My Urban Design Master's Thesis

The Evaluation of Indonesia’s Flood Prevention and Water Management Policies Against Climate Change Effect (Sea Level Rise) Study Area: Jakarta, Indonesia Student’s Name Registration Number Class Title Subject Course

Prayogo Widyarangga 201989786 Master’s Thesis (22900/AB 947) Urban Design

Ocean

Tangerang

0

Bekasi

3

6km

Depok

ABSTRACT

The author’s thesis is focusing on the study of how cities adapt, mitigate, and prevent the trending global environmental issues which is climate changes and its effect such as sea level rise. The acceleration of rising sea level gives another impact to the cities in the world which is flood. In this case, the study area or urban environment that author had chosen is Jakarta (Indonesia’s capital city) because this city becomes one of the areas that had a big effect of the flood hazard risk. On the other hand, the government policy can determine this impact for the quality of urban’s life. The aim is to address author’s interpretations and understanding on the government policy success rate and failure toward the urban condition nowadays by doing critical analysis and evaluation. The author also needs to find some of case studies (based on literature) which already maintained their city well or not yet through the policies to expand author’s knowledge and provide a valid example. The method is by doing literature review for the fundamental climate change information at first, then evaluating the Indonesia’s water management and flood prevention policy. Then, author offer some recommendations and plan of actions which also inspired from the Sustainable Development Goals strategies against the climate change effect (sea level rise). As a result, this thesis of urban design studies investigates on how the adaptation and mitigation government policy could resolve these effects of climate change in Jakarta, Indonesia.

Keywords: Climate Change Effect, Flood, Flood Prevention Policy, Jakarta, Sea Level Rise, Water Management Policy

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TABLE OF CONTENT

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................ i TABLE OF CONTENT .......................................................................................... ii LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... iii LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. iv INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................1 CHAPTER 1. Climate Change ................................................................................2 CHAPTER 2. Climate Change Effect ......................................................................7 CHAPTER 3. Study Area Selection: Jakarta, Indonesia .......................................16 CHAPTER 4. Case Studies ....................................................................................25 CHAPTER 5. Evaluation of Indonesia’s Policy Intervention ...............................32 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................45 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................47

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LIST OF FIGURES Figures 1. Global Mean Temperature Difference from 1850-2025 .........................3 Figures 2. Temperature Difference from 1920 until 2020 in 6 Regions ..................3 Figures 3. Global Annual GHG Emissions by Sector..............................................5 Figures 4. Coastal Cities Average Annual Losses ...................................................9 Figures 5. Global Average Sea Level Rise ............................................................11 Figures 6. Global Flood Hazard Frequency and Distribution ................................12 Figures 7. Natural Hazard Events ..........................................................................13 Figures 8. Geographic Study Area Location (Jakarta, Indonesia) .........................17 Figures 9. Jakarta’s Three-Dimensional Satellite Panorama .................................18 Figures 10. Jakarta’s Land Subsidence in 2010 .....................................................18 Figures 11. Jakarta’s Rivers ...................................................................................19 Figures 12. Jakarta’s Flood at the Beginning of 2020 in January ..........................20 Figures 13. Jakarta’s Flood Risk Sources in 2020 .................................................21 Figures 14. Jakarta’s Water Drainage Systems Location in 2020 .........................21 Figures 15. Jakarta’s Garbage in Open Drains ......................................................22 Figures 16. Jakarta’s Slums and Squatters Area in 2020 .......................................23 Figures 17. Geographic Case Studies 1 Location (Bangkok, Thailand) ................26 Figures 18. Flood Protection Strategies in Bangkok .............................................27 Figures 19. Geographic Case Studies 2 Location (Hamburg, Germany) ..............29 Figures 20. 17 Sustainable Development Goals ....................................................37 Figures 21. Future Jakarta Plan of Actions Illustration Map .................................43

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LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Jakarta’s Public Green Open Space in 2017 ............................................24 Table 2. Hamburg Project-based Climate Change Initiatives Strategies ...............30 Table 3. List of Flood-causing Factors and Problems ...........................................32 Table 4. Law of Republic of Indonesia Number 7 in 2004 Strategies ...................34 Table 5. Region Spatial Plan 2030 Strategies ........................................................34 Table 6. Percentage of Households Proportion......................................................38 Table 7. Sustainable Cities and Communities Strategies.......................................38 Table 8. Waste Production (million ton)................................................................39 Table 9. Responsible Consumption and Production Strategies .............................39 Table 10. GHG Emission Reduction (million-ton CO2) ........................................40 Table 11. Climate Action Strategies ......................................................................41 Table 12. List of Recommendations and Plan of Actions .....................................41

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Introduction The issue of climate change is the most demanding global concern. It has a substantial impact and it is anticipated to enhance depth and repetitiveness of worldwide catastrophic events. Now it is more worrying than before. As a populace density, each urban environment will experience the intensified of flooding or water inadequacy due to severe in rainfall and heavy storms also can damage all inhabitant establishments. That climate change affects happened in every place around the world. However, its most significant negative effects will be in the poorest countries because of the poverty condition, lack of urban facilities and infrastructures, and much less society awareness. One of the natural disasters, because of its effectiveness that has biggest impact to the quality of community’s life and urban environment, is flood. Therefore, the presence of government public policy which has coverage globally could adapt, control, mitigate and prevent these issues. These policies are a foundation for dealing with the effect of environmental change on how each city adopts and applies them to have an impact on their degree of success.

This thesis argues that the current adoption of policies in Indonesia has problems in terms of applications, instruments, and principles, which needs resolved if mitigation is to be achieved and made successful. The key research question is “What are the climate change effects faced by every city in the world? How the government public policies and regulations can mitigate that impacts? If there is a lack of government mitigation due to the climate change effects especially sea level rise and flood hazard risk inside the policies, what needs to change?”. In addition, the focus country of this thesis is Indonesia which is experiencing severe influence of climate change concerning the sea level improvement. Therefore, this thesis will: 1. Explore how sea level increment influence on the capital city of Jakarta, 2. Explore the current adoption of Indonesia’s policies for mitigation such as flood prevention and water management, 3. Establish current limitations of these policies and according to the analysis of a series of case studies globally, 4. Offer recommendations and plan of actions on how to adapt or change the current policies which also involve the Indonesia’s Sustainable Development Goals strategies.

As a result, that recommendations becomes an alternative solution which can be considered by the Indonesia’s government in the next policies edition due to the mitigation and adaption of flood disaster risk and it will create a better urban environment especially in Jakarta.

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Chapter 1 Climate Change In the first chapter, author starts with the common expertise clarification of how the climate change take place and turn out to be the most irritating worldwide problems. In accordance with the information from IPCC in 2007, the significance of ‘Climate Change’ words are implying a modification in the state of climate that can perceived by transforms in the mean including the variability of its attribute and that endures for a comprehensive duration, ordinarily in ten years or more. Climate change might be happened because of the internal and additionally external compelling. Some external changes influence such as changes in solar radiation, occur naturally, and contribute to the absolute characteristic variability of the climate or atmosphere system. In the other hand, another exterior changes such as the adjustment in the composition of the atmosphere which started with the industrial revolution period are the impact of human activity. In addition, an alternate of climate which is credited legitimately or circuitously to community movement that transforms the organization of the overall environment. As a result, it can cause the earth surface hotter than previously.

The most recent investigation of observations from the WMO (World Meteorological Organization) Global Atmosphere Watch in 2019 report that comprehensively found the middle value of surface concentrations and temperature change determined from this in-situ arrange for nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, and methane hit on new highs. Carbon dioxide is responsible for around 66% of the whole radiative compelling from extensive greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions since pre-industrial (the year of 1850-1900) time, with methane liable for about 17% and nitrous oxide for 6%. The worldwide spending plan of anthropogenic carbon has kept on developing since 2015 because of the expansion in carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of non-sustainable power sources such as coal and other concrete creation. The five-year time frame 2015-2019 is probably the hottest of each identical duration on evidence all inclusive. The worldwide warmth is rising until 1.1°C which starts from the pre-modern era and in the previous five-year term has raised contrasted until 0.2 °C. In this manner, it is the most sizzling of any identical length enrolled. It can be seen in Figure 1 that the temperature increases drastically right after 1975.

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Figure 1. Global Mean Temperature Difference from 1850-2025 (WMO, 2019)

The continental common temperatures ordinarily exhibit increased variability than the worldwide imply (see Figure 2). Nearly all land zones had been warmest than normal with just a couple of exemptions. For instance, a territory of Canada and a zone of the Antarctic in the Indian Ocean area. The five-year average temperatures were the most noteworthy on record for large zones of the United States including eastern pieces of South America, Alaska, the vast majority in Europe and Middle East, Australia, northern Eurasia, and South Africa. At the same time, in 2015-2019, the worldwide mean ocean surface temperature was around 0.8 °C above pre-modern and 0.13 °C hotter than 2011-2015. Over the seas, underneath normal ocean surface temperatures were seen toward the south of Greenland (one of only a handful hardly any territories universally to have seen long-term cooling), the eastern of Indian Ocean, zones of the South Atlantic, and the Tasman Ocean, which has seen various extreme marine heat waves in the previous five years (WMO, 2019). Therefore, it brings circumstances and consequences on characteristic of human systems in urbanism condition all over the world.

Figure 2. Temperature Difference from 1920 until 2020 in 6 Regions (WMO, 2019)

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Urban territories hold the greater part of the world’s total population and a large portion of it constructed resources and financial activities. The main urban issues such as rapid urbanization, population’s high density, and tremendous economic actions are in danger. A tremendous extent of worldwide greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is produced by inhabitants.

Urban communities are made from complex between subordinate frameworks that can be utilized to help climate change adaptation by means of viable regional authorities bolstered by cooperative staggered governance. It can empower cooperative energies with the infrastructure venture and support, land use management, ecosystem services protection, and livelihood establishment. Thus, the climate change impacts are affecting the physical ecological condition in the urban setting. For example, building and infrastructure devastation, water accessibility and availability, and biodiversity influences (Dawson, 2007). Besides, urban territories require vitality escalated services like transportation, industrial procedures, water supplies, and so on.

In addition, Rosenzweig (2010) said that, it is not unpredictable that the neighbourhood actions in urban areas are treated as a first responders to the climate change issues.

A few examinations have indicated that the city energy per capita utilization is lower than the median number for the nations (Dodman, 2009). That happened because of the economic scale and decrease expenses of mitigation. Thus, urban can assume a significant role in lessening greenhouse gas emissions (Li and Colombier, 2009). Dhakal (2009) also report that the climate change causing factor comes from urban environment. Cities create an impressive contribution to ozone depleting substance outflows with their convergence of automobiles, ventures, etc. Generally, 75% of the global carbon dioxide and 26% of direct these emissions originate from urban environment (Sugar et al., 2012). In addition, in other new update research by Robert A. Rohde in 2014, the diagram (see Figure 3) shows that source of greenhouse gas emissions comes from several diversity sector. It shows that the power stations are the largest greenhouse gas emissions ability in the world.

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Figure 3. Global Annual GHG Emissions by Sector (Rohde, 2014)

The term effects are utilized specifically regard to the outcomes and consequences on inhabitant frameworks of outrageous climate change. Impacts typically allude to consequences for a lot of aspects such as lives, health and wellbeing, ecosystems, infrastructures, etc. The interaction between climate changes or extreme weather which happening within a duration, and the susceptibility of an uncovered community or scheme provide mutual relations. In other hand, this impact in natural geophysical context, including the improvement of sea level, floods, tropical cyclones, etc are a subset called physical effects. Furthermore, it exposes substantial vulnerability of some urban ecosystem to the present climate changeability.

The climate change effect in ecological key frameworks warn the sustainable improvement in topic intently established on legitimate principle and it will influence all countries. Currently, these effects are examined particularly precarious inferable from lower versatile capability (Maxwell, 2010; Lemos et al., 2013). Proceeding and accelerated patterns have additionally prevailed among another key climate indicators effect, including an acceleration of rising sea levels, an endured decrease in the Arctic Ocean ice extent, an unexpected reduction in Antarctic Ocean ice, proceeded with ice mass misfortune in the glaciers of Greenland and the ice sheets of Antarctic, and reasonable descending pattern in the northern side of the hemisphere spring snow spread. Moreover, more warmth is being caught in the ocean and in the year of 2018 had the biggest ocean heat content qualities on record estimated over the upper 700 metres. Precipitation has expanded in certain regions and diminished in others. Accordingly, among all climate change effect hazards, sea level rise and tropical cyclones were related with the biggest monetary misfortunes and devastation (WMO, 2019).

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According to several previous research papers published in the last five years, the possibility of outrageous climate change has been affected by anthropogenic or human influence. For instance, an investigation found that the heatwave which affected Japan in July 2018 would have been unimaginable without human influence (Imada et al., 2019).

Consequently, concerning these issues at the urban context is vital and universally key for various reasons. The city’s populace is evaluated to attain at least 6.3 billion every 2050 (Population and Development Review, 2010) with most of this improvement happening in little to medium densities in worldwide (Forbes, 2011) which have insignificant institutional ability to tackle the problems. Bigger and more noteworthy fortunate urban additionally straightforward worldwide utilization and creation because urban communities are dynamic core interests. Cities are places where administration frameworks communicate legitimately with individuals and an ideal chance to prompt and direct action for adaptation, mitigation, and prevention. In addition, it will control the human exercises in the urban condition toward the climate change problems. This is noticeable in the climate change length activities previously happening in the urban range (Castan and Bulkeley, 2013).

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Chapter 2 Climate Change Effect In the second chapter, after explained the climate changes in the general knowledge, the author focusses on the climate change affects which is acceleration of rising sea level information. Through this chapter, there will be several part to explain it in more specific aspects, i.e. what are the causes of sea level rise, how and what are the effect, where it is more noticeable around the world, how much the increase has been over past 100 years or so, and why the flood hazard become one of the biggest effect in the world. •

The Causes of Sea Level Rise The issue of climate change began because of the human activities impacts has prompted different results fundamentally, including the global sea level rise. Based on the information by IPCC (2007), the global sea level rise factor shows a geographical variety due to several variables containing the conveyances of transforms in sea circulation, salinity, warmth, and winds. The two main contributions are water mass commerce in steric impacts and continents, regulated by local to worldwide degree.

Moreover, in Lombard et al. (2005), Church et al. (2008), and Luu et al. (2015) report, they mentioned that the El Nino Southern Oscillation and Pacific Decadal Oscillation are the ocean dissemination varieties example.

The level of sea does not rise consistently and uniformly, and it is ascending in all sea basins (Legeais et al., 2018). The urban’s GHG substance discharges are becoming the main causes of sea level improvement acceleration (Slangen et al., 2016).

Several previous researchers report from England et al., Hamlington et al., and McGregor et al. in 2014, observed that in the Pacific Decadal Oscillation signal estimation, the warmth of Atlantic and Indian Oceans improved winds exchange and these improvement to the heightened ocean level ascent in the west of Pacific Oceans.

More than the twentieth century, the contributions from ground water utilization, supply stockpiling, and fast ice sheet mass transformation are not assumed by coupled atmosphere models and evaluated from perceptions. Moreover, Oppenheimer et al. in 2019 argued that the aggregate taking everything into account, containing the researcher contributions, gives a demonstrated gauge of that the level of sea changes which can be appeared differently in relation from tide-measure records and satellite altimetry documents.

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In accordance with the sea temperature observations, in current decades, the thermal extension has devoted generously to the level of sea rise. The atmosphere models are reliable with the sea perceptions that temperature development had expected to keep on adding to the sea level rise throughout the following hundred years. Since profound sea temperatures change gradually, the thermal enlargement would continue for many centuries regardless of whether atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases emissions were balanced out. Subsequently, based on IPCC data (2014a), the global sea level has been ascending and is anticipated to increase at a quickened estimate all through the 21st century. •

The Sea Level Rise Impact The impacts of ocean level ascent are evaluated utilizing a broad assortment of way from regional to worldwide range. The presentation of this method is implemented at all ratios to evaluate esteems presented to this ascent. It has doubtlessly detrimental results and it will associate diversely with the assortment people’s exercises and different progression of drivers in all coastal line nations. For instance, the dwelling and development of sustainable power source requirement in the coastal areas will get this effect (Hardley, 2009), including the fundamental water transportation infrastructure such as port and maritime bases. Moreover, McGranahan et al. (2007) and Smith (2011) said that the climate intense influence on a broad vary financial enterprises which encouraging coastal societies and represent a further hazard to a considerable lot of the quickest increasing low-lying environment in the developing nations.

The significant acceleration of ascending sea level impacts are changes in coastal line and low-lying urban regions. McLeod et al. (2010) noticed that the example of that effects are coastal deterioration, flooding, and saltwater interruption into deltas and estuaries, that are aggravated by personal prompted raised. Approximately 625 million individuals living in low altitude coastal urban area is in danger which representation to this level of sea ascent perils (Neumann et al., 2015). This hazard can drive part of the community to relocate their house from low to high areas and influencing the dynamic of coastal populace. Moreover, it is also affecting the worldwide population because of the degradation in endurable territory. However, the principle of its impact can happen not only in the coastal line zone but also the zones whenever near the water source and supply a sediment or deltas such as along the riverbanks. In the other hand, Nicholls et al. (2010) reported that the fundamental 8

biophysical effects of this are expanding deluge devastation, dry-land misfortune because of submergence and disintegration, saltwater interruption into ground water, wetland misfortune and changes, and accelerating water tables and hindered waste. •

The Most Noticeable Sea Level Rise Impact Location Around the World The ocean level ascent previously has started to extinguish numerous low-lying urban land areas. A few areas have been permanently immersed and constrained enormous scale removal of neighbourhood communities. Penna and Rivers (2013) mentioned that in Bangladesh (i.e. Bhola Island) almost 50% has been flooded and displaced 500,000 people. Based on Hallegatte et al. report in 2013, there are total 20 coastal urban areas where normally misfortunes every year and raise most by virtue of optimistic sea level rise, if transformation keeps up just present defines guidelines or flood likelihood (see Figure 4). Additionally, Nicholls and Cazenave (2010) noticed that the most countries in the East Asia are notably powerless against ocean level ascent because of fast financial development and coastal movement of individuals to the city waterfront or coastal regions along with high paces of human subsidence in deltas where a significant number of the densely population regions are found.

Simultaneously, economic development in these nations expands the financial ability to adjust (Nicholls et al., 2010). Conversely, while numerous African nations encounter a comparative tendency in accelerated coastal cities development, degree of financial improvement is ordinarily lower (Kebede and Nicholls, 2011; Hinkel et al., 2012).

Figure 4. Coastal Cities Average Annual Losses (Hallegatte et al., 2013)

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In Figure 4 above, the researcher divided into three different categories in average annual losses by per cent indicator. Alexandria in Egypt and Barranquilla in Colombia are becoming the area with the highest risk (> 100%) of coastal flood hazard because of the accelerating of sea level. One of the other reasons why they become the most risk able area because their condition geographical are on the low-lying land.

Therefore, Nicholls et al (2010) also said that the government already took a mitigation to prevent submergence and persistent flooding, numerous delta metropolis currently relies upon an essential urban hard structural element for flood defence and water treatment.

Deltas are affected by stream and maritime tempest floods. Deltas under changing worldwide atmosphere are caused for the most part by unprecedented precipitation-prompted floods and ocean level ascent. McLeod et al. (2010) and Day et al. (2011) said that it will achieve about expanded coastal flooding, diminished wetland zones, increased coastal erosion, and developed salinization of developed land and ground water. The surface territory of flooding in 33 basins area over the globe is evaluated to enhance by 50% below ocean level ascent appraisal as anticipated in 2100 (Syvitski et al., 2009). Nowadays, numerous river systems convey significantly less residue to their deltas since that dregs are caught in upstream dams or is separated for material of building. With inventory of unconstrained sediments, land decline remains deficiently redressed, not to mention the bigger urban subsidence, and it begin to disappear. It is recognizable in deltas urban areas such as Bangkok, Hamburg, Jakarta, Rotterdam, and Shanghai (Deltares, 2011). •

The Significant Number of Sea Level Acceleration Over 100 Year The global average sea level additionally rises or falls when water is transferred from land to sea or vice-versa. Several human activities provide to sea level change, particularly by the ground water extraction and reservoirs construction. On previous research, this average number has improved around 0.19 metres between the year of 1900 and 2010 with a pace of about 1.7 mm per year (IPCC, 2014b). This pace is predicted to raise up again in future with further climatic temperature increment. In other words, today retreat of ice sheets and caps are making a generous contribution to the acceleration of sea level. Their contribution should diminish in resulting centuries as this store of freshwater reduces.

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The Fifth Assessment information by IPCC (2014b) mentioned that this global sea level average might ascend between 0.52-0.98 metres before 21st century is over (see Figure 5). In other hand, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) prediction statement inform that sea level is accelerating until 2 metres in 2100. The ice sheets on the earth maintain adequate water of sea level improvement in a few metres. The ice sheets in Antarctic and Greenland are the two biggest which encompassing roughly 99% of the ice fresh water. It is assessed that if the Greenland’s ice sheet liquefies effectively, the sea level can ascend around 6 metres. Meanwhile, Antarctic’s ice sheet might cause around 60 metres. According to DeConto and Pollard future prediction (2016), Antarctic ice sheet will devote more than a metre constantly in 2100 and it will raise up above 15 metres in 2500.

Figure 5. Global Average Sea Level Rise (IPCC, 2013)

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Flood Hazard (Sea Level Rise Impact) Many significant climate impacts are correlated with outrageous occasions and it can be transient. For instance, flood or events that can reach out over months or years such as droughts. While sea level rise is responsible for significant number of the world’s most destructive floods, there have been numerous different instances of the main flooding since 2015 (WMO, 2019). Some of these floods have been generally endured reactions to exorbitant precipitation in tropical regions during the rainy season.

However, others have been shorter-term floods, incorporating flash floods related with intense precipitation over a couple of hours. Overwhelming rains have likewise contributed to major avalanches in certain parts of the world. Moreover, floods are frequently connected with outbreaks of water-borne illnesses or those related to poor sanitation and it have obstructed individual’s daily exercises. As a result, post flood 11

debacle diseases like diarrhoea and leptospirosis can disseminate and influence on society’s health.

Society are additionally experiencing misfortune from the devastation to estate due to the flooding and the expanded expenses of recovery which is an unanticipated cost overwhelm. Hadi (2017) said that the flood disaster diminishes the individual’s life quality and declined the land dwelling values. However, Otto et al. (2017) argued that climate change is relied upon to compound present society vulnerabilities and cultural disparities. In the following picture which delivered by the Columbia University’s researcher team, it tends to be seen that the flood peril frequency disseminates all over the world (see Figure 6).

Figure 6. Global Flood Hazard Frequency and Distribution (CHRR and CIESIN, 2005)

The image above contains different geospatial representations of flood occasions. A few floods are delineated as focuses georeferenced to the nearest degree.

Other floods are described by polygons and to decide frequency of flood hazard, a 2.5minute network overlays the flood information and the quantity of flood occasions per grid cell is recorded. A flood occasion is defined as any bit of flood representation happening within a grid cell. Thus, if a grid cell is crossed by a flood polygon’s border, then the recurrence raises by one. If a point is within the grid cell borders, the frequency develops by one. In addition, flooding at similar zones, but at various times likewise enhance the frequency. The frequency range is characterized into deciles, 10 classes of a roughly equivalent number of grid cells. Deciles are the chosen technique of 12

dissemination because of contemplations of certainty with the information. Regions with white colour are not necessarily without chance from perils. However, it may rather be an ancient rarity of a veil that rejected from examination those zones with a populace density under 5 individuals for each square kilometre and without considerable agriculture (CHRR and CISEIN, 2005). In other hand, the red colour indicates areas that has the high flood occurrence frequency and the blue colour demonstrate the low flood hazard incidence frequency.

As the most frequent sea level rise effect, flood present genuine hazard to inhabitants and the urban environment (Nicholls, 2004; Marfai et al., 2007; Hanson et al., 2010). Sivakumar (2006) noticed that from 1993 to 2002, the flood perils were reached about 40% (1,060 occasions) of total hazard risk (2,654 events) in worldwide (see Figure 7). The occurrence of flood is more frequent and contradicted with other common risks such as droughts, forest fires, high winds, and landslides. Due to their tremendous recurrence, catastrophe related with flood is regularly high. The range of developing cases is influencing the individual’s life quality and financial misfortunes.

As noticed by stevens (2012), 178 million individuals were impacted by flood in 2010 with whole financial misfortunes above US$ 4 million. In addition, the risk of flood in urban’s lowland civilizations can develop in the following year in numerous global areas due to a countless driver; including climate change (i.e. expanded precipitation, extraordinary runoff, and acceleration of ocean level), land subsidence, land use management, populace development, and the expansion in resources situated in floodprone districts (IPCC, 2012; Jongman et al., 2012; Hirabayashi et al., 2013).

Figure 7. Natural Hazard Events (Sivakumar, 2006)

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Recognizing these outcomes in the urban’s lowland, based on the previous research studies, the idea of flood risk mitigation has been developing and supplanting the more straightforward objective of diminishing flood hazard pinnacles or water levels (Balica et al., 2009). In fact, when seeing the ongoing city drainage ideas created throughout the most recent half century, there seems to be a constant development against more exhaustive methodology. During the year of 1970, regular end-of-pipe arrangements, with the purpose of creating sanitary outcomes in quick releasing flood pinnacles which were placed under warps since cities were experiencing flood and observing the movement of this issue from one to another areas. Fletcher et al. (2014) mentioned that city drainage encountered to recuperate capacity and infiltration limits, improve the stream paths, coordinate the quality and quantity components which make an opportunities for upgrading biodiversity and incorporate resolutions with urban landscape, and revive the city around water element as organizing components, decline socio-economic misfortunes, and reinforce a healthy environment. Recently, the idea of urban resilience has been carried into the policies consideration globally by the government and stakeholders. In other words, the general city resilience targets are pursuing continuously at low risks in future, by attempting to decrease vulnerabilities and improve the ability to react the environmental damages.

As a conclusion on this chapter, the most danger of climate change effect to the human and physical urban environment condition are tropical cyclones and sea level rise. The intensification of sea level rise happens mostly in the western topical Pacific Ocean due to the Atlantic and Indian Ocean’s surface temperature increases. This thermal extension is continually predicted to subsidize over the hundred years and provoke a danger hazard to the coastal cities and low-lying urban condition in worldwide such as the city of Jakarta in Indonesia. Meanwhile, Indonesia is situated at the middle of Indian and west Pacific Ocean. Therefore, based on the coastal cities’ average annual losses data, Jakarta is in the number sequence position 9 and automatically included in top 10 coastal cities where average annual losses due to acceleration of sea level impact.

The impact of acceleration rising sea level is increasing the number of flood risk; building, hard structural element (e.g. dikes and roads), subsurface infrastructures (e.g. drainage and sewerage) damage; and water treatment disruption. It can be seen in the global flood hazard frequency and distribution data that Indonesia included in the 14

red colour zone which has the high flood occurrence. Moreover, it happens seasonally and will be exacerbated during rainy season. In other words, flood become the most frequent natural hazard and impact from the sea level rise. That impacts generally refer to effects on built and physical of urban space environment such as residential neighbourhoods, commercial, waterfront, etc. Straightforwardly, it likewise gives impact on urban environment and the community’s condition.

Accordingly, the implementation of any strategy in the policy has potential for thump on impacts. It is valid of adaptation and mitigation actions which can improve or strife with other sustainability targets in the urban environment. These can be especially intense in urban where associations and dependencies among individuals and infrastructures are particularly dense. Recognizing these potentials compromise adds in more incorporated climate change regulation and generally it is shaped inside the governance adaptation and mitigation through the strategies everywhere throughout the world (Dawson, 2007). However, these should be deliberately arranged and figured out how to boost their functionality (Gill et al., 2008). Therefore, the author identifies all the problems due to the climate change effect in Jakarta and evaluate the current Indonesia’s policies such as flood prevention and water management which still has a lack of mitigation and intervention these issues on the next chapter.

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Chapter 3 Study Area Selection: Jakarta, Indonesia According to the previous chapter, the climate change effect which is the acceleration of rising sea level have endangered and involved crucial risk to coastal civilizations globally.

Therefore, the study area that author select, is the country that has a huge risk of sea level rise around the coastal line area. Currently, numerous island states are encountering that effects such as erosion, flood, and land submergence. These influences are turning into a genuine threat in coastal areas. Based on Marfai and King (2007a) report, Indonesia is one of the developing countries in South East Asia which encounters the most noteworthy number of flood risk.

Indonesia known as an archipelagic and vulnerable country especially in coastal line areas (Liang and Gang, 2010). Marfai (2011) said that Indonesia endures serious issues identified such as an expansion of water saltiness, coastal inundation, and river flood. A lot of Indonesia’s cities low land and coastal societies have been compromised by flood, particularly city in the north of Java Island (Marfai and King, 2007b; Marfai, 2011) such as the city of Jakarta. In fact, Jakarta had encountered many flood cases in several excuses.

Jakarta was formed in the sixteenth century in Indonesia and it presently assumes a crucial role in local and national improvement. Jakarta envelops an area of around 654 km2 and it is situated in the north of Java Island (see Figure 8). Based on UN World Urbanization Prospects latest report, Jakarta’s civil population is currently approximated at 10,770,487 in 2020 and since 2015, it has developed by 597,099 which represents a 1.15% yearly change.

Thus, Jakarta is becoming the densest urban agglomerations in Indonesia. It has six regions: Jakarta Pusat (Central of Jakarta), Jakarta Barat (West of Jakarta), Jakarta Barat (West of Jakarta), Jakarta Utara (North of Jakarta), Jakarta Selatan (South of Jakarta), and Kepulauan Seribu (Seribu Island). The regions share boundaries with two different areas, the east and south with west of Java, and the west with Banten region, while the north is characterized by the sea of Java. In the geography viewpoint, Jakarta is a low-lying urban condition with flat topography. The coastal line in the northern part have inclines covering from 0° to 2°, while the south areas has a little steeper with slants (Abidin et al., 2011).

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INDONESIA MAP

Java Island JAKARTA

INDONESIA

Figure 8. Geographic Study Area Location (Jakarta, Indonesia) (Author, 2020)

The south’s upper watershed attains altitudes of 3,000 metres above sea level (see Figure 9). It is a rugged zone in the focal point of the island which incorporates Bogor region (included in the province of west Java) and the encompassing region. The Jakarta’s watershed upstream comprises of exceptionally factor with a flat contour at the downstream area and abrupt inclines upstream. Both districts are shaped by a tight and arduous valley which shapes an obstacle form (Texier, 2008). That form of the drainage basin and the current elevation particularly close the coastal line which is lower than 10 metres likewise impacts the susceptibility of Jakarta to flood risks. Every year, the land subsidence in Jakarta decline consistently and the north of Jakarta which situated in the coastal region reach 4,1 metres decrease (see Figure 10). It is happened because of the community until now still use the ground water instead of the surface or existing water resources utilization and sea level rise effect. The condition for watershed inclusion region influencing the interaction among downstream and upstream region water arrangement (Molle and Mamanpoush, 2012). Therefore, the adjustments in land use management impact in the capacity of ground water intrusion and raise the water movement debit. As a result, the land use transforms in the upstream region (e.g. the transformation from woodland to built-up development) have been appeared significantly to give influence on the river depleting discharge via Jakarta (Poerbandono et al., 2009).

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Figure 9. Jakarta’s Three-Dimensional Satellite Panorama (Author, 2020)

Figure 10. Jakarta’s Land Subsidence in 2010 (Deltares, 2011)

Jakarta’s lowland region involves a dense river circulation. There are thirteen rivers across the city and nine of them are arranged as a main river which contributes to flood disaster (see Figure 11). Among those rivers, the Ciliwung River (Kali Ciliwung) known as the greatest waterways source cause of flood hazard (Marschiavelli, 2008). Ciliwung River relatively has an area of 347 km2 and 117 kilometres of main river length. This river cuts across local jurisdictional borders and crosses two different provinces which are West Java and Jakarta.

Therefore, that river is becoming deliberately valuable in Indonesia and it is divided three areas of water stream such as down, middle, and upstream. Several previous investigations indicated that the reason behind Jakarta’s most flood disaster is inappropriate water drainage treatment at the upstream region. Pawitan (2004) also mentioned that the land use transformation creates 18

an influence on the water flow debit and water run-off volume enhancement until around 65% at the upstream area. The flooding volume is also intensifying until 50% above average. The contribution of that water run-off at the middle and upstream are predicted increase around 42.44%, while at the downstream is more improving until 57.56% (BPDAS, 2007).

Figure 11. Jakarta’s Rivers (Author, 2020)

In the other hand, tremendous precipitation magnitude is the fundamental resource of Jakarta river’s flood which had identified with outrageous rainfall. For instance, in September 14th, 2010’s observation, the number of precipitations in Jakarta attained to 100 mm/day and it caused several Jakarta’s areas inundation (BMKG, 2010). Naylor et al. (2017) noticed that even though the effect of climate change on Jakarta’s rainfall excitement is still indistinct, it is supposed that the whole Java district encounter higher number during rainy likewise vice versa in the dry season. In addition, based on daily scheme which produced by the Nature Conservancy organization in 2009, precipitation in all Java part is projected to rise up by 10% during December to February and to decline by 10% during June to August by the middle of 2050s. In fact, as a low-lying land, Jakarta is not entirely undermined by river’s flood, but also the coastal flood which provoked by high waves (Marfai et al., 2007; Ward et al., 2011). The IPCC report in 2012 noticed that the global average sea level rise will improve from 18-59 centimetres in 2100 (contrast with the year of 2000). Meanwhile in Jakarta, the acceleration number of rising sea level is around 5 mm/year and it has been distinguished over ten years (Pribadi, 2008).

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Tremendous floods had been hitting the city of Jakarta almost every five years.

However, in recent decade, flooding has been at unprecedented scale particularly places around the coastal line and riverbank areas. The worst flood was in 2002 and 2007 which paralyzed some Jakarta’s urban environment areas. Flood in 2002 immersed nearly 90 areas with covering more than 16 thousand hectares, or about 1/5 total of Jakarta’s surface measure. Thus, the Governor has been censured for neglecting to actualize the fundamental flood mitigation right after the huge flood disaster in 2002. In addition, according to Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics Agency (BMKG), Jakarta got high precipitation intensity at 377 mm/day since 2007. As a result, it caused another extensive flood and landslide in the beginning of 2020 which is New Year’s Day in January (see Figure 12).

Figure 12. Jakarta’s Flood at the beginning of 2020 in January (Coconuts Jakarta, 2020)

In addition, that also can be seen on author’s GIS-flood model simulates inundated area maps (see Figure 13), the flood disaster is still spreading around Jakarta and mostly located in the northern part of Jakarta and around the riverbanks. North of Jakarta is a coastal line area which is a transitional area where the land is legitimately contiguous with the sea. This condition demonstrates that it is firmly identified with one of the sea level rise effect. It can prompt coastal hazard, especially when the inland is overwhelmed and flooded with the approaching water from the ocean or generally known as rob. Poor flood adaptation and mitigation management in coastal line could potentially injure the community’s activities in north of Jakarta. Moreover, floods in these areas are exacerbated by the subsidence of land because of the ground water extraction redundantly. However, the flood risk around the riverbanks is commonly happen and create a vital damage to the inhabitant surrounding areas.

Both flood disaster sources are still becoming the government’s concern to be mitigated.

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Figure 13. Jakarta’s Flood Risk Sources in 2020 (Author, 2020)

In Figure 14 above, the Jakarta’s main water drainage such as floodgates (yellow colour) and water pumping stations (red colour) deployment are unbalanced, and their locations are improper with the flood disaster risk sources. The areas with a smaller number of these water drainage will get bigger flood area and vice versa. Therefore, the presence of this kind of water drainage is an important hard urban infrastructure element to prevent and control this kind of hazard because it can manage the water volume, supply water to and from rivers or sea, circulate the water flow, and become a water catchment in the city.

Figure 14. Jakarta’s Water Drainage Systems Location in 2020 (Author, 2020)

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Since the Jakarta’s improvement was not yet followed well by the advancement of disposal treatment for conducting wastes produced, the circumstances of Jakarta’s sanitation have progressively deteriorated. Based on Acceleration of the Provision and Priority Infrastructure Committee (KPPIP) data, currently the inclusion proportion in Jakarta is only 4% of the whole region with an appropriate sewage waste treatment and the pollution pace of 84 mg/l. The remaining 96% or more than 10 million individuals live without good quality of sewerage system management. Waste from their households are disposed in open drains such as in the river (see Figure 15) and are arranged untreated. The Jakarta Environment Agency reported that 7,702 tons of the Jakarta's trash was disposed at the Bantar Gebang landfill consistently and 34% of which was plastic waste. Therefore, in the quality of sanitation aspect, Jakarta is becoming the second lowest in Southeast Asia. On the other hand, Jakarta Sewerage System (JSS) is expected to maintain the viability of the National Capital Integrated Coastal Development (NCICD), which has initiated with enhancement. Their projects are becoming a priority to the central governance. Regarding to the Jakarta’s improvement of waste management integration, it guarantees 75% inclusion of the significance waste district service by the year of 2022.

Figure 15. Jakarta’s Garbage in Open Drains (Media K., 2017)

Most of the drainage facilities are not accessible because many of them have been encroached upon by various sorts of residential, government and business districts. In the meantime, indiscriminate dumping of garbage seriously obstructs the rivers which are modified systems of natural channels and saline water from lake borders. It was expected to ease flooding and increase waterborne transportation. Nowadays, it would be difficult to revive these waterways because of the accumulated transitions that have occurred (e.g. land-fills, slum, and squatter settlements, emplacement of main streets and conspicuous buildings, water quality deterioration, etc). Therefore, the encroachment of squatters on riverbanks, the lack of water 22

drainage and sewerage facilities area worsen the flood risk. Directly, it has contributed to the devaluation of the quality in urban infrastructure and services at the capital city of Jakarta.

In addition, many previous studies have indicated that the developing of misfortunes which was identified to flood catastrophe are firmly connected to the high-density population (Bouwer 2011; UNISDR 2011; Jongman et al., 2012). Accordingly, the densely inhabitant’s region will improve the flood-prone peril. Jakarta has a numerous area along the coastal lines and riverbanks which frequently inhabited by low-income community because the land and property costs in non-flood-prone space tend to be higher. Moreover, the riverbanks space is correlated with slum and squatter establishment because of unrestrained urbanization. In other words, the limited space and the high demand of housing, riverbanks become the available open space that usually utilized for illegitimate constructions (see Figure 16). Hence, Marschiavelli (2008) said that the low-income dwellers are highly presented to the danger of flood hazard. The repetitiveness of floods is becoming a disturbance for the entirety of Jakarta's inhabitants. However, that is an extensive involvement for the Jakarta urban's 3.5 million slum citizens, who live in the flood decumbent areas (Texier, 2008; Van Voorst and Hellman, 2015).

In addition, in rainy period, at least 1 metre of Jakarta’s flood would conceive financial losses and illness outbreaks (Haryanto, 2010).

Figure 16. Jakarta’s Slums and Squatters Area in 2020 (Author, 2020)

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On the other hand, the expanding advancement space in Jakarta causes a transformation in land use management including lowering the total green open space number (Septa, 2015).

Green open space is an area which constructed to give some profits which are fundamental to many urban elements. For instance, providing individual’s health and well-being, devoting the sustainability aspect, enhancing the water catchment quality to prevent flood hazard, and supporting the climate change mitigation (Villanueva et al., 2015). Based from previous research, from 2002-2012, the development space in Jakarta enhance from 39,026.45 to 46,404.76 hectares (69% Jakarta’s whole surface area).Those transformations brought a reduction in green land cover in Jakarta from 21,769.26 (32.79%) to 10,939.56 hectares (16.48%) (Setiowati et al., 2018). In 2017, the public green open space area is only around 4.65% (3,080.89 hectares) (see Table 1) and still far from the total of Jakarta’s government target. In accordance with the Regional Spatial Plan 2030 (Rencana Tata Ruang Wilayah) policy which produced by Jakarta's Bureau of Spatial Planning has a goal at least 20% public green open spaces are covered in all corners of the city. Therefore, this difference is becoming one of the problems in Jakarta in present toward the flood hazard risk.

Table 1. Jakarta’s Public Green Open Space in 2017 Type Park Green Line Cemetery City Forest Total Amount Source: Forestry Agency, 2017

Area (hectares) 1,408.89 0,786.41 0,631,33 0,254.26 3,080.89

Percentage (%) 2.13 1.19 0.95 0.38 4.65

Currently, numerous neighbourhood societies in Jakarta have grown small range of adaptation actions, in view of their experience gained from past flood peril occasions. The application of that strategies can conceivably decrease physical and financial misfortunes. The distinguishing proof of civilization adaptation methodologies can develop endeavours in a fiasco risk decrease through government policy since this important neighbourhood information can aid in the advancement of ways of dealing with stress for dwellers of other flood inclined zones. Other neighbourhood elements may likewise have influenced on the flood are land subsidence in a few areas, the deterioration of land use oversight due to the rapid population growth, and infrastructure maintenance.

Therefore, Jakarta needs a versatile

arrangement through the government policies such as flood prevention and water management.

Moreover, the presence of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) policy is also important because the strategies are becoming the imminence of climate change effect in the following year.

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Chapter 4 Case Studies Based on the second chapter, the current key sea level rise effects in Jakarta like flood hazard are always become a threat to the community’s life and decrease the quality of urban environment. Thus, climate change is expected to exacerbate these risks through some government public policies which can control and mitigate that problem. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will determine some of case studies in accordance with literature review. It must be the places and policies where similar problems have been addressed and resolved with a degree of success. It means where the intervention has been inclusive and sustained in time.

The purpose of the case studies is to show how precise issues or overall strategies have been addressed elsewhere, that can expand author’s knowledge.

According to previous chapter, flood is one of the costliest common perils in terms of financial misfortunes (Najibi and Devineni, 2018; Wallemacq et al., 2018). Specifically, flood disaster in coastal cities like Jakarta is anticipated to enhance because of different factors. For instance, the acceleration of rising sea level, intensity of storm deluges, and an expansion of river water volume in peak (Lin et al., 2016; Wahl et al., 2017). This kind of perils influenced the largest extent of the worldwide population (45%) contrasted with other catastrophic events and caused 5,424 death case from 2000 until 2017 (CRED, 2018). Based on geography observer point of view, the greatest increment in future flood hazard was found in Asia, America, and Europe. Many Asian (e.g. Bangkok and Shanghai) and European (e.g. Hamburg and Rotterdam) cities already took mitigation action towards erosion and flood (IPCC, 2012).

Moreover, the factor of rapid urbanization in numerous cities especially those in Asia will predict the improvement of flood hazard (Ehrlich et al., 2018; Du et al., 2019). Even worse, UN-Habitat said that in the Southeast Asian urbanization, 31% of citizen occupies in slums settlement which is illegal inhabitant (Dahiya, 2012). Therefore, the case studies that author selected is one of the Southeast Asian (Bangkok in Thailand) and European (Hamburg in Germany) cities which has investigated on how the prevention actions can cause transformations in flood perils. •

Case Study 1: Bangkok, Thailand Bangkok which situated in Thailand becomes the first selection for the case studies

because it is one of the top 10 coastal cities in worldwide that encountered flood disaster more frequently (Hanson et al., 2010). This city is one of the South East Asian cities with the most 25

rapid urbanization with approximately 11 million people that experiencing the flood threats every year and will be jeopardized to coastal flood by the year of 2070 (Hanson et al., 2010).This low-income country is the most vulnerable against the flood disaster and have the least assets for adapting to the rising of flood risk (Parnell et al., 2007; Lebel et al., 2009; Berquist et al., 2014). Apart from the factor of rapid urbanization, the topography condition and physical environment infrastructure are the other aspect that make Bangkok has high vulnerability toward flooding (Sintusingha, 2006; Nair et al., 2014; Marome et al., 2017).

Moreover, Bangkok located in the low-lying topography just like Jakarta and Chao Phraya River become the main river that cause flood hazard (Nair et al., 2014) (see Figure 16).

Bangkok, Thailand

Chao Phraya River

Figure 16. Geographic Case Studies Area Location (Bangkok, Thailand) (Author, 2020)

Correspondingly, the agriculture and retention land use zones replacement to business and housing improvement, the capability of water drainage, waste, flood protection treatment are in its restrictions point in Bangkok (Sintusingha, 2006; Roachanakanan, 2013).

Consequently, Bangkok is affected by minor and major flood hazards frequently. In the last 10 years which is in 2011, the most devastating flood disaster happened in Thailand with over 800 death reported and costing around US$ 46.5 billion loss overall (World Bank, 2012). Due to that huge economic and infrastructure damage, Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) intervene these flood issues in the following year.

The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration has a specific department which is the Department of Drainage and Sewerage (DDS) to be in charge for flood and water drainage treatment. The purpose is to maintain and increase the quality of flood mitigation infrastructure such as drainage tunnels, dikes, sluices, and water pump station (BMA, 2015a; BMA, 2015b).

The BMA strategies had been detailed inside the Bangkok resilience scenario below the 100 26

RC program and participant associations and helped by the Rockefeller Foundation in 2017 (BMA, 2017). In addition, one of the well-known policy which is the annual Bangkok water management in 2016 and the other two national governance regulation are connected with the flood treatment in Thailand, namely the National Strategic Water Management Plan in 2015 and National Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Plan in 2015. These policies were also considered in this chapter.

Bangkok’s flood hazard mitigation treatment and water drainage system were developed to protect the city from the Chao Phraya River’s tidal and pluvial floods.

Consequently, this river water runoff heading to the northern part of Bangkok and cause more urban environment devastation (BMA, 2015a; BMA, 2015b; Marks, 2016; Veesakul, 2016).

After the biggest floods happen in 2011, the present flood prevention strategies by heightening Chao Phraya River’s dikes. For instance, the capacity and quality of drainage and tunnels construction around the river are developing (see Figure 17). Despite this enormous venture, a few government policies debated that Bangkok should not depend on a basic physical submerge prevention only. Thus, the presence of 100RC program is to develop and expand the variety of flood risk mitigation. The improvement of urban retention capability areas and the flood-proof buildings development are the strategies of it. These methodologies reflect more integrated and comprehensive strategies to maintain diverse urban water systems, instead of exclusively relying upon flood protection through hard infrastructure (water drainage and tunnels) (BMA, 2017).

Figure 17. Flood Protection Strategies in Bangkok (BMA, 2015c)

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Even though Bangkok’s flood hazard protection strategies recently concentrate on drainage systems, the Head of Bangkok Flood Control Centre also suggested a new action by including community participation which called “Chum Chon Ruk Klong” (Society Protects Canal). This initiative boosts every individual to look after the canals of the city and it has a workshop which created by the DDS from BMA. The aim of the workshop is to improve people consciousness and to involve the appearance of all citizens to manage the canals uncluttered (free from trash). However, this strategy still could not increase community interest and had been disregarded in Bangkok’s existing flood control policies itself. In fact, a comprehensive and incorporated manner to flood risk is familiar to Thai society. For instance, the traditional Thai house on stilts design and watersheds configuration had been evolved to adjust the outrageous of flood hazard (Dahiya and Thaitakoo, 2011; Dahiya and Thaitakoo, 2012).

Therefore, community participation still needs to be considered in any policies in Bangkok especially in flood protection management.

•

Case Study 2: Hamburg, Germany Hamburg population reach out 1.76 million and its city centre district has 4.3 million

citizens. In 2030, the city of Hamburg is estimated to adjust individuals at least 103,300 more (Munich, 2010; Statistisches Amt für Hamburg und Schleswig-Holstein, 2015). Therefore, Hamburg is known as the second largest metropolitan in Germany with huge population and it is presented to flood warning which comes from the Elbe River and the North Sea (see Figure 18). In 1962, Hamburg had encountered a huge destructive cyclone which provoked 347 death reports, 61 dike failures and 370 km2 area of flood (Munich, 2010). The vulnerability to storm and floods drove Hamburg to start flood prevention project and it already began in 1997. The strategies started in the urban development project such as providing more space for residential, industrial, and green open space areas. For instance, the program is called HafenCity, which aggresively means to accomplish great quality of urban’s life with high standard of sustainability aspects. As a result, in 2011, the city of Hamburg won the title of European Green Capital which dependent on incorporated plan of action for flood prevention and the efficiency of land use especially at the Hamburg’s harbour areas.

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North

Hamburg, Germany

Elbe River

Figure 18. Geographic Case Studies 2 Location (Hamburg, Germany) (Author, 2020)

The Hamburg city’s government distinguished the flood mitigation as their primary climate change connected and dealt with the current development program in a top-down treatment formation and formal requirements. Since most of the program’s land belongs to the Hamburg’s government, the asset moved first to the centre and Harbour special property fund.

In 1997, the government claimed the company who maintain this project which recognized as the HafenCity Hamburg GmbH in 2004. The obligations are expressed below public regulations such as sales of estate claimed by the city of Hamburg finance and the public infrastructures (i.e. bridges, parks, roads, etc) investor. In addition, the finance obligation also needs to set up the sites, plan, fabricate infrastructures, and make a contract with the residential developers (HafenCity Hamburg GmbH, 2015a; HafenCity Hamburg GmbH, 2015b). Hence, the authority has received a method to maintain the project accurately and refrain formal administration.

HafenCity Hamburg GmbH is an organization with constrained risk which representing the great public segment of Hamburg’s improvement project, engaging partners from specialists dealing with various perspectives. The most significant force from this company is to produce the tender system and conduct an architectural contest. This alteration is encouraging the government’s target to set the high standard of sustainability without indicating the techniques to accomplish them. Designing a building or infrastructure and creating a mix of land use which can support the flood mitigation action is the example of the strategies (see Table 2). The highest bidder and good design without the right concept were not necessarily chosen, but instead the candidate must give the best ideas which match the goal.

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The other aims of this competition are also achieving the best quality of urban environment and forestall land use management without addressing climate change effects.

Table 2. Hamburg Project-based Climate Change Initiatives Strategies Institutional Framework Climate Change Mitigation Targets Climate Change Adaptation Targets

Strategies Cut GHG emissions at least 50% by 2020 Increase the flood prevention standard Improve the quality of the urban environment Formal Policy Create a rule in investing contract and sales of the land Retain the right to negotiate in the enhancement for ensuring the project pursues the original idea Inducement and Spontaneous Introduce of Ecolabels: certificates need undermining 30 to 45% of Factors energy appeal qualifications Increase the information centre of climate change and flood awareness Positive Results in Environmental All new development areas are built above sea level at least 8 to 8.5 metres as an adaptation and mitigation due to the sea level ascent effect which following to the future climatic schemes report by IPCC Build 24% of public green open space around the city Develop 157 hectares of climate change development projects All dwelling constructions are enforced to obtain gold Ecolabel specifications (Through the informal adjustment of Ecolabel qualification, more than 300,000 m2 of building has been developed to accomplish the gold requirement within 4 years) 70% of buildings in the east of ‘Magdeburger Hafen’ have accepted the gold Ecolabel standards Create 2 hectares enhancement of public space around the city, 500 m2 (minimum) of public space at waterfront, and an ingenious heat inventory idea also have been supported by Ecolabel Source: HafenCity Hamburg GmbH, 2010; HafenCity Hamburg GmbH, 2015a; HafenCity Hamburg GmbH, 2015b

To conclude this chapter, both cities receive the same urban natural disaster experience because of climate change effect with severe high floods hazard risk in Bangkok in 2011 and Hamburg in1962. The Bangkok’s flood usually comes only from the river (Chao Phraya River) due to heavy rainfall. Meanwhile, the people who lives in the city of Hamburg is more suffered because flood came from river (Elbe River) and sea level rise also (North Sea). Consequently, both cities have different degree of strategies success for intervening those problems through the government policy such as flood risk management (Bangkok) and sustainability urban project initiatives (Hamburg). In Bangkok, several strategies which made by Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) are focus on the enhancement of flood protection structural systems such as drainage, tunnels, and water pump stations. In contrast, the Hamburg city government is more focus on the development of design in long-term plan for whole urban quality standard to reduce the climate change effect and flood prevention is included on the policy plan such as increase flood awareness by creating all new areas above sea level at least 8-8.5 metres.

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Both Bangkok and Hamburg have developed effective pathways but also provides less opportunity for the community to participate and make those policies need to evaluate again even though the city of Hamburg won the international award in 2011 for the flood mitigation regulation. In Bangkok, the flood prevention strategy through the government policy still need to develop the investment in spatial and adaptive infrastructures (urban detainment and floodproof buildings), community’s flood exposure consciousness, and connection each individuals participation for improving flood vulnerabilities in urban environment. Furthermore, the collaboration from governmental authorities, private organizations, stakeholders, and civilizations at all stages is required to mitigate and prevent the flood disaster risk. It becomes an inspiration for the next climate change alleviation policy because all people require to prevent the same disaster. Therefore, those positives case studies climate change and flood avoidance outcomes become references to conceive a better policy for flood prevention in Jakarta, Indonesia.

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Chapter 5 Evaluation of Indonesia’s Policy Intervention In this last chapter, the first step for doing the evaluation of policy intervention, author creates a list of factors and problems that cause flood disaster in Jakarta due to the river’s overflow in the rainy season and sea level rise effect. Then, evaluate which term in the current implementation of some Indonesia’s policies still could not resolve the problems and how far it has been worked from what was promised in the policies. Lastly, the author offers recommendations on how to adapt or change those current policies. Furthermore, the author also gives some plan of actions for reducing the flood hazard risk from sea and rivers effectively.

•

Flood-causing Factors and Problems in Jakarta Based on the third chapter, author identified how the characteristic of Jakarta’s

geography and community get the impact of the flood from river and sea. This first step is giving a brief conclusion of whole flood-causing factors and problems in Jakarta. It will be simplified by determining that problems into different categorize according to the lessons taken from the case studies and the lack of Jakarta’s urban element (see Table 3). Moreover, this category will provide an understandable explanation for the next step which is evaluating the lack of current Indonesia’s policies.

Table 3. List of Flood-causing Factors and Problems Flood-causing Factors and Problems The land subsidence decreases continuously because until now the community still use the ground water rather than the surface or existing water resources utilization The land use transforms in the upstream zone and resulting of the water debit and run-off enhancement around 65% High ocean waves in the coastal line about 5 mm/year Inappropriate management system of Ciliwung River in the upstream area High precipitation intensity (377 mm/day) Improper floodgates and water pump stations location Poor disposal system for handling wastes Society still dispose their households’ garbage in open drains such as river Encroachment of slums and squatters (illegal) on riverbanks due to the limited space and high house demand Low amount of public green open space (4.65%) and still far from the total of government’s target (20%) Numerous neighbourhood societies in Jakarta have grown small range of adaptation actions Source: Author, 2020

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Categorize of Problems Land Use Arrangement Community Participation Land Use Arrangement Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment Waste Management Waste Management Community Participation Land Use Arrangement Community Participation Land Use Arrangement Green Open Space Capacity Community Participation

•

Current Policies Evaluation After identifying what the factors and problems in Jakarta are, learning the case studies,

and dividing that into several categorize of problems, the flood prevention and water management become a fundamental policy. Thus, the author will evaluate how far that policy can solve the flood problems in Jakarta. In the other hand, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) policy is also become the notion which needs to be followed for the adaptation and mitigation that problems in furthermore.

1. Flood Prevention and Water Management Policy The Ciliwung River is the Jakarta’s most flood decumbent river. However, the Jakarta’s flood also happened around the coastal line because of the sea level rise impact. Thus, floods are officially represented incompletely by the national, the provincial, and the local. Therefore, flood disasters prevention management policy must be considered in the part of the governing cities politics (Douglass, 2014). It is requiring able, submitted governments to be compelling; and in the profoundly floodinclined city of Jakarta, urban specialists are scrutinized as often as possible. Since flood casualties together structure a tremendous voter bank for Jakarta's government officials, it shocks no one that the issue of flooding is an expanding matter for Jakarta’s policymakers.

Over the previous decades, various strides towards a flood arrangement have been taken in Jakarta. The interagency of flood catastrophe teams have been made, to arrange debacle the board at the provincial level, the region level, and the sub-area level in Indonesia. A national body gives focal coordination support from specialized services including the Directorate General for Water Resources (DGWR) of the Ministry of Public Works (PU). In the interim, the National Forestry Department despite everything has the duty regarding upper watershed preservation, and six provincial Watershed Management Units have been set up in Java. The areas are liable for usage of exercises targeting saving water assets and diminishing disintegration (Hadi, 2008). Thus, the current or latest Indonesia’s policy edition that emphasize the flood issues are the law of the Republic of Indonesia (UU RI) number 7 in 2004 (water resources management and flood control) (see Table 4) and the Regional Spatial Plan 2030 (Rencana Tata Ruang Wilayah 2030) which created in 2012 by Bureau of Spatial Planning and Environment in Jakarta (see Table 5). However, author only select the strategies which related to the flood mitigation in Jakarta and it still need to be evaluated due to the unaccomplished strategies and contradicted with the current Jakarta’s 33

situation. In addition, author also identifying these strategies into the categorize of problems just like previous step for the same purpose.

Table 4. Law of Republic of Indonesia Number 7 in 2004 Strategies Chapter Chapter IV Water Resources Utilization

Chapter V Water Resources Damage Control

Article Article 26

Strategies The water resources utilization is based on the integration of rainwater, surface water, and ground water and prioritize the surface water utilization

Article 52

Every person or business company is prohibited from any activities that may cause a water resource damage and water pollution Source: Deputy Cabinet Secretary Field of Law and Legislation, 2004

Categorize of Problems Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment Community Participation Community Participation

Table 5. Region Spatial Plan 2030 Strategies Chapter Chapter IV Objectives, Policies, and Spatial Strategies

Article Article 06

Article 07

Article 08 Article 10

Strategies The total Jakarta’s development of green open space reach 30%, consists of public (20%) and private (10%) green open space as an effort for improving the quality of urban’s life Improve the quality and coverage of waste systems and environmental sanitation at least in accordance minimum service standard Separate the drainage systems and sewerage drains gradually and expand the wastewater management system Conduct a reclamation and revitalization of coastal line areas (North of Jakarta) Manage the river borders to ensure not to damage the quality of riverbank environment, river water flows and the surrounded area Maintain and develop the mangrove forests as a safeguard against the coastal abrasion

Article 11

Article 12

Enhance the quantity and quality of green open space across all areas in the city or district and retain the availability of existing green open space Encourage the waste management based on technology for environmental-friendly and efficiency Create strategic areas for environmental interests which support the conservation of the water resources utilization, the anticipation of the accelerating sea level and the rivers network preservation Develop the flood mitigation facilities and infrastructures by recovering and developing the water reservoir and river’s normalization

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Categorize of Problems Land Use Arrangement Green Open Space Capacity Waste Management Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment Waste Management Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment Land Use Arrangement Land Use Arrangement Green Open Space Capacity Community Participation Land Use Arrangement Green Open Space Capacity Land Use Arrangement Green Open Space Capacity Waste Management

Land Use Arrangement Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment

Article 14

Chapter V Spatial Structure Plan

Article 44

Article 45 Article 51

Article 56

Chapter VI Spatial Pattern Plan

Article 66

Article 67

Article 68

Reduce the risk of disaster through rearrangement of the disaster area’s technology and fabrications.

Develop the coastal area (North of Jakarta) as a climate change effort mitigation Increase the number of blue infrastructure or network for the anticipation of rainfall intensity and provide space for water catchment Build the water reservoir/situ in the right area in the Ciliwung River to reduce the amount of water discharge Build the wells of catchment and Biopore (cylinder holes are drilled vertically into the ground where formed due to the organism activity) absorption well, especially in the areas with high priority of water catchment Implement and expand the polder system (remove the water to rice fields through the flood gates) in some areas which is prone to flooding and a puddle Enhance the flow capacity of the Western Flood Canal (Banjir Kanal Barat) Cengkareng Drain as well as construction Cengkareng Drain II for the western area Align the development of new reclamation area with the water system in North of Jakarta.

Maintain the river borders and canals as the Green Open Space and flood mitigation Improve the community participation for increasing efficiency and effectiveness of service and maintain the quality of environment through the 3R (Reuse, Reduce, Recycle) education program Develop the landfills facilities by increasing the quality and expanding the waste management service range to reduce the volume in the centre landfills Develop the Infrastructure and waste management facilities drainage/river/reservoir/situ/Bay to clean the body of water from trash and prevent garbage accumulates at downstream areas and Jakarta Bay Protect the forest area for regulating water system, preventing flood hazard, controlling erosion, mitigating sea water intrusion and maintain soil fertility Recover and increase the rainwater permeability into the ground on water catchment areas for reducing the runoff water surface at 13 main river streams Manage the area around the river through River Clean program (Program Kali Bersih) and River Facing construction movement

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Land Use Arrangement

Land Use Arrangement Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment

Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment

Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment

Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment

Land Use Arrangement

Green Open Space Capacity Land Use Arrangement Community Participation

Waste Management

Waste Management

Green Open Space Capacity

Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment

Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment Land Use Arrangement Community Participation

Reforestation of coastal line, rivers/canals, and surrounding lakes/reservoirs/situ areas Article 74 Article 77 Article 79 Chapter VII Strategic Area Plan

Article 99

Article 102

Article 105

Chapter XIII Rights, Obligations, and The Role of Community Chapter XV Prohibition

Article 226

Reduce and control the utilization space for settlements and public facilities at flood and tidal waves (rob) prone areas Limit the soil water intake in areas with land degradation prone Encourage the community’s role and anticipation for developing and maintaining the Green Open Space areas Develop the corridor of West Flood Canal (Banjir Kanal Barat), East Flood Canal (Banjir Kanal Timur) and Ciliwung River for preventing flood hazard and becoming Green Open Space Improve the function of flood mitigation system such as rob flood and sea level rise at the coastal line areas

Develop the drainage network systems and flood mitigation planned technically including water reservoirs at the coastal line areas Public must know and understand the spatial and regulatory zoning plan, participate in the spatial planning process, and control the spatial space utilization

Every person not allowed to perform destructive activities such as reduce and/or pollute the mangrove and coastal vegetation ecosystem line areas Source: Bureau of Spatial Planning and Environment, 2012

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Article 239

Green Open Space Capacity Land Use Arrangement Land Use Arrangement

Community Participation Community Participation

Green Open Space Capacity Land Use Arrangement Land Use Arrangement Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment Waste Management Green Open Space Capacity Community Participation Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment

Land Use Arrangement Community Participation Community Participation

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Policy Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) policy is anything but another term for Indonesia which focused on effectively actualize the SDGs by accomplishing the 2030 advancement plan. In such manner, the Indonesia’s Presidential regulation number 59 in 2017 concerning the actualization of SDGs in Indonesia which has commanded by the Ministry of National Development Planning to provide the Indonesia of SDGs roadmap. The purpose is not just about satisfying worldwide understanding yet in addition about achieving Indonesia’s President vision of enhancing individual’s welfare. There are 17 objectives and targets inside the SDGs which have connected each other and require organization among partners, with the four topics of economic, environment, governance, social and association (see Figure 19). Accomplishing such goals-oriented plan within 10 years needs all partners to run extra-miles, beginning 36

from arranging, execution, financing, monitoring, and evaluating. However, recognizing restricted assets admonishes SDGs to prioritize objectives and targets to those of having the most noteworthy influence, among others.

Figure 19. 17 Sustainable Development Goals (Ministry of National Development Planning, 2016)

Based on the 17 SDGs targets, the author only chooses the specific term of goals policy which related to this thesis topic which are the sea level rise and flood hazard impact. In every target, the government explain the strategies into two period of policy direction strategies which are year of 2020-2024 and 2025-2030. The term of goals policies that has a direct interrelationship with it among others are sustainable cities, and communities; responsible consumption and production; and climate action. As a result, the first period of policy direction strategies (2020-2024) which the closest one from current time will be adapted as a supporting source and guideline for offering the recommendations to resolve the Jakarta’s problems.

A. Sustainable Cities and Communities Based on the previous chapter, the densely populated region will enhance the flood risk. In fact, numerous environments along the riverbanks and coastal line are frequently inhabited by low-income communities in Jakarta. Consequently, these areas are related to slum and squatter settlement because of the uncontrolled progression of urbanization. Besides, the emergence of urban slum and sprawl in these areas will also decline the quality of Jakarta’s urban life. In 2019, only 39.47% Indonesia’s family units have effectively fulfilled the four measurements of a protected and sufficient house broadly, while in city region only 40.05% of households have satisfied the indicators. By 2024, it is focused on enhancing the number into 52.78% by the bundle of strategy which structured to handle urban slums and sprawls (see Table 6).

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Table 6. Percentage of Households Proportion Year Baseline Intervention 2015 34.24 % 34.24% 2019 39.47 % 40.05 % 2024 45.25 % 52.78 % 2030 52.18 % 68.06 % Source: Ministry of National Development Planning, 2016

Inside the extent of guaranteeing the arrangement of protected and sufficient housing, the Indonesia’s government had devised a technique to meet the fundamental four indicators which is recognizing slum family units: housing sturdiness, living space adequacy, access to water supply improvement and sanitation satisfactory. Therefore, through this SDGs policy, the government have resolved to meet the objective of guarantee entry to affordable, secure, and sufficient settlement and fundamental facilities in 2030 by formulating strategies which targeting at alleviating, forestalling, and upgrading slums to absolute minimum. These strategies are including to appropriately conveying the land residency, infrastructure of services, financing plans, stakeholder’s ability, and regulations, as well as all-encompassing plan (see Table 7).

Until these strategies’ completion, the number of slums along the riverbanks and coastal line in Jakarta will reduce gradually. In addition, these goals are included in the categorize of land use management and community participation problems.

Table 7. Sustainable Cities and Communities Strategies Policy Direction 2020-2024 Strategies Target: Improving society access to affordable, safe, and sufficient settlements gradually, regarding to develop an urban environment without slums and squatters Demand Side Supply Side Enabling Environment Fortifying the essential and Creating housing arrangement which Authorizing the optional housing finance market goes along to and coordinated with execution of to make productive housing spatial alongside essential construction regulations arrangement infrastructure planning (e.g. transportation service facilities) Improving the housing Expanding proficient urban land Upholding the endowment plan to have more utilization or inhabitants for housing application of housing proficient and feasible financing purpose by creating comprehensive permission and land use plan, by building up a dynamic urban reestablishment plan and land management housing appropriation and union plan gradually eliminate wasteful existing subsidy conspire from government Extending the housing finance Creating a communal housing in Improving national and service, particularly for the every urban region, including local stakeholders, consideration of non-fixed industrial zones society, and private income group and self-form division cooperation housing family units Using state-claimed land to help Creating impetus and housing arrangement for low-income disincentive method in families settlements arrangement Source: Ministry of National Development Planning, 2016

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B. Responsible Consumption and Production As indicated by Jakarta Environment Agency data, Jakarta generate an average of 7,702 tons of the city’s trash with 34% of plastic waste every day. Waste from Jakarta family’s unit at least 20% ends up at in open depletes, for example, in the rivers.

Therefore, that bad habit will give a big influence on the condition of water and disposal management system in Jakarta. Moreover, that is one of the factors that increase the flood hazard risk. Meanwhile, the waste management infrastructures and innovation are not staying aware and not balance with Jakarta’s rate of urbanization. This issue is likewise intensified with the significance lack of consciousness to do waste management at family units’ level and how devastating the waste, principally plastic, to the environment.

The government sets an objective to diminish plastic waste from 70.60 million ton to 50.90 million ton by the year of 2024 (see Table 8), which need a significant reform approach to accomplish this target. However, changing individuals’ attitude and habit against waste generation and management is the key to decrease Indonesia’s waste production, particularly in Jakarta. In addition, establishing more extreme strategies such as forbidding a single-use plastic can also be an alternative. The region which previously actualized that strategies since mid-2019 is Bali. Therefore, the government must create several strategies (see Table 9) because of enhancing the performance of family unit wastes reduction especially plastic waste. Directly, it will give influence on the Jakarta’s landfill and waste management performance throughout the year. This goals and strategies are included in the categorize of waste management and community participation problems.

Table 8. Waste Production (million ton) Year Baseline Intervention 2015 62.40 61.10 2019 67.10 53.70 2024 70.60 50.90 2030 74.76 52.27 Source: Ministry of National Development Planning, 2016 Table 9. Responsible Consumption and Production Strategies Policy Direction 2020-2024 Strategies Target: Enhancing the performance of family unit wastes reduction especially plastic waste Creating new norms, standards, procedures, and criteria in decreasing family unit wastes Creating and upgrading waste data technology Optimizing society’s participation through communication, data, and education of reuse, reduce, recycle program (3R) Implicating and improving the incentive and disincentive method in family units' waste reduction Source: Ministry of National Development Planning, 2016

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C. Climate Action Regarding to the first chapter, the greatest indicator of the accelerating sea level impact which is flood hazard risk are originating from the high proportion of worldwide greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in urban environment. That emissions are improving every year and generated by the diversity of human activities. Moreover, as indicated by the World Resources Institute opinion in 2014, Indonesia is the fifth biggest GHG producer on the planet. In Indonesia, endeavours to advance a green economy are driven by specific government and NGO stakeholder sectors, while powerful organizations and other government entertainers restrict the reformations because they are compelling financial development opportunities and national sovereignty. Therefore, the government make a few strategies for diminishing the intensity of GHG emission (see Table 10) by expanding in reforestation, and improving the waste and blue carbon quality for mitigating the climate change impact issues such as flood disaster risk in Jakarta (see Table 11).

In other word, reforestation play a crucial appearance in the metropolitan society life. For instance, provide considerable financial, social, and environmental benefits for the community, prevent soil erosion, enhance watershed protection, and mitigate climate change effect. Moreover, forest is one of the green open space forms that support a water recipient and catchment for avoiding flood hazard. Improving the public participation in forest management and involving the private stakeholder in forest conservation program could be a more effective strategies to protect Indonesia’s forests cover particularly in Jakarta (only 4.65% of green areas). In the following year, the number of Jakarta’s urban green open space (less than 20%) will increase, and the watershed quality also get improve because the local government must follow these SDGs strategies. These climate change strategies and goals are included in the categorize of land use management, waste management, green open space capacity, and community participation problems.

Table 10. GHG Emission Reduction (million-ton CO2) Year Baseline Intervention 2015 2.148 2.148 2019 1.961 1.859 2024 2.140 1.710 2030 2.476 1.825 Source: Ministry of National Development Planning, 2016

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Table 11. Climate Action Strategies Policy Direction 2020-2024 Strategies Target: Intensity of GHG emission reduction and green open space improvement Forest, Land and Peat Waste Management Blue Carbon Restoring the capacity of biological Arrangement of incorporated Maintaining the green system, watershed, and natural services waste management service open space district and of forestry, maintaining, and protecting restoring the mangroves green land cover for individuals and function as a flood and urban environment welfare soil erosion prevention Source: Ministry of National Development Planning, 2016

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Policies Recommendations and Plan of Actions These government public policies are played an important role in flood adaptation and mitigation, but the current Jakarta’s environment is still not getting better with all the problems that author already mentioned above due to the flood disaster. Therefore, having finished evaluating the part of the policies that related to these problems, author will give new recommendations and plan of actions on how to achieve these according to the SDGs strategies and targets (see Table 12).

Table 12. List of Recommendations and Plan of Actions Flood-causing Factors and Problems The land subsidence decreases continuously because until now the community still use the ground water rather than the surface or existing water resources utilization

Categorize of Problems Land Use Arrangement

Recommendations

Plan of Actions

Stop the ground water intake for the water resources utilization and reorganize the land use management section in the current Regional Spatial Plan (RTRW) policies

Minimize the Jakarta’s development in open land area (water resources) Retain the land use of waterproducing areas Change the ground water retrieval permit to be the ground water restriction in the next RTRW policies Give some enforcement of penalties for whom breaking this new land use regulation Encourage the water reserve osmosis (sea or river water desalination) system for the water resources utilization Socialize and educate the community about this new water utilization prohibition Restore the originality of land use function and remove the current existing building which decrease the quality of water treatment into new area outside the water catchment areas

Community Participation

The land use transforms in the upstream zone and resulting of the water debit and run-off enhancement around 65 % High ocean waves in the coastal line about 5 mm/year

Land Use Arrangement

Restrict the land use change in the upstream area, especially water catchment areas.

Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment

Build the urban structural infrastructure as a coastal protection

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Accelerate the process of development government project which is the giant sea wall in the coastal line area

Inappropriate management system in the upstream area of Ciliwung River watershed High precipitation intensity (377 mm/day)

Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment

Increase the quality of Ciliwung River management system

Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment

Provide better quality and increase the number of water catchment

Improper flood gates and water pump stations location

Water Catchment & Drainage Treatment

Place the right location of new floodgates and pump stations

Poor disposal system for handling wastes

Waste Management

Improve the disposal system quality

Society still dispose their households’ trash in open drains such as river

Waste Management

Provide and increase number of waste management spot

Community Participation

Change this bad community’s behaviour

Encroachment of slums and squatters (illegal) on riverbanks due to the limited space and high house demand

Land Use Arrangement

Prohibit the riverbanks areas as an illegal land use settlement

Community Participation

Reviving people’s mindset about the disadvantages of illegal housing

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Redevelop the coastal line area with flood adaptation implementation Avoid the development of reclamation island without providing a good water drainage system Enlarge and do the revitalization in the poor quality of river Integrate all the water management system Enlarge the water drainage tunnels Apply the Biopore absorption well as a water catchment for high water flakes Build new flood gates in the right location Enhance the production of mobile water pump station for improving the flexibility of water treatment and flood protection Enhance the production of plastic recycle machine number and quality for reducing Bantar Gebang Landfill workload ability Distribute the plastic recycle machine until small district level for the improvement of waste management spot number to manage their waste independently Increase the education of the 3R (reuse, reduce, and recycle) program to the community since early year Make a competition for the cleanest district with less trash and give a reward to the winner to trigger the transformation of community behaviour in waste aspect Implementing a clean river program to the community frequently Give some enforcement of penalties for disposing their trash in any water drainage Emphasize the riverbanks areas as a green open space land use by removing the riverbanks illegal inhabitant to the communal housing such as terraced flats in the right land use arrangement Give some enforcement of penalties for building up a housing illegally Socialize and educate the community about the land use masterplan, the benefit of good water drainage, and green open space to the urban’s life

Low amount of public green open space (4.65%) and still far from the total of government’s public green open space target (20%)

Numerous neighbourhood societies in Jakarta have grown small range of adaptation actions Source: Author, 2020

Land Use Arrangement

along the riverbanks area Re-arrange the land use management regulation

Green Open Space Capacity

Increase the public green open space at least more than government’s target

Community Participation

Scaling up and upgrading the local community’s flood adaptation strategies

Improve the percentage of total green areas (> 30%) in land use regulation for better flood protection Restore the green areas from the illegal land use development Design the public open space in abandoned and vacant place into more green area like park or plaza Design the building and open space with environmental-friendly concept Increase the mangroves plantation number in coastal line areas (north of Jakarta) Identifying, reviewing, and implementing the successful of adaptation strategies in certain communities to the wider area in Jakarta

Figure 20. Future Jakarta Plan of Actions Illustration Map (Author, 2020)

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It can be seen in the picture above (Figure 20), that not all the recommendations and plan of actions included. They are just the most important ones that need to be executed immediately in the following year. There are several processes that can be done for accomplishing all these new strategies, starting from without involving the important role such as government and stakeholders to the involvement of a wider organization. The easiest and the most effective strategy completion is encouraging the community interest and participation.

For instance, the realization of 3R (reuse, reduce, and recycle) program and cleanest district competition in every areas of Jakarta. These activities do not require the government interference and enough starting from the locals. Directly, it can change the bad habit of the community such as disposed their households in haphazard place or open drains (river or water sewerage) into good behaviour and more care about the waste disposal management. Even though that strategies had been implemented to the community level, another factor of floodcausing also should be noted too in more serious degree. In other words, all new strategies are related to each other and have the same goal which is creating better Jakarta’s environment and preventing flood disaster. Therefore, all the Indonesia’s government and stakeholders also need to participate and work together for the next flood prevention and water management policies.

In short-term, they may fully support the activities (competition, 3R program, etc). In longterm, goverment through the Ministry of Education and Culture might put enforcement to the syllabus at school for changing the habit towards waste and water management, starting with the early years education and also informal sector such as community education involving every household in neighbourhood association level.

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CONCLUSION Through this master’s thesis, the author learned many things such as what is the factor that cause a climate change, what are the climate change effect that cause an urban environment deterioration, which countries that receive this kind of impact, how well the cities’ government could resolve and mitigate that issues in the flood prevention and water management policies through the case studies, and what are the recommendations and plan of actions if these policies still has a lack of strategies and contradicted with the mean time situation. In other words, the main goal of this thesis is to give a new perspectives and ideas to the Indonesia’s government through the following policy. In the end, the author established the new recommendations and plan of actions against the author’s study area selection, which is Jakarta, capital city of Indonesia.

In the beginning, the author described the principle and general knowledge to answer author’s key research about how the climate change happen and what are the factors that provoke an urban quality’s degradation. The presence of high greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions percentage from the urban community’s activities is becoming the biggest factor to the climate change. Consequently, the phenomenon of sea level acceleration is the result of that effect. The factor of sea level rise shows a geographical variety due to several variables including the conveyances of changes in sea circulation, salinity, temperature, and winds. Those are the reason why the sea level does not rise consistently and uniformly. Accordingly, it has already influenced the coastal and low-lying deltas urban areas condition in developing nations like Indonesia. Furthermore, this acceleration of rising sea level has been predicted to enhance until 2 metres in 2100 continuously. Therefore, it caused a coastal erosion, flooding, and saltwater interruption into deltas and estuaries. In addition, flood became the most frequent natural hazard and it presented genuine threats to inhabitants and their environment.

The city of Jakarta in Indonesia became the study area in accordance with the author’s country focus on. Indonesia is one of the developing countries in South East Asia which encounters the most noteworthy case of flood risk as well as the greatest effect of sea level rise.

However, the source flood disaster in Jakarta did not only come from sea, but also from river.

There are 13 rivers across the city and nine of them are arranged as a main river which contributes to flood disaster. Among those rivers, the Ciliwung River known as the greatest waterways source cause of flood hazard. As a result, a lot of problems had been occurred in Jakarta such as the land subsidence reduction, the land use transformation, coastal line devastation due to flood disaster. Moreover, these problems affected the other urban element 45

like land use arrangement, water catchment and drainage treatment, waste management, green open space capacity, and community participation.

In order to achieve author’s goals, the author explained some of case studies around the world. The case studies must be of places and policies where similar problems have been addressed and resolved with a degree of success; where intervention has been inclusive and sustained in time. The city of Bangkok in Thailand and Hamburg in Germany became the case studies selection. Both cities were severing high flood hazard risk from river and sea, but they had different strategies for intervening that problem through the government policy. On the government regulations in Bangkok, they are more focus on the construction of structural infrastructure for flood protection and in contrast, the Hamburg’s city government was developing the long-term plan (sustainability’s term). Thus, both cities have the same goal which is reducing the climate change effect and increasing the flood prevention program.

On the other hand, the latest flood prevention (Regional Spatial Plan 2030 in 2012) and water treatment (Law of the Republic of Indonesia number 7 in 2004) policies in Indonesia is still need to be evaluated because until now, the condition of Jakarta is still not getting better from the flood hazard risk. There are several strategies has less precise inside these policies.

For instance, the permit for the utilization of ground water as a community daily use.

Unfortunately, this kind of strategies was not right because the ground water utilization is the main factor causing flooding frequently due to the Jakarta’s land subsidence. As a result, the author provided several recommendations and plan of actions to evaluate that kind of strategies in the last chapter. Additionally, the presence of Indonesia’s Sustainable Development Goals is also an important guide to follow in every aspect of Jakarta’s flood problem. However, the author believes all this new recommendations and plan of actions proposal is still needed to deliberate and take into government account for more consideration process. In the following year, it is hoped that all the government, stakeholders, and the community of Jakarta will work together for adapting and mitigating more adaptable and precise actions against the climate change effect issues such as flood from river and sea.

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