De_Lange__Healy_1994_Stability_Inner_Shelf_Dredge_Spil_Mounds_Tga by Wiremu Solomon

Coastal Education & Research Foundation, Inc.

Assessing the Stability of Inner Shelf Dredge Spoil Mounds Using Spreadsheet Applications on Personal Computers Author(s): Willem De Lange and Terry Healy Reviewed work(s): Source: Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 10, No. 4 (Autumn, 1994), pp. 946-958 Published by: Coastal Education & Research Foundation, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4298287 . Accessed: 04/12/2012 20:27 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Coastal Education & Research Foundation, Inc. is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of Coastal Research.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.206 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 20:27:39 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Journal ofCoastal Research 10 4

FloridaFall 1994 946-958Fort Lauderdale,

Assessing the Stability of Inner Shelf Dredge Spoil Mounds Using Spreadsheet Applications on Personal Computers Willem de Lange and Terry Healy Marine Geosciences Group Department of Earth Sciences University of Waikato Private Bag 3105 Hamilton, New Zealand

ABSTRACT DE LANGE,W. and HEALY,T., 1994.Assessingthe stabilityof innershelf dredgespoil moundsusing spreadsheetapplicationson personalcomputers.Journalof CoastalResearch,10(4),946-958.Fort Lauderdale(Florida),ISSN 0749-0208. Three methods, viz. the HANDSand ALLISON(1991) method, predictionsof sediment threshold,and predictionsof sedimenttransportrate, are used to assess the long termstabilityof dredgespoil mounds on the innershelf andcomparedwithavailableobservationsof theirbehaviour.Thesemethodsarechosen for simplicityand ease of implementationwith a spreadsheetapplicationon a personalcomputer. Threemainapproacheswerefollowed:an evaluationof the annual,anddailylimits,of onshore-offshore sedimentmovementnearthe spoil mound;a comparisonbetweenthe theoreticalthresholdsof sediment motionandthe annualwaveheightandperiodjointdistribution;and an evaluationof sedimenttransport rates and directionsusingsemi-empiricalrelationships. The HANDSand ALLISON (1991) method had the smallest data requirements:mean and standard deviationof the annualsignificantwaveheightdistribution;and the mediangrain-sizeat the mid-point of the shoal zone. Analysis of sediment thresholdand comparisonwith wave climate requireddata concerningthe annual joint wave height and period probabilitydistribution,and sediment textural characteristics.Sedimenttransportrate calculationsrequiredthe most detailed informationabout the and site: annualjoint waveheightand periodprobabilitydistribution;sedimenttexturalcharacteristics; mean unidirectionalcurrentvelocity. the of values a to simulate conditions) a it is (that likely span range Using spreadsheet, relativelyeasy with all three methods,if the necessarydata are not available. All the methodsproducedpredictionsconsistentwith availableobservations,and all werestraightforwardto implementwithina spreadsheetapplication.The choiceof methoddependson the information outputs. required,with eachmethodneedingdifferentdataandprovidingcontrastingbut complementary ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Sediment transport, threshold of sediment motion.

INTRODUCTION There is increasing global concern over the environmental impacts of dredge spoil disposal (PALMER and GROSS, 1979; KESTER et al., 1983; MONTGOMERYand LEACH, 1984; NATIONAL RESEARCHCOUNCIL,1985; LEE and PEDDICORD,1988; VAN GEMERTet al., 1988; HEALY et al., 1991; U.S. ENVIRONMENTALPROTECTIONAGENCY and U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS, 1991). Hence dump

grounds are continuing to be extensively monitored (HEALY et al., 1988; HARMS, 1989; FOSTER, 1991; HEALY et al., 1991; FOSTER, 1992; HANDS, 1992; WARREN, 1992).

One of the major concerns commonly expressed over the dredge disposal is the fate of the dredge spoil following dumping. With the requirement 93005 received and accepted in revision 4 December 1993.

of many ports to make environmental impact assessments and undertake dredge spoil monitoring, there is a need to predict the behaviour of the dredge spoil after dumping. Although this can be evaluated by numerical modelling (viz. SCHEFFNER, 1991), simpler methods on personal computers may permit rapid assessment of a range of disposal options. Dredging programmes associated with port development have occurred at the Port of Tauranga, New Zealand's largest port, since the 1960's. Sediment dredged from the port area within the harbour and from the adjacent shipping channel through the flood and ebb tidal deltas has been dumped offshore. A series of sites from the nearshore zone to the inner shelf, spanning a range of water depths from 4-30 m, has been used (Figure 1). The aim of this paper is to evaluate three meth-

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.206 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 20:27:39 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

947

Stability of Dredge Spoil Mounds

10 Permanent recorder wave

ENTRANCE CHANNEL

20f

CHANNEL

Currentmeter

<S4 \

RCM4Current meter

S4DWWaverecorder

withwaveshroud.

10b .....20

RCM4Current meter

MOUNT MAUNGANUI...

....10.. . ..

:..NEW

ZEALAND North Island

. 10

STUDY Auckland

AREA

Tauranga. .

TAURANGA HARBOUR

1km 0 0.5 DEPTHSIN METRES

....

Welingto:

Figure 1. Location map of the dredge spoil dump grounds and instruments discussed in the text.

ods used to predict the likely behaviourof dredge spoil mounds with particularemphasis on their suitability for implementation on personal computers using spreadsheet application programs. Data from the Tauranga inner shelf is used to illustrate the method. Dredge Spoil Disposalat Tauranga Dredgespoil disposal at Taurangahas occurred at 7 offshore sites (Figure 1). One of the offshore sites (g) was selected to renourish the beach (FOSTER,1991), while the remaining offshore sites

were in deeper water (15-30 m) and located east to northeast of the harbour entrance (FOSTER, 1992). Over time, there has been an offshoreprogression of successive dump groundsprovidinga series of dump mounds along a roughly shorenormal transect between 4 m and 30 m water depth.

The dredge spoil consisted largely (> 90%) of fine to medium sand with 1-10% gravel-sized pumiceand shell fragmentsand minimal(< 0.5%) mud. This is compatible with the natural sediments offshore,havinga similartexturaland bulk mineralogical composition (DAHM and HEALY, 1980; HEALY et al., 1988; HEALY and MCCABE, 1990; WARREN, 1992). Minor differences in com-

position are however apparent, which enable areas affected by dredge spoil to be identified by side-scan sonar (HARMS, 1989; FOSTER, 1992). In particularthe dredge spoil contains a higher proportion of pumice (DAHMand HEALY, 1980; DE

LANGE, 1988), and a shell assemblage that contains species not normally observed outside es-

tuarine environments (GRACE,1990).

Surveysof the sea floorsurroundingthe mounds indicate that components of dredge spoil sediments extend beyond the limits of the dump

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 10, No. 4, 1994

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.206 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 20:27:39 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

948

de Lange and Healy

grounds (HEALYet al., 1988), particularly between the dump grounds and the harbour entrance, although it is not always clear whether this is due to sediment movement or off-target dumping. Studies of the oldest spoil mounds indicate an onshore movement of fine sand and low density gravel-sized sediment (DAHM and HEALY, 1980; HEALY et al., 1988; HARMS,1989; HEALY et al., 1991). Further, a tracing experiment using fluorescent sand and repeated bathymetric profile monitoring indicated a clear onshore movement for sediment within the shallowest dump ground (FOSTER,1991). Repeated bathymetric surveys of the dump grounds before 1988 demonstrated that the spoil mounds underwent marked volumetric reductions during the first 2 years following disposal, after which they remained relatively static (HEALY et al., 1991). The largest volumetric changes were found to occur on the shoreward side of the mounds. These changes were associated with an accumulation of fine sediment on the adjacent seabed consistent with a shoreward movement of fine sand. Similar behaviour has been observed for the younger mounds in deeper water (FOSTER, 1992).

a spoil mound lying completely offshore of the Hallermeier outer limit (HOL) may be expected to remain stationary. Mounds between these limits lie within a buffer or shoal zone where waves have some influence during a year, and their behaviour is less predictable. The Hallermeier limits can be expressed as: (Q)2

(HIL) 0.03h

(1) Will the dredge spoil mounds remain stable? (i.e., can they be anticipated to retain most of their original volume and stay at the same location for more than a few years?); and (2) What will be the likely fate of material which does not remain within the spoil mound? Although application of numerical models may be used to answer these questions, simpler methods that could be readily applied to dredge spoil disposal sites generally-and could be implemented by spreadsheet applications on personal computers-are a possible alternative. HANDs

and ALLISON (1991) Method

HANDSand ALLISON(1991) present a method for assessing the long term stability of dredge spoil mounds from the cross-shore profile zonation limits of HALLERMEIER (1981). A spoil mound lying completely landward of the Hallermeier inner limit (HIL) lies within a zone of active sand transport and may be expected to disperse rapidly; whereas,

> 8D (HOL)

(1)

>_2-

where

h = water depth (m),

w = wave radian frequency (Hz), D = median sediment diameter (m), g = gravitational acceleration (m-sec-2), = horizontal wave orbital semi-excursion distance (m), given by transitional Linear wave theory as H

(2)

2h= 2sinh(kh) where H = wave height (m), k = wave number (m-'), and

METHODS OF ASSESSMENT Two fundamental questions need to be addressed when assessing the placement of dredge spoil mounds:

S=s-

(3)

where s = relative sediment density, p = sediment density (kg.m-3), p = fluid density (kg-m-3).

and

Normally evaluation of HOL requires a knowledge of the median sediment diameter characteristic of the shoal zone. This includes all regions where sand-sized sediment may be transported onshore or offshore by high wave energy conditions which occur for less than 12 hours a year or an annual probability of 0.137%. A general guide-line for dredge spoil disposal, suggested by the Shore Protection Manual (SPM, 1984), would not place mounds within the shoal zone. Mounds would only be placed landward of HIL if they were required to be active, or seaward of the HOL if they needed to be stable. HANDS and ALLISON(1991) considered this to be too restrictive and noted that many spoil mounds are located within the shoal zone. Following their approach the stability is determined by plotting two ratios relating the position of the spoil mound to the buffer zone lying between HIL

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 10, No. 4, 1994

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.206 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 20:27:39 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

949

Stability of Dredge Spoil Mounds

and HOL, as given by: HIL - B HIL

HOL - B HOL

and

(4)

where HIL = Hallermeier's inner limit, HOL = Hallermeier's outer limit, and = water depth at the base of the mound. B Predictions of Sediment Threshold It may be preferable to locate the spoil mound within the shoal zone where the annual probability of transport is higher, than beyond the restrictive HOL. If the joint wave height and period probability distribution are known, then it is possible to assess the probabilities of sediment movement occurring within the shoal zone. Assuming Linear Wave Theory, the minimum wave height (Hcrit)required to initiate sediment transport for any given wave period may be determined from: sinh(kh)

Hcrit - ucritT

where ucit = critical orbital velocity at sediment

threshold (m-sec-1), and T = wave period (sec). The critical orbital velocity at sediment threshold can be evaluated from the relationships of KOMAR and MILLER (1973). These may be expressed as: 2.3

0.21Yg

D < 0.0005 m

Ucrit (rD)075)4/7

(0.46"ygTO25

to assess the influence of additional superimposed currents or specify rates or directions of sediment transport. Measurements of the wave and current conditions in the immediate vicinity of the dump grounds at Tauranga are sparse (Figure 1), comprising: a 3 month deployment of an Aanderaa RCM4 current meter (HEALY, 1985); a 3 month deployment of an Aanderaa RCM4 current meter fitted with a wave shroud (HARMS,1989); and a 2 month deployment of a combined mooring of an InterOcean S4 current meter and InterOcean S4DW directional wave recorder (FOSTER, 1992; WARREN, 1992). All current meters recorded peak velocities <0.20 m sec-1, and average currents <0.1 m sec-1. The currents can be resolved into a tidal component of <0.1 m sec-1 and a shore parallel residual that is strongly correlated with local winds (BARNETT, 1985; BRADSHAW et al., 1991; FOSTER, 1992). These velocities are too low to entrain most sediment found on the deeper dump grounds, with the exception of low density pumice (DE LANGE et al., 1991). Current velocities are normally less than wave-induced orbital velocities, which can exceed sediment threshold (HARMS, 1989; BRADSHAW et al., 1991; WARREN, 1992). The wave-induced bedload sediment transport rate (Qb) over rippled beds, such as those observed on spoil mounds at Tauranga (HARMS, 1989; FOSTER, (NIELSEN,

1992; WARREN, 1992),

(7)

where = ripple crest Shields parameter, given Or by:

'(8) 7

(6)

Predictions of Transport Rates Both methods above consider only wave conditions which exceed the threshold of sediment motion. More complicated analyses are required

be given

= 0.15owD(O, - 0.02)1-5

> 0.0005 m

The combinations of wave height and period corresponding to the threshold of sediment motion may be compared with the joint wave height and period probability distribution for the site to determine the probability of sediment transport occurring.

may

1990) by:

x1 T)

where i

= ripple height (m),

X = ripple lenght (m), and 0' = skin friction Shields parameter. The ratio of the ripple height to the ripple length, or ripple steepness, may be determined from the empirical relationship of NIELSEN(1992), as: = 0.342 - 0.34 1/

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 10, No. 4, 1994

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.206 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 20:27:39 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

(9)

950

de LangeandHealy

The skin friction Shields parameter is given by (assuming a planar bed):

f,(()2W)2

(10)

2~ygD

where f, = wave friction factor. The wave friction factor was established by (NIELSEN, 1992):

fw=

(11)

5.977) e(5.213(2,5D/)09.194-

The simplest method of determining the suspended load sediment transport rate is to assume that sediment is entrained in two aliquot's by the escaping lee vortices at the times of free stream reversal. Each aliquot of sediment is then transported a distance ? in the direction opposite to the vortices that entrained it, and then deposited. Based on this 'grab and dump' model, wave-induced suspended sediment transport (Q,) is given by NIELSEN (1992) as: = QW

C.ow(Ab

- Af)

(12)

3xH\

4 L

sinh4(kh)

L = wavelength (m), and C = wave phase velocity (m.sec-1). Non-wave current velocities at the inner shelf dump grounds near Tauranga are too low to initiate sediment transport. However, they are capable of transporting sediment suspended by wave orbital motions. A simple extension of the "grab and dump" model, used for the wave-induced suspended sediment transport model above, is to assume that sediment entrained each half wave period is transported by the unidirectional near bed current during that half wave period. At Tauranga the unidirectional current is roughly shore parallel; whereas, the wave-induced currents are roughly shore normal. Therefore, the combined current and wave suspended transport rate (Qj) may be given by (NIELSEN,1992): Qe =

Ab =

0.5 \f

(18)

CowT K21

where u. = time averaged friction velocity (m -sec-'), K=

(13)

von Karman's constant ( 0.4), and 1 = thickness of the wave dominated boundary layer (m).

(14)

The time averaged friction velocity is given by

A, = 0.5

(17)

where

where Co = reference suspended sediment concentration, w = median settling velocity (m-sec-'), and Ab, A, = aliquot's of sediment entrained, given by

HgT 2L cosh(kh)

NIELSEN (1992) as:

where = maximum crest velocity (m -sec-1), uc = ut maximum trough velocity (m-sec-1).

KU(Z,)

= In.

The reference suspended sediment concentration is found by (NIELSEN,1992): Co

= 0.005r,3

(15)

The S4DW directional wave recorder observations indicate that the wave-induced velocity distributions at Tauranga are not symmetrical with the crest velocities exceeding the trough velocities. Therefore, to replicate the observed inequalities, second order Stokesian wave theory was used to evaluate the near bed peak crest and trough orbital velocities. These are given by C 3 -H HgT (16) cg U= sinh4(kh) + (16) 4 \L) 2L cosh(kh) sinh (kh)

-In( (\zof

\zo)

where

(19)

u(z,) = measured unidirectional current at height z, above the bed (m-sec-1), zo = zero-intercept level of log velocity profile

(m),

= 0.44U. Zo

(20)

and where za

= zero-intercept level of log velocity profilie in the presence of waves (m).

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 10, No. 4, 1994

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.206 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 20:27:39 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Stability of DredgeSpoil Mounds

951

Function FindDL (Hs,Sdev,Ratio,Lo) { Function to calculate dimensionless root 2rdl/L for HIL by secant method } Define xO,xl,x2,Constant,diff,fx0,fxl Constant = (Pi()A2*(Hs+5.6*Sdev)A2)/(0.03*Ratio*Lo^2) xO = 0 xl = 0.6 diff = 1.0

While (Abs(diff)

> 0.001)

fx0 = x0*Sinh(x0)A2*Tanh(x0) fxl = xl*Sinh(xl)A2*Tanh(xl) = 0.0 If (fxl-fx0) x2 = 0.0 diff = 0.0001

- Constant - Constant

Else x2 = diff x0 = xl =

xl - fx1*(xl-xO)/(fx1-fx0) = x2 - xl xl x2

End If End While Return x2 End Function {FindDL} Function HIL (Hs,Sdev,Ts,Sdensity,Fdensity) { Function to calculate Hallermeier inner limit } Define Ratio,Lo,TwoPiDL,limit Ratio = (Sdensity-Fdensity) / Fdensity Lo = (Gravity()*Ts^2) / (2.0*Pi())

TwoPiDL = FindDL(Hs,Sdev,Ratio, Lo) limit = TwoPiDL * Tanh(TwoPiDL) * (Lo/(2.0*Pi()))

Return limit End Function {HIL}

Figure2. Exampleof the Scriptprogramminglanguageused by ClarisResolve.The ScriptfunctionHILdeterminesthe Hallermeier InnerLimitusingEquation1, giventhe meanandstandarddeviationof the annualsignificantwaveheight(Hs and Sdevrespectively), the mean annualsignificantwave period (Ts), and the sediment and fluid density (Sdensity and Fdensity respectively).

The thickness of the wave dominated layer is given by: 1 = eza

(21)

where e = 2.718281828 ... Implementation Using Spreadsheet Applications All the above relationships were implemented as functions in the commercially available Claris Resolve, a spreadsheet application, using the builtin Script. Claris Resolve contains all the necessary mathematical functions required to evaluate the above expressions, which would allow all the equations to be defined as cell formulae within

the spreadsheet. However, this approach requires the use of a large number of cells to store intermediate steps or very long cell formulae that are difficult to check. The use of a programming language, such as Script in Claris Resolve or Macro in Microsoft Excel, allows the creation of functions that may be shared between spreadsheets. These functions are easier to check for errors, and may be compiled to provide an increased computation speed. The Script programming language is similar to Pascal but without rigid variable typing. Instead, variables are treated as cells in a spreadsheet. All the spreadsheet functions can be accessed from with-

Journalof CoastalResearch,Vol. 10, No. 4, 1994

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.206 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 20:27:39 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

952

de Lange and Healy

- . ...I I.. ..

II. ..

. . .. . ..

.. ..

....I .

. .. ... .I.. .

. . .. - 1.5

...

Hands&Allison(1991)

Active

AA " Tauranga oHB

*SB Nc

Probablyactive Stable

1.0

oAG

BB oSI

oNR

- 0.5

AC 0.0

(HOL-B) HOL

Aa Ab

-0.5

-1.0 Af

*LB

7-1.5

-4.0 -3.5 -3.0 -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

-2.0 1.5

(HIL-B)

HIL and ALLISON (1991)with the Taurangadump groundsadded (a-g). The open Figure 3. Locationalstability diagramfrom HANDS symbols indicate sites with active spoil mounds,and the solid symbols representstable spoil mounds.Sites SB, DN and AC plot within the stable regionwhen the correctwave data are used (HANDS, personal communication, 1991).

in a Script function. Figure 2 is an example of the Script functions used to evaluate the HIL as defined by Equation 1. The Script functions are used within a Claris Resolve spreadsheet in the same manner as the standard spreadsheet functions. Therefore, it is relatively easy to generate a matrix of results for ranges of input conditions. The graphical capabilities for the spreadsheet application may then be used to display the results in a more readily assimilated form. The analyses discussed below were all performed on a Macintosh PowerBook 100 notepad computer. None of computations took more than 3 minutes for - 600 combinations of input parameters. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION HANDSand ALLISON (1991) Method An analysis of 2 years' data from the permanent wave recorder at the entrance to Tauranga Harbour resulted in a mean annual significant wave height of 0.50 m with a standard deviation of 0.38 m, and a significant wave period of 9.1 sec (DE LANGE, 1991). The median grain size at the approximate mid-depth of the shoal zone is 0.2 mm (FOSTER,1992). Assuming quartz density sediment, these correspond to HIL and HOL of 5.5 and 10.2 m respectively.

The stability ratios defined by Equation (4) for the various historical dump grounds at Tauranga (a-g in Figure 1) as well as the original data from HANDS and ALLISON (1991) are plotted in Figure 3. The Tauranga dump grounds lie predominantly outside the shoal zone with only the shallowest dump ground (g) encroaching seaward of the inner limit. This is consistent with the finding that the shallowest dump ground was active (FOSTER, 1991), whereas the remainder were essentially stable (HARMS, 1989; FOSTER, 1992). Both the Hallermeier limits are functions of sediment density. For the typical range of densities occurring within the dredge spoil at Tauranga (DE LANGE,1988), there is considerable variation of the limits of the shoal zone (Figure 4a). In particular for pumiceous sediments (1,120-2,370 kg m-3), all the dump grounds lie landward of the HOL; whereas, for iron-sands (mainly titanomagnetite, p. = 4,680 kg m-3), all spoil mounds lie seaward of HOL. Only the HOL is affected by grain diameter. Although the variation is less for changes in grain size than for sediment density, clearly the HOL moves further offshore with decreasing grain size (Figure 4b). This implies that mounds composed of fine sediment will be active further offshore than mounds composed of coarse sediment. Therefore, at Tauranga where the dredge spoil

Journalof CoastalResearch,Vol. 10, No. 4, 1994

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.206 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 20:27:39 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Stability of DredgeSpoil Mounds

displays a range of sediment densities and grain sizes, repeated application of the HANDSand ALLISON(1991) method for individual dredge spoil components predicts that low density pumiceous sediments and fine quartzo-felspathic sediments would be active at all dump ground sites; and shell fragments would be active at most sites. This is consistent with the observed rapid onshore movement of pumice, and broken and whole bivalve shell material, and slower onshore movement of fine sediment (DAHMand HEALY, 1980; HEALY et al., 1991; FOSTER, 1992).

40 S

Outer limit

E 30Cf

S25

4 S

e d

20 15

Inner

(kgma

auf

5 Pumice 1000

Predictions of Sediment Threshold Figure 5 summarizes the combinations of wave height and period corresponding to the threshold of sediment movement for a range of water depths and grain sizes. The grain diameters chosen correspond to the boundaries of sand size classes in the Udden-Wentworth classification (MCMANUS, 1988). Clearly, at any given depth and wave period, progressively higher waves are required to initiate sediment transport as the grain size increases. The period associated with the smallest wave height capable of initiating sediment transport also increases with depth indicating that swell waves become increasingly important offshore. Combining the annual joint wave height and period distribution from the permanent wave recorder site and the sediment median diameters for the dump grounds indicates probabilities of transport that progressively increase from 15% at site f (WARREN,1992), to 40 % at site e (HARMS, 1989), to >95% at site g (FOSTER, 1991). Further, sediment within the dump grounds (a-f) indicated as stable by the HANDSand ALLISON(1991) method is capable of moving with annual probabilities of transport greater than the 0.137 % used to define HOL. However, this approach does not determine whether the mobilized sediment leaves the dump grounds or merely oscillates about a fixed position. The predicted probabilities of sediment movement assume a quartz density. However, the densities of the sediments at Tauranga vary between 1,120 and 4,680 kg m-3. As Figure 6 demonstrates for this range of densities, there is a considerable variation in the minimum wave height required to initiate sediment movement for any given wave period. In particular, the probabilities of movement of low density grains, such as pumice, are considerably higher than for quartz sediment. Figure 5 also indicates that the fine quartz sand

953

1500

2000

Quartz 2500

3000

Titanomagnetite

3500

4000

4500

5000

Sedimentdensity(kg.m3) 40

35 E

30 e

25 o

E lo0 Sand

SSilt

0.1

0.01

Mean graindiameter(mm) Figure4. Changesin the depth of the Hallermeierlimits, HIL and HOL,withvariationsin: (a) sedimentdensity;and (b) mean grain diameter.

in the dredge spoil is more likely to be transported than the medium sand. These predictions are consistent with the observed behaviour of spoil mounds at Tauranga. This method requires the annual joint wave height and probability distribution to be well defined, as well as data for the sediment texture within the dumping ground. This is a larger data requirement than needed for the HANDSand ALLISON (1991) method. Evaluation of sediment threshold also does not provide much useful information about the long term stability of spoil mounds within a dump ground. However, it does indicate that the frequency of sediment motion is an important parameter if turbidity in the immediate vicinity of the dump ground is of concern. Predictions of Sediment Transport Rate The models for sediment transport rate are consistent with the previous methods. They indicate

Journalof CoastalResearch,Vol. 10, No. 4, 1994

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.206 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 20:27:39 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

954

de Langeand Healy

62.5jm

125.0jm

5-5-4, 5m 10 m -------150m -

CDE

--20m

0 10

o" '1\

'I'II ' 12

0.25 mm '

Period(s)

-m

0.5

--5-

--.:\ .

0 -:

F10 12

1 16 1618

10 1214

14 16 18 20

Period(s)

Period(s) 1.0 mm

mm 2.0 - -

----

3Q)

21" 1

. 1

.----------

-\c

. . . ...-

10 12 14 16 18 20 Period (s) Period

10 12 1 16 18 20 Period (s) (s) Period

Figure 5. Minimumwaveheight requiredto initiate sedimentmotionfor a rangeof wave periodsand waterdepths corresponding to the rangeof depths at the Taurangadump grounds.The graindiameterschosencorrespondto the sand-sizeclass boundariesin the Udden-Wentworthparticlesize classificationscheme. A constant quartzdensity (2,650kg m-3) is assumed.

high rates of transport per unit width (> 10-5 m2 sec-1) close to shore in depths <6 m for the average annual wave height and period with rates decreasing to almost zero at depths > 10 m (Figure 7). Although measurements of transport rate have not yet been made at Tauranga, the suspended load rate trends match turbidity measurements made along shore normal transects (FOSTER,1992),

and the bedload transport rates are consistent with the progression of bedforms observed along shore normal transects (WARREN, 1992). The analysis also indicates that bedload transport is directed onshore towards Mt. Maunganui Beach, and suspended sediment transport is shore parallel at most sites. The onshore movement of bedload is consistent with observations of the dis-

Journalof CoastalResearch,Vol. 10, No. 4, 1994

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.206 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 20:27:39 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

955

Stability of Dredge Spoil Mounds

. .

I ..

0.00004

Grain density (kg m-3) 4-122

2---2000 - -

S-0.00004-

4680-

M -0.00008

- - - Qw E -0.00012

61)

-0.00016 6

,1 0

Period (s)

.........

i 12

to 0.44 mm and 67.8 mm sec-1 from 0.31 mm and 46.5 mm sec-1 respectively. Figure 8 indicates the increase in bedload transport rates for wave conditions exceeding threshold for both the pre-dump

0 .

0 0 0 0

0.000001 00

-.....

34.503 .2 5

:.. 3

2.00 â&#x20AC;˘"2.50 2.25 -

Figure 7. Bedload (Qb), wave-induced suspended load (Q,) and wave-current interaction suspended load (Qj) sediment transport rates per unit width (m2 sec-1) for a range of depths. A wave height of 0.50 m, wave period of 9.1 sec, sediment density of 2,650 kg m-3, grain diameter of 0.31 mm, settling velocity of 46.5 mm sec-1, and 0.1 m sec- current measured at 1 m above the sea bed were used.

persal of dredge spoil and tracers at the various dump grounds. No useful data yet exist to confirm the direction of suspended sediment transport. Measurements made at the deepest dump ground (f) show that the mean grain diameter and settling velocity following dumping had increased

1.2

Depth (m)

Figure 6. Minimum wave height required to initiate sediment motion for a range of wave periods and sediment grain densities spanning the observed range at Tauranga. A constant grain diameter of 0.25 mm and water depth of 20 m were used.

3.75 3.50

i 4

::::::::::: .. ....

....:.0â&#x20AC;˘0 ..

: ...............

O0.0000

. ......... ....... ~ ................................. ~

......

iiiiiii~ii~iiiiiiii~i 00 00 . 0 0.000004

"::'""""""""""""

ii0.000003

r"-

........

06.x

1.50

.0 0.000001

ii~i

1.75 1.00 0.75 -0.000007 0.50

0.25 5

I 6

I 11

1 13

0.000008 14

Wave period (s) Figure 8. Increased bedload sediment transport rates per unit width (m2 sec-1) following dredge spoil disposal for a range of wave height and periods. A sediment density of 2,650 kg m-3, a water depth of 25 m, and 0.1 m sec-' current measured at 1 m above the sea bed were used for both pre- and post-dump conditions. A grain diameter of 0.31 mm and settling velocity of 46.5 mm sec-1 were used for pre-dump conditions. After dumping the respective values were 0.44 mm and 67.8 mm sec-.

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 10, No. 4, 1994

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.206 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 20:27:39 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

956

de Lange and Healy

4.00

3.75 3.50 3.25

3.00 2.75 S

2.50 - -

2.25 2.003% S1.75 4%

1.50. 1.25 1.00 0.75 0.50

0.255

6% 15

Period(s) Figure 9. Joint wave height and period distribution for Tauranga dump ground f. Data were recorded as 3 minute bursts every 3 hours over a 2 month interval by an InterOcean S4DW wave recorder.

and post-dump sediment. At slightly lower energy conditions, there is a decrease in rates because the sediment threshold for the coarser post-dump sediment was not exceeded whereas the pre-dump sediment could move. The suspended load due to wave action (Q,) and current-wave interaction (Q,) displayed similar trends. Comparing Figure 8 with the measured wave climate at dump ground f (Figure 9) shows that the increases in transport rate occur for wave conditions which are not common (large, long period swell). This agrees with the predictions made by the other methods. At slightly lower energy wave conditions, a decrease in sediment transport rate is predicted. However, these conditions are also not common. Without actual transport rate measurements to calibrate the analysis, the results are only qualitative but are consistent with observations made at Tauranga. The equations used in the transport rate calculations were developed for quartz density sediment spanning a limited range of grain sizes. NIELSEN (1992) demonstrates that several of the relationships may not be applicable to sediment with different densities or shapes that vary markedly from spherical. Therefore, transport rates for non-quartz sediments were not calculated. This causes some difficulties due to the presence of pumice and titano-magnetite at Tauranga, but these constituents account for < 15% of the dredge material so the method is appropriate to the bulk of the sediment.

The HANDS and ALLISON and sediment threshold methods both assume that sediment grain size and wave-induced orbital motions are the factors that control locational stability of dredge spoil mounds. However, although wave-induced motions may be responsible for initiating sediment transport, unidirectional currents of various types may determine whether net sediment transport occurs (WRIGHT, 1987; PILKEY et al., 1993). The NIELSEN equations can incorporate these currents; thereby, more closely approximating the real world provided sufficient data are available to adequately define the unidirectional currents present. Without suitable current data, the use of spreadsheet applications allows the rapid simulation of a wide range of-possible current conditions and re-evaluation as current data become available.

SUMMARY All the methods used to assess the long term stability of dredge spoil mounds on the inner shelf and within the nearshore zone at Tauranga gave consistent predictions which agreed with available observations. Therefore all methods are considered applicable. All the methods proved straightforward to implement within a spreadsheet application; although, the processing time required varied considerably between the HANDSand ALLISON(1991) method and the transport rate calculations. The HANDS and ALLISON (1991) method was

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 10, No. 4, 1994

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.206 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 20:27:39 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Stabilityof DredgeSpoilMounds the easiest to apply and gave a good indication of the long term stability of the spoil mounds. This method had the smallest data requirements, needing only the mean and standard deviation of the annual significant wave height distribution and the median grain-size at the mid-point of the shoal zone. However, due to the variation in sediment density and grain size within the dredge spoil, it was necessary to repeat the analysis several times for each of the major components. Analysis of the sediment threshold and comparison with the wave climate did not provide significantly more useful data than the HANDSand ALLISON(1991) method for predicting the long term stability of the spoil mounds. However, if the movement of sediment within the dump ground is of concern, sediment threshold data does provide an indication of the frequency of movement. This method required data concerning the annual joint wave height and period probability distribution and the sediment textural characteristics of the dredged material and dump ground. The sediment transport rate calculations show promise but require calibration with field observations to provide quantitative results. The method also required more detailed information about the site including: the annual joint wave height and period probability distribution; the sediment textural characteristics; and the mean unidirectional current velocity within the dump ground. Using a spreadsheet, it is relatively easy to simulate a range of values that span the likely conditions if the necessary data are not available. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The various thesis research projects near Tauranga that provide the verifying data in this paper were funded by the Port of Tauranga, Ltd. The Victorian Institute of Marine Sciences, Melbourne, Australia is thanked for providing facilities for the preparation of this paper. LITERATURE CITED

957

TransportWithin TaurangaHarbour,In the Vicinity of Pilot Bay. D.Phil. Thesis, University of Waikato, 225p. DE LANGE,W.P., 1991. Wave Climatefor No. 1 Reach,

Port of Tauranga, TaurangaHarbour.Marine Geosciences Group,Departmentof Earth Sciences, The Universityof Waikato,September1991,Reportto the Port of TaurangaLtd., 18p.

DE LANGE, W.P.; MOON, V.G., and HEALY, T.R., 1991.

Problemswith predictingthe transportof pumiceous sediments in the coastal environment.Coastal Sediments '91 (New York:ASCE), 990-996. FOSTER, D., 1992. EnvironmentalImpacts of Recent Dredging and Inner Shelf Spoil Disposal at Tauranga.

M.Sc. Thesis, University of Waikato,230p. FOSTER, G.A.,1991.Beach Renourishmentfroma NearshoreDredgeSpoilDumpat MountMaunganuiBeach. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Waikato, 156p. GRACE,R.V., 1990. TaurangaDredge Spoil Monitoring Project:Sea-bed MonitoringSites. Reportto Port of TaurangaLtd. R.J., 1981.A profilezonationfor seasonal HALLERMEIER, sand beaches from wave climate. Coastal Engineering, 4, 253-277. HANDS,E.B., 1992.Monitoringof AlabamaBerms.DRP-

1-08,US ArmyEngineerWaterwaysExperimentStation, 14p. HANDS, E.B. and ALLISON, M.C., 1991. Moundmigration in deeper water and methods of categorizingactive and stable depths. CoastalSediments '91 (New York: ASCE), 1985-1999. C., 1989. Dredge Spoil Dispersionfrom an InHARMS, ner-shelf Mound.M.Phil. Thesis, Universityof Waikato, 177p. HEALY, T.R., 1985. Field Data Collection Programme and MorphologicalStudy, TaurangaHarbourStudy Parts II & V. Report to the Bay of Plenty Harbour Board. HEALY,T.R.; HARMS,C., and DE LANGE, W.P., 1991. Dredge spoil and inner shelf investigations off Tauranga Harbour, Bay of Plenty, New Zealand. Coastal

Sediments '91 (New York:ASCE), 2037-2051.

HEALY, T.R. and MCCABE, B., 1990. Physical

and

ChemicalCharacteristicsof Material to Be Dredged

and Dumped as Dredge Spoil. University of Waikato,

Report to the Bay of Plenty RegionalCouncilon behalf of Port of TaurangaLtd., 23p.

HEALY,T.R.; MCCABE,B.; GRACE,R., and HARMS,C.,

1988. Environmental Assessment Programme for TaurangaHarbourDredging and Inner Shelf Spoil

Dumping. University of Waikato, Report to the Bay

of Plenty HarbourBoard,41p. BARNETT, A.G., 1985. Overviewand Hydrodynamics, HEALY,T.R.; MCCABE,B., and THOMPSON, G., 1991. EnvironmentalImpact Assessment: Channel DeepTauranga Harbour Study Parts I & III. Report to the Bay of Plenty HarbourBoard. ening and WideningDredgingProgramme1991-1992. University of Waikato,Report for Port of Tauranga B.E.;HEALY, T.R.;DELL, BRADSHAW, P.M.,andBOLSTAD, Ltd., 122p. W.M., 1991. Inner shelf dynamics on a storm-dominated coast east CoromandelNew Zealand.Journal I.W., and PARK, B.H.; DUEDALL, KESTER,D.R.; KETCHUM, P.K., 1983. Have the questions concerning dredged of Coastal Research, 7, 11-30. material disposal been answered? In: KESTER,D.R.; DAHM, J. and HEALY, T.R., 1980. A Study of Dredge I.W., and PARK,P.K. (eds.), B.H.; DUEDALL, KETCHUM, Spoil Dispersion off the Entrance to TaurangaHarWastes in the Ocean, Volume 2, New York: Wiley, bour. University of Waikato, Report to the Bay of Plenty HarbourBoard, 64p. pp. 275-287. DE LANGE, W.P., 1988. Wave Climate and Sediment P.D. and MILLER,M.C., 1973.The thresholdof KOMAR,

Vol.10,No.4, 1994 Journalof CoastalResearch,

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.206 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 20:27:39 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

958

de LangeandHealy

sediment movement under oscillatory water waves.

Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 43, 1101-1110. LEE, C.R. and PEDDICORD,R.K., 1988.Decision-making

frameworkfor managementof dredgedmaterialdisposal. In: SALOMONS, W. and FORSTNER, U. (eds.),

Environmental Management of Solid Waste. Berlin:

Springer-Verlag,pp. 324-371. MCMANUS, J., 1988. Grain size determinationand interpretation. In: TUCKER,M., (ed.), Techniques in

Sedimentology. Oxford:Blackwell,pp. 63-85. MONTGOMERY, R.L. and LEACH, J.W., (eds.), 1984. Dredging and Dredged Material Disposal: Proceedings of the Dredging '84 Conference. New York:

AmericanSociety of Civil Engineers,2 volumes. 1:Coastalbottom boundarylayers and sediment transport.In: BRUUN,

NIELSEN, P., 1990.AppendixE-Part

P., (ed.), Port Engineering, Volume 2: Harbor Transportation, Fishing Ports, Sediment Transport, Geomorphology, Inlets, and Dredging. Houston: Gulf

Publishing,pp. 560-585. 1992. Coastal Bottom Boundary Layers

NIELSEN, P.,

and Sediment Transport, Vol. 4. Advanced series on

OceanEngineering,Singapore:WorldScientific,324p.

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL, 1985.Dredging Coastal

Ports: An Assessment of Issues. National Research

Council,Washington:NationalAcademyPress, 212p.

PALMER,H.D. and GROSS, M.G., 1979. Ocean Dumping and Marine Pollution: Geological Aspects of Waste

Disposal.Stroudsburg:Dowden,Hutchinsonand Ross, 268p. PILKEY, O.H.;YOUNG, R.S.; RIGGS, S.R.; SMITH, A.W.S.; Wu, H., and PILKEY, W.D., 1993. The concept of shoreface profile of equilibrium:A critical review. Journal of Coastal Research, 9, 255-278. SCHEFFNER, N.W.,

1991. A systematic analysis of dis-

posal site stability. Coastal Sediments '91. American

Society of Civil Engineers,2012-2026. SPM, 1984. Shore Protection Manual. Washington:

Coastal Engineering Research Center, U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers. U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY and U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS, 1991. Evaluation of Dredged Material Proposed for Ocean Disposal. Re-

port EPA-503/8-91/001. VAN GEMERT, W.J.TH.; QUAKERNAAT,J., and VAN VEEN,

H.J., 1988. Methods for treatment of contaminated dredgedsediments.In: SALOMONS,W. and FORSTNER, U. (eds.), Environmental Management of Solid Waste.

Berlin: Springer-Verlag,pp. 53-64. WARREN, S.K., 1992.The Geomechanicsand Dispersion of DredgeSpoil Dumpedin OpenWateron the Inner Shelf, Tauranga,New Zealand. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Waikato,281p. WRIGHT, L.D.,1987.Shelf-surfzonecoupling:Cross-shore transportmechanismson the shoreface. CoastalSediments '87 (New York:ASCE), pp. 25-40.

Journalof CoastalResearch,Vol. 10, No. 4, 1994

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.82.206 on Tue, 4 Dec 2012 20:27:39 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions