Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood by William Toohey III

Pathways Between Home and School Urban Design for Childhood William Toohey III, MAUD 2020 Harvard University Graduate School of Design

William J. Toohey III Student

Stephen Gray Thesis Advisor

Contents

Chapter 1

Introduction - 12 Methodology - 19 Frontier Knowledge - 20 Desired Outcomes - 25 Theoretical Framework - 26

Chapter 2

State & Local Context - 28 Case Studies - 54

Chapter 3

Urban Design Proposal - 72 Final UPD Thesis Review - 106 Reflection & Criticism - 107 List of Figures - 108 Bibliography - 112

Glossary of Terms Active Commuting - commuting solely by walking or cycling; or by walking or cycling in combination with motorized modes of travel, e.g., a combination of car with walking or of train with cycling (Jones and Ogilvie, 2012) Built Environment - the man-made environment that provides the setting for human activity Child Development - the biological, psychological, and emotional changes that occur in human beings between birth and the conclusion of adolescence Early Childhood - the period from birth to eight years old, which is a time of remarkable growth with brain development at its peak (UNESCO, 2019) Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner) - a framework through which community psychologists examine individuals’ relationships within communities and the wider society. It focuses on the quality and context of the child’s environment. Bronfenbrenner states that as a child develops, the interaction within these environments becomes more complex. This complexity can arise as the child’s physical and cognitive structures grow and mature. Home - the social, economic, and physical environments that provide primary shelter for a family Participatory Design (or “co-design”) - an approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders in the design process to help ensure the result meets their needs and is usable Pathways - 1. physical surfaces to travel along; 2. ways of achieving a specified result; a course of action PHA - Portsmouth Housing Authority

Protective Factor - a condition or attribute (skill, strength, resource, support, or coping strategy) in individuals, families, communities, or the larger society that helps people deal more effectively with stressful events and mitigate or eliminate risk in families and communities Risk Factor - any attribute, characteristic, or exposure of an individual that increases the likelihood of developing a disease or injury School - formal or informal social, emotional, and physical environment or institution that helps educate children Urban Design - a method of synthesizing knowledge from wellestablished fields, in order to help guide various forms of place-based development Various forms of development: community development, early childhood development, positive youth development, economic development, real estate development

Acknowledgments This work would not have been possible without the support and encouragement from a broad array of people. I would like to acknowledge the constructive guidance I received from Michael Hooper, Hanne Van Den Berg, Stephen Gray, and the Frances Loeb Library staff. Collectively, they helped organize, filter, and focus my ideas which allowed me to follow through with a relevant thesis project. Friends and family also deserve much praise. I am especially thankful for the many conversations I had over the past year with my fellow classmate, Justin Cawley. He has challenged me intellectually, while supporting me socially and emotionally. Thank you for always being available to talk through life and big ideas. I would also like to highlight the phenomenal MAUD 2020 cohort; there are too many names to reference, but I have made incredible new connections with so many thoughtful individuals who come from all corners of our planet. I am extremely grateful I had the chance to meet and engage with such an extraordinary group of humans during my two years at the GSD. I am also grateful for the close contact I had with my mother and sister throughout the process of creating this thesis. And thanks to my father, I was able to take things â&#x20AC;&#x153;one day at a time,â&#x20AC;? as he knows the reminders are helpful. And thank you, Harvard University Health Services, for the resilient psychological support you delivered during rather turbulent times in the fall of 2019. I was lucky to have such a compassionate team of caregivers to support me when school and life started to feel too overwhelming. I would not have seen this project through without HUHS. Finally, I would like to thank Elizabeth Ghiseline, Carol Burns, and Ben Matteson, for listening to and providing feedback on my work in progress. I am happy to still have intellectual support from great Wentworth Architecture professors. Thank you for the mentorship.

I dedicate this work to the late Ryan F. Carter: a neighborhood friend I spent many years of my childhood with, from ages 8 to 12, skateboarding, snowboarding, four-wheeling, watching movies, and listening to music. If I had the power to go back as an experienced adult, I would try my best to help change unhealthy environments we found ourselves in as children. I will continue my work and cherish the good memories we shared. Rest easy, friend. 22 June 1991 - 15 May 2020 Rochester, New Hampshire

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

Introduction

Chapter 1

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

Infographic representing 54 Articles from the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted by the General Assembly and opened for signatures on 20 November 1989. The U.S. remains the only member of the UN to not ratify the Convention, accessed 29 January 2020, https://www.unicef.org/rosa/reports/convention-rights-child. 14

Chapter 1

Abstract In 1996, the United Nations Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Fund launched The Child Friendly Cities Initiative (CFCI), â&#x20AC;&#x153;to respond to the challenge of realizing the rights of children in an increasingly urbanized and decentralized worldâ&#x20AC;? (UNICEF, 2018). As contemporary architects, urban designers, and planners seek improved understanding of their roles and projects, there emerges an opportunity to advocate for child-centered global agendas by realizing goals at the local level. Focused around health, education, and affordable housing, this urban design thesis is interested in adapting existing suburban infrastructure to better meet the needs of children from low-income housing developments and households in the United States. An analysis of relationships between three different local housing developments in the City of Portsmouth, New Hampshire (Gosling Meadows, Wamesit Place, and Winchester Place Apartments) and three respective elementary schools (New Franklin, Dondero, and Little Harbour) reveals two primary concerns for the urban designer: firstly, the proximity and lack of pedestrian infrastructure between home and school makes it difficult and rather unrealistic for children and adolescents to actively commute; and secondly, diverse programmatic elements that structure fun and healthy places are absent in low-income areas of the city, often with more gas stations and highways than crosswalks and spaces for recreation. The sheer lack of basic amenities and safe connections in a developed nation inspire an urban design project engaged in re-imagining a child-centered neighborhood that is calibrated more accurately to adequately serve a spectrum of constituencies. Although focused primarily on low-income children and families, this larger spectrum of constituencies includes people of various incomes, ages, ethnicities, occupations, and geographies. The work considers the effects that complex social, economic, and power structures have on the physical and spatial conditions of the city. What does this mean for the experience and development of a child living in poverty? Must a child necessarily accept these structures and conditions without agency to change them or awareness of why and how the environment has come to be?

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

From a built environment perspective, the macro-level insight that comes out of this work is that children of all income levels, at the very least, deserve similar benefits that come with well-designed and planned physical infrastructure. And it is the researcher, developer, and public servantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s responsibility to include and empower the voice of young people whenever possible. Unfortunately, the constraints of this thesis did not allow for a community engagement process, but it advocates for such practices in active projects that influence real change. Pivoting on the complexity of socioeconomic structures, learning and child-developmental inequities, behavioral and health challenges, and the often neglected voice of children in the American democracy, this thesis offers an agenda to center suburban and urban development on the development of the child. Keywords Child development, active commuting, walkability, play, public health, Safe Routes to School, Portsmouth, New Hampshire

Education

Health

Housing

Chapter 1

Gosling Meadows Home

School New Franklin

Little Harbour School

Home Home

Winchester Place

Wamesit Place

Urban Design Proposal

School Dondero

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

Introduction This thesis is invested in an interdisciplinary mindset toward suburban and urban development that engages with the intersection of public health, planning, and design. With a particular interest in the health and well-being of children in low-income contexts, this work explores the agency of the urban designer as a child advocate and visualizer of a safer, better connected, and more equitable built environment. My own personal experiences of living in the Gosling Meadows in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, from ages three to seven, have influenced my interests in focusing this research and design in this small coastal city. My time in Head Start at the Seacoast Community School and kindergarten and first grade at New Franklin Elementary School also influenced my approach to locating the original six home and school locations for analysis. This is a local context I am familiar with, so I was comfortable thinking about its hypothetical urban transformation. The intended audience for this work is anyone interested in the intersections among child advocacy, child protection, prevention science, public health, planning, and urban design. This is a design thesis, but the bodies of knowledge referenced span medical journals, public health policy, U.S. federal programs, transportation legislation, health insurance databases, non-profit organizations, and global agencies. The design outcomes rely on an understanding of quantitative and qualitative data present in the literature. I hope this investigation is relevant and timely for people interested in design and public health. The book is formatted in a relatively straightforward way for a design thesis. Following this introduction, the remainder of Chapter 1 includes a section describing the methodology, frontier knowledge, and a theoretical framework that connects urban design strategies to broad categories of concern for child development. Chapter 2 includes demographic data from state and local levels, as well as a series of case studies that inform the design work to follow. And Chapter 3 includes the urban design proposal, capped off by a final section for reflection and criticism.

Chapter 1

Methodology The methods used in this thesis involve the gathering and production of a diverse set of data: maps of local demographics; a series of case studies at multiple scales; state-level health insurance information for children enrolled in Medicaid and CHIP; estimates of the total number of elementary students who rely on free or reduced lunch; estimates of the number of children and adolescents who live in three of the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s largest low-income housing developments; local Safe Routes to School Funding and relevant goals from the Portsmouth 2025 Master Plan Vision; local articles that discuss initiatives that concern the future of local public housing developments or overcoming barriers to Head Start; drone photos from a site visit; and new design drawings. Original drawings, renderings, and a series of five organizing principles make up a considerable portion of the overall design research. The act of drawing involves a mix of hand sketching, computer drafting, 3D modeling, and collaging. The final phase of this research is visually represented in a series of five organizing principles with smaller vignettes to illustrate scenarios within a larger suburban ecosystem.

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

Frontier Knowledge “Each year, the US spends seven times as much money on medical costs alone to treat people killed or injured while walking and biking than it does on preventing those deaths and injuries through putting in sidewalks, crosswalks, bike lanes, and other infrastructure that keeps people safe” (CDC, 2019). The research and evidence presented by the United States Safe Routes to School Program makes a compelling case for why there should be continued economic and political support for built environment improvements that improve child health outcomes. The program defends its argument for making built environment improvements by referencing a study that reveals “the proportion of students in grades K-8 who walk or bike to school fell from 47.7% in 1969 to only 12.7% in 2009” (McDonald et al., 2011). In addition to this decrease in active commuting to school, researchers have drawn a parallel to the relationship between adequate transit infrastructure and the prevalence of childhood obesity. One study that examined 16,875 youth found that 18.4% of children (ages 6-11) and 20.5% of adolescents (ages 12-19) are obese (Hales et al., 2018). Overall, this program supports the evolving resurgence of a public health approach to urban planning and design. The initiative first started in the 1990s but gained much more traction in 2005 when Congress helped propel funding opportunities nationwide (SRTS History, 2019). “This program provided more than $1 billion in funding in all states to support infrastructure improvements and programming to make it safer for children to walk and bicycle to and from school” (CDC, 2019). Since 2005, the country has passed important transportation legislation to help make improving routes to school a feasible national endeavor, in the form of SAFETEA-LU (2005), MAP-21 (2012), and the FAST Act (2015) (SRTS History, 2019). Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU), Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (MAP-21), and Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act (FAST Act) empowered municipalities to respond to the vision and tasks outlined by Safe Routes to School. The program also establishes an important precedent for how a small-scale planning and design project can reach the large-scale resourcefulness and power structure of the

Chapter 1

United States Federal Government. It is not too often that design projects scale up to utilize the existing structures of national systems. At a local level, Safe Routes to School has manifested as a series of design strategies, new programs, policies, and tactical design interventions. They include strategies such as walking school buses, bicycle trains, sensory paths, encouragement programs (e.g., frequent walker/rider programs), comprehensive encouragement campaigns, driver yielding enforcement programs (e.g., pedestrian decoys, painting, signage), double fines for speeding in school zones, lowering speed limits, bicycle parking, connector paths, pedestrian bridges, student waiting areas and stand-back lines, and new traffic control plans (SRTS, 2019). Inside the Safe Routes to School Movement, there is also something known as the 6 E’s framework, which includes education, encouragement, engineering, enforcement, evaluation, and equity. This framework helps support a rigorous process to execute thorough projects in the realm of equitable transportation. To use one city as an example for how local funding influenced actual design interventions, one could look to Portsmouth, New Hampshire. This is a small coastal city with a population of roughly 20,822 people, 18.7% of which are youth (0-19 years old) (GPPHN, 2007). “The City of Portsmouth is one of eleven communities awarded a grant under the most recent NH DOT’s Safe Routes to School Grant Round of the Safe Routes to School (SRTS) program. The City has been awarded a total of $105,239 out of the $1.9 million awarded state-wide. Most of the grant funds ($88,534) will be used for design and construction of an on-road bicycle route on Lafayette Road / Middle Street including marked bike lanes, pavement markings, and signage as appropriate. The remaining $16,705 will support non-infrastructure Safe Routes to School programs and activities, including Walk or Bike to School Day events; evaluation and tracking of walk / bike to

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

school habits and preferences for Portsmouth K-to8 schools; and program coordination and volunteer training.” (SRTS, 2013) Regarding work in underserved communities, Safe Routes to School has articulated an interest in urban interventions that serve lowincome households. The program warns of the consequences of not investing in infrastructure that serves the most vulnerable portions of the population. “Limited transportation options for low-income individuals and families lead to restricted employment possibilities, missed doctors’ appointments, low school attendance, and many other deleterious effects, and safe and convenient walking and bicycling are a significant piece of overcoming these challenges. In addition, there are many benefits of active transportation, particularly for health and air quality in low-income communities.” (SRTS Underserved Communities, 2019) In the context of low-income communities, there are certainly difficult challenges to overcome at the intersection of active commuting and equity. Access to physical infrastructure that is designed to help connect all people to the resources necessary for survival, or even a healthy life, is essential for planners and designers to consider. This reality is only possible if stakeholders follow high quality plans and an inclusive vision for what healthy places and spaces require. Additional scientific literature that supports the Safe Routes to School Program includes the Timperio et al. study of “Personal, Family, Social, and Environmental Correlates of Active Commuting to School” (2006) and Zhu and Lee’s study of “Correlates of Walking to School and Implications for Public Policies: Survey Results from Parents of Elementary School Children in Austin, Texas” (2009). These two studies provide sufficient evidence for why the topic of traveling between home and school merits further study.

Chapter 1

What about evidence that highlights the impact and cost effectiveness of the Safe Routes to School program? The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention conclude the following: “SRTS programs are associated with increased active transportation, including an increase in the number of students walking or biking to and from school. Over a 3-year period, a comparative analysis based upon a national sample of school SRTS programs found that SRTS was associated with: [1] an increase in the percentage of students who walked to and from school from 7-8 percent to 15-16 percent, and [2] an increase in the percentage of students who biked to and from school from one percent to two percent.” (CDC, 2019) The report goes on to say, “although the evidence for active transport overall is mixed, travel to and from school by bicycle has been associated with increased cardiorespiratory fitness levels among students. By improving the environment for walking and bicycling in urban areas, SRTS could also contribute to increased physical activity among adults and reductions in injuries involving pedestrian and bicyclist collisions” (CDC, 2019). And an analysis in New York City estimated a $230 million societal benefit over the course of a 50-year period that the transit improvements would be effective. Many arguments for the cost effectiveness of planning and design interventions that improve public health refer to productivity loss and medical costs of injuries and death. In the context of a life-versus-death proposition, investing in built environment improvements---especially ones that prove to reduce death and injuries---seems to be a logical path forward. At a global scale, the Safe Routes to School Program can be thought of in the context of a much larger movement of planning and designing cities that is more closely aligned to the health and safety needs of children and families. UNICEF has traversed this territory with their “Child Friendly Cities and Communities Handbook” and Child Friendly Cities Initiative (2018). And organizations such as the Bernard van Leer Foundation have funded programs such as Urban95 that asked urban planners and designers, “if you could

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

experience the city from 95cm---the height of a 3-year-old---what would you change?â&#x20AC;? (Stipo, 2019). This child-centered approach to urbanism goes against the peculiar habit of seemingly apolitical architects blindly contributing to the relentless amplification of urbanization across the planet, often funded by clients with conflicting personal interests that do not align with a public health agenda. We see this in highly developed parts of the world where architectural projects are more closely aligned with capitalistic world views, rather than planning and designing for childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s health and safety on their way to school or return to home. In the grand scheme of planning and designing for childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s well-being, Safe Routes to School provides an important piece to a much larger but promising puzzle that puts public health closer to the center of what built environment professionals might be able to do with their interdisciplinary interests and expertise. Today is an exciting time to care about public health and the responsibility of urban planning and design.

Chapter 1

Desired Outcomes ↑ Visible increase in degree of physical connections between home and school ↑ Visible increase in degree of physical access to beneficial facilities, amenities, activities, and safe exploration along paths ↑ Visible increase in quality of path composition - What’s the path composed of? (e.g., material, texture, technology, safety) ↓ Visible decrease in quantity of environmental risk factors along paths (e.g., automobile traffic, lack of sidewalks, lack of amenities, lack of physical accessibility, and poor quality or nonexistence of open/recreational space for children/families) ✓ Created new understanding of possible relationships between stakeholders, low-income family housing, education facilities, child development, and the physical infrastructure that helps support connection, stability, safety, and well-being

Quotes from the Literature that Defend Categories “A child’s biology determines how physiological processes unfold and how organ systems adapt to outside influences. Biological response patterns, including responses to stress, novel situations, and primary relationships, can directly and indirectly influence other biological, cognitive (learning), and behavioral processes.” (NCBI, 2004)

“Reviews of experimental evaluations of high-quality early childhood education programs have concluded that intensive programs improve children’s short-term cognitive development and longterm academic achievement, as well as reduce grade retention of children in special education (Barnett, 1995; Farran, 2000; Karoly et al., 1998) and rates of academic failure, delinquent behavior, and adolescent pregnancy rates (Hawkins et al., 1992). Furthermore, some of these programs also improve children’s long-term social behavior, as indicated by fewer arrests and reports of delinquent behavior. Indeed, the payoffs to early education programs may well exceed those of formal schooling (Heckman, 1999).” (NCBI, 2004)

Examples of Influences on Child Health

- Obesity - Diabetes - Traffic Injuries

Biological Health

- Stress - Trauma - Fear

Psychological Health

- Bullying - Violence - Resource Environments (Family, Community, Peer, and School) - Culture

Social Health

Pediatric and Family Health

- Public Middle School - Public Elementary School - Head Start

Formal Education

- Library - Cultural Institution - Recreation Center - Playscape - Park

Informal Education

“Kindergarten readiness is undermined by early childhood exposure to poor housing and disadvantaged neighborhoods.” (Coulton et al., 2016) “Research suggests that housing is not only critical for meeting children’s basic needs; it can be a platform for improving education outcomes.” (Cunningham & MacDonald, 2012, p. 11)

Broad Categories of Concern for Child Development

Education (preK-8)

- Local Housing Authority

Publicly-Owned LIFH

- Private Development

Privately-Owned LIFH Low-income Family Housing

Theoretical Framework

otential Correlations

Urban Design Strategies: Elements for Spatial Improvements Playscape Playground equipment (e.g., custom-made swing set) Recreation space (e.g., skatepark, basketball court, baseball field, tennis courts) Temporary inflatable structures (e.g., birthday parties and community events) Water playscape features Oversized musical instruments Serpentine sidewalk Maze pad area Playful street furniture Climbable objects Sidewalk games Public Space Access to nature and open green spaces (e.g., a public park) Seating (e.g., public benches or chairs) Signage/Policy “Kids At Play” signage “School Zone” signage Reduced and enforced speed limit Noise reduction strategies Street/Path Sidewalks Street extension Bike lanes Bus shelter Crosswalks and cautionary street markings Street safety measures (e.g., bollards or hardscape buffer) Lighting (e.g., street lights that illuminate public spaces at night) Building Parking structure Mixed-income housing Public library branch Elementary school Satellite middle school Recreation center Amenity Fresh food markets Community garden Live music or performances Outdoor movie screenings Outdoor ice skating rink and other winter activities Food trucks Local Programs Weekly Meditation every Monday at 6 PM and Wednesday at 12:15 PM, taught by a variety of local practitioners (PPL) Language Discussion Groups in a variety of languages to practice your speaking and listening skills (PPL) Book Discussion Groups for adults as well as for kids and teens (PPL) Story Times for all ages (PPL) In Stitches Needlework groups every Wednesday and Thursday (PPL) Films throughout the year (PPL) Portsmouth Music and Arts Center (non-profit organization providing music and visual arts opportunities for all) Community Engagement Inclusive community meetings and participatory design processes Funding Safe Routes to School Program KABOOM! Playground Grant Relevant Legislation MAP-21 (Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act) 2012 The FAST Act (Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act) 2015 Equity Access to adequate pediatric and family health services (bio/psycho/social) Access to adequate early childhood education Access to adequate housing Access to reliable transit (e.g., car, bus, or bike) Access to adequate job(s) Access to adequate daycare services Close proximity to grocery store Close proximity to public swimming pool (e.g., local YMCA)

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

State & Local Context

Chapter 2

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

â&#x20AC;&#x153;1 in 4 children enrolled in Medicaid were not healthy based on CRG clinical risk groups. [A] Healthy User includes children who sought care for minor illnesses (e.g., sore throat, upper respiratory infection, [etc.])â&#x20AC;? (DHHS, 2010, p. 13)

1,118 children enrolled in Medicaid

Chapter 2

144 children enrolled in CHIP

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

1990: 26,252 1999: 25, 798 2000: 20,822 2017: 21,796

18.7% = 3,894 children

GPPHN. (2007, p. 4) 32

Chapter 2

GPPHN. (2007, p. 6 & 9) 33

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

Chapter 2

Whole Life Health Care

Langdon Public Library Newington Public School (K-6)

Gosling Meadows Seacoast Community Satellite School (Ages 3-5)

Appledore Family Medicine

Portsmouth International Airport at Pease

New England Pediatric Services

New Franklin Elementar

Portsmouth Ex

Portsmouth Regional Hospital

Pediatric Associates of Hampton & Portsmouth Family Acupuncture & Wellness

Great Bay

North Coast Family Health

Portsmouth Pediatric Dentistry Coastal Pediatrics

Portsmouth Kin

Little Bl

Families First Health & Support Center

Seacoast Community School (8weeks-12years)

Chapter 2

The Treehouse School of Portsmouth

ry School (K-5)

Portsmouth Middle School Portsmouth Public Library

xeter Mental Health

Downtown Portsmouth

Child & Family Services

Little Harbour Elementary School (K-5)

Lafayette Family Care

Portsmouth High School

Winchester Place

Wamesit Place Core Physicians

Atlantic Ocean

nderCare

lessings Child Care Center

ondero Elementary School (K-5)

Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s House Montessori

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

256 S × 0.30 = 77 Students

415 S × 0.13 = 54 Students

301 S × 0.22 = 66 Students Total = 197 Students 38

Dondero S

Chapter 2

256 Students

30% Free or Reduced Lunch New Franklin School

School

Little Harbour School

415 Students

13% Free or Reduced Lunch

301 Students

22% Free or Reduced Lunch 39

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

Gosling Meadows

100+ Children and Adolesc 150 Units Total n/a 1-Beds n/a 2-Beds n/a 3-Beds

Total = 395 Children and Adolescents Assumptions for Estimates: 1 bedroom is for an adult; additional bedrooms are for 1 child or adolescent; and children, for the sake of the estimate, do not share bedrooms 40

Chapter 2

185 Children and Adolescents 124 Units Total 50 2-Beds 51 3-Beds 11 4-Beds

cents

Winchester Place Wamesit Place

110 Children and Adolescents 100 Units Total 20 1-Beds 50 2-Beds 30 3-Beds

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

Health Status of Children in the State of New Hampshire

“

Children’s health status was evaluated by applying Clinical Risk Groups (CRG)* to the administrative claims data. A higher risk score indicated poorer health status. Among continuously enrolled members, Medicaid (0.621) had the highest average CRG risk score, while SCHIP (0.501) was lower and CHIS commercial (0.491) was lowest. The Medicaid risk score was 24% higher than SCHIP and 27% higher than CHIS commercial. The risk score among Medicaid children has been decreasing over time, indicating that there is a lower percentage of children with chronic disease on Medicaid now than there was in prior years. Significant acute procedures, mental health disorders, chronic conditions (asthma), and some rare but potentially serious conditions (e.g., prematurity with birth weight < 1000 grams, epilepsy, cystic fibrosis) were contributors to Medicaid higher CRG scores compared with CHIS commercial.

(DHHS, 2010, p. iv)

”

Chapter 2

Poverty Level for Children Enrolled in Medicaid in the State of New Hampshire

â&#x20AC;&#x153;

Medicaid children with continuous enrollment in the poorest households (0% FPL) had the poorest health as indicated by a higher average clinical risk (CRG) score (0.724) compared with children in households with the highest adjusted household income (134%-184%) average clinical risk score (0.553). For all Medicaid poverty level groups, health status was poorer than for SCHIP or CHIS commercial plan types. Results of the analysis indicate a consistent pattern of association between poverty, poor health status and higher utilization and payments. Children enrolled in Medicaid in the poorest households (0% FPL) had a payment rate ($177 PMPM) that was 1.5 times higher than the rate for children in households with the highest adjusted household income ($115 PMPM).

(DHHS, 2010, p. vi)

â&#x20AC;?

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

Local Safe Routes to School Funding “The City of Portsmouth is one of eleven communities awarded a grant under the most recent NH DOT’s Safe Routes to School Grant Round of the Safe Routes to School (SRTS) program. The City has been awarded a total of $105,239 out of the $1.9 million awarded state-wide. Most of the grant funds ($88,534) will be used for design and construction of an on-road bicycle route on Lafayette Road / Middle Street including marked bike lanes, pavement markings, and signage as appropriate. The remaining $16,705 will support non-infrastructure Safe Routes to School programs and activities, including Walk or Bike to School Day events; evaluation and tracking of walk / bike to school habits and preferences for Portsmouth K-to-8 schools; and program coordination and volunteer training.” (SRTS, 2013)

Portsmouth 2025 Master Plan (Master Plan, 2017)

Relevant Action Items: 1.1.1 Support reinvestment in underutilized buildings and land. 1.1.2 Enhance the quality and connectivity of pedestrian facilities. 1.1.3 Promote the creation of open spaces, seating areas and other outdoor amenities. 1.3.1 Provide zoning and other incentives for exhibit, rehearsal and performance spaces. 1.4.6 Create new public spaces that can be used for both recreation and floodplain storage. 3.2.3 Seek targeted funding to provide for the needs of special populations, including the elderly, disabled and homeless. [or low-income families with children] 3.2.7 Support mixed-use redevelopment of suitable Portsmouth Housing Authority properties. 4.1.1 Update the City’s street standards to reflect current design best practices, including full accommodations for bicyclists and pedestrians. 4.2.6 Update city ordinances to enhance safety and convenience for bicycles and pedestrians in development projects. 5.4.4 Promote the use of low-emission and alternative energy vehicles through incentives, preferred parking, charging stations and other means.

(Right Image) Portsmouth’s Corridor Areas: “In 2010 much of the Route 1 corridor was rezoned from General Business to Gateway. The Gateway Planned Development provision and the prohibition against parking between the building and the street and within the front yard were introduced at this time to encourage active mixed-use districts with human-scale design and amenities for bikers and walkers.” (Master Plan, 2017, p. 121 & 124) 44

Chapter 2

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

“Workforce Housing Design Charrette for Gosling Meadows” hosted by the Workforce Housing Coalition of the Greater Seacoast October 2016 Portsmouth, New Hampshire Summary On October 20th and 21st of 2016, the Workforce Housing Coalition (WHC) of the Greater Seacoast held a design charrette at PHAowned Gosling Meadows for the following purpose: to “accelerate a collaborative, design-based process that harnesses the talents and energies of all interested stakeholders, to create and support a feasible plan of a mixed-use, mixed-market village that provides revenue to enable the construction of middle-market workforce housing, while diversifying the community” (Design Charrette, 2016, p.4) Critique What this effort and plan suggests is a long-term move toward replacing the current neighborhood with “workforce housing.” Rather than preserve the existing infrastructure of 124 permanently affordable family housing units (i.e., public housing owned by the Portsmouth Housing Authority), this vision embraces a tabula rasa approach of wiping the slate clean. This involves reshaping the neighborhood without any particular focus on preserving or promoting child and family health.

Chapter 2

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

Gosling Meadows Preschool Holds Ribbon Cutting Ceremony: PHA and Seacoast Community School Partnership 21 May 2019 Portsmouth, New Hampshire Summary “The Seacoast Community School’s new preschool at the Portsmouth Housing Authority’s Gosling Meadows neighborhood held a ribbon cutting ceremony Saturday morning. In late January, the satellite location of Seacoast Community School opened inside of the Gosling recreation center, a partnership with the PHA. Thirteen children, age 3 to 5, are currently enrolled in the five-day-a-week preschool program. The school opened in its strategic location to remove the transportation barrier for public housing families when it came to enrolling their kids in quality early childhood education.” (Head Start & PHA, 2019) Critique This effort only benefits children between the ages of three and five years old who live in the Gosling Meadows. This was not a citywide initiative that applied to all low-income family households or developments. A more thorough response to barriers to adequate early childhood education would involve identifying all low-income households and nearby facilities and effectively implementing high quality programs and support for all families. Can all Portsmouth recreation centers host early childhood education services (ages 0 to 8)? At what capacity? Are there any disparities between the demand for education and the supply of qualified early educators?

(Right Image) Portsmouth Housing Authority Executive Director Craig Welch (left), Seacoast Community School Executive Director Peter Gilmore (center), and U.S. Senator Jeanne Shaheen (right) help students cut the ribbon Saturday at the Gosling Meadows preschool grand opening ceremony (Head Start & PHA, 2019). 48

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Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

Site Visit 2 November 2019 Portsmouth, New Hampshire Summary In early November, we took a drone to Portsmouth to fly over a few places of interest. The final images include the Gosling Meadows (Portsmouth Housing Authority) and Seacoast Community School (non-profit organization). These are two examples of what local education facilities and low-income housing developments look like. Photography Ryan Mercier @rye.well (Instagram)

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Seacoast Community School 52

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The Gosling Meadows 53

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Case Studies: Tactical Urbanism Housing & Education Master Plans

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Case Studies: Tactical Urbanism

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Houston, Texas

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Houston, Texas

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Unknown

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McAllen, Texas

Detroit, Michigan

Unknown 57

Case Studies: Housing & Education

Sugar Hill

“Preschool in a Museum” + Housing (Harlem)

Maple Stre

Preschool + Mixed-inco

eet School

ome Housing (Brooklyn)

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Lake City

Preschool + Daycare Center + Housing (Seattle)

Case Studies: Master Plans Car-Free Suburbia (MVRDV)

Richmond, Californ

Mannheim, Germany 60

nia

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Pogo Park

Kid-Friendly Urban Design

Toronto

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

$1 Million Challenge: Turn Everyday Spaces into ‘PLAY’ces 19 May 2016 Funder KABOOM! Creative Consultant Gehl

“Play sets the stage for kids to achieve beyond their current circumstances. It provides social skills, greater self-confidence, risk-taking opportunities and the chance to live a healthier lifestyle. Today’s kids deserve each and every one of those benefits linked to play. But for many kids, particularly those living in poverty, having time and access to daily play is a challenge. We must bring play everywhere!”

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Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

Urban Thinkscape: Transforming an empty lot into a place for puzzles, games, mathematics and reading Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Funder/Project Initiator William Penn Foundation, KABOOM!, Temple University, and Brookings Institution Creative Consultant Itai Palti (Architect) and Public Workshop

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Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

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Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

Brightmoor Runway: Transforming a section of a broken sidewalk into an illuminated running, play, and exercise track Detroit, Michigan Funder KABOOM! Creative Consultant University of Michigan, Stamps School of Art and Design

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Connect Community Crossroads: Painting streets to help remind kids to take care when crossing the road Houston, Texas Funder KABOOM! “The project honors the memory of a young boy who was struck by a car and killed while walking to school. The installation was organized by the boy’s mother, Wigdan Ahmed Mohammed (pictured below), with support from the school district, Connect Community and a Play Everywhere grant from KaBOOM!. Volunteers painted bold colors on crosswalks and created interactive sidewalks, signaling to drivers to take caution: this is a place for kids and families. Within hours, “Connect Community Crossroads” came to life in honor of Wigdan’s son, Abdallah. In the future, a “parklet” will be added at one of the corners, also in Abdallah’s honor.”

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Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

Urban Design Proposal

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Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

Many of the poorest family housing developments---which are home to hundreds of the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s children---are located over a mile away from their districtâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s public elementary school.

1.44mi

Home Gosling Meadows

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1.25mi

1.11mi

School Little Harbour School New Franklin

Home Wamesit Place

Home Winchester Place

School Dondero

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

As a response, what if the city focused on imagining a more child-centered neighborhood that consolidated and centralized some of its most important resources?

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Proposed Neighborhood

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

This neighborhood could restructure important relationships between education, health, and housing for children and families.

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Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

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Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

What works well for children and families? + Close proximity of Wamesit Place (PHA) to Greenleaf Recreation Center + Tree coverage and various natural systems + Ratio of paved to unpaved surfaces + Bicycle racks near recreation center + Local courts, athletic fields, and skatepark What doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t work well for children and families? - Lack of sidewalks - Lack of crosswalks - Lack of public seating (where are the benches?) - Dead-end streets (why doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t Holiday Drive connect to Lafayette Road?) - Lack of spaces to safely explore (why not utilize existing greenspaces?) - Lack of public space for gathering and hosting events - Lack of safe spaces to ride a bicycle - Pre-K through 8th grade only accessible by motor vehicle

Potential Risk Factors - Motor vehicles (movement, exhaust, failure to maintenance) - Noise pollution from close proximity to U.S. Route 1 Bypass - Sedentarism among children and adults Potential Protective Factors + Public space buffered by trees and other safety measures (e.g., bollards) + New signage and pavement markings + New sidewalks along Holiday Drive and Greenleaf Avenue + Noise reduction strategies + New proximity to health and education facilities

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Greenleaf Recreation Center

Core Primary Care Lafayette

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Portsmouth High School

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Public library branch

Mixed-income housing integrated with big-box commercial as podium

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5 Organizing Principles for a Child-Centered Neighborhood

1. Mobility

2. Natural Systems

Establish a safe and continuous loop of walkable and bikeable paths to support the physical health needs of children and families.

Provide adequate access to natural systems that encourage psychological well-being through free exploration and connections with nature.

3. Accou

Site commercial and programming next t spaces to encourage streetâ&#x20AC;? approach to c and safety.

untability

d residential to large public an â&#x20AC;&#x153;eyes-on-thecommunity health

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4. Learning

Create a resilient network of educational facilities that support the rapidly changing developmental needs of young people.

5. Living

Improve relationships between lowincome households and educational facilities as a response to existing barriers and school performance inequities.

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

1. Mobility

Establish a safe and continuous loop of walkable and bikeable paths to support the physical health needs of children and families. 90

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Angled Angled terrain terrain for playful encounters

Grass mound

Winding monkey bars

Interactive landscape features that function as fun & engaging Playscapes

Gas station

Raised intersection for speed reduction

Ground-level commercial Raised intersections, signage, and painted markings that support Safe Crossing

Mixed-income housing

Parking garage 91

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

2. Access to Nature

High School

Woods

Wetlands

Provide adequate access to natural systems that encourage psychological wellbeing through free exploration and connections with nature. 92

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3. Accountability (Visibility)

Site commercial and residential programming next to large public spaces to encourage an â&#x20AC;&#x153;eyes-on-the-streetâ&#x20AC;? approach to community health and safety. 94

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Open greenspaces

Access to high quality Public Parks

Solid rubber ground covering (hurts less to fall on) Private gate (accessed by residents)

Fenced-off open spaces for toddlers and young children that encourage Safe Exploration

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

4. Learning

K-5 School Public Library Branch

Rec Center

Create a resilient network of education facilities that support the rapidly changing developmental needs of young people. 96

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Greenleaf Recreation Center

Daycare courtyard Greenleaf Skatepark

Winding path through park

Access to facilities that support high quality Informal Education

Pathways Between Home and School: Urban Design for Childhood

5. Living

Improve relationships between low-income households and education facilities as a response to existing barriers and school performance inequities. 98

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American Red Cross Wamesit Place Housing (PHA)

K-5 Elementary School

Leasable Office Space

Cross Roads House Transitional Housing Services

Sensory Path

Wamesit Place Housing (PHA)

100

K-5 Elementary School

American Red Cross

Cross Roads House (Transitional Housing Services) Leasable Office Space

Mixed-Income Housing

Sensory Path

101

102

New Greenleaf Recreation Center

Greenleaf Skatepark

103

Wamesit Place Housing (PHA)

K-5 Dondero Elementary Elementary School School

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Atlantic Ocean

Sagamore Creek

Commercial Commercial

Restaurant

St ia

all teh hi W

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Office Office Office Office Daycare

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Home Home Home Home

Home Home Home Home Home

American Red Cross Portsmouth KinderCare

Seacoast Community School

Leasable Office Space

Mixed-Income Housing

Wetlands

Home Home

105

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Final Urban Planning & Design Thesis Review 14 May 2020 - 9:00am-10:00am

Faculty Host Hanne Van Den Berg Fulbright Fellow and Doctoral Researcher at Harvard University

Guest Critics Carol Burns Associate Professor at Wentworth Institute of Technology Elizabeth Ghiseline Design Lecturer at Suffolk University Jim Kostaras President and CEO of Habitat for Humanity (Greater Boston) Anya Brickman Raredon Principal at Affordable Housing Institute

Thesis Advisor Stephen Gray Assistant Professor of Urban Design at Harvard University

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Reflection & Criticism Process The overall process of gathering and producing data for this thesis productively worked toward the goal of attempting an urban design thesis that overlapped with child advocacy, child protection, prevention science, public health, and planning. To some degree, the attempt was successful. I used quantitative and qualitative data to influence a theoretical model of thinking about an interdisciplinary approach to the work. My reading of the frontier knowledge helped influence my awareness of relevant information that could be meaningfully applied to my design/planning arsenal and sensibilities. And I still believe hand drawing is an effective and therapeutic way to think about the built environment. Criticism One of the weakest points in the urban design proposal is the lack of details at the master plan level that fail to properly highlight what makes the neighborhood inherently focused on children. If permitted additional time to continue the design work, I would focus on developing and annotating the master plan in more depth. Future I believe there is an incredible opportunity for architects, urban designers, and planners to respond to child health challenges and larger public health issues in the United States and abroad. I cannot help but wonder what types of new or adapted forms of practice will take shape that are centered more around advocacy, policy, and health than built form: practices concerned more with scientific evidence and health outcomes, rather than anecdotal ways of describing the built environment. I am excited to see how existing and future practitioners push interdisciplinary boundaries that overlap built environment expertise with domains such as the social and behavioral sciences or preventive medicine. If I were to continue this design investigation, I would conduct interviews with important key informants, such as public servants, community members, architects, planners, and environmental psychologists. And if I had the chance to pursue a PhD in the future, I would focus on child poverty and public health in order to advance my design work.

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List of Figures Chapter 1 p. 3 - Rendering of new Greenleaf Community Center, by author (CC BY-NC-SA) p. 14 - Infographic representing 54 Articles from the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted by the General Assembly and opened for signatures on 20 November 1989. The U.S. remains the only member of the UN to not ratify the Convention, accessed 29 January 2020, https://www.unicef.org/rosa/reports/convention-rights-child. p. 16 - Conceptual diagram of thesis agenda, by author (CC BY-NC-SA) p. 17 - Map of Portsmouth school districts and select housing developments and elementary schools, by author (CC BY-NC-SA) p. 26 - Theoretical framework diagram, by author (CC BY-NC-SA) Chapter 2 p. 30 - DHHS maps, Children’s Health Insurance Programs in New Hampshire: Access, Prevention, Care Management, Utilization, and Payments, State Fiscal Year 2009, https://www.dhhs.nh.gov/ombp/documents/chip09.pdf p. 32 - Greater Portsmouth Community Health Profile data tables and graphs, http://files. cityofportsmouth.com/health/080107Portsmouth Profile1.pdf p. 34 - Demographic maps from Social Explorer, www.socialexplorer.com p. 36 - Map of select Portsmouth health, education, and housing facility locations, by author (CC BY-NC-SA) p. 38 - Student population estimates, https://www.niche.com/k12/new-franklin-schoolportsmouth-nh/; https://www.niche.com/k12/little-harbour-school-portsmouth-nh/; https://www.niche.com/k12/mary-c-dondero-elementary-school-portsmouth-nh/ p. 40 - Child population estimates, https://porthousing.org/housing-item/gosling-meadows/; https://porthousing.org/housing-item/wamesit-place/; http://www.winchester-place. com/ p. 42 - DHHS, Children’s Health Insurance Programs in New Hampshire: Access, Prevention, Care Management, Utilization, and Payments, State Fiscal Year 2009, https://www.dhhs. nh.gov/ombp/documents/chip09.pdf p. 45 - Portsmouth’s Corridor Areas, https://www.cityofportsmouth.com/planportsmouth/ master-plan p. 46 - Workforce Housing Design Charrette for Gosling Meadows, https://porthousing.org/ workforce-housing-design-charrette-for-gosling-meadows/ p. 49 - Portsmouth Housing Authority Executive Director Craig Welch (left), Seacoast Community School Executive Director Peter Gilmore (center), and U.S. Senator Jeanne

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Shaheen (right) help students cut the ribbon Saturday at the Gosling Meadows preschool grand opening ceremony, https://www.seacoastonline. com/news/20190521/gosling-meadows-preschool-holds-ribbon-cuttingceremony p. 50 - Aerial drone photography of the Gosling Meadows, 2 November 2019, by Ryan Mercier (CC BY-NC-SA) p. 52 - Aerial drone photography of Seacoast Community School, 2 November 2019, by Ryan Mercier (CC BY-NC-SA) p. 53 - Aerial drone photography of the Gosling Meadows, 2 November 2019, by Ryan Mercier (CC BY-NC-SA) p. 56 - Urban Thinkscape: Transforming an empty lot into a place for puzzles, games, mathematics and reading, https://kaboom.org/play-everywhere/ gallery/urban-thinkscape $1 Million Challenge: Turn Everyday Spaces into â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;PLAYâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ces, https://gehlpeople.com/blog/1-million-challenge-turn-everydayspaces-into-playces/; https://kaboom.org/play-everywhere?utm_ source=playeverywhereKO&utm_medium=shorturl&utm_campaign=pec Brightmoor Runway: Transforming a section of a broken sidewalk into an illuminated running, play, and exercise track, https://kaboom.org/playeverywhere/gallery/brightmoor-runway Connect Community Crossroads: Painting streets to help remind kids to take care when crossing the road, https://kaboom.org/play-everywhere/gallery/ crossroad-parkleta Metro McAllen Swing-and-Ride, https://kaboom.org/play-everywhere/ gallery/metro-mcallen-swing-and-ride p. 58 - Sugar Hill, Harlem, https://www.huduser.gov/portal/pdredge/pdr_edge_ inpractice_060115.html; https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/07/arts/ sugar-hill-housing-will-have-a-school-and-a-museum.html; https://www. architecturalrecord.com/articles/3169-david-adjaye-designed-sugar-hillaffordable-housing-development-nears-completion-in-harlem Maple Street School, Brooklyn, https://archpaper.com/2016/11/maplestreet-school-parkline/#gallery-0-slide-2; https://www.architectmagazine. com/project-gallery/maple-street-school_o Lake City, Seattle, https://www.theurbanist.org/2016/09/26/lihi-apts-lakecity/ p. 60 - Car-Free Suburbia, Mannheim, Germany, https://www.fastcompany. com/3059264/this-new-car-free-neighborhood-redesigns-suburbia; http://

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jarchandelier.cakoti.turmakbanyoseramik.com/image.php?id=564056 Pogo Park, Richmond, California, https://pogopark.org/ Kid-friendly Urban Design, Toronto, Canada, https://www.curbed. com/2017/11/14/16646414/toronto-city-children-millennial-urban-planning p. 63 - $1 Million Challenge: Turn Everyday Spaces into â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;PLAYâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ces, https://gehlpeople.com/ blog/1-million-challenge-turn-everyday-spaces-into-playces/; https://kaboom.org/ play-everywhere?utm_source=playeverywhereKO&utm_medium=shorturl&utm_ campaign=pec p. 64-67 - Urban Thinkscape: Transforming an empty lot into a place for puzzles, games, mathematics and reading, https://kaboom.org/play-everywhere/gallery/urbanthinkscape p. 68 - Brightmoor Runway: Transforming a section of a broken sidewalk into an illuminated running, play, and exercise track, https://kaboom.org/play-everywhere/gallery/ brightmoor-runway p. 70 - Connect Community Crossroads: Painting streets to help remind kids to take care when crossing the road, https://kaboom.org/play-everywhere/gallery/crossroad-parkleta Chapter 3 p. 74-81 - Design drawings, by author (CC BY-NC-SA) p. 82-83 - Collaged screenshots from Google Maps p. 84-105 - Design drawings, by author (CC BY-NC-SA)

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