OWLS Quarterly, Tenth Edition by Wimbledon High School

EDITION X

REVOLUTION AU T U M N 2 0 2 1

The Journal of the Academic Scholars of Oxford and Wimbledon High Schools

OWLS QUARTERLY, EDITION X, AUTUMN 2021 REVOLUTION What comes to mind when you hear the word revolution? Political change or transformation, perhaps, or an event that takes society in a completely new direction. Perhaps a new discovery or innovation,

or a new approach which makes us see something in a new light. For this edition, the our students have looked in detail at an idea or a movement, person, or invention, which could be described as revolutionary.

Editors OWLS Quarterly Ms Rachael Pallas-Brown (OHS) and Dr John Parsons (WHS) SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPERIMENTS’ IMPACTS ON BEHAVIOURISM – WHY THEY WERE REVOLUTIONARY, AND WHY THEY ARE DISAPPEARING. . ....................................................................................... 3 HOW THE SEXUAL REVOLUTION PAVED THE WAY FOR A NEW SOCIETY FOR WOMEN..........................................6 THE NIGERIAN CIVIL WAR: AN UNCOMMON REVOLUTION ................................................................................. 8 THE QUIET REVOLUTION: HOW A DAY OFF BROUGHT GENDER EQUALITY TO THE FOREFRONT OF ICELANDIC SOCIETY. .............................................................................................................................................10 THE APPLE REVOLUTION. . ...........................................................................................................................................12 THE REVOLUTIONARY DISCOVERY OF ANAESTHETICS. . .......................................................................................13 FOR BETTER OR FOR WORSE: THE IMPACT OF THE FREUDIAN REVOLUTION................................................14 TO WHAT EXTENT IS ‘THE GRAPES OF WRATH’ A REVOLUTIONARY NOVEL?..................................................15 DNA SEQUENCING.........................................................................................................................................................17 REVOLUTION, FREEDOM AND SILENCE....................................................................................................................19 HOW REVOLUTIONARY WAS BALIR’S NEW LABOUR? . . ............................................................................................20 MARIAMA BÂ’S UNE SI LONGUE LETTRE: FEMINISM AND NATIONAL IDENTITY IN SENEGAL. . .....................22 THE SPARTACUS REVOLT.............................................................................................................................................24 THE DISCOVERY OF THE PACEMAKER .....................................................................................................................26 THE RISE OF EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE: A MEDICAL REVOLUTION..............................................................27 WILL SUSTAINABLE FINANCE REVOLUTIONISE PROGRESS TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE?.. ...............29 RICHARD AVEDON: BEAUTY THROUGH MOVEMENT. . ...........................................................................................31 THE DNA MOLECULE: THE BASIC BUILDING BLOCK OF THE SELF.....................................................................33 TOUSSAINT LOUVERTURE AND THE BLACK LIVES MATTER MOVEMENT IN FRANCE....................................35 THE SPRINGTIME OF NATIONS ..................................................................................................................................37 1968 - THE CULTURAL REVOLUTION IN GERMAN AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE.. ......................................................38 A QUICK OVERVIEW OF INGRAINED SEXISM WITHIN MODERN LANGUAGE. . ...................................................40

SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPERIMENTS’ IMPACTS ON BEHAVIOURISM – WHY THEY WERE REVOLUTIONARY, AND WHY THEY ARE DISAPPEARING Shirley Lan Bao (WHS)

Figure 1: Sourced from “simplypsychology.org”

Human behaviour is arguably one of the most difficult things for us to understand. It is a product of a great number of interrelated factors, such as genetics, individual thoughts and feelings, social interactions with other individuals, our social identity (the interaction within and between groups,) and the physical environment.

The results suggested that: 1. Children who observed the aggressive model, were far more likely to carry out similar violent actions towards the Bobo doll compared with other children who were placed in the non-aggressive or control group.

Scientists over the past centuries have been investigating into human behaviour - why do we behave a certain way? Is our brain capable of recognising certain factors, and adjust the way we behave?

2. Boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls, though there was little difference in the verbal aggression between boy and girls.

Due to our lack of understanding towards the organ that controls human behaviour itself – the brain, it seems quite impossible for us to truly work out the reason for certain actions. However, throughout the last century, scientists and sociologists have been conducting numerous psychological and social experiments, in attempts to provide us with some crucial answers about why human behave a certain way. The results are definitely revolutionary – and have opened new doors for both the medical science and social science world.

These results were definitely ground-breaking for the science world. It agreed with Bandura’s “Social Learning Theory”, which suggested the importance of observing, modelling and imitating behaviours of others as well as remained revolutionary in raising awareness over the field of childcare. It acted as the evidence that supported the idea that experiences at childhood may result in certain behaviours in adulthood. Nowadays, people still refer to this experiment to raise concerns about the effects of television, computer games, social media on the development and growth of a child’s personality and morality and are all cited as reasons for an increased tendency of young people in society towards violence.

Do we mirror certain actions without noticing? Observational Learning - The Bobo Doll Experiment (1961, 63) The Bobo Doll experiment, conducted during the 1960s, by Albert Bandura, was a series of experiments on observational learning. Its aim was to determine whether social behaviours, such as aggression, can be acquired by observation and imitation. During this experiment, 36 boys and 36 girls were taken from the Stanford University nursery and were each exposed to different scenarios: children were encouraged to watch an adult’s behaviour towards a toy (the Bobo doll). Three models were used – the aggressive model – where some children would watch the adult be aggressive and violent towards the Bobo Doll, the non-aggressive model, where the adult would be playing quietly with the doll, and the control model, where a small group of children watched no particular action.

Are our adult fears a result of our childhood experiences? Classical Conditioning – The Little Albert Experiment (1920) The Little Albert Experiment is considered to be one of the most unethical psychological. Experiments of all time. The experiment was conducted by scientists Watson and Rayner in attempts to investigate whether an infant can be conditioned (‘programmed’) to fear an object, by appearing it simultaneously with a loud, feararousing sound. This was intended to answer a popular question at the time – whether humans can also be a subject of classical conditioning. 3

The theory ‘classical conditioning’ was first proposed by physiologist Ivan Pavlov. It is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. It was discovered by the physiologist when he was investigating the amount of salivation in dogs and has proven to work in animals – and have been used for centuries before the Little Albert Experiment in training animals.

Psychologists and sociologists nowadays have to follow certain rules of conduct, with guidelines being published by psychological and sociological societies. The purpose of these guidelines are to protect research participants, the reputation of psychology and sociology, and psychologists and sociologists themselves. Some of the rules that are required to be followed are: 1. Investigators need to receive consent from participants. They also need to know what they are agreeing to. The psychologist / sociologist is therefore required to let the participant know to an extent what is involved in the experiment 2. A debriefing period. After the research is over, the participant should be able to discuss with the researcher about the experiment. Participants must also be notified if they were deceived. Their questions must also be answered as full and honestly as possible. 3. Participant protection must be ensured. Distress must not be caused and so participants may not experience any mental harm, and cannot be frightened, embarrassed or offended.

Figure 2 Sourced from “healthline.com” During the Little Albert Experiment, a white rat was initially placed in front of the infant, who had no initial fear towards it. Watson then created a loud sound by hitting a piece of metal with a hammer, a noise which little Albert would cry at. After several pairings (presenting the white rat and the noise at the same time), the infant began to develop signs of fear whenever the rat was presented to him. This was then similarly repeated with other objects and animals, such as a rabbit, and little Albert developed fears for all.

These rules were another revolutionary act in the world of social experiments, as they ensured human rights and protected both the ethical and the reputation aspects of these experiments. Text Box However, as a result of these regulations being imposed, it is also extremely hard for a psychologist or socialist to perform an experiment in investigating behaviourism due to these regulations. They can no longer model and track or deliberately create emotions in a participant in any way, due to the strict guidelines on eliminating distress for the participants. It is also difficult in keeping the results of these experiments reliable, since participants already know what the experiment is about, and may potentially change the way they behave.

This revolutionary study successfully demonstrated that classical conditioning works both in humans and in animals. It also suggested that adult fears are often connected with to early childhood experiences. Why are these experiments disappearing? The experiments conducted in the last century has proved revolutionary in changing our understanding towards behaviourism. However, there has been a noticeable great decline in the number of large scale social and psychological experiments today, and most famous cases of social and psychological experiments were conducted in the 1900s. This is largely due to ethical and moral issues.

It is very uncertain what our understanding of behaviourism would be in the future – and whether the absence of these social experiments will still allow us to have access to monitor the way behave, and how we behave. The experiments conducted by famous psychologists and sociologists would definitely remain revolutionary and will forever be remembered for its great contributions towards the field of science.

Bibliography House of Lords – Behaviour Change – Science and Technology Committee, Publications Parliament UK (2021) understanding what influences behaviour https://publications.parliament.uk/ pa/ld201012/ldselect/ldsctech/179/17906. htm#:~:text=Influences%20on%20behaviour%20 can%2C%20however,and%20the%20 macro%2Dsocial%20environment. McLeod, S. A. (2014, Febuary 05). Bobo doll experiment. Simply Psychology. https://www. simplypsychology.org/bobo-doll.html Shuttleworth, M. (2008) Bobo doll experiment https:// explorable.com/bobo-doll-experiment Cherry, K. (2019) What is classical conditioning? https://www.verywellmind.com/classicalconditioning-2794859 McLeod, S. A. (2015, January 14). Psychology research ethics. Simply Psychology. https://www. simplypsychology.org/Ethics.html

Despite this controversy the Pill was still made available for married women in 1961 and became the catalyst and figurehead for the Sexual Revolution. It was only given to unmarried women in 1974 when family planning clinics were allowed to prescribe them.

HOW THE SEXUAL REVOLUTION PAVED THE WAY FOR A NEW SOCIETY FOR WOMEN. Susannah Brandt (WHS) In the 1960s the Women’s Rights movement began to evolve, and as women started challenging their roles in society, in both the home and the workplace, they also began to question traditional sexual roles.

The introduction of the Pill was revolutionary, not only for reproduction rights, but also for women’s place in society. Dame Valerie Bernal, a professor at Oxford University stated that the Pill was the ‘most important thing in the latter half of the century – no question about it’. Coming from a society dictated by wars and social change, this statement carries huge weight in favour of the importance of the Pill and sexual health. Due to the Pill early marriages or ‘Shotgun’ marriages reduced as the necessity of marriage declined, therefore the number of children being born each year sharply declined and the average age of motherhood suddenly increased. This meant that in general women had more time for their own ambitions and enjoyment, such as work and education. For the first time women were able to focus on careers rather than children, dramatically changing the workplace and enforcing the idea of equality in the job market. The Pill also reduced stigma surrounding sexual health and opened up conversation surrounding safe sex. This increased the number of women going for medical check ups and allegedly reduced the likely hood of getting cancer of the womb or ovaries. Finally the sexual revolution also opened doors surrounding the idea of sexual freedom and ‘free love’ which helped other movements such as the Gay Rights movement gain support and recognition in society, allowing for a more liberal and accepting atmosphere.

For many feminists at the time, the sexual revolution was simply about sexual empowerment and the reclaiming of women’s bodies through sexual freedom. The concept that women, like men, had sexual desires and needs was completely radical at the time and received a lot of backlash from social conservatives who believed this would become a breeding ground for promiscuity, threatening one of America’s core ideas: the nuclear family. The invention of the Pill in 1960, which kickstarted the movement, was also followed by severe resistance. The Pill allowed women to separate sex from procreation, without relying on men for protection, and encouraged women to be more open and free with their sexuality. Before the pill the risk of pregnancy and the social stigma which came with it prevented single women from having sex and married women from having affairs; the idea that this control over women’s sexuality would be given back to women terrified social conservatives. The author Pearl Buck stated that the Pill’s ‘potential effect on our society may be even more devastating that the nuclear bomb.’ And one magazine article refers to the Pill as encouraging ‘sexual anarchy’. 6

The sexual revolution was drastically radical, due to the introduction of the Pill and the increased awareness for sexual health and free sex. This all contributed to the wider Women’s Rights movement and society as a whole, creating an increasingly liberal and open world for women to live and work in. Bibliography: Anonymous (2013) The Pill and the Sexual Revolution. PBS.org Rachel Hills (2014). What every Generation Gets Wrong About Sex. Time.com Anonymous (2007) The evolution of the Pill. Weebly. com Rebecca Cafe (2011). How the Contraceptive Pill changed Britain BBC News Images Sources: Kisses: https://time.com/3611781/sexual-revolutionrevisited/ The Pill: https://tenthingsthepill.weebly.com/design-packaging. html

THE NIGERIAN CIVIL WAR: AN UNCOMMON REVOLUTION Kate McKeough (WHS) Revolutions have long been the defining factors of our nations, societies, and cultures. They are turning points in our histories, and points of nationalist pride or deeprooted resentment. However, the revolutions we recount time and time again are so often Eurocentric iterations of the same rivalries played out in different regions. In Nigeria, though, the revolution and ensuing civil war of the 1960s was a striking culmination of global tensions, the effects of decolonisation in an increasingly televised world, and a medical revolution in itself.

As tensions rose throughout the 1960s, the Igbo people became increasingly persecuted in the North and began to flee to the East. From June to October 1966, anywhere between 8,000 and 30,000 people fled from the North due to regular and brutal massacres of their people [3]. At the same time, non-Igbos were expelled from the East and resistance groups began to unify. On May 30 1967, the Igbo resistance declared independence from Nigeria as the secessionist state of Biafra. The ensuing civil war between the Nigerian government and the Republic of Biafra was violent and incredibly damaging. It is estimated that almost 2 million Biafrans, three quarters of which were children, died from starvation because of the Nigerian government’s blockade [5]. The Nigerian government defeated the Biafran army in January 1970, but the impacts of the war are still felt generations later.

In 1914, the United Kingdom decided to amalgamate their Western African colonies of the Northern Protectorate, Lagos colony, and the Southern Nigeria protectorate. The logic was to streamline administration and make ruling the colonies easier due to their proximity. As was often the case in the British empire, the local groups and their ethnic, cultural, and religious boundaries were disregarded, leading to unsurprising clashes and increasing tensions. These tensions were only exacerbated by political and economic power contests. When Nigeria gained independence from the UK in 1960, it had over 300 different cultural groups and a population of over 60 million [4]. The process of decolonisation was messy and despite Britain’s efforts to unify the three distinct regions under a central government, strain was still evident between them. The three largest ethnic groups were the Igbo (60-70% of the population in the southeast), the Hausa (65% of the population in the northern territory), and the Yoruba (75% of the population in the southwest) [4]. By the time of independence, the three major ethnic groups had significant populations in all the major cities.

While the war itself is gripping and important in its own right, it is not the battle strategies which make it revolutionary. The Biafran revolution holds significance in its precise timing and the way it engrossed global populations. The revolution was happening simultaneously to the Civil Rights movement in the US, which meant that the Western atmosphere was full of growing awareness about human rights and the need to fight for them. This idea was capitalised upon by the expanding capabilities and reach of television. We often think of the Vietnam War as the first truly televised war – which is broadly true. However, the Biafran war brought images of suffering and starvation to a Western audience in a way never seen before. Public investment in the revolution was so great that in November 1969, John Lennon returned his MBE medal to the Queen to protest Britain’s involvement in the war. The media surrounding the Nigerian Civil war can also be credited with creating the trope of ‘starving African children.’ NGOs and charities used this notion to raise money and crafted their international communications to garner sympathy for Biafra. Ideas of white saviourism in widespread media have some roots in the messaging

However, the three regions had been governed in disparate ways before independence and continued to operate differently after they were united as the nation of Nigeria. Specifically, the Igbos of the southeast quickly became the educated, westernised population of Nigeria. Their population had been disproportionately affected by the Atlantic Slave Trade, and so had been finding ways to grow and persevere as a region since the late sixteenth century. Unlike the North, which was essentially closed to Christian missionaries and European influence, the Igbo people were the most literate and had the most European ideas in their society. This post-colonial impact on the Igbo people increased the chasm between them and the rest of Nigeria. 8

that came from the Biafran revolution. The republic of Biafra was officially recognized by Gabon, Haiti, the Ivory Coast, Tanzania, and Zambia. More significantly, it was given support and assistance by France, Spain, Portugal, Norway, Rhodesia, South Africa, and the Vatican City [3]. This wide range of European countries offering aid to a region that was fighting against its post-colonial role was astounding. Controversially, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union were the main supporters of the Nigerian government and supplied them with arms throughout the war.

[2] Fenner, Frank. Smallpox and Its Eradication. World Health Organization, 1988.

The global involvement in the revolution didn’t stop at media interest. Vaccine shortages during the Biafra smallpox campaign led to the development of the focal vaccination technique. This technique was adopted by the WHO and the UN, and helped create an early and cost efficient disruption of smallpox transmission in West Africa [1]. It also led to research which showed that Igbo people born in Biafra during the famine were prone to a higher risk of obesity, hypertension, and impaired glucose metabolism [3]. This work has been monumental in helping fight starvation and hunger in Africa and globally. It supported the hypothesis that malnutrition early in life was a direct factor in cardiovascular diseases and diabetes later in life. Furthermore, a 2017 study examined the effects of the Biafran war on various aspects of the Biafran population. It found that exposure to consistent education lessens the impacts of war exposure, and that war-exposed men are more likely to marry later and have less children. Most notably, it found that war exposure on mothers had very detrimental effects on their children’s growth, survival, and education [3].

[5] “Why Study about Biafra?: AHA.” Why Study about Biafra? | AHA, American Historical Association, www.historians.org/teaching-and-learning/teachingresources-for-historians/teaching-and-learning-in-thedigital-age/through-the-lens-of-history-biafra-nigeriathe-west-and-the-world/why-study-about-biafra.

[3] Hult, Martin, et al. “Hypertension, Diabetes and Overweight: Looming Legacies of the Biafran Famine.” PLOS ONE, Public Library of Science, 22 Oct. 2010, journals.plos.org/plosone/ article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0013582. [4] “Nigerian Civil War.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 22 Apr. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Nigerian_Civil_War.

Biafra’s brief revolution and independence may not be what first comes to mind when we think of a traditional revolution. However, it was not just a Nigerian turning point, but an international one too. The Nigerian Civil war showed the consequences of careless decolonisation, while exposing a wider and more Western audience than ever before to the conflicts of Africa. It also led to a great deal of medical and psychological breakthroughs which helped progress medicine in developing countries. Biafra represented so much more than a group of people fighting for independence - it is a snapshot of the world’s mentality and attitude in a tumultuous time. Bibliography [1] “Buried for 50 Years: Britain’s Shameful Role in the Biafran War | Frederick Forsyth.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 21 Jan. 2020, www. theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/jan/21/ buried-50-years-britain-shamesful-role-biafran-warfrederick-forsyth. 9

THE QUIET REVOLUTION: HOW A DAY OFF BROUGHT GENDER EQUALITY TO THE FOREFRONT OF ICELANDIC SOCIETY. Andrea Thordarson (WHS) Revolutions have long been the historians preferred choice of poison. From Napoleon to Washington, the notion of a group of people, banding together and heroically fighting off tyranny has always provided a sense of intrigue and excitement. Revolutions form an essential part of history, often described as turning points that inspired radical change. They are defined as ‘major sudden impacts on society’ [1] with the use of ‘forcible overthrows’ of governments. But they are also far more than the dramatics. They give voices back to those who have lost them. Create hope for the future. They can be quiet, determined, relentless. There is no clear way to define a revolution as it is far more than a change in a country’s trajectory. Thus, the focus of this piece will not centre around the Arab Spring or the Indian Mutiny, but rather an event that resulted in 10% of a small Islands’ population taking to the streets [2], and a national hot dog shortage.

But it did more than just hamper the economy for a day. Women from all walks of life banded together as they listened to speeches and songs [4], discussing how they deserved to be valued just the same as men. They were doing more than asking to be equal, they were questioning the competency of men and the efficiency of the society in which they lived in. One of the speakers at the demonstration, Aðalheiður Bjarnfredsdottir, asked: “men have governed the world since time immemorial and what has the world been like?” [2] before going on to describe a bleak and cold world. Indeed, the effect of ‘Kvennafrídagurinn’ lasted far longer than a day. It provoked genuine legal change, the creation of the first female only political party in Europe and saw the election of the world’s first democratically elected female president. Not only this but resulted in 1975 being officially declared International Women’s Year by the United Nations. Though the world saw a steady rise of women being properly represented in society, Iceland saw a display of true collective action that brought forth feminist ideals, pervasive enough that Iceland has been deemed one of the world’s leading countries in gender equality.

On October 24th, 1974 the largest mass demonstration in Icelandic history took place. Out of a population of 216,695, 25,000 women protested the inequality they faced under a male dominated society. Tired of the gender pay gap, 90% of Icelandic women participated in ‘Kvennafrídagurinn’ (Women’s day off) in an effort to prove how the country could not run without them. The effect? A total paralysis of the Icelandic economy. Without women to care for the kids, work in the fish factories and organise the newspaper; businesses closed, and offices shut down [2]. And yes, supermarkets nationwide ran out of their hot dog supplies as bedraggled husbands rushed to find the easiest thing to cook for their restless kids. In a country so small, one cannot simply rely on the efforts of half a population. Indeed, hundreds of years ago when Iceland was first settled, women worked as priestesses and merchants [3] being regarded with similar respect as their male counterparts. However, with the arrival of Christianity the concept of Gods and Goddesses diminished, and with it, women’s roles in society were increasingly seen as lesser than men’s. However, with a growing economy as a result of Marshall aid, there was a need for a greater workforce. And this is exactly what made the actions of the Red stockings (the Feminists who kicked the movement off) on the 24th so impactful.

Though it may not have the grandeur of the famed battle of Yorktown, ‘Kvennafrídagurinn’ represents a different kind of revolution. One that is not over in a matter of years, but continues to persist, in Iceland 10

and throughout the globe. It sparked a then borderline revolutionary idea that women should have an equal standing in society, and it should be backed by airtight legislation. The impact was not sudden or dramatic, but it has quietly and slowly led to a place where Iceland has had a number of women leading the country through a global pandemic. In Elin Olafsdottir’s words: “It was, in all seriousness a quiet revolution”. [4] Bibliography [1] “Revolutionary.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 21 Apr. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutionary. [2] Sigurþórsdóttir, Sunna Karen, et al. “The 1975 Women’s Strike: When 90% of Icelandic Women Went on Strike to Protest Gender Inequality.” Icelandmag, 24 Oct. 2018, icelandmag.is/article/1975-womens-strikewhen-90-icelandic-women-went-strike-protest-genderinequality. [3] Written by Magnea Marinósdóttir. “This Is Why Iceland Ranks First for Gender Equality.” World Economic Forum, 1 Nov. 2017, www.weforum.org/ agenda/2017/11/why-iceland-ranks-first-genderequality/. [4] “The Day the Women Went on Strike in Iceland.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 18 Oct. 2005, www.theguardian.com/world/2005/oct/18/ gender.uk. [5] Brewer, Kirstie. “The Day Iceland’s Women Went on Strike.” BBC News, BBC, 23 Oct. 2015, www.bbc. com/ news/magazine-34602822.

THE APPLE REVOLUTION

take full advantage of the high quality iPhone features without creating their own hardware. For example, social media apps like Instagram and TikTok make use of the iPhone’s high quality camera to allow users to share photos and videos. This allows users a new way of communication and creative expression, as well as giving birth a completely new type of celebrity. Users can see and create content to share with others with the hope of becoming an Instagram influencer or TikTok star such as Charli D’Amelio.

Izzi Millar (OHS) The iPhone was first launched in January 2007 and was marketed as a phone which combined three features, a revolutionary mobile phone, a wide screen iPod and internet communications device. The original iPhone consisted of a limited number of apps developed by Apple, but with the release of the app store in July 2008, users were able to download an additional 500 apps created by third party developers. Today the app store boasts nearly 2 million apps and gives developers all over the world the ability to create and distribute apps easily to 1 billion app store users.

Uber is another example of a start-up that was first launched on the app store. It takes advantage of the iPhone’s inbuilt GPS and location services, giving users the ability to get a lift wherever they want to go in a matter of minutes. As well as creating a new mode of transportation, Uber employs 22,000 people and 3.9 million drivers as of December 2018. Fourteen million journeys are made each day by some ninety-one million active users.

The app store has created a pathway for any developer with an idea to easily create and release their app. Through the app store, Apple has supported the creation of 1.57 million jobs for European developers. From its release in 2008, these European developers have earned over €20 billion. As well as jobs for developers, many multi-billion dollar companies such as Uber, Instagram and Calm have been formed from apps beginning on the app store, therefore employing many more workers. This has changed the way entrepreneurs and software developers can bring their ideas to life, revolutionising both their lives and ours. It also creates a new way for already established companies, such as Amazon or Twitter, to reach their customers.

Apple has completely revolutionised the way we live and interact with others through the invention of iPhones and the App Store, changing the way we travel to work, communicate with friends and spend our time as well as creating millions of new jobs. Apple has made programming more accessible for young entrepreneurs and developers, who can now learn to code and release their own apps to the world much more easily. It has not only revolutionised the way developers can create their apps but is changing the way the world works for them, creating a new pathway for the general population to buy their software.

Apple created its own programming language called Swift, which is specifically used for developing iOS, macOS, watchOS and tvOS apps. This gives developers the ability to create beautifully functioning apps that work seamlessly on all Apple devices. Apple also has two programs which help to encourage children to learn to code. This helps bridge the gap between school and work, and is especially important for future generations, as more and more jobs are becoming technology based. One of these programs is Swift Playgrounds, which is an app to teach children the basics of programming using Swift.

Bibliography Apple Inc. (2018). Job Creation – Apple (UK). https:// www.apple.com/uk/job-creation/ Apple Inc. App Store – Principles and Practises. https:// www.apple.com/uk/ios/app-store/principles-practices/ Apple Inc. (July 2018). The App Store turns 10. https:// www.apple.com/uk/newsroom/2018/07/app-storeturns-10/

Apple also holds an annual World Wide Developers Conference (WWDC) which gives developers a chance to speak with Apple experts to improve their apps, as well as getting exclusive access to Apple’s new features both on their devices and in Swift. It is usually held in California, but due to the recent pandemic has been held online with free access to anyone with an Apple Developer account. WWDC also has a scholarship program for students, further encouraging children and young people to start programming. This has helped many developers get the best out of Swift and their apps, allowing developers to create a user-friendly experience in their apps and keep them up to date with the latest software, as well as inspiring a new generation of programmers. The app store also gives developers an opportunity to

Uber Technologies Inc. (2018). Company Information. https://www.uber.com/en-GB/newsroom/ company-info/#:~:text=There%20are%20over%20 22%2C000%20employees%20at%20Uber Apple Inc. (2007). Apple Reinvents the Phone with iPhone. https://www.apple.com/uk/ newsroom/2007/01/09Apple-Reinvents-the-Phonewith-iPhone/ Apple Inc. Education – Schools – Teaching Code. https://www.apple.com/uk/education/k12/teachingcode/ 12

THE REVOLUTIONARY

modified. Before surgery involved some interactions between the patient and the surgeon but because of the anaesthesia this became impossible. More importantly, there was no significant difference between surgeries that used anaesthesia and surgery without.

DISCOVERY OF ANAESTHETICS Ashley Lee (WHS) As individuals living in 21st century, it is very hard to imagine what people’s lives were like hundreds of years ago. Even trying to picture what it was like before the development of internet is challenging. Out of many revolutionary discoveries made by humankind that changed the way of life, I wish to highlight the discovery of anaesthetics.

The first surgery using ether anaesthesia: https://www. massmoments.org/moment-details/boston-dentist-demonstratesether.html

Use of anaesthesia introduced new problems to surgeries. The effective dose of anaesthetics was unknown so it would often fail to work or it would result in an overdose which increased table deaths (patient dying on the surgical table). In addition, doctors then did not believe in germ theory of diseases which is a theory that explains causation of diseases from pathogens(germs). This meant that doctors did not wash their hands nor sanitise the medical instruments. This led to many patients dying even after a very successful surgery as a result of infections. So when did medics actually start performing surgeries resembling today’s procedures? Towards 1900s, doctors started to believe in germ theory of diseases (over 300 years after its first proposal). From then, surgeries were performed in sterilised environment with sterilised equipment which significantly lowered the number of deaths after surgery. Also new legislations have been put in place regarding doses of anaesthesia which provided clear guidelines for doctors to follow for safe and effective use of anaesthetics. As a student hoping to become a dentist, the discovery of anaesthetics is truly revolutionary. Dentistry involves lots of surgical procedures and so without anaesthetics surgery would have been much more painful for both patient and dentist. Moreover, without the aid of anaesthetics, development of more complex procedures could not have been possible.

A picture of Thomas Dent Mütter: https://artsandculture.google. com/entity/dr-thomas-dent-mutter/g11jg837s4m

efore discovering anaesthetics, surgeries were carried out on patients who were wide awake. The concept of anaesthesia was not very well known so it was normal for surgery to take place without any numbing of pain. Some early medical records state that the patients had to be strapped to the bed or be held by people whose job was to stop the patient from moving while surgery was taking place. Despite this, surgeries still continued. Thomas Dent Mütter, a doctor during 1800s, specialised in reconstructive surgeries on people with severe deformities without anaesthesia. As an early surgeon, he put in a lot of effort to minimise the pain felt by patients during surgeries. This included massaging the patient before surgery to desensitise them to his touches and trying to increase the speed of his hands during surgeries to shorten the length of suffering for the patient.

Bibliography Cristin O’Keefe Aptowicz (2014) Surgery in a Time Before Anaesthesia (Op-Ed), Live science, available at: https://www.livescience.com/48003-anesthesia-wasonce-devils-work.html (accessed on 2nd April 2021)

First ever surgery using anaesthetics happened in Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston by dentist William T.G. Morton and surgeon John Warren in 1846. Then a month later, Dr Mütter performed Philadelphia’s first ether anaesthesia surgery successfully. You might think the discovery and use of anaesthesia was nice and neat. However, use of anaesthesia was banned after a few weeks in several hospitals after successful demonstrations. This is because previous concept of surgery was being

Scott Harrah (2015) Medical Milestones: Discovery of Anesthesia & Timeline, UMHS, available at: https:// www.umhs-sk.org/blog/medical-milestones-discoveryanesthesia-timeline (accessed on 2nd April 2021) Germ theory of diseases, Wikipedia, available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_theory_of_ disease (accessed on 2nd April 2021) 13

FOR BETTER OR FOR

in mental health, Freud’s influence over the following generations of psychologists allowed him to indirectly play a part in the development of branches of personal and social psychology. Although many of his findings lack a scientific basis, they have not all been discounted, with the ones that have stood the test of time bringing significant improvements to certain areas of psychology, particularly with regards to societal and scientific attitudes towards mental illness and how to deal with it, which has not only benefitted psychology as a science, but the many individuals who have sought these treatments.

WORSE: THE IMPACT OF THE FREUDIAN REVOLUTION Jessica Bryce (WHS) Sigmund Freud is one of the most well-known names in psychology on a global scale, in a conversation about psychology it would be unsurprising for his name to be mentioned. Whether one agrees or disagrees with his various hypotheses, it is widely accepted that Freud and his ideas have shaped many psychological schools of thought, and to some extent the wider culture, since his research in the early 1900s. The huge long-term impact of his work makes him a revolutionary, arguably one of the most controversial and influential thinkers of the twentieth century, but whether this influence was a benefit or detriment to the field of psychology is still hotly debated.

Freud remains integral part of society today, despite many of his theories being disproved. His research is still discussed and analysed as works of literature, and debated in scientific contexts. Many of his findings are embedded in our cultural lexicon through terms such as ‘defence mechanisms’, ‘death wish’ and ‘mummy and daddy issues’, demonstrating the extent to which he has shaped modern culture, even if many do not realise. Anthony Grayling wrote for the Guardian in 2002 that “philosophies that capture the imagination never wholly fade”, and it is clear that this has so far remained true. Freud’s theories about psychosexual development, the three levels of personality and free association are thought-provoking and controversial, and so have consequently maintained long-term relevance in society both academically and socially.

In the present day, the majority of Freud’s ideas have been discredited, with modern practices and teachings of psychology leaning away from him as a credible source. When looking at his ideas of free association and the three aspects of personality it is not difficult to see why – his hypotheses largely lacked empirical evidence and the scientific basis needed to support them. He can be considered a victim of his own bias as, in testing his theories, Freud ignored data that contradicted his desired conclusion, and only paid attention to that which supported it. However, Freud isn’t the only victim of his bias, due to the level of celebrity he has achieved in the academic world many people have been and will continue to be impacted by his work, regardless of how inaccurate it may be. Since Freud’s theories regard the treatment and reasoning behind many psychological issues, it is clear that poor understanding, as a result of such flawed teaching, can be very detrimental to those suffering from, and being treated for, such issues.

For better or for worse, it is clear that the Freudian Revolution has had a huge influence over shaping the development of psychology, and has also permeated many aspects of present society. Freud’s theories remain controversial, and their reliability has been largely discounted, however the many beneficial developments he made to the field of psychology, through psychoanalysis and new therapeutic methods, significant aspects of which are still seen in teaching and treatment today, make a strong argument for his overall benefit to the academic world. Bibliography: https://www.verywellmind.com/what-ispsychoanalysis-2795246

Though these limitations of Freud’s research call into question the accuracy of his theories, it is still important to recognise the ways in which he has positively impacted advancements in the field of psychology. His ideas surrounding the unconscious mind and its impacts on daily functioning, remain the most widely accepted of his theories, and formed the basis of psychoanalysis. This also involved the creation of therapeutic techniques for treating issues of the subconscious, notably through therapy the ‘talking cure’. At the time this was a new and revolutionary idea, and has undoubtedly left a lasting mark on how mental illness is treated today. Freud defined the role of the psychologist as an unbiased listener, and removed the attitude towards those seeking help as having morally transgressed in some way. As well as these direct contributions to psychological advancements

https://exploringyourmind.com/why-freud-revolutionary/ https://www.sacap.edu.za/blog/applied-psychology/ psychoanalysis/ https://www.psychologistworld.com/psychologists/ sigmund-freud https://io9.gizmodo.com/why-freud-still-matters-whenhe-was-wrong-about-almost-1055800815 https://www.livescience.com/why-freud-was-wrong.html https://www.alliant.edu/blog/are-freud-andpsychoanalysis-still-relevant 14

TO WHAT EXTENT IS ‘THE

Before examining the contents of the text and its critical reception, it would be unwise not to explore the background of Steinbeck and particularly his political leanings. He had significant leftist values and his contacts with ‘leftist authors, journalists, and labor union figures may have influenced his writing’. Additionally, it is interesting to note his affiliation with the playwright Arthur Miller, taken in by the House Un-American Activities later in 1956, and his support against McCarthyism, a phenomenon against alleged Communists in the US government and other institutions, colloquially named a ‘witch-hunt’. [3] Furthering Steinbeck’s links to left-wing politics, he was mentored in his craft by radical authors such as Lincoln Steffens, who ‘discovered abundant evidence of the corruption of politicians by businessmen seeking special privileges’ [4] which adds to the idea of his life being saturated by revolutionary individuals and ideologies, which would inevitably permeate through to his writing.

GRAPES OF WRATH’ A REVOLUTIONARY NOVEL? Ruby Large (WHS)

Now to the content of the text itself. The main preoccupation of the novel is a proletarian focus on immigrant workers in the Great Depression in America, looking at themes of humanity, dignity, powerlessness, and community. In itself, immediately we as readers can detect a socialist propensity just from the key concerns as it fits with the idea of ‘encompassing a range of economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production’, which denotes radical motivations [6]. The actual plot of ‘The Grapes of Wrath’ centres around the Joad family who are forced from their home by poverty, drought, and unemployment. They decide to travel to California in the hope of a stable job, land, and a brighter future. Chapter 14 states that ‘This is the beginning—from “I” to “we”. If you who own the things people must have could understand this, you might preserve yourself. If you could separate causes from results, if you could know that Paine, Marx, Jefferson, Lenin were results, not causes, you might survive. But that you cannot know. For the quality of owning freezes you forever into “I”, and cuts you off forever from the “we”’ [8]. This quote undeniably preaches socialist sentiments, from the direct references to figures such as Karl Marx and Thomas Paine who wrote revolutionary pamphlets and documents to the general view of unity rather than hierarchy, and links both to Steinbeck’s personal political connections and the wider growing radical movement led by figures such as Josef Stalin in the USSR. Furthermore, throughout the text there are frequent allusions to Marxist, socialist and Communist ideals. The bourgeoisie (wealthy upper-class landowners) are described as ‘machines and masters all at the same time’ and their workers are claimed to be ‘proud to be slaves to such cold and powerful masters’. These images are immensely evocative and highlight the mechanical nature of the class distinction and the disturbing acceptance of the disparity which separates rich from poor. In this, it cannot be disputed that

‘The Grapes of Wrath’, published in 1939, was given its title by John Steinbeck inspired by a battle hymn with lyrics “mine Eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the lord/ He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored…”. He told his literary agent that ‘it is a march, and this book is a kind of march – because it is in our own revolutionary tradition.’ [1] Although the author clearly set out to produce a stirring and rousing work, it is crucial to define what we mean when we reference the broad concept of ‘revolution’. The Collins Dictionary definition for the term is ‘successful attempt by a large group of people to change the political system of their country by force’, or, more generically, ‘an important change in an area’. [2] Therefore, the common themes seem to be that a revolution is categorised by a large number of people enacting change that goes against the grain of general societal acceptance.

Bibliography:

Steinbeck is making the point that classism will always exist unless it is replaced by all people contributing to the success of the community.

[1] McCrum, R. (2014). The 100 best novels: No 65 – The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck (1939). [online] the Guardian. Available at: https://www. theguardian.com/books/2014/dec/15/robert-mcrum100-best-novels-observer-steinbeck-grapes-wrath.

The final critical part to the evaluation of ‘The Grapes of Wrath’ as a revolutionary novel is how the text was received, both at the time of publishing by its contemporaries and today. On 16th April 1939, just two days after the original release of the book, Peter Monro Jack stated in the New York Times that Steinbeck, along with other novelists like Hemingway, Caldwell, and Faulkner ‘is writing stories and scenarios of America with a curious and sudden intensity… looking at it again with revolutionary eyes. Stirred like every other man in the street with news of foreign persecution, they turn to their own land to find seeds of the same destructive hatred’ [9]. Later in his review, he mentions the lack of potential for revolution to be stirred due to its ‘minor and sentimental note’ and the fact that Tom, the ‘prodigal son’ figure, does not get his justice. But this is qualified in the final lines: ‘all this is true enough but the real truth is that Steinbeck has written a novel from the depths of his heart with a sincerity seldom equalled. It may be an exaggeration, but it is the exaggeration of an honest and splendid writer.’ Bringing this forward 75 years, Robert McCrum writes in the Guardian and describes the novel: ‘One of the greatest of great American novels, this study of a family torn apart by poverty and desperation in the Great Depression shocked US society’ [1]. He mentions that ‘the novel at once became a national sensation, possibly the most reviewed and publicised, and even the most controversial, American novel of the 20th century – discussed on the radio, denounced by angry readers, and even banned in some libraries’, and we can infer that the controversy surrounding it means that a large group of people wanted to use this to go against the societal expectations of the period. Therefore, both critics can agree on one thing: Steinbeck made a stir.

[2] www.collinsdictionary.com. (n.d.). Revolution definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary. [online] Available at: https://www.collinsdictionary. com/us/dictionary/english/revolution. [3] Wikipedia. (2021). John Steinbeck. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_ Steinbeck#Political_views [Accessed 29 Apr. 2021]. [4] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2018). Lincoln Steffens | American journalist. In: Encyclopædia Britannica. [online] Available at: https:// www.britannica.com/biography/Lincoln-Steffens. [5] John Steinbeck image: https://www.independent. co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/features/johnsteinbeck-author-anniversary-death-mice-and-mengrapes-wrath-east-eden-a8690851.html [6] Wikipedia Contributors (2019). Socialism. [online] Wikipedia. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Socialism. [7] First edition cover of ‘The Grapes of Wrath’: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Grapes_of_Wrath [8] Wikipedia. (2021b). The Grapes of Wrath. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_ Grapes_of_Wrath#Development [Accessed 29 Apr. 2021]. [9] Monro Jack, P. (1939). John Steinbeck’s New Novel Brims With Anger and Pity. [online] archive.nytimes. com. Available at: https://archive.nytimes.com/www. nytimes.com/books/97/07/06/home/history-grapes. html [Accessed 29 Apr. 2021].

So, after considering Steinbeck himself as a radical, the text and its contents and the reception in the wider world, it seems impossible to discount ‘The Grapes of Wrath’ as a revolutionary novel. It is estimated to have sold around 15 million copies in 75 years [1], making it undeniably popular and influential on America and society in general. While there are certainly aspects to Steinbeck’s work that have peaked debate, one thing is clear – he succeeded in continuing a conversation about the issues of classism and how this could be rectified with socialist principles, and he got people to listen.

DNA SEQUENCING

Following on from this, DNA sequencing has allowed new and potentially more infectious strains (variants) of the virus to be identified. This has allowed ‘hot-spot’ areas for virus strains to be highlighted and has thus led to extra precautions and mass testing being carried out in these areas to monitor the prevalence and reduce the spread of transmission to the wider population. Furthermore, with the increase in prevalence of these new strains, DNA sequencing has meant that these sample strains can be analysed. This has allowed scientists to predict the severity of symptoms linked with a particular strain and the speed at which the particular strain is likely to spread. Furthermore, in terms of treatment, DNA sequencing has allowed scientists to conclude which medicines would be most effective against COVID-19. For example, DNA sequencing can highlight whether a particular strain would be likely to respond to antiviral treatments and will be used to edit the vaccine structure to enable booster vaccines to be more efficacious against the emerging variant strains.

Abigail Turner (OHS) DNA sequencing refers to the technique which is used to determine the order of nucleotides in DNA and therefore, the base order. DNA sequencing has been one the most vital discoveries as it has helped to advance genetic research, in addition to medicine as whole. DNA sequencing is now used in medical diagnostics, virology and forensic biology amongst other things. For example, this technology can be used to compare the DNA sequence of healthy reference sections of DNA with DNA sections which are believed to contain a mutation. In this way, DNA sequencing can allow the mutation to be identified, thus allowing a diagnosis to be made. DNA sequencing is a relatively new technology. It is believed that 1965 marked the first year for the first-generation of DNA sequencing when Robert Holley and his colleagues produced a whole nucleic acid sequence of alanine tRNA from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which is a species of yeast. Following on from this, DNA sequencing technology rapidly improved and the ease with which it can be carried out has increased. By 1977, the most significant breakthrough in terms of DNA sequencing occurred as a result of Frederick Sanger’s work. This allowed Sanger and his team to reach a milestone step by sequencing the first full genome; a virus called phiX174. Following on from this, came a second generation or ‘revolution’ of sequencing technology. This allowed multiple DNA fragments to be sequenced at a single time, thus allowing DNA sequencing to become cost-efficient and thus more accessible. In less than 10 years, the cost of whole genome editing has decreased by a factor of 1 million and consequently, sequencing is now readily available on the market for less than £1000. It is widely believed that we are currently at the forefront of the next DNA sequencing revolution where whole genome sequencing may become commonplace in hospital setting in helping with diagnostics.

To conclude, the potentials of DNA sequencing can already be seen, and it are being utilised widely in our everyday life. There have been two main revolutions associated with DNA sequencing so far. Each one has led to huge changes in the technology related to the actual process of performing DNA sequencing, in addition to the cost and accessibility of this technology. Looking towards the future, it is likely that in the next few years, a third revolution of DNA sequencing will occur which may see everyone undergo DNA sequencing as part of a routine procedure to identify possible illnesses which a person may be prone to suffering from over their life. This would allow people to plan for their futures and plan for treatment in the future.

In the current COVID-19 era, DNA sequencing has been critical. In January 2020, following the discovery of an RNA virus, which was later named COVID-19, scientists immediately sequenced the genome of this virus in order to discover a virus and therefore, the characteristics of the virus. The virus was found to have a 79.0% sequence identity to SARS-CoV and an 86.7%-89% sequence identity to SARS which originates in bats. This sequencing was crucial in allowing the scientists to gain an initial idea about the infection rate and mortality rate at a time before large data sets were available to be examined.

Bibliography Wikipedia. (2021). DNA sequencing. <https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencing> [accessed 19th April 2021] Wikipedia. (2021). Daccharomyces cerevisiae. <https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae> [accessed 19th April 2021] Chain, B. et. al. (2016). The sequence of sequencers: The history of sequencing DNA. <https://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4727787/> [accessed 19th April 2021] Yourgenome. (2020). Timeline: History of genomics. <https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/timeline-historyof-genomics> [accessed 19th April 2021] Griffiths, A.J.F. (2012). DNA sequencing. Brittanica. <https://www.britannica.com/science/DNAsequencing> [accessed 19th April 2021] Worldometer. (2020). Coronavirus (COVID-19) Mortality Rate. <https://www.worldometers.info/ coronavirus/coronavirus-death-rate/> [accessed 19th April 2021)] Hemarajata, P. (2020). SARS-CoV-2 Sequencing Data: The Devil Is in the Genomic Detail. <https://asm.org/ Articles/2020/October/SARS-CoV-2-SequencingData-The-Devil-Is-in-the-Gen> [accessed 19th April 2021] NYU Langone Health. (2020). COVID-19: Sequencing the Genome [video]. <https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=HbgPII1DOOk> [accessed 19th April 2021] The Medical Futurist. (2018). I Got My Whole Genome Sequenced. Here’s What I Learned. <https:// medicalfuturist.com/i-got-my-whole-genomesequenced-heres-what-i-learned/> [accessed 19th April 2021] Segata, N. et. Al. (2021). At the forefront of the sequencing revolution—notes from the RNGS19 conference. <https://genomebiology.biomedcentral. com/articles/10.1186/s13059-019-1714-3> [accessed 19th April 2021] Mayo Clinic. (2018). What is Genomic Sequencing?. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2JUu1WqidC4> [accessed 19th April 2021]

REVOLUTION, FREEDOM

By the time June came, there was only more fighting. Armed troops and military vehicles arrived in the city centre and cleared all citizens from the streets. They had opened fire on protestors and crushed crowds with their tanks. It was at this point when one of the most famous photos in the whole of human history was taken. Though morale was at an all-time low, one man whose name is still unknown, stood in front of a line of tanks and successfully blocked their path to the Square. This became a symbol of the fight between peaceful protestors and heavily armed military forces.

AND SILENCE Millie Bance (WHS) 15th April 1989, the liberal Communist Party leader, Hu Yaobang, passes away. Thousands gather from all across China in Tiananmen Square to mourn the death of their great leader. Some not only mourn, but also voice their discontent with the slow-paced political and economic reform that they had been promised. A peaceful protest begins, mainly involving students, asking for these changes. They had witnessed what China had experienced during its economic boom in the previous decade and become accustomed to a better standard of living after recent foreign influence. It had bought prosperity to many citizens, but unfortunately also created corruption within the Government. The student protesters in the mid-1980s, who wanted more individual freedom, caused members of the Chinese Communist Party to form a hatred of ‘资产阶级自由化’, also known as ‘Bourgeois Liberalisation’. This idea was what kicked Hu Yaobang out of the CCP in 1987, just before his death.

By the end of June, all hope for obtaining a meagre ounce more of freedom was lost. The Government had stated 241 civilians and soldiers had sadly been lost to the revolution, however the number is thought to be much larger, reaching potentially around 10,000. Thousands were hunted down and arrested afterwards, some of the student leaders going so far as to flee the country.

At first, the government’s response to the protests was to go no further than issuing some harsh warnings. However, other demonstrations began cropping up all over China, in Shanghai, Xian and Chengdu. Western journalists had gathered in Beijing, readying for the arrival of Mikhail Gorbachev, the USSR’s final leader. During his visit, it was the gathering of 1 million protesting citizens in Tiananmen Square that really captured the interest of those watching overseas. This caused havoc amongst the members of the CCP, some wanting to negotiate with the demonstrators and offer concessions, but others being insistent on not backing down and showing any sign of weakness.

The ‘Tank Man’– by Widener, J. (1989) A veil of secrecy was placed over the matter in the years following. Currently, the government still attempts to supress any public discussion of it and has banned all commemorations of the event. Hong Kong however, even after reverting to Chinese administration, continues to have an annual vigil for those lost in the right for freedom.

Student protestors went to great lengths to fight for what they wanted and for what they believed would create a brighter future for China. Hundreds went on a hunger strike, some even passing out from exhaustion and the constant fight for freedom. Sadly soon after the strike had finished, the future began to look even more unstable. Martial law was declared in Beijing, bought in to put a stop to the unrest.

Bibliography Unknown Author (2019). 1989 Tiananmen Square protests. Amnesty International UK. Pletcher, K. (2009). Tiananmen Square incident. Britannica.

Troops tried to enter Tiananmen Square, but were blocked by the efforts of Chinese citizens, some flooding the streets and others creating blockages. The ‘Goddess of Democracy’ statue became a key landmark during the time of the incidents, which the students had built using papier mâché.

HOW REVOLUTIONARY WAS

This allowed the Labour party to cast off the shackles of this particularly socialist root, transforming its image and structure into a more electorally favourable, centrist party.

BALIR’S NEW LABOUR? Cara Hene (WHS)

Critics might argue that this was all a guise to gain electoral support. However, this was not a malign desire for Blair to have. In order for parties to take positive action in society electoral support is essential. By 1997, the partisan divide that once dictated who Brits should and shouldn’t vote for was shrinking – it still is today. Through Blair’s modifications, New Labour became a catch-all party, not just one for the working class. Labour now stood a fighting chance of actually getting into power with a meaningful majority. This demographic shift is the most important revolutionary factor of New Labour, the party that had so long relied on one set of voters (the working class), could appeal to society as a whole. I would argue it is this widening of Labour’s demographic that led to their huge electoral success in 1997.

New Labour was elected to govern in 1997, with a huge 179-seat majority. It was created by Tony Blair and his counterpart Gordon Brown, primarily to revolutionise the party and UK society, but also to widen Labour’s demographic. New Labour gained immense popularity, this excitement for a new kind of Labour party, one that was modern, business friendly and centre-left, was only heightened by the lore and drama surrounding Tony Blair (and Gordon Brown). The name, ‘New Labour’, implies that Blair revolutionised the Labour Party, it implies that the societal changes arising from this party were new too. But how close is this too the truth? For something to be politically revolutionary, it must create both short-term and long-term changes in wider society and the party/parties. In this essay I will argue that on balance, Blair’s New Labour was indeed revolutionary, through both party and society; New Labour’s impacts still ripple through politics today.

New Labour certainly took advantage of this power granted to them by the electorate. Blair oversaw; devolution of power to Scotland and Wales, significant House of Lords reform, incorporation of the Human Rights Act into law and the creation of the UK Supreme Court, to name a few. These were all successful in their own right and with the exception of Scottish devolution, have stood the test of time; the majority of New Labour’s constitutional changes are not contested today. It is hard to imagine another Labour government with a majority to push through such immense changes, nor a Conservative party with the will to do so.

New Labour was ideologically different from previous Labour governments, revolutionising the party’s political standpoint in the UK. It was much further right than the Labour party had ever been before, shunning some of Labour’s most sacred traditions. Blair advocated for low taxation and a free-market economy. This revolutionary ideological stance was dubbed “The Third Way”: a blend of centre-right economic policies and centre-left social values. The right-wing economic ideology that the Third Way promoted meant that New Labour was much more pro-business than their predecessors which aided economic growth, meaning the welfare system could be adequately funded, enhancing socialist justice. This is a far cry from what Labour was before Blair. Pre-New Labour, the party was very much thought of as a high-tax, anti-business party. This isn’t to say that New Labour shifted all the way to the right, not at all. The socialist values were still there, but the way in which these ends were achieved was completely revolutionised.

For something to be truly revolutionary, it needs to have a long-lasting impact, there is argument that New Labour did not revolutionise the relationship between members of Labour. We only have to look to the Labour party today to find ample evidence to contest that Blair transformed Labour in the long-term. The in-fighting that makes parties appear so unelectable still plagues Labour today, despite Blair’s attempts to unite the party towards the centre of the political spectrum. Grassroots members such as Jeremy Corbyn squabble with more centrist Labour members and the anti-Semitism row certainly does the party little favours either. Keir Starmer, current leader of the party, does not seem to have inherited a more centrist Labour from Blair, quite the opposite. As a former Queen’s Council and fairly centrist, Starmer is regarded by many grassroot members of the party with disdain. Clearly, the Labour party’s woes were not ended by Blair. However, though the left vs centre-left debate rages on within the party, general in-fighting within parties is to be expected. David Cameron so named the “Heir to Blair”, hasn’t squashed Conservative squabbling; it is arguably an inherent feature of a functioning democratic party.

The changed image of the Labour party through modernisation, was also hugely revolutionary. The party was modernised not just through their image, though this was important, but through actual changes to the party itself. One of the most famous changes that Blair instigated was the removal of Clause IV of the Labour Constitution, moving the party further away from it’s purely socialist ideology. Clause IV read as: “To secure for the workers by hand or by brain the full fruits of their industry and the most equitable distribution thereof that may be possible upon the basis of the common ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange…” 20

Furthermore, New Labour’s inclusive ideology does still impact the UK’s political sphere, 24 years on. The multi-culturalist, pro-EU and pro-equality values that Blair stood for have shifted what is politically acceptable today. Under New Labour, civil partnerships were supported, reducing poverty was seen as key and various climate change acts were put into force. The inclusivity that encompassed New Labour still ripples through politics today. There is no question as to whether the current government should support gay rights or not, should reduce poverty or should fight climate change. Indeed, our current Conservative government, one of the most right-wing government seen here in a long time, advocate for all three. Unfortunately, Blair didn’t quite manage to halt the Euro-sceptic tide that was to eventually lead to Brexit. On most other fronts though, New Labour’s values still permeate Britain and her politics today. It is clear that New Labour was highly revolutionary, in its impacts on society and within the party itself. These impacts are long-term; the political landscape would not be what it is today if it wasn’t for Blairs New Labour, neither would be the UK’s constitution. Certainly, in the short term, Labour revolutionised the way the British people saw politics. Perhaps most importantly for Labour itself, New Labour revolutionised the party’s demographic, transforming Labour’s chances of electoral success. This was New Labour’s greatest revolutionary success. As Blair himself said in 2006, at his final conference speech, “They say I hate the party, and its traditions. I don’t. I love this party. There’s only one tradition I hated: losing.” Bibliography https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2007/apr/26/ tonyblair.labour https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clause_IV http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6557625.stm http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/6129844.stm https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2010/apr/04/ andrew-ohagan-on-new-labour https://www.economist.com/britain/1997/05/08/ blairs-revolution https://www.economist.com/leaders/2000/05/11/ the-enigma-of-tony-blair https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ j.1478-9302.2011.00230.x https://theconversation.com/new-labour-20-years-onassessing-the-legacy-of-the-tony-blair-years-76884 21

MARIAMA BÂ’S UNE SI

man, on the other hand, restricts his field of tenderness. His egoistic eye looks over his partner’s shoulder.” (SLL: 42) So whilst Ramatoulaye is seen to be a devout Muslim, with references to prayer and God interspersed through the novel, she rejects religious tradition where it is used to oppress women and serve selfish ends.

LONGUE LETTRE: FEMINISM AND NATIONAL IDENTITY IN SENEGAL

Yet Bâ’s novel should not be read as a disparaging judgement of Senegalese society, being in fact a celebration of Senegal’s distinct culture and the role of its women. Far from images of women passively suffering, it has an empowering sentiment, expressed through the ways that Ramatoulaye and Aissatou exercise strength and independence in response to their husbands’ abandonment. Aissatou refuses to “bend [her] head” and “yield” (SLL: 32), daring to divorce Mawdo and study in order to move to America for a job in the Senegalese embassy. Unlike Aissatou, Ramatoulaye’s life choices do not “rattle the system” (Ajayi, 1997: 43), yet her decision to remain and focus herself on her children, “dealing with her pain within the cultural setting” (Ajayi, 1997: 35), perhaps contains the novel’s greatest statement of empowerment. Some critics characterise her choices as “compromises” (Ajayi, 1997: 48) stemming from “internalised stereotypes” (Almeida cited in Ajayi, 1997: 42), however, Ramatoulaye never allows herself to be “consumed by the trappings of tradition” (Kamara, 2001: 219); a self-professed “rebel” (SLL: 64). She rejects Modou’s sexual advances after his second marriage, and, when faced with proposals of remarriage, she refuses to engage in polygamy, telling one suitor: “I shall never be the one to complete your collection.” (SLL: 60). She gains her driver’s license, is forward-looking in her parenting of her daughters and promotes education and female representation in politics. Simultaneously, she is wary of the threat that progress for women through Westernization could pose to SenegaleseIslamic values, dismayed by women smoking, drinking and having casual sex, wondering “Does it mean that one can’t have modernism without a lowering of moral standards?” (SLL: 81). D’Almeida claims this exemplifies the female “malaise” emerging from the dilemma between tradition and supposed modernity (D’Almeida, cited in Ajayi, 1997: 35), but I would argue that it is simply that Ramatoulaye refuses to value each of her multiple identities of African, Muslim and feminist any less than each other. Ramatoulaye’s determination and sense of duty to her family and country demonstrates “a feminism which combines the quest for African identity with personal independence; a responsible individualism committed to a responsive collectivity.” (Ajayi, 1997: 48).

Leila Branfoot (OHS) Une Si Longue Lettre (So Long A Letter) tells the tale of two women, set straddling the end of the French colonial era and early Senegalese independence. The novel is a snapshot of this West African nation in the 20th century, struggling with national identity, and within that, the role of women. Through Ramatoulaye and Aissatou’s stories, Mariama Bâ decries traditional patriarchal structures and promotes women in society, whilst questioning the nature of future female progress. Thus, we are given glimpses of revolution: past and future feminism in Senegal. Mariama Bâ considered her “sacred mission” as a female writer was to strike out “at the archaic practices, traditions and customs that are not a real part of our precious cultural heritage.” (SLL: 1) Therefore, a major element of Une Si Longue Lettre as feminist fiction is its outspoken criticism of patriarchal institutions. The novel is narrated by widow Ramatoulaye as a letter to her friend Aissatou who lives in America. During a period of seclusion called a mirasse, a WolofIslamic tradition of mourning (Ojo, 2015) for her late husband Modou, Ramatoulaye reflects on the two womens’ marriages. Both disintegrated due to their husbands’ decision to practice the Islamic tradition of polygyny: taking on additional wives. Throughout, Ramatoulaye unflinchingly exposes the psychological damage of this practice on women, lamenting the “betrayal” (SLL: 10) of Modou by marrying Binetou, her daughter’s school friend: “In loving someone else, he burned his past, both morally and materially. He dared to commit such an act of disavowal.” (SLL: 42) Ramatoulaye’s experience demonstrates that polygyny results in “divided attention, lack of love, and sorrows for all parties involved.” (Ojo, 2015: 18) - even the new, favoured wives suffer. For example, Binetou is forced out of education for an unwanted marriage to Modou, her “sugar daddy” (SLL: 36), due to her parents’ social aspirations; she is “a lamb slaughtered on the altar of affluence.” (SLL: 40). The Senegalese institution of marriage evidently makes women vulnerable to financial insecurity - Ramatoulaye is forced to hand over all her possessions to her family-in-law in another funeral rite - but also to the cruel whims of men, who justify their actions with “God’s intentions’’ (SLL: 38), yet seem motivated ultimately by lust and greed. Ramatoulaye looks, disgusted, upon men’s inconstancy , where “a woman draws from the passing years the force of her devotion, despite the ageing of her companion, a

Instead of escaping to seek Western ideals of liberation like Aissatou, Ramatoulaye remains to combat the oppression of women in situ. Mariama Bâ rejected the label “feminist”, due to its links to Western principles which she felt were not applicable to Senegal 22

(Ogundipe-Leslie cited in Habib Latha, 2001: 23), only just beginning to free itself from French colonial influences. Bâ did, however, strongly believe in forms of feminism manifesting themselves within the framework of African culture. She said: “As women, we must work for our own future, we must overthrow the status quo which harms us and we must no longer submit to it.” (Habib Latha, 2001: 24). Mariama Bâ provides the reader with something of a political manifesto. Rather than be judged from a modern Western standpoint, Ramatoulaye and Aissatou’s choices and attitudes must be viewed in the context of their time and culture, in order to recognise that Bâ’s vision of a uniquely African feminism was revolutionary. Bâ’s ideas were highly influential for Senegal’s national identity, shaping attitudes surrounding women and tradition, and this legacy lives on - she remains one of the country’s most celebrated writers. Bibliography Ajayi, O. (1997). Negritude, Feminism and the Quest for Identity: Re-reading Mariama Bâ’s “So Long A Letter”. Women’s Studies Quarterly, 25(3), [online], 35-52. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/ stable/40003371?read-now=1&refreqid=excelsior% 3A3cba3cf0f987f6895cf844ce4c31dfbf&seq=3#pa ge_scan_tab_contents [accessed 09/04/21] Bâ, M. (2008). So Long A Letter. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Creevey, L. (1991). The Impact of Islam on Women in Senegal. The Journal of Developing Areas, 25(3), [online], 347-368. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/ stable/4191991?read-now=1&refreqid=excelsior%3 A9465a2be292b60c718e61d75f723d97d&seq=1#pa ge_scan_tab_contents [accessed 09/04/21] Habib Latha, R. (2001). Feminisms in an African Context: Mariama Bâ’s So Long A Letter. African Feminisms, 50(1), [online], 23-40. Available at: https:// www.jstor.org/stable/4066403?seq=1 [accessed 09/04/21] Kamara, G. (2001). The Feminist Struggle in the Senegalese Novel: Mariama Bâ and Sembene Ousmane. Journal of Black Studies, 32(2), [online], 212-228. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/ stable/3180961?seq=8#metadata_info_tab_contents [accessed 09/04/21] Ojo, P. (2015). The Socio-Cultural and Economic Dimensions of Islam in Mariama Bâ’s So Long A Letter. Journal of Foreign Languages, Cultures and Civilisations, 3(1), [online], 15-20. Available at: http:// jflcc.com/journals/jflcc/Vol_3_No_1_June_2015/3. pdf [accessed 09/04/21] 23

THE SPARTACUS REVOLT

of 40,000 men. The senate became very impatient, as by now all of their small forces sent to eradicate the rebels were defeated and many owners of slaves in the capital were in fear of their own slaves revolting against them. As a result, the consuls themselves (Lucius Gellius Publicola and Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus) both commanded 10,000 troops against the rebels. This led to the crushing defeat of Crixus and his force of rebels, however Spartacus and his new band of cavalry defeated Gellius’ army.

Eva Wang (OHS) Spartacus - a famous gladiator who led an army of slaves to revolt against the Roman senate during the years of 73-71BC. The slave rebellion, which he led, is now known as the Third Servile War or the Spartacus Revolt. Some believe this act was carried out in order to fulfil desire of using violence and aggression against the Roman senate, however, there were many political themes scattered within the reasons, which are still inspirational to modern politicians and film makers.

Moving on from the small battles, queue Crassus, who was in charge of the Roman forces during 71BC (and onwards). He was aware that Rome’s best forces were still outside Italy fighting in Spain, but nevertheless he found a way to trap the rebels in southern Italy near Sicily. The price paid to break out of this trap was huge, with Spartacus reported to have lost thousands of men. As a result, many of the German and Celtic troops led by Castus and Gannicus fled and decided to go about things on their own, losing interest in Spartacus and his cause. However, they did not last long as Crassus’ forces defeated them in the Battle of Cantenna in the spring of 71BC. Spartacus himself was doomed not to last long after, with Crassus’ army slaughtering him and all of his followers in April 71BC. It is thought that Crassus and his soldiers buried them all in a mass grave, leaving Spartacus unidentified to this day. However, all this being said, the name of Spartacus and the cause he fought for are forever remembered; furthermore, his attempt to stir up rebellion to fight against the capitals mistreatment towards slaves hit the hearts of many.

Spartacus, a Thracian who had previously served in the Roman army, but later sold as a slave after he deserted the army, escaped a gladiator camp at Capua and refuged with many other of his escapees in 73BC. Many other escaped slaves went and joined them, but Spartacus and his co-leaders Crixus and Oenomaus went and recruited slaves who were living in the fertile lands of Versuavius’ countryside. At a first glance, the senate ignored this gathering, however, leaving a growing force to keep increasing was not deemed wise. Therefore, the senate sent the praetor Gaius Claudius Glaber and his rashly gathered force of 3,000 men; all of which were not a part of a proper unit but a rounding of free soldiers who were at hand to disperse. The rebel’s cause is currently not completely known, but the most popular and logical motive being that oppressed slaves were fighting for their freedom, trying to change the slave owning oligarchy. Slaves at that time were completely controlled by their master, and a single step out of line resulted in severe punishment. One example[1] of their mistreatment is that masters overfed themselves while slaves were left with almost nothing to eat. The slaves would not dare to complain. Therefore, Spartacus’ cause alone is enough to call this event a revolution, as they sought change within the political hierarchy and tried to shift the power balance which existed between master and slave.

In conclusion, even if his actual revolt did not succeed, his memory lives on and people still remember what he did to this day. There may have been no change to the politics in Rome after his rebellion, but instead it served as a prime example of what should be done, with Karl Marx once noting that Spartacus was one of the greatest heroes in ancient history. A revolution does not necessarily need to have won the battle to succeed in bringing its cause to light, and Spartacus proves that well; he will forever be remembered as a man fighting for the freedom for him and his fellow slaves, rising up against the oppression of the oligarchy system.

Many events happened during the Third Servile War, but the most striking being the repeated defeats on the Roman’s part until the final climax of the revolt. In the first battle, the 3,000 soldier strong army was not even ordered to fight against Spartacus and his gang of ex-slaves, but instead camp right outside of the main route into Vesuvius and aim to starve them out. However, Spartacus took the initiative to stop this before their enemy’s task was succeeded, and so he decided to ambush the Roman force. ‘The slaves were able to surround them and to shock the Romans with a surprise attack. When the Romans fled, the slaves seized their camp,’ (Plutarch). After this defeat, many other shepherds, herdsmen and men came to join the slaves. This recruitment carried on for a year, and by 72BC, Spartacus is said to have rounded up an army 24

Bibliography Baldwin, B. (1967). Two Aspects of the Spartacus Slave Revolt. The Classical Journal, 62(7), 289-294, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3295491 Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2017, December 7). Third Servile War. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/ Gladiatorial-War Spartacus: History of Gladiator Revolt Leader. (2021), from https://www.livescience.com/39730-spartacus. html Mark, J. (2021). The Spartacus Revolt, from https:// www.worldhistory.org/article/871/the-spartacusrevolt/ Photos: Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2017, December 7). Third Servile War. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/ Gladiatorial-War Kenneth, P. Czech, Spartacus, the Grecian Slave Warrior who Threatened Rome, (April, 1994), HistoryNet, https://www.historynet.com/spartacusthe-grecian-slave-warrior-who-threatened-rome.htm [1] There are many other forms of mistreatment, which have been identified, recorded and acknowledged. It was not an uncommon practice to overwork, starve and ignore slaves. Sometimes, when a slave had died their master would not realise nor even care. Furthermore, with the direct case to Spartacus, those who held higher positions in society never questioned sacrificing slaves into the gladiator ring for means of entertainment. Even though this essay does not deal with the causes of the Spartacus revolution, it is important to note them. Without knowing the reason, how can we fully understand the cause.

THE DISCOVERY OF THE

Bradycardia occurs when the sinus atrial node (SAN), often known as the heart’s natural pacemaker, stops providing signals to the heart at the same rate. Thus, the implantation of an electronic pacemaker mechanically takes over the role of the SAN and delivers impulses either at a fixed rate or on demand to the cardiac muscle to allow the heart to beat accordingly.

PACEMAKER Shreya Verma OHS The transformation of particular organs, or groups of cells, into mechanical objects has had a major role in revolutionising medicine. In the case of the pacemaker, the replication of the specialised cells in the Sino atrial node had to be represented.

Similar to Hopps’ prototype, the pacemaker that’s used today has two electrode catheters that enter one or multiple of the heart’s chambers through the jugular vein. The generator bit of the pacemaker, therefore, is inserted just under the skin near the heart, making the surgery less invasive as possible.

John Hopps, known by many as the father of biomedical engineering, was interrupted by an assignment in 1949 whilst working on studying the use of radiofrequency reheating for purifying beer. This very disruption to his research formed the pathway into transforming the lives of millions of cardiac patients around the world.

The design of the machine stemmed in the 1950s, however the way it operates today is purely due to the progression of digital devices in the field of medicine. Now, due to the presence of a computerised generator, the pacemaker is able to automatically detect an abnormal heart rhythm and send this data through wires to the computer and then to the generator which adjusts the electrical activity. Doctors are then able to assess the data recorded by the computer and adjust the settings of the pacemaker if necessary.

His assignment was held at the Banting Institute where cardiac surgeons were utilizing the slowing effect of hypothermia to decrease the speed of the heart during open heart surgery. Below a certain temperature, the heart tissue becomes completely immobile, and so the team were working on a way to induce cardiac contraction during this state of hypothermia.

Thus, this shows that the scientific discovery of the pacemaker initiated a domino effect on innovative advancements of the device. If Hopps had not originally come up with the idea of controlling the heart with a mere external electrical impulse, this machine would not have been introduced to our population and computerized accordingly. The thought of a computer controlling the very organ keeping us alive is certainly unnerving, but a revolution nevertheless!

Although it may seem obvious to us now, Hopps came up with what was an enlightening observation that an electrical impulse would force the heart to beat. He then went on to carry out a variety of experiments, coming up with the first pacemaker prototype in 1950. The initial observation followed by the construction produced an innovative device that then revolutionised the nature of heart surgery. This machine was 30cm in length and powered by a 60Hz current, with vacuum tubes to generate the impulses. Moreover, to improve his design, Hopps developed electrode catheters which were able to pass through the jugular vein in the neck, so that the impulse could be delivered to the heart without the opening of the chest even being required! From the first step of this journey, where the team at Banting Institute were looking to find a way to keep the heart beating during open surgery, to being able to perform this operation through the connection of a vein was certainly a remarkable progression.

Bibliography https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseasesconditions/bradycardia/symptoms-causes/ syc-20355474#:~:text=If%20you%20have%20 bradycardia%2C%20your,Fatigue https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/01. CIR.0000016183.07898.90#:~:text=There%20 are%20about%203%20million,the%20recipient’s%20 activities%20or%20lifestyle. https://bcmj.org/articles/john-hopps-and-pacemakerhistory-and-detailed-overview-devices-indications-and http://www.jeffersoncardiology.com/servicespacemakers-defibrillators.html https://www.bhf.org.uk/informationsupport/ treatments/pacemakers

The cardiac pacemaker used today is possibly the most intriguing invention known to cardiology as the very machine that keeps 3 million people’s hearts beating per year. Without this, illnesses such as Bradycardia, a clinically slow beating of the heart, would proceed with its detrimental effects which include a lack of oxygen delivery to the brain and other vital organs.

by a thorough examination of their medical history and non-invasive health checks. The drug toxicity is a measure of how much of the drug can be taken without affecting the person’s control and capacity. Phase 2 then focuses on the benefits of the drug, using several hundred volunteers. Once these have been recorded and finalised based on concordances in findings of the whole trial group, phase 3 starts. This is the most important stage as the researchers find definitive answers to the drug’s accuracy, efficacy and ethics using thousands of volunteers. This larger scale trial is run as a randomised control trial, where a control group receives a placebo whilst another group receives the real drug. To ensure minimal bias, often the researchers or people administrating the drugs (nurses) do not know which of the two they are giving. This can take a very long time, as firstly volunteers need to be given the drug then the effects of the drugs needs to be thoroughly assessed. Lastly, phase 4 comes into action. This is a final safety measure and also observes long term effects using a wide population size. So for a clinical trial to be run, these four things must be outlines: Population (the target demography, so for HIV trials the population was 16 to 26 year old females), intervention (the treatment drug being tested), comparison (a form of placebo), outcomes (the changes or potential harm from this).

THE RISE OF EVIDENCEBASED MEDICINE: A MEDICAL REVOLUTION Alina Nishat (OHS) Changes in healthcare have varied in how they have impacted the wider world. For example, the discovery of antibiotics such as penicillin led to a sudden change in the treatment for bacterial infections. On the other hand, the ‘sanitary revolution’ was more subtle but reduced the spread of disease greatly in 19th century Europe. The advancement of medical technology and better understanding of mechanisms of illnesses have improved diagnosis and treatment of a plethora of illnesses. However, whilst treatments have been progressing, often the ethics and reliability of such treatments and the details of their effects are not clear; this can sometimes make patients feel disadvantaged and in the dark, a typical effect of paternalistic medicine. The rise of evidence-based medicine, however, has arguably eased the transition of medical care into patient-centred care.

EBM also requires ‘clinical expertise’, which is judgement and analysis from experienced clinicians on the clinical evidence acquired. An understanding of patient values means that the medical pillars of autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence and justice is carried through. Specifically, an effort is being made to understand and identify what the patient is feeling and what they want to offer individual services.

Evidence Based Medicine (EBM) is the practice of trialling and testing drugs and treatments for patients, combining three key factors: the best research evidence available, clinical expertise and patient values[2]. Often, one of the components that are now used in EBM were missed before medical advice or drugs were issued to the public, which led to devastating consequences. One such incidence was the Thalidomide Tragedy of the late 1950s, where the impact of the ‘Thalidomide’ drug for preventing nausea in pregnant women was life-changing for their babies, who were revealed after birth to have major developmental problems and birth defects. This received global attention and highlighted the importance of stringent clinical trial processes, as whole generations of babies were adversely affected. EBM can also be used to achieve the fine balance between what clinicians think is the right thing to do and what the patient actually wants, backed up by scientific evidence. For example, a doctor may give medication that lowers blood pressure, but the patient is actually feeling faint and having bad side-effects; this cannot be ignored, so the healthcare provider must address it and offer a different medication.

This last point, when integrated well with clinical expertise and the best research available, has helped further the transition from a paternalistic approach to medicine, or more consumer-based, to today’s precise, personalised patient centred care. This is because as more evidence is collected, certain drugs and treatments are accepted or rejected based on intricacies on how they work on different people. The nature of EBM includes large randomised trials with a representative sample population, so this takes into account patients before any economic benefits or the physician’s own, and typically generalised, views. EBM uses the patient’s values to decide how the evidence is applied in that specific scenario, whereas paternalistic medicine was notorious for the assumed upper hand doctors had in making decisions for their patients. Patient autonomy was not strictly followed or understood, as their personal views and experiences were typically simplified and generalised. In fact, the paternalistic approach to medicine increased mistrust in physicians, resulting in a dysfunctional and harmful patient-doctor relationship which led to lower patient adherence[3] (the degree to which a patient correctly follows medical advice).

The best research available refers to the results of trialling a drug, and the clinical trial process has four stages. Firstly, the drug undergoes animal testing to observe potential extreme side-effects. Next, Phase 1 consists of selecting a small sample of, for example 80, healthy volunteers to trial the drug for toxicity. The health of these volunteers is measured before-hand 27

The link between patient adherence and patient-doctor relationship is highlighted by the BAME communities’ mistrust of doctors, even today, due to the historical abuses of people of colour in Western medical practice. For example, the ‘Father of Gynecology’, James M. Sims experimented and operated on 12 enslaved black women to understand a very common birth complication, Vesicovaginal fistula, without their full consent during a time period where anesthetics were not in use[10]. Some of his ‘patients’ had to undergo up to 30 invasive and painful operations before he could close the holes between the bladder and vagina. However, it could be argued that without Sims’ operations, the treatment of Vesicovaginal fistula could not have been drafted. In other cases, paternalistic medicine has often shown gendered inequalities, as non-reproductive healthcare issues for women were under-researched and side-lined. Moreover, physicians typically made assumptions about women’s pain thresholds and the reliability of their explanations of their experiences.[4]

storing data from clinical trials, clinical expertise and journals. However, as healthcare has transitioned from providing acute care for things like treating infectious diseases to now managing chronic diseases such as diabetes or cancer[5], the role of evidence based medicine has decreased in this field of chronic care. This is because the nature of chronic diseases is that they are very specific for each sufferer, and conducting large trials would require the testing population to have those illnesses, which is too big of a risk for many patients[5]. Therefore, only a few clinical trials are available for results, and they are very varied in what the intervention (treatment) is. On the other hand, in the field of acute care EBM has a much greater presence due to the range of similar and positive outcomes of clinical trials and often similar patient values. Nevertheless, the transition and importance of evidence based medicine has not only improved the reliability of treatments for patients, but also the trust and understanding between patient and doctor, so it has arguably revolutionised medical practice. The integration of evidence based medicine is still happening today, with charities such as Cochrane, formed in 1993, raising awareness and educating doctors on the importance of EBM, currently for international healthcare systems where this is not practised, particularly in developing countries[2].

This mistrust has led to the white-coat ‘placebo’ effect, where patients are in fact scared of white coats because of the strong historical connection they have to paternalistic medical figures, as well as the hospital environment.[6] As well as patient non-adherence, clinical inertia is a leading concern for contemporary medicine, and the two combined are causing huge economic losses to healthcare systems. Clinical inertia is when doctors do not follow correct medical guidelines or fail to establish treatments goals. Research has shown that this is partly due to doctor’s not understanding the evidence-based goals of care, as well as disagreement in how the evidence-based system can be used to care for certain patients; in other words, there is often controversy and disagreement with how to merge the individualised patient values aspect of EBM with the evidence. A field where clinical inertia is most prominent in chronic care, such as with diabetes where there are up to 200,000 adverse effects of treatment per year in America [9]. This could be down to lack of proper education on the topic of EBM, which is being addressed in more recent times with medical schools’ curriculum. The negative effects of clinical inertia especially on chronic diseases has called for greater presence of evidence-based medical practice.

Bibliography [1] https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15827845/ [2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_ medicine#Background,_history_and_definition [3] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC4829191/ [4] https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11673018-9890-5 [5] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK52825/ [6] https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28676236/ [7] https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12769416/ [8] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC4028485/

However, Evidence Based Medicine is still a relatively new concept, so many healthcare systems around the work still do not use it as stringently. Although the term was first coined in 1990s by MacMaster’s University [1] The transition period for the development of EBM was during the 20th century upto the 1970s, when sharing of evidence via textbooks and peer-reviewed journals became more prominent and important in scientific research. Post-1970s is known as the modern era of EBM, largely due to the role of technology with

[9] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC426963 [10]https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC2563360/

WILL SUSTAINABLE FINANCE

environmental action.

REVOLUTIONISE PROGRESS

A key debate to consider when assessing sustainability is the effectiveness of government bodies versus the impact that individuals can have. Striking a balance is vital to achieve the most progress possible, but individuals can feel that their actions are insignificant. The way in which sustainable banking relies on the individual, as well as the trust between bank and customer, raises environmental consciousness in other aspects of society; most people are struck by the importance of directly protecting the natural world, but are unaware of the negative impacts some banks can have by investing in corporations with huge carbon footprints, or fossil fuel companies. The independence of banking from governments and intergovernmental organisations could allow greater progress regarding sustainability. Whilst the 2016 Paris Climate Agreement was a landmark for climate change mitigation, involving 195 signatories, it is difficult to see worldwide impact, due to interruptions such as the withdrawal of the USA in 2019. Sustainable banks are met with fewer obstacles so can progress independently. Whilst people may be sceptical about the impact of individual banks, the work of larger, international organisations, such as the Global Alliance for Banking on Values (GABV), demonstrates how widespread sustainable finance is, therefore revolutionising environmental action. The GABV is an “independent network of banks using finance to deliver sustainable, economic, social and environmental development”[4], demonstrating the prime positioning of sustainable finance in regard to the Three Spheres of Sustainability. With 65 financial institutions, 70 million customers and assets of $210 billion, it is evident that current actions will have a global impact, something which many government policies do not. Another organisation which will revolutionise both the financial sector and society’s progress towards a sustainable future, is the United Nations Environment Programme Finance Initiative’s Principles for Responsible Banking. This focuses on “the vision society has set out for its future in the Sustainable Development Goals and the Paris Agreement”[5], once again linking directly to the revolutionary environmental landmarks of the twentyfirst century.

TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE? Lizzie Caird (OHS) Sustainable finance “refers to the process of taking environmental, social and governance considerations into account when making investment decisions in the financial sector, leading to more long-term investments in sustainable economic activities and projects.”[1] In the UK, key sustainable banks include Charity Bank, “a bank for good”[2], Ecology Building Society, who have lent money to 3,500 projects since 1981, and Triodos Bank, who have 728,000 customers. Whilst the statistics may seem insignificant, there is huge potential for sustainable finance, and it may revolutionise future environmental consciousness and subsequent sustainable action. The Three Spheres of Sustainability demonstrate how society can meet the needs of the current population without compromising the needs of future generations and focus on the key aspects of social, economic and environmental factors. Naturally, well-managed banking slots into the ‘economic’ sphere, due to sustained economic growth. However, sustainable finance is a feature intertwined with all three aspects. For example, Triodos Bank refers to “banking as a force for good”[3] and aims to make positive investments which encourage businesses to focus on people, the environment and culture, whilst ensuring that the finance is viable through careful lending criteria and limits. Therefore, sustainable finance sits in the centre of all Three Spheres of Sustainability, as it aims to make positive environmental and social change, whilst sustaining the economy. As this is the case, sustainable banking will become a truly progressive method for achieving sustainability and, thus, revolutionise the way in which society regards the environment in day-to-day life. Projects conducted by sustainable banks already exemplify the impact that this form of finance can have, and will continue to have on a much larger scale in the future. Triodos Bank, for example, financially supported the launch of Ember, the UK’s first all-electric intercity bus service, which currently runs between Edinburgh and Dundee, completing the 125 mile round trip in a single charge. Despite some drawbacks of electric vehicles, this project improves transport infrastructure, thus encouraging access within society and reducing emissions. With further innovation of ‘green’ technologies and awareness about environmental projects, the impact that sustainable finance has could transform the way in which sustainability is approached and allow us to progress much further with

For sustainable finance to fulfil revolutionary potential, individuals will need to change their mindsets, both in terms of the effectiveness of sustainable banking and the negative stereotypes associated with banks. However, with growing environmental consciousness due to pressing climate issues, more individuals are turning to positive environmental solutions that they can partake in. The situation is hopeful: as Rutger Bregman pointed out regarding Covid-19, “it’s almost a cliché amongst historians that crises are opportunities for change”[6]. This concept can be applied to the climate crisis and subsequently suggest that people will be propelled into individual action, due to awareness that our planet is in danger. Bregman also 29

revealed that “the big secret of crises is that they tend to bring out, not the worst, but the best in people” [7], which supports the idea that people will commit to positive and sustainable choices, including the management of their finances through sustainable banking. Furthermore, as crises are recognised by many historians to be a key factor in revolution, this suggests that these changes made in response to the climate crisis will be revolutionary.

Bibliography Ecology Building Society [Online] Available from: https://www.ecology.co.uk/about-us/ [Accessed on: 20.04.21] Triodos Bank [Online] Available from: https://www. triodos.co.uk/ [Accessed on 20.04.21] Ember [Online] Available from: https://www.ember. to/ [Accessed on 20.04.21]

Despite possible drawbacks of financing as a force for positive, sustainable change, such as the idea that consumerism itself is damaging to the environment and concerns that smaller-scale sustainable banks lack long-term viability, it is clear that sustainable finance will revolutionise the future of environmental action, however large the impact. The independence of banking compared to governments and the positioning of sustainable finance at the centre of the Three Spheres of Sustainability are features that will result in huge progress in improving the sustainability of society. With constantly evolving mindsets regarding the climate crisis, as well as environmental consciousness, sustainable finance may be one of the most effective routes that covers all aspects of sustainability to secure the future of our society and planet.

Global Alliance for Banking on Values [Online] Available from: https://www.gabv.org/ [Accessed on 20.04.21] [1] European Commission, Overview of sustainable finance [Online] Available from: https://ec.europa.eu/ info/business-economy-euro/banking-and-finance/ sustainable-finance/overview-sustainable-finance_ en#:~:text=Sustainable%20finance%20refers%20 to%20the,sustainable%20economic%20activities%20 and%20projects. Accessed [20.04.21] [2] Charity Bank [Online] Available from: https:// charitybank.org/ Accessed [20.04.21] [3] Triodos Bank, ‘Banks can be a force for good’: why I chose to be an ethical investor [Online] Available from: https://www.triodos.co.uk/articles/2020/bankscan-be-a-force-for-good-why-i-chose-to-be-an-ethicalinvestor Accessed [20.04.21] [4] Global Alliance for Banking on Values [Online] Available from: https://www.gabv.org/ [Accessed: 20.04.21] [5] UNEP Finance Initiative, Principles for Responsible Banking [Online] Available from: https://www.unepfi. org/banking/bankingprinciples/ [Accessed 20.04.21] [6] Bregman, R (2020) Why, why, why?: What’s going on? Online] Available from: https://www.bbc.co.uk/ sounds/play/m000qjdm [Accessed 3 January 2021] [7] Bregman, R (2020) Why, why, why?: What’s going on? Online] Available from: https://www.bbc.co.uk/ sounds/play/m000qjdm [Accessed 3 January 2021] [1] UNEP Finance Initiative, Principles for Responsible Banking [Online] Available from: https://www.unepfi. org/banking/bankingprinciples/ [Accessed 20.04.21] [1] Bregman, R (2020) Why, why, why?: What’s going on? Online] Available from: https://www.bbc.co.uk/ sounds/play/m000qjdm [Accessed 3 January 2021]

RICHARD AVEDON:

scene - creating swirling skirts billowing garments that gave a flowing, joyous feel to counteract the rigid looks during the war (1). Paris was the epitome of glamour and elegance and Avedon captured Renée Breton and model wife Doe in Dior expensive furs and gowns.

BEAUTY THROUGH MOVEMENT Mika Tse (OHS)

Renee, The New Look of Dior, Place de la Concorde, Paris, 1947 (1)

Beauty is an important concept that has shaped society for many years. Especially when it comes to the arts, fashion and photography - appearances are everything. Post-World War II, clothes were about practical fabrics and utilitarian designs (1). Similarly, appearances of women were rigid and stoic who were seen as still, statuesque figures (2). However, this would come to change as Richard Avedon reformed the portrayal of ideal American images.

Doe, The New Look of Dior, Place de la Concorde, Paris, 1947 (2) These images were the start of a new vision. The presentation of formal garments had traditionally been about the refined stillness and grandeur of the stiff upper-class life (8). Avedon decided to look past the stagnant, doll-like images of women in white studios, and captured them in motion. On the romantic streets of Paris, his subjects were portrayed as breathing, moving beings who posed, danced and twirled. It made such a change for the views of women, as they were made alive and honest instead of emotionless mannequins on an untouchable pedestal. At the time dynamic shots were limited to sporting shoots (8), and Avedon found a way to breathe the same life and spirit into such extravagant clothes. He continued Dior’s revolution with his own attack – selling the customer a glimpse of the fun, carefree, youthful spirit rather than just a product. It was about presenting the human side of these beautiful people, showing their genuine behaviours and interactions, and giving them personalities complete with flaws that transformed his pictures into stories.

Avedon was born and raised in New York 1923, but with a complicated childhood. His father was disappointed in Avedon’s lack of interest in sports, while his mother strongly encouraged his creativity. The concept of keeping up appearances was confusing for Avedon as Philip Gefter, the author of Avedon’s biography ‘What Becomes a Legend Most’, said that he “struggled with self-esteem his entire life” (4). Whilst enduring anti-Semitism and conflicting opinions over his sexuality, Avedon was bullied for being a ‘sissy’ and his father even paid for his nose job at 17 in attempts to fit in and look less Jewish (5). At age 9 he began to explore his interest in portraiture after receiving his first box brownie camera, with his sister Louise and outgoing cousin Margie being his first muses. Louise also struggled with appearance and Avedon further realised the immense influence of beauty on people’s mentality - “My mother used to tell her, ‘With skin like that and eyes like that you don’t have to speak.’ She was so lovely and so shy no one recognized the pain there. She entered a mental institution in her 20s and died there when she was 42. She was damaged by her beauty. I believe beauty can be as isolating as genius, but without its rewards.” (3).

Veruschka, Dress by Bill Blass, New York, January 4, 1967 (3) On releasing his work to the world, he continued to work for Harper’s Bazaar before moving to Vogue and also working with the likes of Calvin Klein and Versace. His images were always sparkling with life and a rare originality. People on his team described how his vivacious imagination and personality were at the root of these bold images (8). All his works showed a part of himself, both the joy and the trauma. Avedon had the ability to connect with people and express the true essence of the people in his portraits. In 1951, Avedon remarried to Evelyn Franklin who struggled with depression and variable behaviour. Even then, he still had to battle with the hostile attitudes towards homosexuality and Gefter said that ‘He made a choice to marry and live a more conventional life, so in effect, so he could have his career’(5).

After having wanted to become a poet, he dropped out of Columbia University to become a part of the Merchant Marines and served during WWII. Here he re-encountered photography as his job was to take ID photos. Upon reflection Avedon commented that “My job was to do identity photographs. I must have taken pictures of one hundred thousand faces before it occurred to me that I was becoming a photographer.”(9). He returned in 1944 and studied to be a professional photographer at the New School for Social Research (8). Here he was recognised by Alexy Brodovitch, the renowned art director of Harper’s Bazaar, who gave him small commissions in Junior Bazaar (8).

Veruschka with Richard Avedon, dress by Kimberly, New York, January 1967 (4) Whilst working as a fashion photographer he was sought out by celebrities to take their picture. Throughout his career his subjects included Audrey Hepburn, Twiggy, Dwight D. Eisenhower and Andy

His big break came in 1947 when Avedon was picked to shoot Christian Dior’s new Look collection in Paris (5). Like Avedon, Dior was reshaping the fashion 31

Bibliography

Warhol. He put a lot of effort into growing a bond between the models and would always ask them what music and food they wanted during the shoot (6), which in turn would make them feel more comfortable in opening up – which would create real, intimate images.

(1):https://cpb-us w2.wpmucdn.com/portfolio. newschool.edu/dist/6/13656/files/2018/05/ FASHION-HISTORY-FINAL-1udcein.pdf (2):https://www.theartstory.org/artist/avedon-richard/

Marilyn Monroe, New York City, May 6, 1957 (5)

(3):https://www.harpersbazaar.com/culture/features/ a9554252/richard-avedon-photographs-1950s/

His style evolved into a simpler setting as he combined emotion with well-lit studio spaces to allow the model to move in their own time (7). The sense of dynamism and energy is what adds a layer of unrestrained spontaneity to his images, and this preserves a moment of the person that is both formal in setting but honest and private in emotion and movement. His use of minimalist but contrasting tone in black and white images is both effectively bold and unforgiving.

(4): https://aperture.org/editorial/who-was-richardavedon/ (5):https://nypost.com/2020/10/17/fashionphotographer-richard-avedons-life-was-far-fromglamorous/ 6)https://www.thecut.com/2009/05/the_importance_ of_richard_aved.html

Dovima with elephants, evening dress by Dior, Cirque d’Hiver, Paris, August 1955 (6)

7)https://www.pbs.org/wnet/ americanmasters/richard-avedon-about-thephotographer/467/#:~:text=Throughout%20 his%20career%20Avedon%20has,in%20front%20 of%20white%20backdrops.&text=Within%20the%20 minimalism%20of%20his,of%20spontaneity%20to%20 the%20images.

Whilst doing this he also worked on his own projects, capturing studio images of carnival workers, patients of mental hospitals and everyday working-class Americans (7). Avedon considered both models and everyday people equally beautiful, and the same time and respect was given to them. His portraits on the American Civil Rights movement, Vietnam War and his father are wellknown as the expressive quality of them seemed like psychological studies of his models.

8)https://www.businessoffashion.com/opinions/newsanalysis/how-richard-avedon-changed-fashion-forever 9) https://www.avedonfoundation.org/history

He also battled against the prejudices of art versus commerce. During the 1970s to 80s, there was a definite border between the act of creating to make art over creating just to make money (4). Photography was always seen as an inferior art form and Avedon being a photographer, let alone a commercial fashion and celebrity photographer was the recipient of a lot of criticism. Despite this he worked hard to produce meaningful work, elevating the photography as a genuine art form and broadening the fashion world and the way that clothes were viewed.

All accessed 15/04/21 Photos 1. https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O82835/reneethe-new-look-of-photograph-avedon-richard/ 2. https://twitpic.com/6yidk8 3. https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/14/ fashion/14AVEDON.html 4. http://heidiklumwallpaper.blogspot.com/2009/05/ richard-avedon-opening-tonight-at.html

Jacob Israel Avedon, Father of Photographer, Sarasota, Florida, 1971 (7)

5. https://www.moma.org/learn/moma_learning/ richard-avedon-marilyn-monroe-actress-new-yorkmay-6-1957/

Avedon has completely changed the perception of beauty by revolutionising the culture, style and standards portrayed by media. He captured beauty that was real and women who were real - giving people a glimpse of the life they didn’t know they wanted. Forgetting about their past and future, he captured the intensity of his subject’s faces and emotions as they were in the present, which allowed for deeply emotive and unique narratives behind the faces and the clothes that they wore – connecting and familiarising the person in the image and the viewer.

6. https://www.harpersbazaar.com/culture/features/ a9554252/richard-avedon-photographs-1950s/ 7. http://jmcolberg.com/weblog/extended/archives/ meditations_on_photographs_jacob_israel_avedon_ sarasota_florida_may_15_1971/

(CRISPR arrays5). In the case of a second infection, the bacteria produce RNA segments to pinpoint the DNA of the virus and uses enzymes (eg. Cas9) to destroy the DNA of the virus. Based on this technology, scientists now have the ability to precisely edit pathogenic genes at the cell level by adding or taking away pieces of genetic material. While this technology is yet to be applied to humans, it has the potential to completely transform medicine; enabling us not just to treat but also prevent diseases from occurring in the first place.

THE DNA MOLECULE: THE BASIC BUILDING BLOCK OF THE SELF Rebecca Im (OHS) ‘What makes us who we are?’ - a common existential question. In the modern world of social media profiles, it could be interpreted metaphorically, as being about the opinions, clothes and products that make up a personal identity.

Another feat that the structure of the DNA molecule has allowed us is the genetic engineering of microbes to produce specific proteins to our advantage. Let’s consider a patient with diabetes, who either cannot make or has become resistant to insulin. This results in a high blood glucose concentration and an increased risk of death. Before, the individual would have had to receive insulin or pancreas transplants from other animals, which had the risk of being rejected by the human body in the form of allergic reactions6. Now, we can use microbes that have been genetically modified to synthesise human insulin, which can be made in many forms - from regular human insulin to ultra-long effect insulin. As a result of these treatment methods, diabetes is no longer a fatal disease, but just one that is difficult to manage.

I think that the answer to this very question is also one of the most revolutionary discoveries in the field of medicine – the structure of the DNA molecule. James Watson and Francis Crick identified the structure of the DNA molecule¹, based on Rosalind Franklin’s research, in 1953. Their accurate description of the double helix structure marked a huge turning point in medicine, allowing us to understand a fundamental mechanism of the human body. However, it is the continuous research that followed the discovery that provided rational answers for many unanswered questions of medicine.

The structure of the DNA molecule also allows scientists to work out the genetic material of pathogens. For instance, the RNA sequence of the highly relevant novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) allowed scientists to ‘understand how the virus replicates and how it escapes the human defence system’7. This information proved crucial in the development of the Pfizer and Moderna vaccines, the bases of which is using mRNA to deliver the genetic code that codes for spike proteins found on the SARS-CoV-2 virus, to immune cells. This teaches the immune system to see the spike protein as foreign and develop antibodies to fight the virus in the event of an infection. Hence, the knowledge of the structure of the DNA has allowed revolutionary development to occur to this day.

Understanding, predicting, and curing inherited diseases was an impossible feat for many years. Many studies that followed the discovery of the DNA molecule, show that a genetic disorder is caused either entirely or in part by a change in the DNA sequence. There are several ways that genetic diseases can be passed through families, such as dominant genetic diseases or autosomal recessive disorders². An example of an autosomal recessive disorder (which is the result of inheriting a mutated gene from each parent) is cystic fibrosis. As a recessive disease, only when both parents have this mutation, does their child have the disease. However, this also means that there are cases when both parents are unaffected carriers of the mutation, but their child is affected³. Hence, accurate diagnosis of cystic fibrosis proved to be difficult until the specific section of DNA (the gene CFTR) that causes the disease was identified in 19894. This discovery also improved screening for those who were carriers of the defective gene to predict whether their children would have the disease. While we are yet to find a cure for cystic fibrosis, the awareness of this mechanism means treatments have been developed to help control the symptoms.

DNA also provides evidence for scientific theories. Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection, published in his On the Origin of Species8, is conceivably one of the most widely accepted concepts in science. The evidence that Darwin put forward for this series were the similarities between the physical characteristics of organisms. He speculated that whales could have originated from black bears over a course of random genetic changes. Darwin also argued for the theory of the survival of the fittest - the organisms with the most advantageous adaptions are able to survive harsh environmental conditions and reproduce to pass down these variations to the next generation. However, his ideas lacked precise evidence until the discovery of the DNA molecule, which allowed the exact analysis of the genes, and evolutionary history of different species.

This is not to say that there are no potential methods of treating inherited diseases, such as the futuristic concept of gene editing. CRISPR-Cas9 is a system modified from the naturally occurring gene editing system in bacteria. These bacteria take pieces of DNA from foreign viruses and create segments from them 33

We now know that mutations (random errors caused during DNA replication or repair) are more than often neutral or harmful, but there can be a few cases when the change in a gene is beneficial. The mutation becomes more prevalent with each generation until eventually, the whole population has it. By comparing the genome of different species, scientists were able to create an evolutionary tree, which displayed the point at which the species had diverged. Hence, the structure of the DNA molecule was also able to act as evidence for already existing theories. As mentioned before, the discovery of the structure of the DNA molecule was a huge feat in itself. However, it is the way that the knowledge continues to provide a vital foundation for some of the most pioneering ideas in science today, that confirms its status as revolutionary. The most revolutionary of discoveries is one that gives rise to more revolutionary discoveries. Bibliography 1. Watson, J. D. & Crick, F. H. C. (1953) Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid. 2. National Human Genome Research Institute (2018) Genetic Disorders. [Available from: https://www. genome.gov/For-Patients-and-Families/GeneticDisorders] 3. National Human Genome Research Institute (2013) About Cystic Fibrosis. [Available from: https://www. genome.gov/Genetic-Disorders/Cystic-Fibrosis] 4. Marx, J. (1989) The cystic fibrosis gene is found. Science 5. MedlinePlus (2020) What are genome editing and CRISPR-Cas9? [Available from: https://ghr.nlm.nih. gov/primer/genomicresearch/genomeediting] 6. American Diabetes Association (2019) The History of a Wondeful Thing We Call Insulin [Available from: https://www.diabetes.org/blog/history-wonderfulthing-we-call-insulin ] 7. Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News (2020) Coronavirus Genomic and Subgenomic RNA Architecture Mapped, [Available from: https://www. genengnews.com/news/coronavirus-genomic-andsubgenomic-rna-architecture-mapped/] 8. Darwin, C. (1859) On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. London : John Murray

TOUSSAINT LOUVERTURE

since Spartacus and the Third Servile War in the first century BCE. When the gladiator and slave Spartacus unsuccessfully tried to rebel against, and capture Rome. While under French rule, Saint-Domingue was one of the largest slave colonies, having around 452000 black slaves, and produced enough sugar to rival all of the British ones. The fact that such an important and powerful colony was able to be usurped by a slave uprising shows the importance of community, and the capability of persecuted minority groups, even when everything is against them.

AND THE BLACK LIVES MATTER MOVEMENT IN FRANCE Ella Bosworth-Gerbino (OHS) Despite taking place centuries apart, the Haitian slave rebellion and Independence Movement, and the French BLM movement stem from the same root cause: colonialism. Toussaint Louverture, also known as Francois Dominique Toussaint and sometimes called Black Spartacus, was a Haitian general and a very prominent figure in the Haitian Independence Movement. This movement was a series of fights from 1791 to 1804 between many parties, including the British, French, and Haitians, that eventually led to Haitian independence. Louverture fought for the Haitian slaves and the emancipation of the colony from France. More than 200 years later, the fight for liberty is still ongoing. The Black Lives Matter Movement has existed across the word for years, however, in the summer of 2020, following the murder of George Floyd, far more attention was brought to it. In France, Adama Traoré is the victim at the front of the movement. Similarly to Floyd, he was also killed by the police, none of whom have faced any charges. Traoré was the son of Malian immigrants, and his sister has spearheaded the movement in France. This essay will explore Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian Slave Rebellion, and how French colonialism has negatively affected France’s modern inhabitants - even though the empire is long gone.

The slave rebellion was paramount to The Haitian Independence Movement, which led to Haiti becoming the first French colony to achieve emancipation. The French empire was ruled by Napoleon from around 1804 to 1815 when they were defeated by the British at the Battle of Waterloo. In this time, and while the monarchy still reigned over the hexagon, France acquired 84 colonies. The natives of these colonies are still facing the consequences of these invasions, even after their liberation. After slavery was abolished for the second time in 1884, all former slaves were made citizens of France. However, Haiti was not party to this agreement, as they achieved their own independence, meaning that they have been offered no compensation by France, and therefore have struggled economically. Despite it once being perhaps the most prosperous colony, Haiti is now one of the poorest countries in the world. With 59% of the population living below the poverty line. France has a contentious history with citizenship. The French ideal of Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité professes that all French citizens are equal to one another. Article 1 of the French Constitution states that the country is an “an indivisible, secular, democratic and social Republic. It shall ensure the equality of all citizens before the law, without distinction of origin, race or religion.” Identity characteristics, and politics around them, are considered to actively undermine French ideals, and, as a result official statistical tools like the census, do not measure race or ethnicity. For those who are not French citizens, however, these rules do not apply. Not only does the French state record people’s race and ethnicity if they are foreign, but studies of a range of topics find that ethnic minority migrants often face differential (worse) treatment than white people. At the same time, there is a small but growing body of work and activism around these matters for French citizens too.

Louverture was born a slave in the French colony of Haiti, then called Saint-Domingue, and debuted in the military world as a leader in the colony’s Slave Rebellion in 1791. He recognised the incompetence of the previous leaders and led the revolt to new heights. Initially he sided with the neighbouring Spanish colony Santo Domingo, but when France first outlawed slavery in 1794 Louverture rejoined the republic. He was made lieutenant governor by the French governor of Saint Domingue Etienne Laveaux, eventually growing to hold power over the whole colony. Once he had total control and had eliminated all of his rivals, Louverture turned his sights to Santo Domingo, who had not yet abolished slavery. Against Napoleon’s wishes, he overpowered the Spanish, seized the remainder of the island, and declared himself governor-general for life - harkening to the title of Julius Caesar, “dictator for life”. Eventually however, after Napoleon reinstated the slave trade in France and it’s departments, Louverture was arrested and died in prison in 1803.

The secularism, or laïcité, that France pushes is constantly under interrogation from other countries and its own people, in particular by the Black Lives Matter movement. They fight for the recognition that French people of African and middle eastern descent experience the country and its practices differently. They have their own cultural identity, and while often it is partly tied to France, it is not exclusive to the hexagon. They fight for the government to acknowledge that laïcité is poorly disguised

Haiti (previously Saint-Domingue) was under France’s control from 1660 to 1804, and its slave rebellion was the first to result in a state controlled by ex-captives and people of colour, and the largest slave uprising 35

xenophobia. In fact many of the immigrants that are so disenfranchised come from past French colonies

France-Amérique. (2020). Black Lives Matter in Paris: An American Movement in France. [online] Available at: https://france-amerique.com/en/black-livesmatter-in-paris-an-american-movement-in-france/. [Accessed 11 April 2021].

The impacts of colonialism and the French empire were not eradicated once the individual territories became independent, they are still visible today in the general public. As people of colour (frequently those with African lineage) face discrimination from the French police, government, and media. For example, the very high rates of police brutality against black people. As shown by Adama Traoré’s death. And Lamine Dieng’s. And Hakim Ajimi’s. And Amadou Koume’s. And the countless others that also go unpunished. It is clear that France’s history and present run parallel to each other. The republic, as are many other countries, is still held up by its oppressive ideals that date from its colonial history.

étrangères, M. de l’Europe et des A. (n.d.). Secularism and Religious Freedom in France. [online] France Diplomacy - Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs. Available at: https://www.diplomatie. gouv.fr/en/coming-to-france/france-facts/ secularism-and-religious-freedom-in-france-63815/ article/secularism-and-religious-freedom-infrance#:~:text=%22France%20is%20an%20 indivisible%2C%20secular [Accessed 11 April 2021]. Diallo, R. (2020). France is still in denial about racism and police brutality. [online] Available at: https://www. aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/6/11/france-is-still-indenial-about-racism-and-police-brutality. [Accessed 26 April 2021]

Bibliography Vulliamy, E. (2015) The 10 Best Revolutionaries [online] Available from https://www.theguardian. com/culture/2015/aug/28/10-best-revolutionariesche-guevara-mahatma-gandhi-leon-trotsky [Accessed 6 April 2021] Fagg, J. (2021) Toussaint Louverture [online] Available from https://www.britannica.com/biography/ Toussaint-Louverture [Accessed 6 April 2021] Benhold, K. (2006) 158 years later, France recalls end of slavery [online] Available from https://www. nytimes.com/2006/05/10/world/europe/10iht-slaves. html#:~:text=The%20country%20abolished%20 slavery%20in,was%20completely%20abandoned%20 in%201848. [Accessed 6 April 2021] Hochschild, A. (2005) Bury the chains prophets and rebels in the fight to free an empire’s slaves online ed. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Knight, F.W. (2000). The Haitian Revolution. The American Historical Review, 105(1), p.103. Richardson, B. (1992) The Caribbean in the wider world, 1492-1992 : a regional geography online ed. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press ReliefWeb. (2019). IFRC Country Acceleration Plan 2019 - Haiti - Haiti. [online] Available at: https:// reliefweb.int/report/haiti/ifrc-country-accelerationplan-2019-haiti. [Accessed 11 April 2021] Haddad, M. (2018). L’effet d’une politique d’État sur les migrations DOM-métropole. Les enseignements des recensements de 1962 à 1999. Population, 2(2): 191224.

THE SPRINGTIME OF

In the German states, the idea of pan-Germanism led to the March Revolution, Märzrevolution. Whilst these revolts were poorly coordinated, they had in common a rejection of traditional, autocratic political structures in the 39 independent states of the German Confederation and demands for German national unity, freedom of the press and freedom of assembly. Local princes carried out swift reforms in the provinces and revolts in Berlin forced Kaiser Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia to accept the creation of a united Germany with a constitutional monarchy in Prussia. This in turn encouraged the middle-class civil servants, lawyers and intellectuals to liberal reform to join together and propose a new constitution at the Frankfurt Assembly. However, after the Kaiser was offered the crown and boundaries were drawn for a German state, he changed his mind and imposed his own new constitution in 1849. The March Revolution was ultimately defeated by the conservative aristocracy and Germany had to wait until 1871 for reunification.

NATIONS Amy King (OHS) Denmark’s end of absolute monarchy, the Netherlands’ introduction of representative democracy and the abolition of feudalism in Austria and Germany: it is remarkable to think that these events took place because of just one event, the Springtime of Nations. Between 1848 and early 1849, Europe faced its most widespread revolutionary wave to date, the Springtime of Nations. Often referred to as the Year of Revolution, more than fifty countries, including France, the German Confederations states and the Austrian Empire were among those most changed by these revolutions. What catalysed these revolutions to take place in such a short period of time? Many of the revolutions were centred on key aims such as eradicating old monarchical structures, forging independent nation-states as well as a general sense of dissatisfaction with poor governance and negligence of the European monarchs towards the people. New ideas such as nationalism, liberalism and socialism emerged in Europe at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century. The revolutionary message behind what would become the notable slogan, “liberté, égalité, fraternité”, spread across Europe and helped to ignite a shared desire for reform of the middle and working classes.

Although on face-value the March Revolution was a largely unsuccessful event, it sparked considerable social and economic change under the surface. One such effect is the German national flag and more specifically the colours black-red-gold. Ferdinand Freiligrath, a German poet, highlighted the meaning behind the iconic colours on March 17, 1848, “Pulver ist schwarz/Blut ist rot/Golden flackert die Flamme!” [Powder is black, blood is red/Golden flickers the flame!].

Other economic and sanitary factors played a part in this pivotal revolution. The Irish potato famine of 1845 – 1849 led to food supply problems and high food prices across Europe. Moreover, unemployed workers (out of a job due to mechanisation) in both urban and rural areas were undernourished and susceptible to disease. These factors culminated in an overwhelming desire for widespread change across Europe. This change manifested itself in the February Revolution with Paris officials supressing on 22 February 1848 a Campagne des banquets, which was one of a series of political meetings that at the time were campaigning for suffrage. However, it was cancelled due to the government’s fear of an organised protest by the working and middle classes. This repression angered the factory labourers, skilled labourers and middle-class liberals who poured into the streets and were later joined by the National Guard and the army garrison stationed in Paris. A failed attempt by King Louis Philippe to bring about swift reform led to the end of the constitutional monarchy and the birth of the Second Republic on 24 February, which hoped to address the economic and social concerns of the working class. However, the revolutionary aims were weakened by the power struggle between the working class and bourgeoisie. The new government elected Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon 1, as president. He would later go on to stage a coup d’état in 1852 and establish himself as a dictatorial emperor of the Second French Empire.

This European movement is today synonymous with widespread change and symbolises, as March does in springtime: a new dawn, a new era, a new beginning. Kreidelithographie Revolution – Berlin 1848 Danish soldiers parade through Copenhagen in 1849 after victories of the First Schleswig War. Baricade on the Rue Soufflot - An 1848 Painting by Horace Vernet. Bibliography : Rapport, M. (2009). 1848: Year of Revolution. Basic Books. Bache, O. (1849). Museum of Natural History. Sperber, J. (1994). The European Revolutions of 1848. Siemann, W. (1998). The German Revolution of 18481849. London. Litton, H. The Irish Famine: An Illustrated History. Wolfhound Press. Britannica (2014). Encyclopedia Britannica: The German Revolution of 1848 – 1849. 37

1968 - THE CULTURAL

Universität on 17 February 1968;. Dutschke himself barely escaped an assassination attempt by the anticommunist Josef Bachmann on 11 April 1968, in fact, he eventually died of the consequences of this attempt in 1979. This led to a further escalation. Moreover, the discussion and final passing of the Notstandsgesätze (emergency laws meant to give greater powers to the federal government in the case of Germany being, for instance, attacked) caused civil unrest, and the big coalition between the SPD and CDU was targeted with slogans such as ‘SPD and CDU: Lasst das Grundgesetz in Ruh’ (SPD and CDU leave our constitution alone), and a so-called Auβerparlamentarische Opposition (opposition outside parliament) formed. Famous writers like Heinrich Böll sympathised with the protests of the students and argued for a democratisation of the university system in Germany. This he hoped would also facilitate political change. Of course, it would be wrong to see the events in Germany in isolation. France saw its own student protests, the liberalisation of Czechoslovakia in the Prager Frühling ended in Communist supression and the anti-war movement in America gathered national significance.

REVOLUTION IN GERMAN AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE Eleanor Voak (OHS) Using the term cultural revolution for what happened in Germany in 1968 requires some qualification. First, it needs to be pointed out that there is no similarity between the German cultural revolution of 1968 and the Chinese Cultural Revolution. The latter was a successful (if catastrophic) attempt to restructure society radically from the top, using violent means where necessary in order to create a supposed egalitarian ideal. The former originated in an increasingly selfconfident demand by mainly the younger generation, from the bottom-up (and initially only by a small contingent of the student population), for fundamental change. Second, this revolution did not occur in a single year, 1968, but emerged over a number of years from the early 1960s to the early 1970s though it did escalate in 1968. Finally, while it is often called a revolution, there is a significant question mark as to whether it should be called a ‘Revolution’ or a ‘Kulturrevolte’.

While many of the utopian ideas of the 1968 movement were never realised and a radical change of the political structures did not happen, German democracy emerged from the 1968s more liberal and more open than before. Authoritarian trends in bringing up children were reigned in and corporal punishment was banned in school and at home. Unnecessary hierarchies were removed, with universities being reformed, and the ‘der Muff von 1000 Jahren’ (the mould from a thousand years) ‘unter den Talaren’ (under the academic dress) started being cleared out.

At the very root of this revolution was the rejection of authority and authoritarianism, and the realisation that the problems of Naziism had been left largely unresolved after the Second World War. Often leading figures of Naziism had re-emerged as leading figures in all sectors of the new German republic, such as the judiciary, cultural and educational institutions escaping the Allies’ attempts of denazification. Furthermore, Germany’s moral code after the war had remained traditional, education continued to be based on authoritarian principles and universities expected respect rather than showing any willingness to embrace change.

https://app.handelsblatt.com/images/image/20556088/2format4.jpg Equal rights for women were hugely advanced, clearly expressed in slogans such as ‘Ohne Frauen keine Revolution’ (no revolution without women) and the proportion of women studying at university started to grow. The reformation of abortion law in Germany also finds its beginnings in this period. Homosexuality was decriminalised in 1969. The anti-nuclear as well as the peace and the green movement find their origin in this period, leading to Joschka Fischer, one of the 1968 activists, becoming the first green minister of a Bundesland and the Greens moving into their first government coalition in 1988.

1968 saw the culmination of protests against the involvement of the USA in the Vietnam War. Over 12 000 people marched through Berlin on 18 February to the Platz vor der Deutschen Oper. It was here that the assassination of the student Benno Ohnesorg in June 1967 by a Stasi informer during a demonstration against the visit of the Shah Reza Pahlavi to Berlin and his dictatorial regime had sparked off student revolts. These protest against the Vietnam War provided further fuel for the student revolts. https://srv.deutschlandradio.de/media/thumbs/b/ bd6b75968e4e97e6451ae6ef6f583895v1_max_635x357_ b3535db83dc50e27c1bb1392364c95a2.jpg?key=402c87

https://www.hdg.de/lemo/img/galeriebilder/biografien/fischerjoschka_foto_LEMO-F-4-200_bbst.jpg Among the many positive effects of the 1968 cultural revolution, its darker offspring often remains unmentioned. A radical offshoot of the student protests started to carry out terror attacks under the name

Rudi Dutschke, the charismatic leader of the Sozialistischen Deutschen Studentenbund, opened the International Vietnam Congress in the Technischen 38

Bibliography

of RAF (Rote Armee Fraktion) or Baader-Meinhoff Gruppe (named after its most prominent leaders). These led to the cruel assassination of several important public figures in Germany. Eventually caught and imprisoned, several of the main leaders of this group such as Michael Baader and Gudrun Esslin committed suicide in 1977.

Anon. ‘Helden? Wahrheit und Mythos von 1968 in Augsburger Allgemeine (23/03/2018) Accessed on 18/04/2021 https://www.augsburgerallgemeine.de/kultur/Journal/Helden-Wahrheit-undMythos-von-1968-id50722476.html

To return to the question from my introduction as to whether 1968 should be called a Kulturrevolution or Kulturrevolte, it is therefore probably more accurate to speak of a Kulturrevoltion than a Kulturrevolte. While this cultural revolution did remain below the level of a political revolution, it signified and initiated a deep social and cultural change which went hand in hand with increasing economic prosperity.

Jens Kastner, ‘Der andere Blick auf ’68 - Die 1968erJahre als gobale Kulturrevolution, deutschlandfunk de (03.06.2018) Accessed on 17/04/2021 https://www. deutschlandfunk.de/der-andere-blick-auf-68-die1968er-jahre-als-globale.1184.de.html?dram:article_ id=415965 Sven Felix Kellerhoff, ‘Nur eine Kulturrevolte, keine Revolution’ in WELT (11/08/2018) Accessed on 19/04/2021 https://www.welt.de/ geschichte/article180948084/Mythos-1968-Nur-eineKulturrevolte-keine-Revolution.html Hubert Kleinert, ‘Mythos 1968’ Bundeszentrale für Politische Bildung, 19.03.08 Accessed on 17/04/2021 https://www.bpb. de/geschichte/deutsche-geschichte/68erbewegung/52034/mythos-1968 Wolfgang Kraushaar ‘1968: Ein Jahr verändert die Gesellschaft’ 08/05/2018 on deutschland.de Accessed on 17/04/2021 https://www.deutschland.de/ de/topic/politik/1968-in-deutschland-ausloeser-undfolgen-der-protestbewegung Detlef Siegfried, ‘1968’ - eine Kulturrevolution?’ in: Sozial. Geschichte Online 2 (2010), 12-36. Accessed on 20/04/2021 https://duepublico2.unidue.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/duepublico_ derivate_00024040/03_siegfried_1968.pdf

A QUICK OVERVIEW OF

It is interesting to see that a lot of these examples directly link to marriage and hold the value that a woman becomes her husband’s property once they have been wed. Some, who are against change, may claim that this is down to the fact that for many cultures and religions, weddings are a holy or traditional thing which should not be altered. Whilst others simply say that language should not hold as deep a value, perhaps to attempt to excuse this ingrained sexism. For the case of the Russian language, this fault does not lie so much with the current generation (although the usage of these words perhaps reaches a higher frequency than in English) but more so with previous societies in the past when these terms were created.

INGRAINED SEXISM WITHIN MODERN LANGUAGE Becca Gill (OHS) Nowadays, there are continuous issues being brought up by members of society with the purpose of being corrected and changed to as far an extent as possible. With more awareness for these specific topics of discourse, there is more of an effort being undertaken to make a difference. However certain areas are closely interrelated to traditional values and change is not so easy.

To bring this brief discussion to a close, in general, women are shown to represent weakness, moodiness and even submissive whilst men show strength and power. These examples largely appear to feature in those languages which contain gender in terms of grammar that some believe have not been modernised but the English language is still not innocent despite not including as established a gender system. Therefore, I feel as though there needs to be some way of modernising these expressions whilst still respecting the language and the cultural influences it may have experienced to shape itself into what it is.

We are all likely to be familiar with some of these phrases, whether we are properly conscious of their meaning or not when using them or instead we just see them as almost metaphorical. For example, the phrase ‘to man up’ meaning to become less weak and/or scared (although it is rather unsubtly implied to demonstrate a need to become less like a female). Another instance is the phrase; ‘Man and wife.’ Portraying the woman in the relationship as the only one needing to change due to being wed and makes the male of the relationship seem instantly more important and is depicted as the person who is in charge for every couple. This is also reflected in the use of ‘Ms’ and ‘Mrs’, a change in title to show whether a woman is married or not. However, one may notice that there is no alternative for this for males and they can be expected to remain as ‘Mr’ for their entire lives.

Bibliography Elizabeth Arif-Fair, (2018). Examples of Sexism in the English Language, Voice of Salam Рымарь, А. И. (2020). The Phenomenon Of Sexism In The English And Russian Languages. Модели И Методы Повышения Эффективности Инновационных, 64.

It may be interesting to note that many of these English expressions are more colloquial and have been made rather recently in the formation of language, although those who use them may not insert too much consideration into their word usage. This perhaps shows that the intent behind these phrases are not to offend, but in any case, it demonstrates in a new way the ingrained sexism towards women that is still very much prevalent within today’s society. This is, of course, is not the only example of this happening in a modern language. Another instance of this occurs in the Russian language, specifically the verbs meaning to marry; жениться [zhenit’sya] - a word used for describing a man or more literally meaning to be wifed. замуж [zamoojh] - the alternative for women which literally translates to behind the husband.

OWLS Quarterly, Tenth Edition

Articles inside

A QUICK OVERVIEW OF INGRAINED SEXISM WITHIN MODERN LANGUAGE

1968 - THE CULTURAL REVOLUTION IN GERMAN AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

THE SPRINGTIME OF NATIONS

TOUSSAINT LOUVERTURE AND THE BLACK LIVES MATTER MOVEMENT IN FRANCE

THE DNA MOLECULE: THE BASIC BUILDING BLOCK OF THE SELF

WILL SUSTAINABLE FINANCE REVOLUTIONISE PROGRESS TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE?

RICHARD AVEDON: BEAUTY THROUGH MOVEMENT

THE RISE OF EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE: A MEDICAL REVOLUTION

THE DISCOVERY OF THE PACEMAKER

MARIAMA BÂ’S UNE SI LONGUE LETTRE: FEMINISM AND NATIONAL IDENTITY IN SENEGAL

THE SPARTACUS REVOLT

REVOLUTION, FREEDOM AND SILENCE

DNA SEQUENCING

THE REVOLUTIONARY DISCOVERY OF ANAESTHETICS

HOW THE SEXUAL REVOLUTION PAVED THE WAY FOR A NEW SOCIETY FOR WOMEN

REVOLUTIONARY, AND WHY THEY ARE DISAPPEARING

TO WHAT EXTENT IS ‘THE GRAPES OF WRATH’ A REVOLUTIONARY NOVEL?

OF ICELANDIC SOCIETY

THE APPLE REVOLUTION

THE NIGERIAN CIVIL WAR: AN UNCOMMON REVOLUTION