Level 6 Dissertation: Feminism; Gender & Architecture

GENDER, FEMINISM

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The Role of Gender in Architecture: American homes and domestic life 1850-1999?

1999

1900

Joel Wallace, Erabu Bachelor of Arts(Hons) Architecture, Level 6 School of Architecture & Interiors University of Brighton Tutor: Katy Beinart

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THE ROLE OF GENDER IN ARCHITECTURE: AMERICAN HOMES AND DOMESTIC LIFE 1850-1999?

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PLAGIARISM PLEDGE I have therefore taken every care in the work submitted here to accurately reference all writings and ideas that are not my own, whether from printed, online, or other sources.

[Signature(s) and date]

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THE ROLE OF GENDER IN ARCHITECTURE: AMERICAN HOMES AND DOMESTIC LIFE 1850-1999?

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Architecture L6 Dissertation

Erabu, Joel Wallace

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page #

1. Introduction...................................................................5-9

2. Chapter 1....................................................................11-17

3. Chapter 2....................................................................19-21

4. Chapter 3....................................................................23-38

5. Conclusion....................................................................41-42

6. Bibliography..................................................................43-46

7. List of Figures..............................................................47-49

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Gender, Feminism: The Role of Gender in Architecture: American homes and domestic life 1850-1999? by Joel Wallace, Erabu A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts(Hons) Architecture, Level 6 School of Architecture & Interiors University of Brighton Tutor: Katy Beinart

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‘…The home will no longer be a Procrustean bed… which each feminine personality must be made to conform to by whatever maiming or fatal, spiritual or intellectual oppression…’

Alice Constance Austin, 1917

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INTRODUCTION

This paper aims at analysing the changing role of women in the home in America between 1850s and late 1900s, looking into how traditional gender roles have been challenged in the time period and how much change has taken place. Generally speaking, this thesis will be broken down into four major sections: Firstly, the role of women in American homes before 1900s, secondly, what the early feminist wanted change in the home, thirdly, how the role of women in the home changed over the century (1900-2000), and then a final analysis that summarises the main points and answering the question.

As stated by Women’s International Centre, ‘Throughout most of history women generally have had fewer legal rights and career opportunities than men. Wifehood and motherhood were regarded as women’s most significant professions. In the 20th century, however, women in most nations won the right to vote and increased their educational and job opportunities. Perhaps most important, they fought for and to a large degree accomplished a reevaluation of traditional views of their role in society.’1 This quote paints a picture of how women have lived in America where men were often regarded the stronger from taking up career jobs and were instead completing ‘womanly’ duties as will be noted

before the 1900s. In a world sex, women were restricted expected to stay at home in this research.

Another key point to note is that it can be argued that the design of space in the past often pushed women into domestic work and this created isolation in community as well as unequal rights in gender. Early writers on the subject however like Catherine Beecher looked into designs of 1 Women’s International Centre Editorial. “Women’s History in America.” Accessed December 22, 2016. http:// www.wic.org/misc/history.htm.

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THE ROLE OF GENDER IN ARCHITECTURE: AMERICAN HOMES AND DOMESTIC LIFE 1850-1999?

spaces that suited a woman’s role in the home in a way making work for enjoyable and less arduous for women. Similarly, the female approach to design encouraged the design of a home with communal meeting spaces and generally redefining the spaces in a home to suit the needs and spaces of a female in the house, as this was the case in the 1800s. This is evident from writings of Mrs Julia CR Dorr and Catherine Beecher who advocated for design to incorporate the needs of women in the house.12

Fig 1- FLEXIBLE AND COMPACT FLOOR PLAN, Catherine Beecher and Harriet Beecher Stowe.

2 Dolores Hayden, The Grand Domestic Revolution: A History of Feminist Designs for American Homes, Neighborhoods, and Cities, MIT Press, 1981.p3

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INTRODUCTION

Fig 2- Potawatomi woman, 1850, photographer unknown

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THE ROLE OF GENDER IN ARCHITECTURE: AMERICAN HOMES AND DOMESTIC LIFE 1850-1999?

Fig 3- PARIS FASHIONS FOR OCTOBER, 1864, Harpers Weekly

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INTRODUCTION

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C H A P T E R 1: ROLE OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN HOMES IN THE 1800S

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ROLE OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN HOMES IN THE 1800S

Moving on, this chapter aims at looking at the role women played in the American household before the 1900s. The “Cult of Domesticity,” initially coined and acknowledged at the beginning of the 19th century, was solidly engrained by the end of the nineteenth century, notably in the rural societies and suburbs of America where at the time the majority of women lived. Moreover, the views symbolised in this ‘Cult’ bestowed upon women an essential role in the family with the term ‘womanly role’ where she had most of the responsibilities in the family. Comparatively, Julia CR Dorr in her writings mentions “...someone said that woman’s best work is that which is unseen by mortal eye...that this work is the steady uplifting and upholding of a higher standard of living; it is the reaching forward and upward, both for ourselves and others, towards a loftier life... Yes, it is hard.

But, sisters, it is work that belongs to us. It is work that, if not done by us, will never be done at all. For man cannot do it - as far as the family is concerned...For as a rule, and it is a rule that has few exceptions, woman creates the atmosphere of the home.”3

As can be seen in her assertion, gender roles at the time led women to domestic work, for most part of the women at least, excluding ofcourse the few feminists and empowered women as well as the wealthy. The role God provided women as stated, was to be the housewife and parent, caretaker of the house, and custodian of the moral purity of all members of the house.

The home was to be a harbour of relaxation, queit and seclusion.4

Moving against these traditions was the feel of necessity, movement and steady progress clearly reflected in the technological, political and industrial alterations pushing the nation forward. The role of women was not supposed to correct the uncertainty as this was a rather unprecedented idea 3 Mrs. Julia C.R. Dorr, The Household, Vol. V, 1872 4 Conner, P. ,(2007), Lives of Women; Indiana History 1860-1900, Online: http://www.connerprairie.org/ education-research/indiana-history-1860-1900/lives-of-women , Accessed; 22/12/16

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at the time, but rather a stepping stone to discovery of more opportunities for women. More to this, lots more jobs were created in the retail sector, factories and offices thus opening up a whole new world of employment for women.5

What is more, education was made compulsory for not only men, but also women, bridging the illiteracy inequality gap narrow between men and women as this saw many more women attending school in the 1800s. This then led to more women seeking higher education in both female institutions and mixed ones too, leading to even more empowerment of women as more female scholars raised the voice of women. What happened next was that women’s rights gained pace and with suffrage at the vanguard, this was a huge leap for the political rights of women, which rights at the time were greatly suppressed. However, very little changed as it was noted that after all these changes 95% of married women did not leave the home.6 “The average farmer’s wife is one of the most patient and overworked women of the time.”

The American Farmer, 18847 THE WOMAN AS THE HOME CUSTODIAN

In the early to late 19

century, the then culture led to most women staying in the home to do domestic duties and be the housekeeper. Written literature then like housekeeper’s manual were published at the time providing advice and guidance on domestic duties for women in the home then. A good example is a household article from 1884 that advises, th

“A really good housekeeper is almost always unhappy. While she 5 Conner, P. ,(2007), Lives of Women; Indiana History 1860-1900, Online: http://www.connerprairie.org/ education-research/indiana-history-1860-1900/lives-of-women , Accessed; 22/12/16 6 Ibid 7 The American Farmer, 1884

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ROLE OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN HOMES IN THE 1800S does so much for the comfort of others, she nearly ruins her own health and life. It is because she cannot be easy and comfortable when there is the least disorder or dirt to be seen.”8 The Household, 1884

Publications at the time were encouragement to women to carry out domestic duty to their best ability even though this often resulted in low quality of life.

Figure 4 (Beecher and Stowe 1873)

Similarly, popular writings from 1800s were inundated with advice and encouragement for living in the home and keeping the home, an ideology that was highly held in the old times. What stands out most from these publications is the notion that by keeping the home neat, clean, pious with great smell and warmth, is a major reflection of the beauty of women. The major influence for this was presented by early publications of Catherine Beecher who strongly praised and glorified housekeeping in an attempt to convince the readers that however hard the work is, completion of tasks is fulfilment of tasks set out by nature and by God. Beecher is viewed as one of the first advocates of ‘scientific housekeeping’ as she held high the creed that an excellent housekeeper should be a jack-of-all-sciences to properly 8 The Household, January 1884

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THE ROLE OF GENDER IN ARCHITECTURE: AMERICAN HOMES AND DOMESTIC LIFE 1850-1999?

look after the home and maintain good spatial qualities in it. Beecher then goes on to recommend explicit weekly agendas and balanced schemes for the kitchen and other domestic spaces and how working round these spaces could be done as a hobby rather than being viewed as a burden.

Beechers published manuals illustrated both pragmatic ways of accomplishing philosophical ends as well as a philosophy for house keeping.

An analysis of the popular works published at the time offers distinctive insights into the prospects for women’s lives and the certainties of their reality. In addition to that, in his book, So Sweet to Labour9, Norton Juster looked at the information given and the replies acknowledged in a few publications of the time. He asserts that the term ‘drudgery’ comes up a couple of times as an explanatory term. Women wrote letters that portrayed the work as never-ending, repetitive, endless, undertaken every week.

However, not that it was all sadness as other women spoke of the bliss of accomplishing their feminine role as the housekeeper, or wrote to rebuke their unsatisfied associates.10

Every week, the programme of “drudge” incorporated laundry on day one, ironing and sewing on Tuesday, baking on day three and on day six, daily cleaning of kitchenette space and parlour, and intensive housework on Thursday and then Saturday. This was an add-on to childcare, cooking three meals a day, carrying water and keeping the fire lit up in the hotplate, a routine that in itself took roughly one hour daily.11 Then there was design of family clothes and periodic preservation of fruits, vegetables and meat.

Often, too, the extent of work stretched as far as the farm itself.

Women were in charge of the farm garden, cattle and poultry and work connected to “civilizing” the farm. At the time of planting and fruitage, a woman that was not able to go to the fields then had to provide room 9 Norton, Juster, (1979), So sweet to labor: rural women in America, 1865-1895.

10 Ibid 11 Norton, Juster, (1979), So sweet to labor: rural women in America, 1865-1895.

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ROLE OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN HOMES IN THE 1800S for others then boarding for the additional aid.12As can be deduced from Norton’s writings, the woman of the day had a defined domestic role in the home that stretched out through the week. Norton then continues to mention that; ‘It is evident from the conflicting opinions offered in literature of the period that women’s lives were fraught with tensions.

How-to manuals, magazine and newspaper articles set high, if not impossible, standards for moral rectitude, cleanliness and cheerfulness. The realities posed by the sheer number of tasks to be completed daily, monthly and yearly stressed even the hardiest of women. Even so, many women responded to the challenges place before them with humour and pride.’13

The quote from Norton expresses how women lived and were expected to live at the time. Many articles were written at the time setting standards on how ‘womanly’ duties were to be accomplished as well as encouraging women to enjoy the work they do.

CHILD KEEPING AND WELFARE

In the same voice, Norton then continues to speak about how women were expected to take care of the child at home as this was one of her most essential roles. His view ties with Beecher’s earlier mention about childcare being a God-given duty. On the other hand however, Norton speaks about the unfair treatment women faced when it came to their health.

Society at the time viewed women as constantly sick and thought this was a normal state for them. Women often worked so hard at home, for this reason ending up physically as mentally exhausted. Upper class and middle aged women were able to receive medical care from doctors while working 12 Ibid 13 Dorothy Hartman

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class women had to get help from home and self-help remedies.14

All things considered, the end of the 19

century marked a pivotal time for women as noted in the rising tensions in their lives- caused partly due to feminists on one hand pushed for traditional gender roles to stay as they were, as others on the other hand advocated for a total shift in gender role at home. As has been shown above, upholding the role of a wife, moral th

keeper and mother was for the most part what most women accepted, subsequently resulting in poor quality of life and health. Although society had cast this role to women, new doors opened up to employment and education thus leading to women questioning society and gender roles at the time. In essence, these new activities women partook in enlightened them henceforth triggering action that would redefine new way of life for women in the next decade.

Fig 5- Kindergarten Class in Boston, 1883

14 Norton, Juster, (1979), So sweet to labor: rural women in America, 1865-1895.

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ROLE OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN HOMES IN THE 1800S

Fig 6- Girls about five years old learning to set the table..., Kitchen Garden Association, 1883

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THE ROLE OF GENDER IN ARCHITECTURE: AMERICAN HOMES AND DOMESTIC LIFE 1850-1999?

C H A P T E R 2: WHAT DID EARLY FEMINISTS WANT TO CHANGE?

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WHAT DID EARLY FEMINISTS WANT TO CHANGE?

Next, this chapter will look into what early feminists set out to change in the home, and what effect architecture has had on the changing role of women from home to public while questioning the possibility of reconstructing society architecturally.

Condemning confinement of women to domestic space, utopian feminists Marie Stevens Howland and Charlotte Perkins Gilman persuaded architects like Ruth Adams to hold a similar position as they did and in so doing they advocated for design of kitchenless houses in order to balance the gender role in the house. In a like manner, designing spaces with political action is a reflection of architects’ theories and concerns pertaining to gender. As architects have seen that the field does not always resolve social problems, but could pave way for the promotion of an understanding of cultural, political or economic concept in a way creating social relationships for example the ‘kitchenless houses.’ The kitchenless house and community kitchens are socialist-feminist approaches that came up around the late 19th and early 20th centuries in America as a result of the creed that architecture could rebuild a new social structure that bridges the gender gap in the home by taking away the domestic work burden, hence promoting social and economic equality.15

Similarly, Mary Stevens Howland designed a cooperative colony in Topolobampo, Mexico around 1874, an early example of cooperative housekeeping with broad collection of child-care facilities; this was a city developed to eradicate private domestic jobs.

Alice Constance Austin did not just create designs for the kitchenless house, but went on further to develop a proposal for an entire city that would incorporate an intricate underground system to aid the transportation of food at Llano del Rio, California. Adding on to the minimisation of loss of 15 Feminist Influence on American Architecture

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THE ROLE OF GENDER IN ARCHITECTURE: AMERICAN HOMES AND DOMESTIC LIFE 1850-1999?

time, energy and funds during domestic work, Austin also proposed substitute façade plans to accommodate individual preferences.16

In addition to that, material feminists like Marie Stevens Howland and Alice Constance Austin worked on housing designs as well as modelling villages that rethought the role of women and the domestic space. A domestic revolution was major in the restructuring of the role of women in society as noted by communitarian feminists who often opposed widely held beliefs that ‘a woman’s place is in the home’ and ‘a woman’s work is never done.’ These communitarian feminists also went on to design architectural spaces that created more socialised domestic work environment as well as create more employment opportunities for women.17

Furthermore, women’s education was another major key point at the time as writers like Catharine Beecher encouraged more women to get education. This is illustrated as she writes “The proper education of a man decides the welfare of an individual; but educate a woman, and the interests of a whole family are secured.”18 Catherine Beecher was a major figure in the lives of women at the time as she often had strong views on how women should be educated at what careers a woman should go to. Most compelling evidence was when she opened a school – Hartford Female Seminary, in an attempt to promote female education.19

Moreover, Beecher was one of the earliest feminists that believed that a woman’s role is in the home and that women should not be involved in politics but rather ensure the well-being of the home. She often writes about 16 Hayden, Dolores. The Grand Domestic Revolution: A History of Feminist Designs for American Homes, Neighborhoods, and Cities. (The MIT Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England, 1981), 242-243 17 Ibid 18 Beecher, Catharine Esther. A Treatise on Domestic Economy, for the Use of Young Ladies at Home, and at School--Miss Beecher’s Domestic Receipt Book. Harper, 1848.

19 Burstyn, Joan N. “Catharine Beecher and the Education of American Women.” The New England Quarterly 47, no. 3 (1974): 386-403. doi:10.2307/364378.

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WHAT DID EARLY FEMINISTS WANT TO CHANGE? optimising the work of the woman in the home, in many cases advising women to take charge of the home as the ‘home minister’, the teacher and the mother.20

Fig 7- The Artic Story, Catharine Beecher and Harriet Beecher Stowe

Fig 8- Basement Floor Catharine Beecher and Harriet Beecher Stowe

Fig 9- Labour and Space-saving piecebag, Catharine Beecher

Fig 10- Enlarged Plan of Sink and Cooking Form, Catharine Beecher

20 Hayden, Dolores. The Grand Domestic Revolution: A History of Feminist Designs for American Homes, Neighborhoods, and Cities. (The MIT Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England, 1981),56-60

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C H A P T E R 3: HOW WOMEN’S ROLE IN HOME CHANGED OVER DECADE

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HOW WOMEN’S ROLE IN HOME CHANGED OVER DECADE 1900-1940

Fig 11- Women in labour force in America 1900-90

The early 1900s were a turbulent time for women as this was a time where the world wars broke, financial crisis hit as well as the birth of the industrial revolution. To begin with, American women at the time had no right vote, serve on juries, or keep run for elective office duty as these were positions held for men.

Furthermore, in 1900 85% of women 25 years of age or older in the U.S. had either gotten married or lost their husband, which meant that a huge proportion of women then were involved in mainly domestic work.

Like what the case in the late 1800s, women’s’ lawful, monetary and social personality was incorporated into their spouses’ under the conventional hypothesis of marriage known as coverture. Under coverture, women were not legally recognised after marriage and had to be in the authority of her partner or father which often led to women staying in the home. Widows who were elderly without a man were probably accommodated by their dead spouses who left them inheritance or taken care of by younger single men.

The small number of women outside such family connections were really “women adrift” in Joanne Meyerowitz’ term, and the subject of much stress

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over the disappointment of society to accommodate them legitimately.21 Christine Bose questions what the world from women in their financial parts resembled in 1900 by examining the political economy of women’s’ circumstance then. Furthermore, she redesigns and reinterprets the way the evaluation reported “families” distinguish “concealed” female headed family units and the “unemployed” housewives who worked at home.

Christine Bose uses thorough investigation procedure to assess the determinants of specific examples. For instance, she thinks about being a head of family unit as perceived in 1900, versus being a “concealed head” and inquires as to whether the determinants of the diverse statuses were “social,” that is a component of one’s racial or ethnic status, or an element of the solid geographic convergence of specific gatherings of women. In a like manner, Trueman asserts that the role of women in society was very stereotypical in a way that women had a defined role, as a wife and a mother.22 Married woman had to stay in the home to provide childcare as well as keeping the home while the husband had a job outside the home where he earned money on a weekly basis to sustain the family.23 Single women on the other hand however worked as waitresses or chefs in restaurants and hotels, which jobs were low paying.

Although there was growing support for women from some political parties, this did not grant them political rights especially in 1900 when women’s political rights were at its lowest for a long time. Having said that however, 1900s marked a stepping stone to the shift in the role of women at home as many activists were on the rise. 2

At around 1910, women held a different view on marriage as a 21 Women in 1900: Gateway to the Political Economy of the Twentieth Century. By Christine E. Bose 22 Lexa W. Lee, (n.d), ‘The Lives of Women in the Early 1900s’, (Online), retrieved from http://peopleof. oureverydaylife.com/lives-women-early-1900s-9057.html on: 05/12/16 23 C N Trueman “Women in 1900”

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HOW WOMEN’S ROLE IN HOME CHANGED OVER DECADE

number of them were anti-marriage and even went on to reject men as this had earlier led to them doing domestic work. More to this, another group of women at the time showed physical urge to the right to vote as viewed when they heckled the government body. The courage showed by these women was not only admired by fellow women, but also men who had previously viewed women as ‘weaker sex’.

Fig 12- Women march through Manhattan for voting rights, 1913

Fig- 13 Virginia Arnold posing with banner, 1917

Fig 14- Suffragette Mothers on the March in New York, Silver Gelatin

Fig 15- Women’s Suffrage Parade, PR 068

Fig 16- Elizabeth Freeman of the New York State Suffrage Association, with horse and carriage, on her way to join the March 3, 1913 suffrage march in Washington, District of Columbia

Fig 17- Suffragists on bus in New York City, part of the suffrage hike to Washington, District of Columbia, which joined the March 3, 1913 National American Woman Suffrage Association parade.

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THE ROLE OF GENDER IN ARCHITECTURE: AMERICAN HOMES AND DOMESTIC LIFE 1850-1999?

Fig 18- Cover of the program for the 1913 women’s suffrage procession

Fig 19- March 3, 1913 photo at the Suffrage Parade, showing marchers (left to right) Mrs. Russell McLennan, Mrs. Althea Taft, Mrs. Lew Bridges, Mrs. Richard Coke Burleson, Alberta Hill and Miss F. Ragsdale.

Fig 20- Women suffragists at the head of the parade, marching down Pennsylvania Avenue, with the U.S. Capitol in background, on March 3, 1913

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HOW WOMEN’S ROLE IN HOME CHANGED OVER DECADE

Furthermore, this was the time the first World War started and was a pivotal factor in the role of women in the home then. This meant that women had to extend their duties to the war grounds and support their men as well as taking care of the children. During this time, women representatives were chosen in each state to recruit volunteers to assist in the well-being of the soldiers at war- providing food, and other social services as well as medical services that were essential at the time due to the outbreak of the Spanish Flu in 1918. Most of the women that volunteered had to leave the home and provided successful help to middleclass families, however their success was not to the fullest potential as they had limited funding.24 1920-40

Fig 21- Timeline of Women in America 1920-40

The 1920s saw not only the rise of first wave of feminist activists in America who were against the idea of women engaging in both domestic work as well as focusing on other goals, but also the 19th Amendment, a 24 William J. Breen, “Seven Women in the War: The North Carolina Woman’s Committee, 1917–1919”, North Carolina Historical Review, (1978), 55#3 pp 251–283

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bill that granted women the right to vote. This wave of feminists strongly pushed for more opportunity for their peers to work outside the home, pursuing other careers and hence starting to change the duty of women at home. What is more, at around the same time period, huge changes were felt across the board as the role of women was changed not only in the home but also outside as many favourable laws were passed for example women could now vote and get represented at higher positions of power.25

The newly enacted laws that granted women the right to vote not only introduced new technology that greatly cut down on work needed to be done at home, but also consequently resulted in new job opportunities outside the home like in the manufacturing sector that needed more labour. Moreover, because more women were getting involved in politics, the gender equality gap started to diminish as they voiced their opinions on the bigger stage and this led to less women involvement in the home.26 This also encouraged women to group up and collectively amplify their voice and this led to new bills getting passed in their favour.27 These groups like National Women’s Party(NWP) worked hand in hand to overturn antics like promiscuous behaviour, alcohol addiction as well as gambling, which traits were rampant at the time.28 In a like manner, National Women’s Party in around 1923 also sought to propose the Equal Rights Amendment to fight laws that sexually discriminated women.

However as most saw the right to vote as fundamental, other women thought that this right was for only men as they argued that politics is a men thing and that the ‘new’ feminists got it all wrong. These women had lived in the times of traditional gender roles and thought it best that things 25 Nancy Woloch, Women and the American Experience: A Concise History (McGraw-Hill, 2002) p. 246.

26 Holly J. McCammon, “’Out of the Parlors and into the Streets’: The Changing Tactical Repertoire of the U.S. Women’s Suffrage Movements,” Social Forces 81, no. 3 (2003): 787.

27 “About the League.” League of Women Voters, http://www.lwv.org/content/about-us. (accessed December 30, 2016) 28 Holly J. McCammon and Karen E. Campbell, “Winning the Vote in the West: The Political Successes of the Women’s Suffrage Movements, 1866-1919, “ Gender and Society 15, no 1 (2001): 57.

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HOW WOMEN’S ROLE IN HOME CHANGED OVER DECADE stay as they were. Not only women but also men faced the same problem challenging traditional roles of economic, political and social equality.29 This was made evident when National Women’s History Museum aired a film that showed the way of life of women at the time, which film had famous actresses depicting the then traditional gender roles. This depiction of gender roles by the famous actresses did not help the new wave of feminists that laboured to fight the roles and bridge the gender gap.30 This was also due to many men as well as women having opposing views to the new feminists.

Many of the men preferred women to maintain their domestic role in the home as they went out to work at different jobs.

However, things had started to change after the 1920s as was noted by a Michigan State University writing that states, “movies during the 1920s depicted what a new ‘modern’ woman should be and served as an instructional manual for young women of the time.”31 As more women picked up interest in the films, the generation faced change. Feminists had earlier held the belief that women would not be able to be successful in achieving career goals while running a family, this however changed as more women had interest in succeeding at both and hence did so.32

Equally important to note, this time period experienced an unprecedented number of women getting an education.33 Going to college set a new standard for women at the time as this was initially viewed as a thing of class, however this also showed that women had aspirations and bigger goals than engaging in domestic work. These new wave of women aimed at derailing formalism that was major in the culture of Americans at 29 “Progressive Era to New Era, 1900-1929.” Library of Congress, http://www.loc.gov/teachers/ classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/ presentations/timeline/progress/suffrage/. (accessed December 28, 2016) 30 “Women in the Movies: The 1920’s.” Michigan State University, https://www.msu.edu/~quattron/WRA140/ page1.htm. (accessed 22/12/16) 31 Ibid 32 Brown, Dorothy M. Setting a Course: American Women in the 1920s (Twayne Publishers, 1987) p. 33.

33 “The New Woman.” College of Staten Island, http://www.library.csi.cuny.edu/dept/history/lavender/386/ newwoman.html. (accessed 18/12/16)

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the time. More to that, they detested the widely held notion of domesticity of women from past generations, that had no careers outside the home. Their attitudes towards male domination was that of new hope for women and that it was a time for change.34

Before the 20

century, society was disinclined to the right of women having an education and raising a family. However times changed, The th

New-style Feminist came up as a ‘Good Dresser’ and a ‘Pal’ to their male counterpart, expected to get married, run a family and have a successful career as mentioned by Dorothy Bromley.35 This was a major turnaround from the way of the old style feminist. The old style feminist grew up in a society where women had to stay home completing ‘womanly’ duties. This was not the case anymore as women started joining the same careers as men did.36

Similarly, the 1920s was also a great time for women as this was the first time they worked in the industries like automobile, steel & iron manufacturing as well as chemical engineering. More to that, this was the time of world war and women played a major role to support the men in the armed forces.37 In the light of the industrial boom in the 1920s, the American economy hit a record high henceforth opening many doors for women at the time to get successful careers. Moreover, the girls from working class families at the time were not required to do home labour as the past generation had done, but rather went into education and vocational training aiming at jobs that had before been done by mainly men.38

34 Ibid 35 Dorothy M. Brown. 1987. Setting a Course: American Women in the 1920s, 33. Boston: Twayne Pub. 36 Susan Ware. “Women and the Great Depression.” The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, accessed 19/12/16, http://www.gilderlehrman.org/ history-by-era/great-depression/essays/women-and-great-depression. (accessed; 18/12/16) 37 Alice Kessler-Harris, Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States (Oxford University Press, 2003) p. 219.

38 Kessler-Harris, Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States pp 237, 288.

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HOW WOMEN’S ROLE IN HOME CHANGED OVER DECADE

Fig 22- Beds in backyard of family living in community camp

Fig 23- Mrs. E. Gorder and her youngest child. Williams County, North Dakota

Fig 24- Family of Olaf Fugelberg, farmer. Williams County, North Dakota

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In America the 1930s however not much changed in the lives of women, however, there was a great depression that led to lots of job cuts hence leading women back to the home. Although this was as bad as it sounds, this even meant that women could not sustain the children and house as the source of income was cut.

1940-50

During the war, women had an even greater role both in and out of the home as they had to support the men. According to Uren, women at the time still did most of the domestic work and with technology developed at the time the work was much easier. She then goes on to document the life of a woman, Jane, 1941 as she does her work in the house. The following pictures explain the life of women at the time.

Fig 25 -Jane standing on ladder to place special china plate as decoration above the doorway in the living room, which she decorated herself, as her son Tony plays on the floor.

Fig 26- Jane serving lunch to her husband Gilbert, who has come home from the office a few minutes away, and her ever-present kids.

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HOW WOMEN’S ROLE IN HOME CHANGED OVER DECADE

Fig 27 Jane busy straightening up before launching into some heavy cleaning with dust mop and carpet sweeper, 1941

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Fig 28 -Jane making one of the four beds she does daily, after doing breakfast dishes and getting the kids to school.

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HOW WOMEN’S ROLE IN HOME CHANGED OVER DECADE

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1960-1999

Fig 29- Jane loading the automatic washing machine with several days’ dirty clothes, in basement at home.

Fig- 30 Jane bathing her daughter Pamela, 4, before dressing her for bed at night.

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HOW WOMEN’S ROLE IN HOME CHANGED OVER DECADE

Although the lives of women in the home had greatly changed over the past 50 years, that turbulence was no greater than in 1960s when there was both backtrack as well as a push as will be discussed here.

Starting with the setbacks, women were often denied credit cards by banks if they were not married. At the time banks had only upgraded to credit card technology and this was held exclusively for men and ‘sometimes’ married women. Additionally, many states in America did not allow women to serve on the jury as they thought women were the main figure of the home is being their duty to maintain the home. This was evident in president John F Kennedy’s assertion; “We want to be sure that women are used as effectively as they can to provide a better life for our people, in addition to meeting their primary responsibility, which is in the home.”39

Male leaders at the time thought of returning traditional gender roles where women would stay in the home. More to that, men thought that women would be weak in handling criminal cases and it was for this case that Florida unanimously voted to exempt women from the Jury. Some states like Utah however allowed women on Jury all the way since the late 1800s.40

What is more, using birth control pills was not allowed in many states even though a law passed in 1960 granted women the right to do so.

Furthermore, women were not accepted into Ivy League schools as again society at the time expected women to stay in the home. In addition to that, women also faced inequality at work as they earned significantly lower salaries than men as noted by Kennedy’s Commission on the Status of 39 John F. Kennedy, (1962), Eleanor Roosevelt Interviews JFK; Prospects of Mankind, Interview online, Accessed on 09/01/17 from; https://vimeo.com/85280922 40 Katie McLaughlin, (2014), 5 things women couldn’t do in the 1960s, CNN News, Online, Accessed on 09/01/17 from; http://edition.cnn.com/2014/08/07/living/sixties-women-5-things/

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Women produced a report in 1963 that revealed that men earned 40 cents more than women on average.41

On the other hand, however, the 1960s saw the rise of second wave feminists that lasted through to the 1980s. The second wave of feminists came after the world war, an era that saw the rebirth of women domesticity.

This was a post war boom time where many people in America were moving to family-centric suburbs and this was what led women back to the home role. This is evident in television shows at the time like ‘Leave It to Beaver’ that idealised traditional gender roles.42 The push for equality by second wave feminists finally paid off when birth control was approved by Food and Drug Administration in 1961, which now meant that women could succeed in their careers without unexpected pregnancy.43 Furthermore, this period saw women like Esther Peterson joining President JFK’s administration to voice women’s issues.44 This move meant women could have careers outside rather than just stay at home.

41 Ibid 42 Murray Knuttila, Introducing Sociology: A Critical Approach (4th ed. 2008 Oxford University Press) 43 Tone, Andrea (2001). Devices & Desires: A History of Contraceptives in America. New York: Hill and Wang 44 Archived September 27, 2011, at the Wayback Machine

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HOW WOMEN’S ROLE IN HOME CHANGED OVER DECADE

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CHAPTER 4; C O N C L U S I O N

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CONCLUSION

By and large, a huge shift has been noted in the change in the role of the woman in the house since the 1800s as noted through the early writings from Mrs Julia CR Dorr and Catherine Beecher who commented on the subject before the dawn of the 20th century, to Dolores Hayden who writes in the late 1970s. Beecher’s position however is quite abstract as she maintains her position that traditional gender roles remain as they were, with alterations in the design of the house to make the woman’s work easier. She on one side pushes for female education and encouraging women to get careers, while on the other hand she is against women’s right to vote noting that politics is a men’s game. As has been illustrated in their works, women at the time generally accepted the traditional role of keeping the home and the manuals and literature at the time says it all. More to that, Mrs CR Dorr is a similar voice writes to women in the late 1800s encouraging them to do work as it is their duty to create that atmosphere.

At the turn of the 20

century however, changes started to take place as some women started to fight for equal rights as men and abolish the ‘traditional gender roles’ that the past generation had experienced. More light was cast upon women in the 1920s when they finally got the right to vote for the first time. Coupled with the right to the vote, the first wave of feminists were born and they challenged the earlier depictions of society as they advocated to push women out of the house to get into education as well as get good careers while taking care of the family. Another point not to be overlooked was the industrial age in America that led to the creation of many jobs that women joined. The period before the second world war so a number of women leaving the ‘traditional gender role’ and enrolling in industry jobs. Moreover, the number of women in the labour force has gradually risen from 18% women in 1900 to about 45.2% in 1990.

Moreover, technology development meant that not only did work in the home became easier for women, but also many career opportunities arose in the industrial sector. With new technology, many women left the home as most th

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of the work would be covered by machines. Notably in the 1960s + when the second wave of feminists created a stronghold for women at the time.

This period saw the legalisation of birth control pills that enabled women to work without the fear of unexpected pregnancies.

In conclusion, I have deduced three waves of feminism rather than the two mentioned. Why three? Well firstly, Mrs CR Dorr and Catharine Beecher in the 1800s were feminists with a different mind-set from the later first and second wave feminists. Beecher and CR Dorr sought to better the conditions of the woman at home and this can be argued as the same view of feminism as the 1920s with one major difference- time. The 1800s were a harsh period for women and many of them stayed in the home because of no voting rights, no access to jobs and even the feminists then supported traditional gender roles. In the 1920s however, ‘new feminists’ came up carrying on from where the former had left on. The reason as to why I said ‘time’ is because in the 1800s there was no precedent for ‘womens rights’. The first wave of feminist drew inspiration from their predecessors and it this that drove them to fight for equal opportunities for women outside the home as men. It is for that reason that great change has been noted from the 1800s to the late 1900s. The shift from ‘old’ feminism to ‘new’ feminism was a big leap for women and as of the late 1900s, the percentage of women in labour force in America is 45%, up from 18% at the beginning of the 20th Century.

That is not to say that women have completely moved away from domestic work, but have instead balanced a great deal between successful career job as well as running the family in the home. This was unprecedented in the 1800s but is the case as of the late 1900s. Moving past the 1900s, it is safe to note that there is finally gender equality both at home and outside the home with women at the helm of many top positions in society.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS • Alice Kessler-Harris, Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States (Oxford University Press, 2003) p. 219.

• Burstyn, Joan N. “Catharine Beecher and the Education of American Women.” The New England Quarterly 47, no. 3 (1974): 386-403. doi:10.2307/364378.

• Beecher, Catharine Esther. A Treatise on Domestic Economy, for the Use of Young Ladies at Home, and at School--Miss Beecher’s Domestic Receipt Book. Harper, 1848.

• Boorstin, Daniel. The Americans: The Democratic Experience. New York:Random House, 1973.

• -Barbara Welter. Dimity Convictions: the American Woman in the Nineteenth Century. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1976.

• -Brown, Dorothy M. Setting a Course: American Women in the 1920s (Twayne Publishers, 1987) p. 33.

• -Cott, Nancy. A Heritage of Her Own: Toward a New Social History of Women. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1979.

• -Chafe, William H. “World War II as a Pivotal Experience for American Women.” In Women and War: The Changing Status of American Women from the 1930s to the 1940s, edited by Maria Diedrich and Dorothea Fischer-Hornung, pp. 21-34. New York: Berg, 1990.

• -Cott Nancy. History of Women in the United States, Part 6, Working the Land. New York: K. G. Saur, 1992.

• -Clinton, Catherine. The Other Civil War: American Women in the Nineteenth Century. New York: Hill and Wang, 1984.

• -Degler, Carl. At Odds: Women and the Family from Revolution to the Present. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980.

• -Freedman, Estelle B. No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of Women. (Ballantine Books, 2003) ,464 • -Green, Harvey. The Light of the Home: An Intimate View of the Lives of Women in Victorian America. New York: Pantheon Books, 1983.

• -Hayden, Dolores. Seven American Utopias: The Architecture of Communitarian Socialism (The MIT Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England, 1981), 300-301 • -Hayden, Dolores. The Grand Domestic Revolution: A History of Feminist Designs for American Homes, Neighbourhoods, and MIT Press, ‘Cities’, (The MIT Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England, 1981), 231-237

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• -Hayden, Dolores. Two Utopian Feminists and Their Campaigns for Kitchenless Houses. (Signs, Vol. 4, No. 2, Winter, 1978), 282 • -Hayden, Dolores. The Grand Domestic Revolution: A History of Feminist Designs for American Homes, Neighbourhoods, and Cities. (The MIT Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts, & London, England, 1981), 7 • -Hayden, Dolores. Two Utopian Feminists and Their Campaigns for Kitchenless Houses. (Signs, Vol. 4, No. 2, Winter, 1978), 277 • -Hayden, Dolores. Two Utopian Feminists and Their Campaigns for Kitchenless Houses. (Signs, Vol. 4, No. 2, Winter, 1978), 280 • -Hayden, Dolores. The Grand Domestic Revolution: A History of Feminist Designs for American Homes, Neighbourhoods, and Cities. The MIT Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England, 1981 • -Holly J. McCammon, “’Out of the Parlors and into the Streets’: The Changing Tactical Repertoire of the U.S. Women’s Suffrage Movements,” Social Forces 81, no. 3 (2003): 787.

• -Julia C.R. Dorr, The Household, Vol. V, 1872 • -Juster, Norton. So Sweet to Labor: Rural Women in America 1865-1895. New York: The Viking Press, 1979 • -Kessler-Harris, Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States pp 237, 288.

• -Kessler-Harris, Alice. Out to Work: A History of Wage Earning Women in the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982 • -Leonard E. Ladd “improvement in dwelling houses”, Philadelphia, 1890. Urban block with twenty-four kitchen less row houses and central kitchen and laundry building.

• -Murray Knuttila, 2008, Introducing Sociology: A Critical Approach (4th ed. 2008 Oxford University Press) • -Mintz, Stephen and Susan Kellogg. Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life. New York: Free Press; London: Collier Macmillan, 1988.

• -Norton, Juster, (1979), So sweet to labor: rural women in America, 1865-1895.

• -Nancy Woloch, Women and the American Experience: A Concise History (McGraw-Hill, 2002) p. 246.

• -Ryan, Mary P. Womanhood in America front he Colonial Times to the Present. New York: F. Watts, 1983.

• -Smith-Rosenberg, Caroll. Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.

• -Strasser, Susan. Never Done: A History of American Housework.

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New York Pantheon Books, 1982.

• Tone, Andrea (2001). Devices & Desires: A History of Contraceptives in America. New York: Hill and Wang • -Wright, Gwendolyn. Building The Dream: A Social History of Housing in America. Pantheon Books, New York, 1981 • -Wright, Gwendolyn, Moralism and the Model Home: Domestic Architecture and Cultural Conflict in Chicago. (The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 1980), 10-13 • -Wright, Gwendolyn, Moralism and the Model Home: Domestic Architecture and Cultural Conflict in Chicago. (The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 1980), 36 • -Wright, Gwendolyn, Moralism and the Model Home: Domestic Architecture and Cultural Conflict in Chicago. (The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 1980), 37-38

ARTICLES • -Bell, Genevieve and Joseph Kaye, Designing Technology for Domestic Spaces: A Kitchen Manifesto. (Gastronomical: The Journal of Food and Culture, Vol. 2, No. 2, Spring 2002), 49 http://www.jstor.org/page/ info/about/policies/terms.jsp • -C N Trueman, “Women in 1900”, Article Online; historylearningsite. co.uk. The History Learning Site, Accessed 16/11/16 • -Conner, P. ,(2007), Lives of Women; Indiana History 18601900, Online: http://www.connerprairie.org/education-research/indianahistory-1860-1900/lives-of-women , Accessed; 22/12/16 • -Dorothy Hartman, Lives of Women; Indiana History 1860-1900, Online: http://www.connerprairie.org/ education-research/indianahistory-1860-1900/lives-of-women, Accessed; 22/12/16 • -Hayden, Dolores. What Would a Non-Sexist City Be Like?: Speculations on Housing, Urban Design, and Human Work. The University of Chicago Press. Signs, Vol. 5, No. 3, Supplement. Woman and the American City (Spring, 1980), pp. S170-S187. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/3173814 • -Hayden, Dolores. Two Utopian Feminists and Their Campaigns for Kitchenless Houses. The University of Chicago Press. Signs, Vol. 4, No. 2 (Winter, 1978), pp. 274-290. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3173026 • -John F. Kennedy, (1962), Eleanor Roosevelt Interviews JFK; Prospects of Mankind, Interview online, Accessed on 09/01/17 from;

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https://vimeo.com/85280922 • -Katie McLaughlin, (2014), 5 things women couldn’t do in the 1960s, CNN News, Online, Accessed on 09/01/17 from; http://edition. cnn.com/2014/08/07/living/sixties-women-5-things/ • -League of Women Voters, “About the League.”, Online; http:// www.lwv.org/content/about-us. (accessed December 30, 2016) • -Michigan State University, “Women in the Movies: The 1920’s.”, Online; https://www.msu.edu/~quattron/WRA140/page1.htm. (accessed 22/12/16) • -Susan Ware. “Women and the Great Depression.” The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, accessed 19/12/16, http://www. gilderlehrman.org/ • -The Household, January 1884, Article Online; http://www. connerprairie.org/education-research/indiana-history-1860-1900/lives-ofwomen, Accessed; 12/12/16 • -The American Farmer, 1884, Article Online; http://www. connerprairie.org/education-research/indiana-history-1860-1900/lives-ofwomen, Accessed; 17/12/16

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LIST OF FIGURES • -Fig 1- Flexible and Compact Floor Plan, Catharine Beecher and Harriet Beecher Stowe, Beecher and Stowe, The American Woman’s Home, New York, 1869 • -Fig 2- Potawatomi woman, 1850, Courtesy: Denver Public Library, Western History Collection, X-32673, photographer unknown, online; http:// www.lib.niu.edu/2009/iht09150223.html, Accessed; 28/12/16 • -Fig 3- Paris fashions for October, 1864, Harpers Weekly, pg.

701, Online; http://www.sonofthesouth.net/leefoundation/civil-war/1864/ october/women-clothes-1800s.htm ,Accessed 29/12/16 • -Fig 4- Beecher, Catharine Esther, 1800-1878; Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 1811-1896The new housekeeper’s manual: embracing a new revised edition of the American woman’s home; or, Principles of domestic science. Being a guide to economical, healthful, beautiful, and Christian homes, New York, J.B. Ford and Company • -Fig 5- Hayden, Dolores, 1883, The Grand Domestic Revolution: A History of Feminist Designs for American Homes, Neighborhoods, and Cities; ‘Kindergarten Class in Boston’, Fig 6.6, pg. 129 • -Fig 6- Hayden, Dolores, 1883, The Grand Domestic Revolution: A History of Feminist Designs for American Homes, Neighborhoods, and Cities; Girls about five years old learning to set the table..., Kitchen Garden Association, 1883, Fig 6.4, 6.5, pg. 128 • -Fig 7- Hayden, Dolores, 1883, The Grand Domestic Revolution: A History of Feminist Designs for American Homes, Neighborhoods, and Cities; ‘The American Woman’s Home’, The Artic Story, by Catharine Beecher and Harriet Beecher Stowe, 1869, Fig 3.2, pg. 59 • -Fig 8- Beecher, Catharine Esther and Harriet Beecher Stowe.

1869. The American Woman’s Home: Or, Principles of Domestic Science, Image; Basement Floor, pg. 40 1st ed. New York: J.B. Ford and company.

• -Fig 9- Beecher, Catharine Esther and Harriet Beecher Stowe.

1869. The American Woman’s Home: Or, Principles of Domestic Science, Image; Labour and Space-saving piece-bag, pg. 39, 1st ed. New York: J.B. Ford and company.

• -Fig 10- Beecher, Catharine Esther and Harriet Beecher Stowe.

1869. The American Woman’s Home: Or, Principles of Domestic Science, Image; Enlarged Plan of Sink and Cooking Forn, pg. 34, 1st ed. New York: J.B. Ford and company.

• -Fig 11- Infoplease.Editorial, n.d, ‘Women in the Labor Force’, publishing as Infoplease, Article Online; http://www.infoplease.com/spot/

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kosovo1.html Accessed; 22/12/16 • -Fig 12- Photograph; ‘New York Women Have No Vote At All’, Online; http://www.authentichistory.com/1898-1913/2-progressivism/6civilrights/2-women/index.html , Accessed; 18/11/16 • -Fig 13- Harris & Ewing, Washington, D.C., 1917, Virginia Arnold [holding Kaiser Wilson banner], Online; http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/ mnwp.160030 , Accessed 21/10/16 • -Fig 14- Suffragette Mothers on the March in New York, Unknown Artists, Silver Gelatin Print 8 ½ x 9 5/16 inches 2.14.12 [PR068, Box 10, Folder: People: Women: Suffrage (1)] New-York Historical Society, Online; http://behindthescenes.nyhistory.org/1915-women-march-suffrage/ , Accessed 22/11/16 • -Fig 15- Women’s Suffrage Parade, PR 068, New-York Historical Society Library, Online; http://behindthescenes.nyhistory.org/1915-womenmarch-suffrage/ , Accessed; 22/11/16 • -Fig 16- Elizabeth Freeman of the New York State Suffrage Association, with horse and carriage, on her way to join the March 3, 1913 suffrage march in Washington, District of Columbia, Online; http:// behindthescenes.nyhistory.org/1915-women-march-suffrage/ , Accessed; 22/11/16 • -Fig 17- Suffragists on bus in New York City, part of the suffrage hike to Washington, District of Columbia, which joined the March 3, 1913 National American Woman Suffrage Association parade, Online; http:// behindthescenes.nyhistory.org/1915-women-march-suffrage/ , Accessed; 22/11/16 • -Fig 18- Cover of the program for the 1913 women’s suffrage procession, Online; http://behindthescenes.nyhistory.org/1915-women-marchsuffrage/, Accessed; 22/11/16 • -Fig 19- March 3, 1913 photo at the Suffrage Parade, showing marchers (left to right) Mrs. Russell McLennan, Mrs. Althea Taft, Mrs. Lew Bridges, Mrs. Richard Coke Burleson, Alberta Hill and Miss F. Ragsdale, Online; http://behindthescenes.nyhistory.org/1915-women-march-suffrage/ , Accessed; 22/11/16 • -Fig 20- Women suffragists at the head of the parade, marching down Pennsylvania Avenue, with the U.S. Capitol in background, on March 3, 1913, http://behindthescenes.nyhistory.org/1915-women-march-suffrage/ , Accessed; 22/11/16 • Fig 21- Timeline of Women in America 1920-40, Online; http:// www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0104673.html ,Accessed; 18/11/16

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• Fig 22- Lee, Russell, 1939, Beds in backyard of family living in community camp, Online; http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/fsa1997026786/ PP/ , Accessed; 22/11/16 • Fig 23- Russel Lee, Mrs. E. Gorder and her youngest child.

Williams County, North Dakota, 1937, Online; http://photogrammar.yale.edu/ records/index.php?record=fsa2000011655/PP , Accessed; 17/11/16 • Fig 24- Russel Lee, Family of Olaf Fugelberg, farmer. Williams County, North Dakota, Lot number; 388, Online; http://photogrammar.yale. edu/records/index.php?record=fsa2000011610/PP , Accessed; 18/11/16 • Fig 25- Uren, Amanda, 1941, A portrait of Jane Amberg, 32; ane standing on ladder to place special china plate as decoration above the doorway in the living room, which she decorated herself, as her son Tony plays on the floor, Image by WILLIAM C. SHROUT, ‘THE LIFE PICTURE COLLECTION’, GETTY IMAGES, online; http://mashable.com/2015/05/10/ housewives-1940s/ Accessed; 28/12/16 • Fig 26- Uren, Amanda, 1941, A portrait of Jane Amberg, 32; Jane serving lunch to her husband Gilbert, who has come home from the office a few minutes away, and her ever-present kids, Image by WILLIAM C. SHROUT, ‘THE LIFE PICTURE COLLECTION’, GETTY IMAGES, online; http://mashable.com/2015/05/10/housewives-1940s/ Accessed; 28/12/16 • Fig 27- Uren, Amanda, 1941, A portrait of Jane Amberg, 32; ‘Jane straightening up before launching into some heavy cleaning with dust mop and carpet sweeper’, Online; http://mashable.com/2015/05/10/ housewives-1940s/ Accessed; 28/12/16 • Fig 28- Uren, Amanda, 1941, A portrait of Jane Amberg, 32; Jane making one of the four beds she does daily, after doing breakfast dishes and getting the kids to school, Online; http://mashable. com/2015/05/10/housewives-1940s/ Accessed; 28/12/16 • Fig 29- Uren, Amanda, 1941, A portrait of Jane Amberg, 32, Jane loading the automatic washing machine with several days’ dirty clothes, in basement at home, Online; http://mashable.com/2015/05/10/ housewives-1940s/ Accessed; 28/12/16 • Fig 30- Uren, Amanda, 1941, A portrait of Jane Amberg, 32, Jane bathing her daughter Pamela, 4, before dressing her for bed at night, Online; http://mashable.com/2015/05/10/housewives-1940s/ Accessed; 28/12/16

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