, the Delhi High Court ruled that “forced and unannounced evictions of slum dwellers without consultations on resettlement plans are illegal” [36] Thus, the political climate on New Delhi evictions can be altered through the involvement of national and global governing bodies. Changing municipal authorities’ stance on lower-class citizens is the first stepping stone on the path to reformed urban development. Subsequent Master Plans, notably the Master Plan of 2041, are currently under debate; the time is now to shift political perceptions on New Delhi residents and ensure everyone has the fundamental right to housing.

Time and again it is made obvious that forced eviction never truly serves any moral purpose.

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The overwhelming number of evictions in New Delhi express that the city’s governmental and social landscape must be altered to accommodate all citizens rather than remove them for not fitting a narrative. Reducing evictions and providing for those affected by them is not just an issue of administration but of attitude. When “Upper” level intentions coincide with “Lower” level needs and circumstances, direct, proactive steps

REFERENCES

can be taken to provide adequate housing for all citizens alike. Doing so not only compensates for population growth, but promotes urban beauty, pollution reduction, and appropriate living situations. As a global city, it is paramount for New Delhi to transform its environment of eviction and set a worldwide precedent for equitable housing.

[1] Sushmita Solanki, “How are Evictions Framed through Legal Systems in Urban India? A Case Study of New Delhi.” NICKELED AND DIMED, August 15, 2021. https://nickledanddimed.com/2021/08/15/how are-evictionsframed-through-legal-systems-in-urban-india-a- case-study-of-new-delhi/, par. 4.

[2] Solanki, par. 1.

[3] Solanki, par. 6.

[4] Solanki, par. 7.

[5] Solanki, par. 8.

[6] Solanki, par. 9.

[7] Alpana Sivam, “Housing Supply in Delhi.” Cities 20, no. 2 (2003): 135–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/s02642751(02)00121-x, 135.

[8] “Delhi, India Metro Area Population

1950-2022 ” MacroTrends MacroTrends Accessed December 20, 2022

https://www macrotrends net/cities/21228/delhi/population#:~:text=The%20metro%20area%20population%2 0of,a%203 03%25%20increase%20from%202019, par 1

[9] Alpana Sivam, “Housing Supply in Delhi”, 135

[10] Surbhi Gupta, “All You Need to Know About Delhi Development Authority (DDA) ” Housing com, December 9, 2020 https://housing com/news/dda-delhi-development-authority/, par 1

[11] Alpana Sivam, “Housing Supply in Delhi”, 136

[12] Sivam, 136

[13] Sivam, 136

[14] “Demonetisation, Rera and GST - Impact on Real Estate.” Kotak. Kotak Mahindra Bank. Accessed December 20, 2022. https://www.kotak.com/en/stories-in-focus/demonetisation-rera-and-gst-impact-on-real-estate.html, par. 1.

[15] “Demonetisation, Rera and GST - Impact on Real Estate.”, par. 4

[16] Alpana Sivam, “Housing Supply in Delhi”, 136.

[17] “Master Plan For 1962.” Delhi Development Authority. Government of India, February 25, 2021. https://dda.gov.in/master-plan-

1962#:~:text=MPD%2D1962%20set%20out%20a,out%20to%20match%20the%20same, par. 1.

[18] Sidharth Mishra, “Delhi Master Plan: Six Decades of Unsolved Housing Woes.” The New Indian Express. The New Indian Express, June 14, 2021. https://www.newindianexpress.com/opinions/2021/jun/14/delhi-masterplan-six-decades-of-unsolved-housing-woes-2315793.html, par. 9.

[19] Apoorva Dhingra, “Radically Rethinking Urban Planning in (and from) the Global South - Uneven Earth.” Uneven Earth. DISQUS, October 6, 2021. https://unevenearth.org/2021/10/radically-rethinking-urbanplanning-in-and-from-the-global-south/, par 9

[20] Sidharth Mishra, “Delhi Master Plan: Six Decades of Unsolved Housing Woes ” , par 6

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[21] Apoorva Dhingra, “Radically Rethinking Urban Planning in (and from) the Global South - Uneven Earth.” par. 9.

[22] Dhingra, par. 8.

[23] Sidharth Mishra, “Delhi Master Plan: Six Decades of Unsolved Housing Woes.”, par. 7.

[24] “Master Plan For 1962.”, par. 4.

[25] Amita Baviskar, “Between Violence and Desire: Space, Power, and Identity in the Making of Metropolitan Delhi ” International Social Science Journal 55, no 175 (July 1, 2004): 89–98

https://doi org/https://doi org/10 1111/1468-2451 5501009, 89

[26] Baviskar, 90

[27] Sreoshi Gupta and Sourabh Ghosh, “Homelessness in the Context of the Delhi Master Plan 2001: Some Results From the Census ” Social Change 36, no 2 (June 2006): 57–82

https://doi org/10 1177/004908570603600205, 80

[28] Sreoshi Gupta and Sourabh Ghosh, 79

[29] “Master Violators ” Down to Earth, September 15, 2004 https://www downtoearth org in/news/masterviolators-11770, par 7

[30] Abdul Kalam, “Joint Urgent Action Appeal: Over 300,000 People to Be Forcefully Evicted from Yamuna Pushta in Delhi: 40,000 Homes Demolished So Far.” Housing and Land Rights Network (HIC-HLRN). Habitat International Coalition, May 5, 2004. https://www.hlrn.org.in/documents/UA Yamuna Pushta.htm, par. 3.

[31] “Master Violators.”, par. 6.

[32] Abdul Kalam, “Joint Urgent Action Appeal: A Hundred Women and Children Evicted from a Night Shelter in New Delhi, India.” Housing and Land Rights Network (HIC-HLRN). Habitat International Coalition, November 4, 2004. https://mail.hlrn.org/img/violation/, par. 4.

[33]Abdul Kalam, “Joint Urgent Action Appeal: A Hundred Women and Children Evicted from a Night Shelter in New Delhi, India.”, par. 4.

[34] Abdul Kalam, “Joint Urgent Action Appeal: A Hundred Women and Children Evicted from a Night Shelter in New Delhi, India.”, par. 10.

[35]Miloon Kothari, “Un Expert on Housing ‘Deeply Concerned’ Over Forced Evictions in Indian Capital.” Office of the High Commissioner. United Nations Human Rights, October 29, 2004. https://www.ohchr.org/en/pressreleases/2009/10/un-expert-housing-deeply-concerned-over-forced-evictions-indian-capital, par 2

[36]Rina Chandran, “Forced Evictions Illegal, Slum Dwellers Have Right to City - Delhi Court ” Reuters Thomson Reuters Foundation, March 20, 2019 https://www reuters com/article/india-landrights-court-idINL8N2170VR, par 1

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INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS TO THE HEALTHCARE CRISIS IN NEW DELHI

Authors

Sarah Staller School of Biomedical Engineering

Emilia Swihart College of Liberal Arts

Min Thaw Ko

School Of Mechanical Engineering

As the capital of India and a rapidly urbanizing city, New Delhi faces a plethora of issues in its urban core. One of these issues is its healthcare system. There are many contributing factors and effects of this issue, and there are several past and current solutions to this problem Furthermore, there are several future directions that can be taken to appropriately address this issue. We explore some of these in this essay,

Top: “Poverty in the World’s Most Overpopulated Cities.” 2018. The Borgen Project. January 9, 2018. https://borgenproject.org/most-overpopulated-cities/

Bottom: “Welcome | Mohalla Clinics - Delhi | Official Website | Healthcare Delivered to Your Neighborhood ” n.d. Mohallaclinic.in. https://mohallaclinic.in/

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When tackling an issue in a city, all terms must be defined precisely for a clear understanding of the problem to take place. In terms of this situation healthcare is defined as the organized provision of medical care to individuals or a community. [1] Medical care is done to help maintain and restore the health of an individual and prevent diseases. New Delhi, like many other major cities has struggled with providing healthcare to all people. Currently, healthcare in New Delhi has been restricted to the rich who can afford adequate healthcare. [2] These are business institutions who can charge large sums to keep their businesses running without the input of the government Public healthcare, specifically for low-income individuals, is the biggest issue. Public healthcare is classified as the organized effort of society to keep people healthy, usually in the form of clinics or public hospitals.

New Delhi's government has been slowly putting in efforts in improving medical care, one of these solutions drawing on the Millennium Development Goals created by the UN and utilized by the Indian government to help address challenges related to population health. [3] The goals that involved healthcare were combating diseases, reducing child mortality, and improving maternal health There is slow progress in the improvement of health, even though it was the prime focus

However, a lack of accessibility to adequate healthcare remains a problem for the lowincome urban population. [4] Slum communities live in unsanitary conditions that do not have the proper resources to have a thriving population. While these development goals are attempting to help relieve these issues, the core factors that cause these problems remain. Factors that need to be addressed in the future are as follows: poor access to water and sanitation, extreme crowding, location, and cost

of health services. By fixing the factors that cause these health issues in the first place, it will help alleviate the weight that medical institutions have to carry.

Most of the New Delhi population is uninsured, and the city government is determined to expand coverage and increase spending on health. [5] The most important achievement on health is the starting of Mohalla (neighborhood) clinics in New Delhi to provide primary healthcare services within Delhi communities to remove congestion in local hospitals [6] While there are current systems in place, there is still a lot of work that needs to be done The poor quality of public healthcare causes more than 57% of households to prefer private care. [7] Because most of the public healthcare system caters to the affluent, those in the poor urban sectors are left as “bottom feeders,” living in both bad conditions and with bad healthcare.

Overall, this all inlays with the idea that while small projects have been done to help alleviate the problems of healthcare, not enough has been taken on to improve the mammoth issues that are presented. The next section presents issues of healthcare and the attempted solutions in more detail. By tackling both issues at once, there can be a determination if there is enough being done on both prevention and treatment to help the length and quality of life for the people of New Delhi, India

There are several contributing factors that can negatively affect health and healthcare in New Delhi, India. First, one of the biggest environmental factors that seriously impacts New Delhi every day is air pollution. Air pollution is caused from a variety of factors, including crop burning, vehicular emissions, and city festivals with high firecracker usage, such as Diwali. [8] Secondary particles from industrial plants and road dust from vehicles also contribute to this

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issue. [9] The pollution is so extreme that Delhi is now dubbed “the world’s most polluted capital.” [10] In fact, Delhi’s particulate matter levels are about ten times the maximum level, as reported in 2011 by the World Health Organization This air pollution has serious consequences for the citizens of New Delhi Air pollution negatively affects the respiratory system, and long-term exposure can lead to an increased risk of developing illnesses such as asthma, lung cancer, and respiratory diseases. [11] Each year, around 10,000 premature deaths occur due to air pollution. [12] Furthermore, children and the elderly are disproportionately affected by the consequences of air pollution. [13] One study reports that if the air quality of New Delhi matched those given by the World Health Organization, New Delhi citizens would live an average of nine years longer. [14]

Overcrowding is another factor that impacts the health of New Delhi citizens New Delhi’s rapid population expansion causes issues when urbanization and city growth is unable to keep up. When this occurs, many people are left without basic necessities, including food, clean water, shelter, sanitation resources, and more. [15] This can majorly impact the health of those affected.

Overcrowding due to rapid urbanization and a lack of affordable housing leads to the development of slums, which are defined as “ a residential area where dwellings are unfit for human habitation by reasons of dilapidation, overcrowding, lack of ventilation or sanitation facility and having drinking water facilities in unhygienic conditions ” [16] A census found that about 20% of the total population of Delhi resides in slums [17] The inhumane conditions of slums also pose many health hazards to their residents. [18] One estimation states that a slum with 20% of a city’s population will also suffer around 50% of its diseases. [19]

In response to the many health and other challenges that come with rapid urbanization, including those previously discussed, the United Nations adopted the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in 2000 [20] The Millennium Development Goals consists of eight separate goals, with improving health being the main factor, to be achieved by 2015 [21] The first goal is to “eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.” [22] The targets of this goal are to reduce the numbers of people suffering from hunger and living on less than $1 per day. [23] The second goal is to “achieve universal basic education.” [24] The target for this goal is to make primary schooling accessible to all schoolchildren, regardless of gender. [25] The third goal is “promote gender equality and empower women.” [26] The main focus of this goal is to reduce the disparity in genders for primary school courses. [27] The fourth goal is “reduce child mortality,” which includes a wide range of policies and plans to achieve this [28] The fifth goal is “improve maternal health” by reducing the maternal mortality ratio [29] Next, “combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases” is the sixth goal. [30] The National AIDS Control Program and the National Vector Borne Disease Control Program were implemented in India to help accomplish this goal. [31] The seventh goal is “ ensure environmental stability, and the eighth goal is “develop a global partnership of development.” [32] While the Millennium Development Goals were noble in cause, their progress was slow and their goals ultimately unaccomplished.

The Aam Aadmi Party is a political state party in New Delhi, India [33] During its tenure, it has revolutionized healthcare for its citizens In fact, “Chief Minister Arvind Kejriwal launched several schemes to provide free medicines, diagnostics and several life-saving surgeries through a three-tiered network of Mohalla Clinics, Polyclinics and Hospitals.” [34] In particular, Mohalla Clinics, which are now in

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over 150 locations around New Delhi, are each staffed with a pharmacist, doctor, and clinic assistant and provide healthcare services to citizens free of charge. [35] Furthermore, the Aam Aadmi Party has established 23 Polyclinics, whose main function is to offer poor people specialized diagnoses and treatments free of charge [36] Since the implementation of these facilities, conditions have greatly improved across New Delhi’s 38 public hospitals. [37] India suffers from providing access to basic healthcare services at affordable rates to citizens. Therefore, as a solution to tackle the problem of providing basic health care needs to the citizens, Mohalla Clinics have been set up all around the city of New Delhi. Firstly, Mohalla Clinics are basic and primary health centers in the state of New Delhi in India, and they are established to provide essential health services including medicines, diagnostics, and consultation free of charge [38] As opposed to other counterparts that provide health care, such as hospitals, Mohalla clinics are able to successfully provide basic health care services in a timely manner at lower prices while also reducing referrals to other health facilities. [39] The goal of the Mohalla Clinics is to provide basic medical care based on standard treatment protocols, provide cost free drugs, and treat minor ailments. [40]

Although the Mohalla clinics are small walk-in health care centers, they are appropriately staffed to handle various situations related to health. In each of the clinics, there is a doctor, a nurse, a general worker, and a lab technician to diagnose the patients, perform lab tests, and prescribe medications to the patients [41] Due to the cost-free medical services the Mohalla clinics provide, Mohall Clinics are directed towards the low-income communities Even though Mohalla Clinics are set up for the purpose of treating minor ailments to citizens, the clinics provide a variety of unparalleled

tests and a wide range of drugs to combat all types of illness and diseases. Mohalla Clinics provide up to 212 diagnostic tests, including basic tests, such as urine pregnancy tests, to complicated tests, such as HIV I and II [42] Moreover, to provide comfort and to combat minor ailments and diseases, the clinics also offer over 100 medications

Since the setup of first Mohalla Clinics in 2015, the clinics have provided health care to a huge population of people. Mohalla Clinics have served and provided health care to 16.24 million people and conducted at least 1.53 million pathological tests. [43] Among the 16.24 million people served, 80% of the patients were women, children and elderly people. Furthermore, Mohalla Clinics played a huge role in combating outbreaks, such as dengue, chikungunya, and the COVID-19 virus. [44] From the survey conducted by ID insights, 74% of the respondents who used the clinics will most likely return to the facility for future medical treatments, and 97% of the respondents believed that the medical care provided by the clinics are on par with the treatment provided at other facilities. [45]

Even though Mohalla Clinics are an “exemplary initiative for healthcare services,” there are shortcomings present in the clinics. [46] From the survey conducted by IDinsights, 40% of the respondents were not aware of the Mohalla Clinics, and 40% of the respondents stated there were staff issues. [47] To combat such issues, Mohalla Clinics could advertise themselves better, such as by being featured in a local newspaper or putting up posters all over the city Furthermore, the Mohalla Clinics could also staff more medical staff, so that, during patient rush hour and pandemics, the patients don’t have to wait for a long time in an unhygienic environment.

Although New Delhi faces a plethora of issues,

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the government is implementing ways to combat them. Because New Delhi could not keep up with its booming population and the rapid urbanization, slums or slum-like communities developed, and issues such as overcrowding, air pollution and an inability to provide basic quality health care started to present themselves in New Delhi However, through the implementation of Mohalla Clinics, New Delhi is combating diseases, reducing child mortality, improving maternal healthcare, and providing affordable health care to poor communities and slums. Due to the establishment of the Mohalla clinics, New Delhi was able to serve millions of people in just 4 years. Moving forward, the Aam Aadmi party plans to increase the number of Mohalla Clinics in hopes of reducing or eradicating issues related to healthcare.

Healthcare helps create a foundation for a successful community; if a community does not have a solid healthcare structure, it will eventually crumble New Delhi understands the flaws in their system and is working to remedy the problem. Renovating an entire system is laborious and difficult to manage, so New Delhi is addressing the problems through acts of prevention. In tangent, there have also been efforts to improve the system itself. However, there is still much that needs to be done to help the citizens of New Delhi by providing satisfactory public healthcare.

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REFERENCES

[1] M Chokshi, B Patil, R Khanna, S B Neogi, J Sharma, V K Paul, and S Zodpey “Health Systems in India ” Journal of perinatology : official journal of the California Perinatal Association U S National Library of Medicine, December 2016 https://www ncbi nlm nih gov/pmc/articles/PMC5144115/

[2] Roosa Tikkanen, Robin Osborn, Elias Mossialos, Ana Djordjevic, and George A Wharton “India ” Home, June 5, 2020 https://www commonwealthfund org/international-health-policy-center/countries/india

[3] Anita Nath “India's Progress toward Achieving the Millennium Development Goals ” Indian journal of community medicine : official publication of Indian Association of Preventive & Social Medicine U S National Library of Medicine, April 2011 https://www ncbi nlm nih gov/pmc/articles/PMC3180952/

[4] “Healthcare in India ” Wikipedia Wikimedia Foundation, November 28, 2022

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare in India.

[5] “India: Summary.” Search the website. Accessed December 9, 2022. https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/research/comparative-health-policy-library/india-summary.

[6] EH News Bureau. “Delhi Government's Three-Tier Healthcare System Will Enhance Public Health.” Express Healthcare, June 6, 2019. https://www.expresshealthcare.in/health-policies/delhi-governments-three-tierhealthcare-system-will-enhance-public-health/393194/.

[7] “Healthcare in India.” Wikipedia

[8] Gafira Qadir. 2022. “New Delhi’s Air Pollution Leaves Residents Gasping for Breath.” NBC News. November 14, 2022. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/india-new-delhi-air-pollution-rcna56535

[9] “Home | Official Website of Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi, India.” n.d. Portal.delhi.gov.in.

https://portal.delhi.gov.in/

[10] Gafira Qadir.

[11] Baridalyne Nongkynrih, Kumar Gupta Sanjeev, and SA Rizwan. 2013. “‘Air Pollution in Delhi: Its Magnitude and Effects on Health ’” Indian Journal of Community Medicine 38 (1): 4 https://doi org/10 4103/09700218 106617

[12] J , P Brimblecombe Austin, and W T Sturges 2002 Air Pollution Science for the 21st Century Google Books Elsevier https://books google com/books?id=r7QAHS1hC5wC&pg=PA242#v=onepage&q&f=false

[13] Bardialyne Nongkynrih, Gupta SanjeevKumar, and SA Rizwan

[14] “India’s Courts Take the Fun out of a Hindu Holiday ” n d The Economist

https://www economist com/asia/2017/10/12/indias-courts-take-the-fun-out-of-a-hindu-holiday

[15] “Delhi - Overcrowding in Cities ” n d Sites google com

https://sites google com/site/overcrowdingincities/home/delhi

[16] Vishal Sethi. 2016. “Life in a Slum: Ugly Face of India.” Times of India Blog. August 17, 2016.

https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/keep-india-beautiful/life-in-a-slum-ugly-face-of-india/

[17] “Home | Official Website of Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi, India.”

[18] Marimuthu, P, M Hemanta Meitei, and BBL Sharma. 2009. “General Morbidity Prevalence in the Delhi Slums.” Indian Journal of Community Medicine : Official Publication of Indian Association of Preventive & Social Medicine 34 (4): 338–42. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-0218.58395

[19] P Marimuthu, M Hemanta Meitei, and BBL Sharma.

[21] Anita Nath.

[21] Anita Nath.

[22] Anita Nath.

[23] Anita Nath.

[24] Anita Nath.

[25] Anita Nath.

[26] Anita Nath

[27] Anita Nath

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[28] Anita Nath.

[29] Anita Nath.

[30] Anita Nath.

[31] Anita Nath.

[32] Anita Nath.

[33] The Hindu. 2013. “EC to Recognise Aam Aadmi Party as State Party in Delhi,” December 8, 2013, sec. India.

https://www thehindu com/news/national/ec-to-recognise-aam-aadmi-party-as-state-party-indelhi/article5436919 ece

[34] Sri Krishna 2020 “Delhi Report Card 5: How Healthcare in Delhi Has Changed during the AAP Tenure ” Citizen Matters February 5, 2020 https://citizenmatters in/delhi-assembly-election-aap-report-card-health15747

[35] Sri Krishna

[36] Sri Krishna

[37] Sri Krishna

[38] Abha Pal “Mohalla Clinics: A Small Step towards Basic Health Care ” Pipl Delhi, March 14, 2018 https://www.pipldelhi.com/mohalla-clinics/.

[39] Abha Pal.

[40] Abha Pal.

[41] Abha Pal.

[42] “Mohalla Clinics Served 16.24 Million People in Four Years: Delhi Health Minister.” Hindustan Times, September 6, 2019. https://www.hindustantimes.com/delhi-news/mohalla-clinics-served-16-24-million-peoplein-four-years-delhi-health-minister/story-vWd7XwyYW9NEIcf6uGnUeM.html

[43] Vignesh Shankar. “Mohalla Clinics - Has the AAP's Initiative Been a Success?” Unbiased perspectives in just 5 minutes, October 5, 2022. https://eitherview.com/mohalla-clinics-has-the-aaps-initiative-been-asuccess/#:~:text=Each%20clinic%20is%20staffed%20with%20a%20doctor%20on,with%20Hyderabad%20laun ching%20its%20Basti%20Dawakhanas%20in%202018.

[44] Abha Pal.

[45] Abha Pal.

[46] “Mohalla Clinics Served 16 24 Million People in Four Years: Delhi Health Minister ”

[47] “Supporting the Government of Delhi to Improve Primary Healthcare via the Mohalla Clinic Programme ” n d Www idinsight org https://www idinsight org/article/supporting-the-government-of-delhi-to-improveprimary-healthcare-via-the-mohalla-clinic-programme/

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SOLVING DELHI'S AIR POLLUTION CRISIS

Authors

cardiovascular, and respiratory diseases as well as multiple chronic and acute issues across the body, the dark blanket that covers New Delhi has become nothing short of a national emergency and healthcare crisis In this essay, we analyze the causes, effects, and potential solutions to the alarmingly high air pollution crisis in Delhi and offer to address this issue.

CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION IN DELHI

Air pollution has grown worldwide at an disproportionally high rate like never seen before, leading to numerous of negative consequences worldwide. However, some areas of the world have felt the effects of air pollution more than others. Commonly known as the world's most polluted capital, Delhi is facing an environmental and ecological crisis of a thick blanket of smoke and fog that covers its entirety and plagues its residents. Outdoor air pollution has far exceeded dangerous levels claiming the lives of hundreds of thousands each year and increasing hospitality rates across the metropolitan area Inducing severe neurological,

The Delhi pollution crisis has been dominating the news around the world in recent years and its cause has been extensively researched and understood to better combat the crisis. Delhi was officially named the most polluted city on Earth as air quality levels reached alarmingly low levels causing massive health repercussions to Delhi residents and disturbing the lives of thousands The air pollution within the region has only grown worse and worse with each passing year, amounting to terrible living conditions for residents of Delhi. Image 1 displays a comparison of Delhi’s current pollution to the Industrial Revolution air pollution levels in London, arguably the most densely polluted city during its time.

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CAUSE #1 - INDUSTRIAL AND VEHICULAR EMISSIONS

Unfortunately, the everyday activities in the metropolitan area have played a large part in damaging the environment. Vehicular emission from the crowded city has cemented itself as one of the largest consistent pollution contributors to Delhi’s environment.

In March of 2018, there were approximately

10 9 million vehicles congested in just Delhi

Vehicular emissions contributions make up approximately 90% of the nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxides - both harmful substances - in the air. Delhi government data indicated that trucks and tractors emitted the highest percentage of emissions at approximately 9% [2]. Vehicular emissions are causing the dispersion of multiple different pollutants in the air ranging from particulate matter, nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. These pollutants, especially when considering the extremely high Delhi population and its rising congestion of traffic, have been accumulating in the immediate atmosphere. As time went on the pollutants form thick layers of smoke, fog, and sometimes even toxic gasses. The contributions of vehicular emissions to hospitalizations due to atmosphere poisoning grew dramatically as time went on However, vehicular emissions are not the only day-to-day activities that contribute to dramatically high air pollution levels.[3] Industrial pollution, according to the Observer Research Foundation (ORF) has made the capital city a highly polluted area in its water and natural lands. They estimated that “with as many as 3,182 industries located across the Delhi-National Capital Region, industrial pollution adds about 18.6% to poor air quality” (Same as #2)[4]. Finally, construction plays a large role in maintaining the high levels of pollutants in Delhi’s environment. Because of an exponentially growing housing crisis and growing population

within the Delhi borders, construction has been taking place non-stop, causing a massive increase in dust and fine particle levels in the air. Government environmental laws that prevent massive levels of fine particles and dust particles from escaping construction sites are regularly ignored without punishment leading to even higher rates of uncontrolled pollutants in the air.

CAUSE #2 - AGRICULTURAL EMISSIONS

While vehicular and industrial emissions have been a consistent year-round source of pollution, agricultural burning has revealed itself to be another prominent source of air pollution in Delhi. Despite being less severe than vehicular and industrial emissions, it is still a massive contributor to the problem.

The cause of these dangerously high levels of pollution stems from multiple sources, one of the most notable of which is the crop burning taking place in neighboring regions surrounding Delhi. The states of Haryana and Uttar Pradesh share their border with Delhi and, along with Punjab, have been known to hold massive cropburning seasons causing a sudden rise in air pollution levels. Wind currents and natural breezes tend to carry and trap the particles from these towards the Delhi region leaving remains of approximately 35 million tones of burned rice stubbles that collect into the smog that

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Image 1 - Visual and graphical representation of Air Pollution levels in Delhi vs London [1]

envelopes Delhi. For example, the Guardian records one week in 2019 when the burning of crops in neighboring areas caused a sudden rise in air pollution by 46%[5]. Collectively in the past, Punjab itself has had upwards of 31,000 separate instances of man-made forest fires and Haryana registered 4,288 stubble burnings during the same period. As a result, the residual pollutants are trapped in the New Delhi area and can fester within the region for multiple years The problem of crop burning grew so large that a formal order from India’s supreme court ordered a complete halt of stubble burning and brought down punishments to the governments of Punjab and Haryana for allowing these illegal practices in 2019. Despite the practice of burning stubble crops being illegal, the problem persists to this day. Small and mid-level farmers are forced to pick between two options currently at the beginning of every planting season. Either they go against the government and burn their crops, or they pay exorbitant prices to remove their stubble in other ways - and many choose to defy the government. Farmers in Northern India tend to burn about 23 million tonns of paddy stubble annually since 2020 despite the harsh reprimands from the government going all the way to imprisonment For the air to clear in Delhi, the pollutants from neighboring regions must fall drastically Without that, the hope for Delhi to have year-round clear air is little to none [6].

IMPACTS OF DELHI’S INCREDIBLY HIGH AIR POLLUTION IMPACT #1 - HEALTH

The hospitalization, mortality, and impaired lives in Delhi saw a steady incline as the I environment became worse due to heavy levels of air pollution. The declining health of Delhi has made the problem of air pollution the most immediate and pressing concern of the government in order to protect their citizens

The effects of this rapid increase in air pollution carry dangerous implications for the health of Delhi residents. According to a study conducted by the University of Chicago Energy Policy Institute on Delhi’s air pollution, the hazardous effects of the toxic smog in Delhi have caused an overall estimated decrease in the life expectancy of residents by almost 10 years, manifesting health problems of all kinds. Prolonged exposure to high air pollution caused a variety of health hazards in both adults and children, exposing chronic and acute illnesses and significantly worsening the quality of life across the metropolitan area The effects began to spread from the typical respiratory problems as time went on, beginning to trigger cardiac, neurological, and gastric problems in hundreds of thousands of people across Delhi. The Lancet estimated that almost 17% of recent hospitalized deaths in New Delhi were caused by air pollution in India as a whole. Hospitals in Delhi reported a 20 percent surge in pollutionrelated or triggered illnesses as the air quality became so bad that it was compared to smoking 50 cigarettes a day [7].

Delhi was found to have a 1.7 higher prevalence and the likelihood of residents contracting respiratory symptoms related to pollution compared to rural controls near it while rates of asthma and physician-diagnosed major respiratory illnesses increased by roughly 40% when compared to control cities. Hypertension rates in Delhi rose by almost 36% along with a slew of other life-altering and potentially mortal conditions suddenly rising at alarming rates across the city [8]. However, the ramifications of the health of Delhi only continue. The Centre for Chest surgery and Lung Transplantation at Sir Ganga Ram Hospital in Delhi reports a terrifying trend of non-smokers and young Indians acquiring early lung cancer - most situations ending in mortality. PM10 particles, fine particles small enough to enter through the

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lungs and mouths of humans, continue to further damage by causing more acute health symptoms that virtually every Delhi resident has faced recently. The health consequences of the New Delhi environmental crisis are an abhorrent sight to see and have made themselves a priority problem for the government to deal with [9]. PM 2.5 particles, likewise, have shown similar levels of harm as displayed in Image 2.

IMPACT #2 - ECONOMY

While health has slowly been declining and caused immediate pressing concerns, the next likely rapid consequence of air pollution will be the economy Keeping a region's economy in check is one of the major indications of societal stability. Air pollution has begun to show its ability to cripple the economy and damage the lives of everyday citizens, making it the next most pressing and immediate concern for the Delhi government.

Yet, the consequences of poor air quality in Delhi extend far beyond health concerns, wounding the state's economy in magnitudes it has never seen before. According to the Observer Research Foundation (ORF), the economic cost of air pollution for India is tremendously high with health hazards forcing

the Indian government’s hand to spend exorbitantly high amounts just to ensure the survival of their citizens. They estimate that air pollution across India causes approximately 5.4% of its total GDP just to address the immediate consequences. A report by the Indian Institute of Technology in Bombay concluded that the Delhi government lost the US equivalent of $10.7 billion in 2015 alone due to environmental effects. The poor air quality in Delhi is forcing everyday workers to take involuntary weeks off and lowering the production output of Delhi’s workforce, reportedly driving out top corporate heads and pushing high-value companies to relocate to other areas costing New Delhi billions of US dollars in the long run. The ORF quantifies this finding that exposure to air pollution and sick days due to air pollution has cost the New Delhi workforce almost 490 million work absences since its conception [11]. Delhi’s GDP is estimated to decline a little over 1% each year with that number growing consistently as the problems continue to worsen while losing workers only decreases their potential output even further each year [12]. Yet, most of the consequences are taken on by the lower-class citizens A Yale study exemplifies this perfectly, indicating that lower class citizens are often the ones who take the immediate economic impact of air pollution and sickness They are forced to take multiple sick days, often having manual jobs forcing them to work outside in the pollution exposing them to more toxins. Hospitalization rates have increased dramatically among the working class, making the disparity between the upper class and lower class significantly worse.

Potential Solutions to the Delhi Air Pollution Crisis Solution #1 - A Green Revolution

With vehicular emissions alone being one of the

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Image 2 - Visual Representation of Dangerous Levels of Particulate Matter in Delhi [10]

forefront problems in terms of hazardous emissions in Delhi, the green revolution in the transportation industry has the potential to turn the game around. Not to mention prolonging any permanent environmental damage to the Delhi region making it the most critical and important solution that the Delhi government can undertake.

As mentioned before, transportation in Delhi is a consistent problem, accounting for just over 50% of its total carbon emissions annually Addressing the transportation crisis is something that is imperative and will require government assistance through public transport and prompting. The Delhi government’s push for electric public transportation may be one of the most revolutionary environmental practices yet. The electrification of 80% of the public busses currently held by New Delhi could lead to a “significant reduction of Particulate Matter (PM) 2.5 emissions up to 44 tons per year which helps avoid about 1,370 deaths due to air pollution and a reduction in approximately 2,808 respiratory disease-related hospital admissions per year" [13]. The New Delhi Master Plan, intended primarily to clear up roads and promote better infrastructure in the city, seeks to address this massive transition It plans to add nearly 8,000 buses by next year and reach 18,000 by 2041 with the hope of offering viable public transport to 90% of the city. By doing this, reliance on personal vehicles would decrease drastically allowing the total number of vehicles on the roads to drop dramatically. As a result, we see a cleaner environment. The Delhi government has also taken an additional step, resorting to pollution checking of vehicles, public awareness campaigns, and phasing out old vehicles. The sudden change to a greener transportation system is showing huge promise in India, showing little to no resistance from the public and bringing in a rapid urbanization into

the country as well [14]. Transportation like the new Green Public Bus in Delhi in Image 3 have the potential to turn the war against air pollution around.

SOLUTION #2 - STRICTER GOVERNMENT ROLE

The issue of highly polluted air in Delhi has stretched for as long as air pollution started to be recorded and government policies that, in theory, would help to combat this have already been rolled out The only problem is that these orders never came to fruition Inadequate enforcement of regulations and laws by the Indian government have led to the practice of illegal agriculture and industrial emissions. Fixing this and showing large companies that the government is willing to carry out its regulations would lead to massive improvements across the region.

In the past the Delhi government had missed multiple counts of environmental regulation control which, over time, has accumulated to a massive and irreversible amount of greenhouse gasses and pollutants released into the environment. By ensuring that these regulations are followed by private organizations and

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Image 3 - New Green Public Transportation that was introduced in Delhi as part of a “Going Green” initiative [15]

enforcing these laws through financial drawbacks and fines, the Delhi government will be able to begin minimizing the damage done to the environment. This is an approach that has just recently been employed by the Delhi government. The government in October of 2022 rolled out a new policy known as the AntiDust campaign, a series of checkups on environmental regulations for all infrastructure being built within the capital city. The campaign ran until November 6th where they investigated contractors who were constructing buildings and delivered fines ranging from 10,000 rupees to 5 lakh rupees to construction sites that failed to comply with anti-dust laws. Furthermore, anti-smog guns have been enforced in these construction areas and placed more religiously throughout the construction zone.

The larger the construction site, the higher amount of anti-smog guns it will require and failure to install these devices has led to steep fines - essentially forcing contractors to abide by environmental protection policies. In the past, with no supervision, contractors were known to skip anti-smog guns and environmental policies to cut costs on their sites, especially on larger projects Tin walls must be built around the construction site as well to prevent the spread of dust and other pollutants that arise from construction which allows the dust to be captured by the Anti-smog guns. Overall, 586 teams were installed to conduct surprise checks at construction sites by the government [16]. Another such powerful policy that Delhi has adopted was a tighter restriction on coaling mines that operate within a 300-kilometer radius of Delhi. However, the Delhi government has allowed the coal plants to miss multiple deadlines to install desulfurization units that reduce sulfur dioxide emissions. These missed deadlines have contributed to over 10 coal fired power plants to miss a December deadline to install pollution devices

as they knew the government would fail to notice. Tighter restrictions on these areas along with personnel who focus on the implementation of these laws - as we saw in the Anti-Dust campaign - would lead to a significantly cleaner future for Delhi citizens.

The air pollution crisis Delhi has evolved to become a real danger to its citizens. Its implications spell disaster for the government, economy, and safety of the inhabitants of Delhi It is because of this that taking immediate steps to rectify the out-of-hand air pollution must become the forefront priority of Delhi policy makers. Taking the steps outlined in this research paper will lead to massive improvements in the climate catastrophe and ensure that the residents of Delhi are given proper safety measures in the future.

The larger the construction site, the higher amount of anti-smog guns it will require and failure to install these devices has led to steep fines--essentially forcing contractors to abide by environmental protection policies. In the past, with no supervision, contractors were known to skip anti-smog guns and environmental policies to cut costs on their sites, especially on larger projects Tin walls must be built around the construction site as well to prevent the spread of dust and other pollutants that arise from construction which allows the dust to be captured by the Anti-smog guns. Overall, 586 teams were installed to conduct surprise checks at construction sites by the government [16]. Another such powerful policy that Delhi has adopted was a tighter restriction on coaling mines that operate within a 300-kilometer radius of Delhi. However, the Delhi government has allowed the coal plants to miss multiple deadlines to install desulfurization units that reduce sulfur dioxide emissions. These missed deadlines have contributed to over 10 coal fired power plants to miss a

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December deadline to install pollution devices as they knew the government would fail to notice. Tighter restrictions on these areas along with personnel who focus on the implementation of these laws - as we saw in the Anti-Dust campaign - would lead to a significantly cleaner future for Delhi citizens.

The air pollution crisis Delhi has evolved to become a real danger to its citizens. Its implications spell disaster for the government,

economy, and safety of the inhabitants of Delhi. It is because of this that taking immediate steps to rectify the out-of-hand air pollution must become the forefront priority of Delhi policy makers. Taking the steps outlined in this research paper will lead to massive improvements in the climate catastrophe and ensure that the residents of Delhi are given proper safety measures in the future.

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REFERENCES

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[2] Chatterji, Arpan. “Air Pollution in Delhi: Filling the Policy Gaps.” ORF, December 18, 2020.

https://www.orfonline.org/research/air-pollution-delhi-filling-policy-gaps/. 31

[3] M. Hatanaka, A. Blackman, K.J. Button, and M.L. Cropper. “Vehicular Pollution Control in Delhi.”

Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. Pergamon, March 20, 2002.

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[4] Arpan 21

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[6] “Stubble Burning: Why It Continues to Smother North India ” BBC News BBC, November 30, 2020

https://www bbc com/news/world-asia-india-54930380

[7] “Delhi's Pollution Levels Can Have Lasting Health Effects ” Hindustan Times, October 31, 2022

https://www hindustantimes com/india-news/delhis-pollution-levels-can-have-lasting-health-effects101667242445890 html

[8] Sa Rizwan, Baridalyne Nongkynrih, and Sanjeev Kumar Gupta “‘Air Pollution in Delhi: Its Magnitude and Effects on Health ’” Indian journal of community medicine : official publication of Indian Association of Preventive & Social Medicine. U.S. National Library of Medicine, January 2013. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3612296/.

[9]https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/lung-cancer-rising-among-non-smokers-in-delhistudy/articleshow/70651391.cms

[10] "File:AQI 2015 data PM2.5 and PM10 air pollution and Diwali, Delhi India.jpg" by Ms Sarah Welch is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0. To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/? ref=openverse.

[11] Arpan 26

[12] “Delhi's Economy Suffered the Most Due to Severe Air Pollution Last Year: Lancet Study.” Hindustan Times, December 22, 2020. https://www.hindustantimes.com/environment/delhi-s-economy-suffered-the-most-dueto-severe-air-pollution-last-year/story-7C5Khh1KcVC11KCXbPgQ7J.html.

[13] “Increased e-Buses in Delhi Could Reduce Pollution-Related Mortality, Morbidity: Study.” Mongabay, September 16, 2022. https://india.mongabay.com/2022/09/increased-e-buses-in-delhi-could-reduce-pollutionrelated-mortality-morbidity-study/#:~:text=The%20study%20noted%20that%20with,of%20 avoided%20hospital%20 admissions%20 annually

[14] Vinod Thomas, and Chitranjali Tiwari “Delhi, the World's Most Air Polluted Capital Fights Back ” Brookings Brookings, March 9, 2022 https://www brookings edu/blog/future-development/2020/11/25/delhi-the-worldsmost-air-polluted-capital-fights-back/

[15] "DTC Bus Green Non AC" by Rameshng is licensed under CC BY-SA 2 0 To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons org/licenses/by-sa/2 0/?ref=openverse

[16] “Delhi Govt Launches Anti-Dust Campaign to Curb Dust Levels at Construction Sites ” India Today India Today, October 6, 2022 https://www indiatoday in/india/delhi/story/delhi-govt-launches-anti-dust-campaignto-curb-dust-levels-at-construction-sites-2009183-2022-10-06.

[14] Vinod Thomas, and Chitranjali Tiwari. “Delhi, the World's Most Air Polluted Capital Fights Back.” Brookings. Brookings, March 9, 2022. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/future-development/2020/11/25/delhi-the-worldsmost-air-polluted-capital-fights-back/.

[15] "DTC Bus Green Non AC" by Rameshng is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0. To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/?ref=openverse.

[16] “Delhi Govt Launches Anti-Dust Campaign to Curb Dust Levels at Construction Sites.” India Today. India Today, October 6, 2022. https://www.indiatoday.in/india/delhi/story/delhi-govt-launches-anti-dust-campaignto-curb-dust-levels-at-construction-sites-2009183-2022-10-06.

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