2011 Student Capstone Journal

Capstone Journal Volume III 2011

WORCESTER ACADEMY Graduation Projects: Explorations in the Real World

Table of Contents Fight the Power: Heresy as an Intellectual Rebellion in the Modernist and Postmodernist Eras

By Nick D’Errico ’11

Pages 4 – 24

Huntington’s Disease An In-Depth Look at a Devastating Genetic Disorder

By Danielle Fournier ’11 Pages 25 – 53

It Has a Backbeat, You Can’t Lose It An Essay Examining How Music Sparked Widespread Individualism and Gave the Public a Rebellious Medium from which to Prosper.

By Michal Grabias ’11

Pages 54 – 72

Neurotheology Global Unity on the Divisive Grounds of Religion

By Jasmin Patel ’11

Pages 73 – 104

Fight the Power: Heresy as an Intellectual Rebellion in the Modernist and Postmodernist Eras By Nick D’Errico, ‘11

Every generation has a natural tendency to rebel against its predecessor. Any parent of a teenager would attest to this—a child begins to question the established “wisdom” of the previous generations and, thinking he knows everything, deviates onto his own path. While that child ultimately merges back into the mainstream wisdom of his elders, the pattern begins anew with his children. It is a vicious and never-ending cycle. However, this natural recurrence extends beyond one’s next of kin; in the sphere of art and literature, almost every movement is in conflict with the one that spawned it. Artists, seeing some theoretical flaw in mainstream work, deviate into new, previously unexplored reaches, sometimes even blatantly mocking the old establishment. Perhaps the most blatant examples of this are in the modernist and postmodernist movements—the art world’s equivalent of the emblematic 1960s “Age of Aquarius.”

Using several literary works from these two eras, this paper will explore the use of heresy as an intellectual rebellion against the status quo. At the same time, it will establish several underlying themes as inherently modernist or postmodernist, and explain how each one contributes to the incendiary nature of the work and the genre as a whole. Part I, through original research, offers a brief overview of heresy as a form of rebellion and considers the many forms in which heresy manifests itself throughout the modernist and postmodernist ages. In Parts II through V, specific works are analyzed and identified as heretical in nature: in terms of modernism, Charles Baudelaire’s “To the Reader”, Ezra Pound’s “Salutation the Third”, and Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis are prime examples of heresy in literature, while Margaret Atwood’s The Penelopiad and James Morrow’s Towing Jehovah bring rebellion into the postmodern age. Finally, Part VI concludes the essay by drawing the major connections between the subordinate and major themes; it also attempts to establish, on the basis of similarities, modernism and postmodernism as one evolving genre rather than as two separate artistic movements.

Part I: “Make It New!” Heresy, in its purest form, is a direct and often confrontational opposition to a set of widely held beliefs. While the definition of heresy began with religious contradiction, the term grew to encompass political, cultural, and scientific ideologies as well. Take, for example, the Copernican theory regarding the sun as the center of the universe. This theory, despite being disproven, contradicted the Catholic Church’s assertion that Earth was, in fact, the central point.

While this direct opposition to the Church would qualify as religious heresy, the theory also sparked scientific revolution that would overturn many more widely held beliefs in the scientific field. (Van Helden) As such, heresy does not only apply to the religious sphere; rather, its incendiary nature extends into any widely held canon and challenges popular belief.

D’Errico 2 In conjunction with this assertion, many experts define the modernist era by Ezra Pound’s battle cry: “Make it new!” According to Peter Gay, Pound’s manifesto “tersely summed up the aspirations of more than one generation of modernists” (Gay 4) in that it challenged them to create something out of the ordinary – to oppose all limitations of the “avant-garde” and instead create their own rules. Rebellion against the status quo was a constant theme in modern works; toward the movement’s beginning, mainstream culture was characterized by a clear set of social mores and expectations. As such, society was bound to religious principles and had a clear definition of what could and could not be considered art. During the late Salon movement, a work was not considered true art unless it was displayed in a Salon gallery; in order to be a recognized artist, one had to have the social and economic means to pass their work by a panel of art critics deemed superior in their field. Due to this clear-cut limitation (which barred many from becoming artists—the Salon des Refusés is just one example of anti-Bourgeois activity), Pound’s flagship plea changed the course of modern art; every piece rebelled in some form against the common definition of “art.” In architecture, one could design a house, yet leave it completely unfurnished or decorated as a rebellion against the traditional definition of a home. In visual representations, painters could create an abstract world that challenged the concept of reality. And, in writing, an author could literalize a commonly used metaphor just to explore the possibilities. Essentially, modernism challenged popular, mainstream concepts, and proposed that perhaps society is not limited by a set of widely held boundaries, but each individual is restricted by his own limitations.

In order to effectively adhere to this philosophy, three related subthemes were incorporated into modernist works: an outright confrontation of conventionality; an analysis of the idea of “self”; and the documentation of a descent into chaos. Each subtheme is heretical in its own right; yet, they are connected in that they challenge conformity. The idea of confronting conventionality is quite straightforward: a work attacks the pre-established laws that govern art and society, proposing new, unorthodox boundaries that suit the individual rather than the group.

This is direct heresy. However, the next subtheme, the analysis of “self”, begins to approach heresy on a deeper level. In Neo-Classicist society (that is, Enlightenment and postEnlightenment Europe), the welfare of the collective was valued over the single entity – one’s duty supersedes one’s emotional desires; that is, essence dominates existence. By reversing this principle, modernists committed heresy against popular philosophy and brought existentialism into the limelight (the human consciousness is greater than the human condition). Furthermore, chaotic descent approached heresy on the most intense level: with rationality being a staple of the mainstream, the illustration of its breakdown highlighted flaws and inconsistencies in the status quo. It suggested that humans are imperfect—an analysis of society as a whole through the investigation of oneself. Initially, a proposition such as this was theoretically detrimental to the relative calm of the time because it had the potential to disrupt society. Yet, it also challenged the foundations of religious belief in that it suggested fallibility in the Creator. With religion being another mainstay in society, the implication of God making a mistake turned religion, and therefore society, on its head. As such, rational decay is heretical on multiple levels. On one, it is the result of self-analysis, which has already been established as rebellious. On the next, it suggests flaws in society, and, by extension, reality. Finally, it implies that God is imperfect because he made flawed creatures in His image. As such, each subtheme commits heresy in its own right; yet, pieced together, they attack nearly every aspect of the mainstream and the bourgeois.

D’Errico 3 Despite the rebellious nature of the modernist era, the increasing frequency of its appearance in popular culture caused it to gradually integrate into the mainstream. As such, another movement was forced into existence as a rebellion against the new status quo— postmodernism. While the two movements were different in name, they both incorporated the same central theme: heresy against conformity is the primary mission of the artistic avant-garde.

In postmodernism, however, the target of this heresy was a bit more focused. The primary objective in the postmodernist era was to rebel against perceived and spoon-fed “truth”.

Essentially, the central postmodern argument was that manmade truth always comes with a motive; it is not completely accurate. This is very similar to the modernist rebellion against the limitations of society, yet with an evolutionary spin. According to the mainstream, man is restricted by the historical education passed down from prior generations. Yet, postmodernists argue that this “truth” is simply a fabrication created by the victors of the past. So, by this logic, postmodernism is essentially a continuation of modernism; that is, they share the same central theme and therefore exist as the same artistic genre, only developed with time.

In essence, postmodernism commits heresy through two central themes (much like modernism). Those themes are the combination of high art and low art, and the argument that there is no substance to the individual’s condition; there is only essence. In terms of the “status” of different artistic media, the postmodernist movement essentially establishes that a piece of “high art” (a novel, for argument’s sake) is of the same importance as a work of “low art” (perhaps a comic book) in that they both have an equally relevant message to relay. In the modernist era, this ideology was only starting to emerge with the breakdown of the gallery limitations in the French Salons. Yet, the complete merge and destruction of the artistic hierarchy did not come about until afterward; the modernist rebellion primarily focused on the alreadyestablished media of the Neo-Classical and Romantic periods. As such, this combination of levels committed artistic heresy by establishing previously insignificant media as equivalent to a gallery-displayed painting or revolutionary novel. In terms of the human condition, postmodernists completely reversed the prior workings of the modernist perspective; in the examination of one’s existence, postmodernists argue that existence is insignificant (there is only essence). While this might seem like the polar opposite of modern existentialist theory and thus disprove the continuum between movements, it actually argues based on the same principles. As previously discussed, existentialism is a contradiction of the “drone” syndrome present in premodernist society through the belief that limitations are ultimately individualized; every person is unique. However, the postmodernist perspective builds on the same rebellion, yet argues that if every person is unique, then no one is; by being labeled a non-conformist, one is conforming with the non-conformists. Therefore, there is no single existence, only essence. Each human has the same essence as his neighbor, despite being an individual. As such, instead of asking the simple modernist questions “Why am I here?” and “Who am I?” postmodernists focus the scope of their queries. For example, a postmodernist might ask “What am I bound to accomplish?” and “How do I affect my external environment and how does it affect me?” In this sense, postmodernism attacks the old “drone” theory by striking at its own foundations in the “individuality” theory; in order to be a logical continuation of modernism, it must commit heresy against the mainstream, which just so happens to be itself. Therefore, by attacking itself, postmodernism commits the ultimate heresy: hypocrisy.

D’Errico 4 Part II: Heresy’s Womb—Baudelaire’s “Au Lecteur” The section that follows discusses Baudelaire’s “Au Lecteur” (“To the Reader”) and two relevant translations: Richard Howard’s and Robert Lowell’s. All three versions are included for the reader’s convenience.

Au Lecteur Charles Baudelaire La sottise, l'erreur, le péché, la lésine, Occupent nos esprits et travaillent nos corps, Et nous alimentons nos aimables remords, Comme les mendiants nourrissent leur vermine.

Serré, fourmillant, comme un million d'helminthes, Dans nos cerveaux ribote un peuple de Démons, Et, quand nous respirons, la Mort dans nos poumons Descend, fleuve invisible, avec de sourdes plaintes.

Nos péchés sont têtus, nos repentirs sont lâches; Nous nous faisons payer grassement nos aveux, Et nous rentrons gaiement dans le chemin bourbeux, Croyant par de vils pleurs laver toutes nos taches.

Si le viol, le poison, le poignard, l'incendie, N'ont pas encor brodé de leurs plaisants dessins Le canevas banal de nos piteux destins, C'est que notre âme, hélas! n'est pas assez hardie.

Sur l'oreiller du mal c'est Satan Trismégiste Qui berce longuement notre esprit enchanté, Et le riche métal de notre volonté Est tout vaporisé par ce savant chimiste.

Mais parmi les chacals, les panthères, les lices, Les singes, les scorpions, les vautours, les serpents, Les monstres glapissants, hurlants, grognants, rampants, Dans la ménagerie infâme de nos vices,

C'est le Diable qui tient les fils qui nous remuent!

Aux objets répugnants nous trouvons des appas; Chaque jour vers l'Enfer nous descendons d'un pas, Sans horreur, à travers des ténèbres qui puent.

Ainsi qu'un débauché pauvre qui baise et mange Le sein martyrisé d'une antique catin, Nous volons au passage un plaisir clandestine Que nous pressons bien fort comme une vieille orange.

II en est un plus laid, plus méchant, plus immonde!

Quoiqu'il ne pousse ni grands gestes ni grands cris, Il ferait volontiers de la terre un debris Et dans un bâillement avalerait le monde; C'est l'Ennui! L'oeil chargé d'un pleur involontaire, II rêve d'échafauds en fumant son houka.

Tu le connais, lecteur, ce monstre délicat, — Hypocrite lecteur, — mon semblable, — mon frère!

To The Reader Trans. Richard Howard Stupidity, delusion, selfishness and lust torment our bodies and possess our minds, and we sustain our affable remorse the way a beggar nourishes his lice.

Our sins are stubborn, our contrition lame; we want our scruples to be worth our while— how cheerfully we crawl back to the mire: a few cheap tears will wash our stains away!

Satan Trismegistus subtly rocks our ravished spirits on his wicked bed until the precious metal of our will is leached out by this cunning alchemist:

the Devil’s hand directs our every move— the things we loathed become the things we love; day by day we drop through stinking shades quite undeterred on our descent to Hell.

Like a poor profligate who sucks and bites the withered breast of some well-seasoned trull, we snatch in passing at clandestine joys and squeeze the oldest orange harder yet.

Wriggling in our brains like a million worms, a demon demos holds its revels there, and when we breathe, the Lethe in our lungs

D’Errico 5 trickles sighing on its secret course. is even uglier and fouler than the rest, although the least flamboyant of the lot; this beast would gladly undermine the earth and swallow all creation in a yawn;

If rape and arson, poison and the knife have not yet stitched their ludicrous designs onto the banal buckram of our fates, it is because our souls lack enterprise!

But here among the scorpions and the hounds, the jackals, apes and vultures, snakes and wolves, monsters that howl and growl and squeal and crawl, in all the squalid zoo of vices, one

I speak of Boredom which with ready teats dreams of hangings as it puffs its pipe.

Reader, you know this squeamish monster well, —hypocrite reader, —my alias, —my twin!

To the Reader Trans. Robert Lowell Infatuation, sadism, lust, avarice possess our souls and drain the body's force; we spoonfeed our adorable remorse, like whores or beggars nourishing their lice.

Gangs of demons are boozing in our brain — ranked, swarming, like a million warrior-ants, they drown and choke the cistern of our wants; each time we breathe, we tear our lungs with pain.

Our sins are mulish, our confessions lies; we play to the grandstand with our promises, we pray for tears to wash our filthiness; importantly pissing hogwash through our styes.

If poison, arson, sex, narcotics, knives have not yet ruined us and stitched their quick, loud patterns on the canvas of our lives, it is because our souls are still too sick.

The devil, watching by our sickbeds, hissed old smut and folk-songs to our soul, until the soft and precious metal of our will boiled off in vapor for this scientist.

Among the vermin, jackals, panthers, lice, Gorillas and tarantulas that suck And snatch and scratch and defecate and fuck In the disorderly circus of our vice,

Each day his flattery makes us eat a toad, and each step forward is a step to hell, unmoved, through previous corpses and their smell asphyxiate our progress on this road.

there's one more ugly and abortive birth.

It makes no gestures, never beats its breast, yet it would murder for a moment's rest, and willingly annihilate the earth.

Like the poor lush who cannot satisfy, we try to force our sex with counterfeits, die drooling on the deliquescent tits, mouthing the rotten orange we suck dry.

It's ennui. Tears have glued its eyes together.

You know it well, my Reader. This obscene beast chain-smokes yawning for the guillotine — you — hypocrite Reader — my double — my brother!

According to Peter Gay, “Charles Baudelaire, in preference to all other heretics, [is] modernism’s first hero” (Gay 5), a poet who defied mainstream conventions by exploring nonconformist imagery in order to achieve what he thought was a truly honest look at modern life.

The self-proclaimed “flâneur de Paris” devoted himself to seeking truth and beauty in every aspect of his surroundings, from café streets to the most diseased brothels (Baillie). The most significant example – and essentially the flagship of modernism itself – is his poem “To the Reader” (or “Au Lecteur”) in his noted collection Les Fleurs de Mal. In the original French translation, the poem acts as an honest dialogue of the changes in modern society; Baudelaire’s poetry is a type of womb for the heresy that would follow as a result of the mainstream’s widely unacknowledged collapse. As such, readers must acknowledge that Baudelaire’s purpose was not

D’Errico 6 to openly offend for the sake of offense, but to confront his contemporaries with the beauty of reality—reality in all of its forms.

While many translations of “Au Lecteur” exist, there are two variations that seem to conflict in their approach to Baudelaire’s intentions. On the one hand, Richard Howard – an established poet, literary critic, and teacher – translates the poem with accuracy as the prime focus; he captures Baudelaire’s true intentions by offering a word-by-word conversion from French to English. On the other hand, Robert Lowell – a Pulitzer Prize-winning poet – interprets the poem by intensifying Baudelaire’s conveyed emotions; through overt and profane diction, he sculpts the poem into a literary taser – offense for shock value. Although this discrepancy is seemingly coincidental, each variation supports heresy in a different way: in Howard’s translation, Baudelaire’s heresy is artful and sufficient – accuracy accomplishes the task; however, Lowell’s version offers profanity as an emotional extreme in contrast to the formal language used in the original work – essentially, a collision of high and low language. Yet, both translations serve the same function: both variants challenge the mainstream perception of beauty and ugliness – heresy against society.

For argument’s sake, Howard’s translation serves the same function as Baudelaire’s original poem, albeit with converted linguistic subtleties that clarify the work for an English reader. As such, the vivid elements of Baudelaire’s poem directly correlate; through contradictory allusions and suggestive (and mildly offensive) content, Baudelaire confronts the sheltered boundaries of mainstream life and, instead, proposes that the observer is the ultimate judge of his surroundings. In this specific work, this contradiction is achieved through a perspective on beauty – through images of filth and evil (ironic, considering the translated title of the collection is “The Flowers of Evil”), the reader is forced to observe the reality of modernity rather than the romantic café street scenes to which high society is accustomed: Our sins stubborn, our contrition lame; we want our scruples to be worth our while – how cheerfully we crawl back into the mire: a few cheap tears will wash our stains away! (Baudelaire, lines 5-8) From the start, modern humanity (thus the use of “we”) is attacked as flawed; the acknowledgement of human sin and contrition indicate mankind as morally weak – something to which high society, in all of its Christian pride, would never openly admit. In addition, Baudelaire uses vermin-based imagery (a stepping-stone for Kafka in later years) to further build upon his notion of a feeble-minded mainstream. Aside from inferring that humanity crawls – either like an insect or a newborn – his imagery of a retreat indicates a deep-seated and inherent fear of something more powerful. The final line, albeit sarcastically, suggests an absolution of sin through the tears of the weak, perhaps in a remorseful way. This, in conjunction with the acknowledgement of sin and contrition, indicates the feared higher power as a religious figure (most likely God due to France’s Christian foundations). Therefore, Baudelaire infers that man is weak in the face of God – which would have been a widely-acknowledged fact – yet does so in a way that makes mankind seem two-faced; one stands proud and tall in everyday life, yet betrays that pride and adherence to principle when confronted with something infinitely more powerful.

Therefore, through pure content, Baudelaire (and, by extension, Howard in his translation) commits heresy by challenging the mainstream’s idealist view on human pride and perfection – he questions humanity’s knowledge of beauty through self-analysis.

D’Errico 7 In conjunction with the content of the poem, Baudelaire integrates form as a device to help achieve his function; he attacks the artistic avant-garde by integrating heretical language into a bastardized form of the Petrarchan sonnet (an idealized format that essentially monopolized poetry in the Neo-Classical and Romanticist eras). Simply by examining the poem, it is evident that it follows a uniform meter and rhyme scheme (a closer look reveals the meter as iambic pentameter and the rhyme as ABBA repeating). While the iambic pentameter remains constant throughout the work – thus being consistent with the Petrarchan sonnet’s form – the rhyme scheme seems to oppose the style’s system: while an uninterrupted Petrarchan sonnet flows consistently in a single stanza (ABBAABBACDCDCD), the line breaks of Baudelaire’s poem resets the rhyme scheme (ABBA, ABBA, ABBA). This contrasts Baudelaire’s form with the fluidity of the more traditional Petrarchan model. While this deviation seems minute, it is not without purpose; the heretical content acts as a sort of corruption in such an idealized structure.

Therefore, Baudelaire’s use of this specific rhyme scheme seems to be heretical in that his function is a desecration of form; the poem, in its original form and direct translation, challenge the rules of the artistic avant-garde.

While Baudelaire’s original poem certainly pushes the boundaries of heresy, Lowell’s translation completely obliterates the thin red line in terms of content; while his form remains the same as Howard’s and Baudelaire’s structures, he uses profane and informal language to intensify the original poem’s sentiments while, at the same time, overtly offending the reader.

This discrepancy is not without reason: in his interpretation, it is likely that Lowell sought heresy for the sake of offense rather than to subtly prove a point (even though both reasons can be deemed rebellious). This is evident in his overt language, specifically his unprecedented use of “fuck”: Among the vermin, jackals, panthers, lice, Gorillas and tarantulas that suck And snatch and scratch and defecate and fuck In the disorderly circus of our vice, (Baudelaire, lines 29-32) Much like Baudelaire’s original, the use of vermin-based imagery exists for the purpose of comparison. However, the true shock value exists in the profanity; at the time of translation, the use of “fuck” and similar words was taboo among the educated masses, especially in mixed company – many were entangled in the legal system due to the use of profanity in public and in educational atmospheres. As such, the use of this type of language is overt heresy – it is previously unheard of in a higher-status climate – or, at least, not in so casual a way. In addition, other types of imagery emerge which act upon the profane. In this specific passage, unconventional sexual imagery is used to paint an image of filth and depravity: such terms as “suck” and “scratch”, among others, connote passionate but unclean sexual acts which would normally not have been discussed in public, even in French society. This is where the true beauty of the poem lies. Building on Baudelaire’s logic that every aspect of life is beautiful, Lowell gives the reader the image of two beasts mating – the act is downright disgusting and is, in no way, something to be watched, yet it is like a train wreck in that one must acknowledge its presence. As a result, Lowell’s translation achieves an entirely new level of heresy – no longer is the poem a subtle intellectual rebellion; rather, it is an all-out obliteration of societal standards and values.

D’Errico 8 In terms of Baudelaire’s original poem, heresy is committed through his imposition that humanity is flawed; through an analysis of the self (or mankind as a whole), he attacks society’s perception of beauty using its own pride as the weapon. Howard’s translation accurately reflects this, but in a different language. However, Lowell’s translation takes this to a whole new level – through profane language and impure imagery, the poem is turned into a horrific snapshot of the mainstream’s alter ego. While these translations differ in the intensity of their message, both have the same essential function: to commit heresy against the mainstream. Yet, in addition to this primary function, the poem (in all variations) established a path for the future of modernism and precedents for postmodernist subthemes. Although the heresy in the original work was not intended simply for the purpose of offense, authors like Lowell would take the poem’s confrontational nature to heart and, in radical fashion, horrify those who dared oppose them. This would become especially prevalent in works such as Ezra Pound’s “Salutation the Third”; Pound was deeply influenced by Baudelaire’s early work, yet, unlike his idol, he would incorporate shock value as a main factor in his writing. In terms of postmodernism, both translations initiated a collision of high and low language that (unconsciously) prophesied the postmodern merger of high and low art. Especially in Lowell’s version, the profane and informal diction contrasted with the high-status form and content of the original poem; the opposing levels of language proved that even the most deprave words could be used in formally published literature.

Therefore, Baudelaire’s “To the Reader” was a springboard for writers in the modernist era in that it provided the seeds of rebellion that drove the movement. In addition, the poem contained early forms of postmodernist themes, effectively cementing modernism as the root of postmodernism.

Part III: Pound’s Rebellion Against the Status Quo and Avant-Garde in “Salutation the Third” This section treats Ezra Pound’s controversial “Salutation the Third,” reproduced below: Salutation the Third (from the July 1915 Vorticist publication, Blast!)

Let us deride the smugness of “The Times”: GUFFAW! So much for the gagged reviewers, It will pay them when the worms are wriggling in their vitals; These were they who objected to newness, HERE are their TOMB-STONES. They supported the gag and the ring: A little black BOX contains them.

SO shall you be also, You slut-bellied obstructionist, You sworn foe to free speech and good letters, You fungus, you continuous gangrene.

Come, let us on with the new deal, Let us be done with Jews and Jobbery, Let us SPIT upon those who fawn on the JEWS for their money, Let us go out to the pastures.

PERHAPS I will die at thirty,

D’Errico 9 Perhaps you will have the pleasure of defiling my pauper’s grave; I wish you JOY, I proffer you ALL my assistance.

It has been your HABIT for long to do away with true poets, You either drive them mad, or else you blink at their suicides, Or else you condone their drugs, and talk of insanity and genius, BUT I will not go mad to please you.

I will not FLATTER you with an early death.

OH, NO! I will stick it out, I will feel your hates wriggling about my feet, And I will laugh at you and mock you, And I will offer you consolations in irony, O fools, detesters of Beauty.

I have seen many who go about with supplications, Afraid to say how they hate you.

HERE is the taste of my BOOT, Caress it, lick off the blacking.

Ezra Pound, the American-born founder of the Imagist movement, is a crucial figure in the “evolution” of modernist heresy. In July of 1915, Pound published “Salutation the Third” in Blast!, the Vorticist manifesto magazine. The poem announced the arrival of Imagism, an artistic innovation of several artists; their ringleader was Pound himself. Taking after Baudelaire’s style (and relating to much of Lowell’s as well), the poem forced informal diction and offensive imagery into poetic form. However, unlike Baudelaire, Pound’s work was not an artful lament of the social constructs of mainstream society; rather, it was a full-frontal assault on conventionality – a mockery of so-called “intellectuals” and uptight conservatives. The poem broke every law dictated by the artistic avant-garde. In addition to the downright offensive content, the work broke all forms of structure and even desecrated Baudelaire’s precedent of carefully measured stanzas. The poem itself was an ultimate heresy during the beginnings of modernism because it not only attacked the Social Realist and Neo-Classicist mainstream, but also its own roots (a theme which would ultimately foreshadow the basis of Postmodernism). Ezra Pound not only mocked the form and function of his poetic predecessors, but utterly obliterated them in his poem “Salutation the Third”. Although the diction of the poem displays Pound’s outright rebellion against the status quo, his abuse of the poem’s structure and syntax acts as a mockery of traditional poetry, particularly the sonnet. In addition, Pound places a great deal of emphasis on tone and image, further reflecting his distaste for the social avant-garde.

However, while the lure of heresy is a prominent theme in the poem, Pound adds a second in order to further distinguish himself as a modernist poet: the world of the author spinning out of control. As a key contributor to the Imagist movement’s repertoire, Pound was constantly exposed to the downcast mood of the time. With the rampant drug use and financial panic typical of the era, many modernist authors could not help but note—in various ways and mediums—their societies descending either subtly or openly into madness. Although this transition from a previously comfortable era was visible in everyday life, the bourgeois refused to acknowledge this reality in art, preferring the idealistic comfort of the Salon style. Pound was one of the first artists to contradict the Salon style by introducing the reality of the times within his art, thus breaking the blissful ignorance of the bourgeois. In this way, Pound undermines what postmodernists would eventually call the “Enlightenment Project” – the belief that reason and human development born in the Renaissance have matured into modern knowledge,

D’Errico 10 therefore committing heresy. In addition, Pound introduces irrationality as a motif within his poetry, thus contradicting the rationality typical of previous styles. Therefore, Pound’s heretical approach in writing “Salutation the Third” suggests a modernist style in that he utterly desecrates the pre-established literary rules set by artists before him and, in the process, illustrates the world of an author spinning out of control.

Primarily, Pound’s choice of diction in “Salutation the Third” is heretical in form not only because of its offensive nature, but because of its irrationality and contradiction as well. At the start of the modernist era, the bourgeois took comfort in the soft, idealist style typical of the Salon. However, with the emergence of modernism among the artistic avant-garde, the focus of the bourgeois was abruptly turned from idealism to the cold, hard truth of realism. Pound’s choice of diction follows this transition in that he forgoes eloquence in exchange for abrupt fact, choosing words that would purposely offend an upper-class reader: I have seen many who go about with supplications, Afraid to say how they hate you.

HERE is the taste of my BOOT, Caress it, Lick off the blacking. (l.30-34) In this instance, Pound foregoes all restraint and gives the reader one final, obscene gesture to finalize his assault. Not only does Pound state a hatred for the subject of the poem—the bourgeois and social avant-garde—but secures it with a rude gesture akin to the modern middle finger: licking one’s boot. Traditionally, the foot has always been a societal taboo as the lowest part of the body and, being in constant contact with the ground, the dirtiest. By imploring the subject to lick his boot, Pound essentially conveys his target’s worth as the lowest possible life form. In addition, the tone of the vulgarity presented is somewhat cynical, yet another deviation from the Salon and other prior styles. Simply based on this offensive gesture, Pound’s choice of diction is heretical in nature.

However, the diction of “Salutation the Third” is also heretical in that the poem is both irrational and hypocritical, thus indicating the author’s descent into madness. In the first half of the second stanza, Pound promises the subject his assistance in emerging beyond the “smugness of ‘The Times’” (l.1) despite his incessant negativity. However, Pound’s attitude abruptly transitions in the second half, transforming from a willingness to help into an unrestrained mockery of the subject: “I wish you JOY, I proffer you ALL my assistance. /… I will feel your hates wriggling about my feet, / And I will laugh at you and mock you” (l.19, 26-28). In the first line of the fragment, Pound’s choice of diction is uncharacteristically optimistic in the scheme of the poem, implying a pseudo- or at least veiled genuineness. However, the choice of diction abruptly changes toward the poem’s characteristic cynical tone, employing verbs such as “hates” and “mock” to emphasize a reversal of attitude toward the poem’s subject. Because of this contradiction in the same stanza, the poem exemplifies a motif of irrationality and hypocrisy which in turn depicts a lack of control in the author’s own world. However, this decay of coherence also acts as heresy in itself due to its contradiction of the “Enlightenment Project”. In addition, it is important to note the irony of this gesture as opposed to the title of the poem.

While the connotation of “salutation” is friendliness and openness toward a newcomer, the content of the poem is both hostile and offensive, therefore adding to the motif of hypocrisy and irrationality. Because the poem’s irrationality signifies a reversal of human development and

D’Errico 11 knowledge, Pound yet again attacks the world of the bourgeois, possibly highlighting hypocrisy within the upper social classes as well.

While Pound’s heretical choice of diction plays a major role in his offensive against the avant-garde, the content of the poem is not the only representation of heresy against previously established artistic styles. In addition to the poem’s heretical diction, “Salutation the Third” is heretical in nature because of its chaotic and disorganized syntax which, in turn, highlights Pound’s loss of control within his own world. During the beginnings of the modernist period, the bourgeois held dear the traditional conventions of closed-structured poetry, such as (but not limited to) the sonnet. The guidelines for such a style were adhered to in the majority of romantic poetry; every work was grammatically correct, streamlined according to a set meter, and all emphasis was implied by the diction of the poem. As part of his attack on the social avant-garde, Pound butchers the structure of the Elizabethan sonnet, indenting lines and capitalizing words in order to butcher the rigid structure of tradition in all its forms: BUT I will not go mad to please you.

I will not FLATTER you with an early death.

OH, NO! I will stick it out (l.23-25) The capitalization of such words as “BUT” and the exclamation “OH, NO!” is a redundancy employed by Pound to mock the natural inflection that the flow of the poem provides. This is a direct attack on the bourgeois’ admiration for subtlety because Pound’s emphasis is outright; no guesswork is left to the reader. In addition, the indentation of lines in the poem is a direct mockery of the Elizabethan sonnet and Shakespearean dramatic style; when the previous line does not equal ten syllables, usually due to a change of speaker, the next line is indented to make up the difference. However, Pound completely disregards these two popular styles: first, there is only one speaker, and therefore the indentation is not a necessity; two, even when a line is indented, the extra verse exceeds the ten-syllable limit. In this regard, the poem is heretical because it not only attacks the form of the age’s mainstream style, but also attacks Shakespearean form – a style idealized by authors even prior to the Salon movement.

Finally, symbolism derived from imagery is key to Pound’s heretical attack on the bourgeois because the obscene images used in “Salutation the Third” illustrate the author’s decay of rationality. Much like Marcel Duchamp’s infamous Fountain, Pound’s images are used to confuse rather than anchor. In their own right, the sheer vulgarity of the images suggests heresy in that the avant-garde would be easily offended by such crude terms. However, the images are also heretical because they are representative of a parasitic being and, as such, symbolize the draining of their target’s lifeblood – artistic creativity: You slut-bellied obstructionist, You sworn foe to free speech and good letters, You fungus, you continuous gangrene. (1.10-12) Immediately, Pound declares the subject’s inhibition, referring to him as an “obstructionist”.

This is most likely a direct referral to the inhibition of earlier movements on the development and progression of artistic creativity in the modernist era. However, Pound reinforces this forceful diction with images reminiscent of a parasite: adjectives and nouns such as “slutbellied”, “fungus” and “gangrene”. These images, in context, portray a highly infectious blight

D’Errico 12 on the progress of artistic development. Yet, when converted to symbol, these images also suggest a gradual decay, thus alluding to W.B. Yeats’ “ever-widening gyre” – a spiral out of control. Likewise, the final image of the poem suggests a loss of sanity due to its impulsive, sexual nature: HERE is the taste of my BOOT, Caress it, Lick off the blacking. (l.32-34) The image of the licking suggests the dominance found in the relationship between the master and the slave, yet the image of caressing suggests sexuality in the act. Translated into symbol, the sexual nature of the act suggests irrationality due to the natural, nearly animalistic desires typical of sexuality. Because irrationality contrasts so heavily against the reason and logic of the “Enlightenment Project” belief system, Pound’s heretical symbols contribute to the theme of the author’s descent into madness.

Ezra Pound’s “Salutation the Third” is inherently modernist due to the heretical nature of the diction, tone, syntax, and imagery, which subsequently serve to illustrate the world of the author spiraling out of control. Although the function of the poem is to attack the bourgeois of the early modernist era and defend the artists who struggle under the oppression of society, “Salutation the Third” is sadly prophetic; shortly after writing the poem, Pound’s own life would rapidly decline when he was indicted on charges of treason for spreading Fascist propaganda among American troops during World War II. Pound would be institutionalized due to a mental breakdown he experienced while being held at a detainment center in Italy. As a result of his incarceration, a decay of reason and rationality was visible in his later work. Several glimpses of his rebellious tendencies did occasionally manifest, yet the focus of his work transitioned to selfexamination and self-doubt during his final years, ironically paralleling his message in “Salutation the Third” (Wilmer). Ultimately, Pound’s distaste for his own work toward the end of his life was the bottom of the spiral; aside from the fact that his work was now popular among the foremost artists of the era, Pound began to rebel against his own work, signifying a parallel with the bourgeois that he had so vehemently opposed in his younger days.

Part IV: Kafka’s Engagement of Modernist Themes Using Various Types of Imagery In 1915, the same year that Pound published “Salutation the Third” in the July edition of Blast!, Franz Kafka published a thin work entitled Die Verwandlung—The Metamorphosis.

During the climax of the novella, Kafka uses contradictory religious imagery that indicates the work’s modernist genre, specifically by engaging an inherently modern theme: the use of heresy to offend. His target, like most modernists, was the upper-class bourgeois and their views on both society and religion. By attacking the bourgeois, Kafka was also striking at society as a whole due to the power held by the upper classes and their ability to dictate rationality and order.

By exposing religious contradictions, he indicts organized faith as flawed – particularly Christianity – and, by extension, the status quo, since the majority of German and European society was Christian. However, Kafka also breeches the barrier between Christianity and other popular religions such as Greek paganism. Although paganism was not actively practiced in 20th century Europe, its topics were frequently alluded to in art and literature. By attacking a popular

D’Errico 13 source of enjoyment, Kafka strikes at society by mocking its artistic taste. Therefore, through his contradictory use of religious imagery, Kafka attacks upper-class society by citing its beliefs as irrational, thus making the novella heretical and, by extension, modern.

Throughout the novella’s climax and until Gregor’s death, religious imagery is literalized as part of the character development, preparing the reader for the eventual heresy. While not overt, Kafka creates several similarities between his characters and the actions of religious figures, ultimately planning for their eventual conflict to suggest contradiction in the Bible, among other religious creeds. The first connection to religion exists from the beginning of the work, when Gregor is introduced in insect form: “When Gregor Samsa woke up one morning from unsettling dreams, he found himself changed in his bed into a monstrous vermin,” (Kafka 3). There are two significant words that, at least superficially, establish Gregor as an unnatural and possibly demonic figure: “monstrous” and “vermin”. While “monstrous” is most often associated with fear, the word also connotes great size and harsh features, two qualities that Gregor possesses. In addition, the word “vermin” does not necessarily have to signify a pest; it can simply mean a creature dwelling in an unnatural place. These connotations effectively relate Gregor to a demon, perhaps even Satan; a demon is usually considered a rather large, harshfeatured creature living in an unnatural place – Hell. While Gregor’s association with the devil is a major component of the novella’s heresy, the use of other characters as images also plays a significant role.

Besides Gregor, other characters and objects act as concrete reminders of religious myth, namely Gregor’s father and the apples with which he pelts his son. During the climactic moment of Part Two, the father uses the apples as a weapon against his own child, not knowing their full power and destructive force: “It was an apple; a second one came flying right after it; Gregor stopped dead with fear; further running was useless, for his father was determined to bombard him… But the very next one that came flying after it literally forced its way into Gregor’s back…” (Kafka 28-9). There are two significances of this passage: in one, the father is a depiction of God banishing a demonic being from a sacred place; in the other, the father portrays the serpent in the Eden myth. Due to the father’s demonstration of power and dominion over Gregor, he assumes the role of the God-like figure, while the apple acts as God’s gift of knowledge in the Garden of Eden myth. By attacking Gregor with the apples, the father exposes him to knowledge foreign to one of his savage nature (vermin presumably cannot comprehend as humans do). However, the father also forces the knowledge onto him, much like the serpent does to Eve in the Garden of Eden. While Gregor is far from a literalization of Eve, the actions of the father secure him as the serpent, a satanic figure. This contradiction is heretical because Kafka essentially indicates that God and Satan are the same being—an unimaginably powerful heresy in any monotheistic faith.

As in their Edenic source, the apples also symbolize impending mortality. While knowledge connotes power (one of the reasons why God would wield it), it also signifies the realization of less-than-ideal realities, one being death. The apple is a symbol of mortality for two reasons: one, it rots, a natural effect of death, and; two, when Eve ate the apple in the Eden myth, both she and Adam were banished from Eden and deprived of the Tree of Life, thus making them mortal. The same applies to Gregor, albeit in a more literal fashion; he ultimately dies from the wound: “The rotten apple in his back and the inflamed area around it, which were completely covered with fluffy dust, already hardly bothered him… Then, without his consent, his head sank down to the floor, and from his nostrils steamed his last weak breath,” (Kafka 39).

The inflammation of the area surrounding the wound, while literally signifying a natural

D’Errico 14 rejection of the embedded object, also signifies an opposition to the sudden revelations within the apple. In addition to this, the decay of the apple is a direct indication of mortality, passing the curse of death to Gregor. If the reader were to substitute the characters with the religious figures that they represent, the myths actually contradict based on the action of the novella. With Gregor’s death, Kafka essentially literalizes the myth, thus preparing the reader to realize the novella’s heretical nature. Simply put, Kafka reduces the abstract and revered symbol of human knowledge to little more than the source of a festering, fatal wound.

Using the characters as literal images for religious figures, Kafka not only mocks the validity of both the Bible and Greek paganism (a mainstay in 20th century popular culture), but also the religiously motivated status quo of his time through contradictions in the characters’ presentations. The first heresy occurs in the depiction of Gregor as an unnatural, demonic being.

In Christianity, the last thing to be idealized is a demon—a minion of Satan. As previously demonstrated, Gregor assumes this role due to his appearance as a “monstrous vermin” (Kafka 3). However, Gregor’s role as the protagonist and his portrayal as a pitiful character seemingly evoke sympathy from the reader: “But Gregor had no intention of frightening anyone, let alone his sister. He had only begun to turn around in order to trek back to his room; certainly his movements did look peculiar, since his ailing condition made him help the complicated turning maneuver along with his head…” (Kafka 39). Based on the omniscient point of view in analyzing Gregor’s intentions, it is certain that Gregor is the protagonist, the character with which the readers are supposed to sympathize. However, the portrayal of his dismal situation evokes true sympathy, since his difficulty is evident in the text. The heresy is this: Gregor is still an allegory for the devil, despite his ailments. By causing the reader to sympathize with Gregor, Kafka tricks the reader into sympathizing with Satan – a cardinal sin in any variant of Christianity. Yet, while Kafka’s indication of devil worship is heretical in its own right, he introduces more religious contradictions that further attack religion.

In addition to being portrayed as a demon, Gregor also takes on the role of a prominent Christian figure, creating heresy through the contradiction of two seemingly good and evil entities. After the final apple pierces Gregor’s skin, he temporarily loses mobility and is pressed to the floor, his limbs spread in confusion. Even though Gregor is previously identified as a demonic figure, this action depicts Gregor as Jesus being nailed to the cross: But the very next one that came flying after it literally forced its way into Gregor’s back; Gregor tried to drag himself away, as if the startling, unbelievable pain might disappear with a change of place; but he felt nailed to the spot and stretched out his body in a complete confusion of all his senses. (Kafka 29) Through the spreading of Gregor’s limbs and being “nailed” to the wooden floor, Kafka literalizes Jesus’ crucifixion. Yet, this depiction is a harsh contradiction due to Gregor’s initial portrayal as a demon. By making this comparison, Kafka is comparing Satan to Jesus, an extreme heresy against Christianity. In addition, Kafka also commits heresy by comparing Satan to God using the significance of the apples in the Eden myth. While the father clearly demonstrates his dominion over Gregor, he also bears the apples that reveal knowledge and expose mortality. By attacking Gregor with the apples, he acts as a literalization of the serpent in the Eden myth – another Satanic image. Through this, Kafka infers that God and Satan are the same, corrupt deity – the underlying significance being a criticism of monotheism as a whole.

This depicts the heresy within the single characters of the novella. However, contradictions also

D’Errico 15 exist in the relationships between the characters, specifically between father and son. In this instance, the father pinning Gregor to the floor is an allegory for God nailing Jesus to the cross.

Because the father uses the apple, or the nail in this case, he acts in both his previous role of God and in a new role as executioner. This is heretical because it suggests that God executed Jesus, thus making God a filicidal killer.

However, this comparison extends beyond the confines of Christianity into popular Greek paganism. Through the exchange of the apple, the climax of Part 2 emulates the Prometheus myth in Greek mythology. Much like Prometheus gives the gift of fire to mortals, the father gives the symbolic gift of the apple to Gregor: “He had filled his pockets from the fruit bowl on the buffet and was now pitching one apple after another, for the time being without taking good aim,” (Kafka 28-9). The essential action behind this passage, the pitching of the apples, is a direct allegory for the exchange of fire between Titan and man. The apple, usually associated with its red color, is an image for fire. Again, due to his position of dominance, the father acts as the God-like figure, in this case Prometheus. At the same time, Gregor, in his rather savage state, symbolizes mankind in its uncivilized beginnings. By pelting the apples, an exchange occurs; the father (Prometheus) gives the gift of fire (the apples) to Gregor (the human race). Another resemblance to the myth is Prometheus’ theft of fire from Zeus. By filling his pockets with the apples, the father acts like a common thief; as many are taken as possible, yet they are concealed from plain sight. Also, the father’s poor aim suggests a resemblance because it connotes unseen consequences through lack of forethought. Although Prometheus covertly stole fire, Zeus discovered his transgressions and punished him accordingly. However, this resemblance is also the heresy; Gregor is ultimately punished instead of his father, unlike the myth. This suggests that man was the true criminal for accepting the stolen item, not the thief. The ending Kafka proposes, however, seems irrational since the myth is purely fictitious and has a purpose; Kafka is concerning himself with plot instead of subtext. This serves as an overt criticism. Therefore, this analogy is heretical because Kafka is opposing the moral purposes of these myths, even though they were popular in 20th century European art for their didactic and symbolic value.

Throughout its existence, the attacks within The Metamorphosis have not gone unnoticed; there have been many thousands of pages of criticism written about the novella. The spectrum of criticism ranges from commentary on the novella’s identity crisis to analysis of its literal subtext.

There is also an exploration of elements in Jewish folklore from Kafka’s own upbringing. In his essay “Competing Theories of Identity in Kafka’s The Metamorphosis”, Kevin Sweeney discusses Gregor’s incomplete transformation and his struggle for identity throughout the novella. He argues that this void of identity allows for a philosophical exploration of self, which explains why the characters would relate with so many different religious figures. Likewise, Stanley Corngold highlights in “Kafka’s The Metamorphosis: Metamorphosis of the Metaphor” the literalization of several metaphors throughout the novella, such as Gregor’s appearance as an insect. These concrete comparisons do not only concentrate on metaphor, though; they allow for the literalization of symbol into image, as is demonstrated by the characters’ religious roles.

Finally, Iris Bruce’s “Elements of Jewish Folklore in Kafka’s Metamorphosis” explores Kafka’s own Jewish heritage and upbringing and how it manifests in his work. Ironically, even though Kafka hints toward his faith, his heresy against Christianity also applies to Judaism since they share the same creation myths. This is somewhat of a final heresy; Kafka not only commits heresy against society, but against himself as well. By indirectly attacking himself, Kafka essentially demonstrates irrationality within his life, therefore highlighting another fundamentally modern theme: the world of the author spiraling out of control.

D’Errico 16

Part V: The Maids’ Struggle for Actual Truth in The Penelopiad In the scope of the modern-postmodern continuum, Margaret Atwood’s The Penelopiad captures the essential postmodern argument while building on modern precedents. Initially, the protagonist, Penelope, classifies her storytelling as a “low art” (Atwood 3-4). While directly referring to the postmodern collision of high and low art, it also correlates with the corruption of high art through low language found in Baudelaire’s “Au Lecteur”. This establishes the work’s modernist roots; however, the primary focus of the novella is to address the primary theme of postmodernism: “truth”.

In any conflict, the victor writes history. While both belligerents usually have their own story justifying their actions, the victor’s dominance validates his side of the conflict. Yet, this perspective is rarely the actual truth. This contradiction is one of the tenets of postmodernist thought: there is a difference between widely held, spoon-fed fact and reality. The “truth”, as told by the victor, eventually forms the preconceived notions held by the masses, and is therefore passed down from generation to generation until someone challenges those misconceptions.

This postmodernist belief is especially prevalent in Margaret Atwood’s The Penelopiad.

The novella, an adaptation of Homer’s The Odyssey from the view of Penelope, contains a total of eleven chorus-line chapters from the perspective of the supposedly “evil” maids. These choruses take the form of numerous artistic media and frequently contradict both each other and Penelope’s narrative. The purpose of this contradiction is ironic: through the feminist lens, Penelope (and, by extension, Atwood) challenges the popular, masculine misconceptions created in The Odyssey. However, the maids challenge Penelope’s view on truth, stating that she manipulated her story for her own benefit and aggrandizement. Yet, even the maids’ argument contains inconsistencies that suggest a hidden motive. Through this, Atwood highlights the true statement of the chorus: perhaps no human-written truth is completely correct; either through passion or lack of perspective, the actual, historical truth is distorted and passed down as real.

By having the maids frequently refute Penelope’s innocence in the chorus-line sequences, Atwood challenges the accuracy of pre-established, spoon-fed truth. Throughout the novel, the maids attempt to vilify Penelope by attacking her self-proclaimed innocence, proposing instead that she was unfaithful toward Odysseus in his time away. Although Penelope frequently denounces the pre-established, masculine-centric fact handed down by The Odyssey, she often tries to defend her supposed fidelity toward her husband. However, the maids propose an alternate and seemingly more likely scenario: Penelope had to succumb to her natural urges for sexual contact, especially after being apart from her husband for so long. This contradiction, while manifested in the majority of the chorus-line sequences, is especially prevalent in “The Perils of Penelope, A Drama”; because the maids are responsible for depicting Penelope’s character, they are provided an outlet with which they can attack her personality: And now, dear Nurse, the fat is in the fire – He’ll chop me up for tending my desire!

While he was pleasuring every nymph and beauty?

Did he think I’d do nothing but my duty?

While every girl and goddess he was prais-

D’Errico 17 ing, Did he assume I’d dry up like a raisin? (Atwood 148-9) The fragment displays humor because of its connection of absurdity and plausibility, especially in Penelope’s comparison to a raisin. While the comparison itself is unrealistic, the raisin acts as a symbol for infertility and age. As Penelope grows older waiting for Odysseus’ return, her sexual prime passes, therefore reducing her drive and chance of intercourse. However, the maids also highlight the natural human necessity for sex in the statement “tending my desire” (Atwood 148). The use of the verb “tending” portrays desire as a natural and necessary entity that must be maintained, making it seem likely that Penelope would venture to satisfy that need. As such, the maids sarcastically imply that Penelope was unfaithful behind Odysseus’ back, a stark contrast to her innocent portrayal in both The Odyssey and Penelope’s narrative. By doing this, the maids ultimately challenge old, pre-existing truth with what they propose as absolute fact, therefore allowing Atwood to comment on the (in)accuracy of spoon-fed details.

However, while their testimony at first seems valid, contradictions arise which make the maids’ view of “truth” seem less likely. Initially, the maids’ testimony validates itself by disproving Penelope’s story. Yet, subsequent chorus-line sequences demonstrate a contradiction within their story, therefore causing the reader to question the validity of any human-written truth. In nearly every chorus, the maids infer that they, as well as Penelope, are real beings; what, then, would be the point of their argument if they were merely symbols? However, in their “Anthropology Lecture” toward the end of the novel, they propose that they are, as a whole, an allegory: “You don’t have to think of us as real girls, real flesh and blood, real pain, real injustice. That might be too upsetting. Just discard the sordid part. Consider us pure symbol.

We’re no more real than money” (168). Just as economists determine the value of money, the reader ultimately determines the value of the maids. Because the maids argue outright that they are merely symbols to be interpreted, their constant struggle for existence is nullified. Likewise, this contradiction implies that their story is not actual truth, but a distorted representation of real events. Despite this, the maids still have successfully pointed out flaws within Penelope’s story, who, in turn, deconstructs Homer’s epic in the body of the novel. Because there is no remaining truth to fill the void, the reader is left without a clear view of actuality. This is Atwood’s attack on human-written truth; using the maids as an example, she contends that every perceived version of truth will have hypocrisies and contradictions. Therefore, there will never be a real depiction of truth; there can only be a series of different perspectives, parts of which comprise actuality.

Using the inconsistencies in the maids’ contention with Penelope, Atwood demonstrates that there can never be a depiction of real truth; perspective distorts the testimonies of history’s observers. Usually, the source of commonly-held truth is a repressing force; revolutionary thought becomes commonplace only if it is successful. Much like a group of rebels, the maids conduct a revolution against the Homeric school of thought by challenging its ideas regarding their moral character and Penelope’s innocence. The maids are originally unsuccessful in their attempts at revolution due to their deaths in The Odyssey. This is presumably why the first revelation of the maids’ story is in The Penelopiad rather than its predecessor; Odysseus’ (and Homer’s, to a point) masculine victory means that his truth is the only one published. It is only with a paradigm shift that the maids’ story is revealed: the postmodern merger of “high art” and “low art” coupled with the intellectual dawn of the “Information Age.” In earlier artistic movements, only high art was taken seriously; in order to be an artist, one had to follow a set

D’Errico 18 number of guidelines only accessible to the elite. However, in the postmodern era, low art is given the same precedence and validity as high art. Therefore, Atwood presents the maids in a series of outrageous artistic media since they are just as valid as Penelope’s narrative (Penelope even contends that storytelling is itself a low art). In addition to this artistic fusion, the dawn of the “Information Age” (which Penelope references in the novel) allows the transfer of information to readers outside the elite inner circle of aristocracy. The combination of these two movements creates an entirely new environment where the victor does not necessarily write history. Rather, history is a combination of both sides of the conflict. Because The Penelopiad is identified as a postmodern novel, this theory fits – the maids’ truths are just as valid as those of Penelope and Homer. Therefore, Atwood conforms to the postmodern view of truth; there is a difference between human-written and actual truth, yet all examples of human truth are essentially the same in that they are all flawed and are of equal value.

Part VI: All Signs Point to Nowhere From the roots of modernism up through the present day, heresy has remained a constant theme in literature and art. Although it has been communicated through various subthemes that changed with time, the overlying intention has always been the same – rebellion against the limitations of the mainstream. In early modernism, Baudelaire’s confrontation of mainstream limitations, namely in “Au Lecteur”, came in the form of an analysis of humanity and the imposition that every aspect of life and the human intellect is beautiful. Although the initial rebellion of the original poem was only slightly radical (compared to later translations such as Lowell’s), heresy as an intellectual rebellion morphed into heresy simply for the sake of offense, as seen in Ezra Pound’s “Salutation the Third”. From there, modernism became slightly more complex in its scope; on the coattails of Pound’s work, rational decay became a prevalent subtheme in modernist work. Kafka’s The Metamorphosis exemplified this specific subtheme through the development of its protagonist and his slow descent into madness after a life-altering event. In the scale of modernism, heresy developed along a constant timeline; each contribution lead to the next and each work built off its predecessor.

However, postmodernism introduced an entirely different take on heresy while still building on modernist themes. While not particularly prevalent, modernists began to toy with dualities and wordplay as a way of challenging mainstream knowledge. This became one of the primary catalysts for postmodernism’s challenge of “truth” and inherited knowledge. For example, Baudelaire’s (and, to an extent, Lowell’s) experimentation with the informal and profane lead to a merger of high and low language, which foreshadowed the postmodern collision of high and low art; this was a challenge to mainstream “truth” in that it completely revolutionized popular perception of something that would have been previously disregarded as nonintellectual. On top of this, wordplay, such as in Kafka’s “monstrous vermin” duality, challenged society’s tendency to literalize or over-think. Perhaps extremes do not dominate; rather, something has the capability to have a mix of two significances at once. As such, it is evident that postmodernism, if not completely, took some of its foundations from the modernist movement – heresy and its development flows completely between the two artistic eras.

The culmination of this development, or essentially the “Omega point,” can be found in a work such as James Morrow’s Towing Jehovah, in which the protagonist is given the task of towing God’s two-mile long corpse across the Atlantic Ocean and into an ice tomb in the Arctic

D’Errico 19 Circle. This work is the catharsis of essentially every modern and postmodern subtheme, and all converge into, quite possibly, the greatest heresy imaginable – God-murder. Aside from the literalization of Friedrich Nietzsche’s modernist-era “God is dead” declaration (a grand heresy in itself), the reader observes shadows of Baudelaire’s destruction of artistic boundaries; Pound’s sadistic torture of the bourgeois and artistic avant-garde; Kafka’s portrayal of a descent into madness; and Atwood’s outright challenge of perceived “truth” (even though The Penelopiad was a later work, it accurately captures every aspect of the postmodernist argument – no manmade fact completely reflects reality). Yet, in addition, Morrow’s novel also attacks its own roots – it is so heretical that it literalizes, yet also mocks, modernist philosophy in Nietzsche’s quote. As such, Towing Jehovah could be considered the ultimate work on the modernpostmodern timeline; it is, simply put, a philosophical meta-work without being a meta-narrative.

Despite the continuity between modernism and postmodernism, it is safe to speculate, at the current time, that postmodernism is the end of the line. While postmodern work is still in its prime, it seems to be fading gradually into the mainstream. Therefore, in order for the cycle to logically continue, a branching movement must attack postmodernism (but there has been no evidence of that, yet). Another problem arises in the developmental stage: while each modernist work built on the last, every postmodern work seems to follow the same path from the same starting point. While a work such as Towing Jehovah contains the brilliance of modernism’s greatest artists, it has the same essential purpose as Atwood’s The Penelopiad – they both attack conformity to spoon-fed truth. All signs point to nowhere. However, there is likely a reason for this. Returning to the argument of existence versus essence, postmodernism rebels in the sense that there is no existence, but only essence – every person contains the same vital composition, both physically and mentally. Since this is a primary belief in the movement, it would naturally be reflected in its works. The argument here could be compared to the current “emo” movement in underground movement. While one believes that he is unique by wearing eye shadow, having long hair, and painting his fingernails black, he is only conforming with others following the same pattern; one can identify the movement as unique, but all involved in the movement are essentially the same. By this logic, postmodernism has nowhere to go after it integrates into the mainstream – and it will, given that any legitimate movement naturally becomes mainstream after its initial rebellion and enough time. Ironic, considering that something so vehemently opposed to conformity would eventually die with popularity; its struggle for legitimacy was its death. For now, postmodernism only exists as the frayed ends of modernism’s tapestry.

D’Errico 20 Works Cited Atwood, Margaret. The Penelopiad: The Myth of Penelope and Odysseus. Edinburgh, Scotland: Canongate U.S., 2006. Print.

Baillie, David. “The Modernist Climate.” European Modernism: An Anthology of Selected Works. Ed. David Baillie. Worcester: Worcester Academy English Department, 2007. 14.

Baudelaire, Charles. “Au Lecteur.” Les Fleurs de Mal. Translated by Richard Howard. Boston: David R. Godine, 1982. 183-184. Print.

Baudelaire, Charles. “To the Reader” Les Fleurs de Mal. Translated by Richard Howard. Boston.

David R. Godine, 1982. 5-6. Print.

Baudelaire, Charles. “To the Reader” European Modernism: An Anthology of Selected Works.

Translated by Robert Lowell. Ed. David Baillie. 5-6.

Bruce, Iris. "Elements of Jewish Folklore in Kafka's Metamorphosis." The Metamorphosis.

Norton Critical ed. New York: W. W. Norton &, 1996. 107-25. Print.

Corngold, Stanley. "Kafka's The Metamorphosis: Metamorphosis of the Metaphor." The Metamorphosis. Norton Critical ed. New York: W. W. Norton &, 1996. 79-107. Print.

Gay, Peter. Modernism: The Lure of Heresy. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2008. Print.

Kafka, Franz. The Metamorphosis. Trans. Stanley Corngold. Norton Critical ed. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1996. Print.

Morrow, James. Towing Jehovah. San Diego: Harcourt, 1995. Print.

Pound, Ezra. “Salutation the Third.” European Modernism: An Anthology of Selected Works.

Ed. David Baillie. Worcester: Worcester Academy English Department, 2007. 12-13.

D’Errico 21 Sweeney, Kevin. "Competing Theories of Identity in Kafka's The Metamorphosis." The Metamorphosis. Norton Critical ed. New York: W. W. Norton &, 1996. 140-53. Print.

Wilmer, Clive. "Pound's Life and Career." Modern American Poetry. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1994. Web. 9 Dec. 2010. <http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/m_r/pound/bio.htm>.

Works Consulted "Ezra Pound." Poets.org. The Academy of American Poets, 2010. Web. 9 Dec. 2010. <http://www.poets.org/poet.php/prmPID/161>.

Cork, Richard. "Vorticism." Art Terms. Museum of Modern Art, 2009. Web. 9 Dec. 2010. <http://www.moma.org/collection/theme.php?theme_id=10964>.

Geyh, Paula, Fred G. Leebron, and Andrew Levy. Postmodern American Fiction. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1998. Print.

"Imagism." The Center for Programs in Contemporary Writing. University of Pennsylvania, 18 July 2007. Web. 9 Dec. 2010. <http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/88/imagismdef.html>.

Huntingtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Disease

An In-Depth Look at a Devastating Genetic Disorder Danielle Fournier

Abstract:

Danielle C. Fournier’s article, “Huntington’s Disease; An In-Depth Look at a Devastating Genetic Disorder,” (2011) explains the nature of the disease as well as the detrimental affects on its patients and their families. Fournier backs up her claim by discussing the genetic, neurological, cognitive, psychological, motor and therapeutic aspects of the disease. Fournier’s purpose is to provide her readers with a greater understanding of this debilitating disease in order to increase public awareness. In addition she presents the reader with an overview of current trends in research as well as possibilities for eliminating the disease. Finally, she offers hope for the development of a cure as new frontiers are pursued. Given the topic and in-depth information of the article, it is clear that Fournier is addressing a welleducated audience with an interest in science or the medical field.

Table of Contents: Section:

The History of Huntington’s Disease

Page:

1-2

The Typical Signs and Symptoms of Huntington’s Disease 2-5

- Image: Hallmark Symptoms of Huntington’s Disease 2

Methods and Tests Used to Identify Huntington’s Disease 5-8

- Image: MRI Scan of the Progression of Huntington’s Disease 6

The Population That is Most Typically Affected by Huntington’s Disease 9-11

- Image: Pedigree/ Genealogy 9

The Suspected Cause of Huntington’s Disease 11-13

- Image: Huntingtin Gene Mutations 13

Impact of Huntington’s Disease on Patients and Their Families

13-15

Treatment of Huntington’s Disease

15-17

Current Research and Experimentation of Huntington’s Disease

17-22

- Image: Basal Ganglia Comparison 21

- Image: Steps of Cell Death 22

Conclusion and Hope for a Cure

23

Bibliography

24-26

The History of Huntington’s disease:

Huntington’s Disease (abbreviated as HD) is a debilitating neurological

disease that causes progressive degeneration of neurons in the basal ganglia. Its original name was chorea, which came from the Greek word to dance (Furtado 2, 1998). Afflicted individuals with the disease lose control of their body and exhibit movements, which at times can be compared to a person dancing. Huntington’s can also be called hereditary chorea or chronic progressive chorea. Huntington’s is a neurodegenerative disease known well for its genetic inheritance, clinical manifestations, and devastating impact on families (Seedberger 1, 1999). It is a grave disease that drives a large majority of its patients to depression, insanity, and suicide.

The disease was originally categorized as a movement disorder. It was described by Paracelsus (1493-1541) who first used the term chorea or chorea Naturalis. Thomas Sydenham (1624-1689), a British physician, was the first to treat chorea. Later a childhood chorea (not Huntington’s) connected with rheumatic fever was named after him: Sydenham Chorea or St. Vitus dance. Huntington’s Disease (also known as Huntington’s Chorea) was identified in 1872 by the American physician George Huntington. He had reviewed many documented cases before 1872 by way of letters, medical reports and PhD theses. However, the disease takes George Huntington’s name because of the clarity in which he described the distinguished features and hereditary nature in a brief paper. George Huntington believed that the disease differed from chorea due to its late onset and hereditary nature. Interestingly since there was no outside research, he believed

the disease might be confined to the Long Island families in which he studied (Furtado 2, 1998).

The Typical Signs and Symptoms of Huntington’s Disease: Symptoms of the Huntington's disease vary in range, severity, age of onset and rate of clinical progression from patient to patient. However, most patients experience the three classically associated symptoms: movement, cognitive and psychiatric (Vishnu, P.1, 2010). Initial signs may include: slight personality changes, forgetfulness, clumsiness, and gradual development of random, brief, fidgeting movements of the fingers or toes (Appai-Kubi 1, 2001).

Description: The picture above is the triangle of symptoms associated with Huntington’s disease. The Symptoms are broken into three categories: motor, cognitive and psychiatric.

Early signs of motor disturbances in an afflicted Huntington’s patient include both involuntary movements and impairments in voluntary movements (Harms 2,

2011). Chorea, the main motor symptom, can present as involuntary, rapid, ceaseless movements or tics. These involuntary movements can occur in the fingers, feet, face, arms, legs, or trunk. Chorea can often get worse when a person is anxious or disturbed. Over time other symptoms occur (Medicinenet 4, 2010), including clumsiness, jaw clenching, loss of coordination or balance, trouble eating or swallowing, dystonia (uncontrollable muscle contractions), slurred speech, poor articulation, strained or inappropriately loud voice, and difficulty walking (Swierzewski 1, 2000). Impairments in voluntary movements can affect a person’s day-to-day life more then involuntary movements as the disease progresses (Harms, P.2, 2011). Normally, family members notice these symptoms more quickly than the afflicted person.

As the disease progresses, cognitive functions such as judgment, memory,

comprehension, and reasoning deteriorate into dementia (Vishnu 1, 2010). Early cognitive signs of Huntington’s are forgetfulness and the inability to concentrate (Swierzewski 2, 2000). The more the disease progresses in a person, the harder it becomes to maintain focus and attention. Other cognitive symptoms of Huntington’s may include difficulty driving, keeping track of things, making decisions, answering questions, planning, organizing, and prioritizing tasks. Losing ability to recognize familiar objects, understanding new information, flexibility, impulse control, behavioral awareness, controlling, and organizing speech can also occur (Harms 2, 2011).

The most common psychiatric symptom of Huntington’s is depression, which

often develops early. This is not always a reaction to a diagnosis but rather because

of injury to the brain and subsequent changes in brain function as a result of the disease (Harms 2, 2011). Symptoms of depression can include hostility, irritability, anhedonia (inability to take pleasure in life), and lack of energy. Delusions, hallucinations, inappropriate behavior, paranoia, anxiety, indecisiveness, obsessivecompulsive behaviors, and sleep disturbances may also occur (Swierzewski 3, 2000). Some patients will experience depression or emotional and behavioral changes instead of losing their motor skills (common in late-onset chorea) (Vishnu 1, 2010). They might also experience a change in appetite or reduced sex drive as a result (Harms 2, 2011). Symptoms of personality changes may include irritability, apathy, tendency to find fault in others, complaining, suspicion, impulsiveness, and lack of self-control (Medicinenet 4, 2010). Other common psychiatric disorders associated with Huntington’s disease include Obsessive-compulsive disorder, Bipolar disorder, and Mania which can cause elevated mood, over activity, impulsive behavior and inflated self-esteem (Harms 2, 2011).

Juvenile Huntington’s disease occurs in a small percent of individuals who are afflicted by the disease under the age of 18. Many symptoms are different from the adults who have Huntington’s. Some symptoms of Juvenile Huntington’s may include a change in hand writing, drastic drop in school performance, minor movement disorders, and rapid muscle twitching (Medicinenet 4, 2010). Others experience behavioral changes, difficulty learning or remembering new information, and trouble speaking. Children fifteen years of age or younger might also experience recurrent seizures and akinensia (muscle rigidity or stiffness) (Swierzewski 4, 2000).

Methods and Tests Used to Identify Huntington’s disease:

Neurologists who are familiar with the disease can easily diagnose

Huntington’s. The neurological exam begins with an in-depth interview to obtain a complete medical history and to rule out other conditions. A common tool used by physicians to diagnose Huntington’s disease is to take a family history, also known as a pedigree or genealogy. It is extremely important for family members to be truthful to doctors when completing a family history, or they run the risk of misdiagnosis. However, in one to three percent of individuals, no family history of HD can be found (Phillips 1, 2010). Physicians ask about symptoms the patient has been experiencing which may include intellectual and emotional problems (often early signs of Huntington’s) (Medicinenet 5, 2010).

During the physical exam the doctor will test the patient’s hearing, muscle strength, muscle tone, coordination, involuntary movements (chorea), sensation, reflexes, balance, movement, mood, mental status, and vision (Harms 7, 2011). Eye movement is an important test because people with Huntington’s disease often have impairments in the way their eye follow a moving target (Medicinenet 5, 2010).

Doctors will order a number of brain-imaging tests as well. The patient will go through computer tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which will provide cross-sectional images of the brain structure as well as 3-D imaging. These scans can show shrinkage in two parts of the brain for Huntington’s patients, particularly the caudate nuclei and putamen. Also, there will be enlargement of fluid-filled cavities within the brain called ventricles (Medicinenet 5, 2010). Brain imaging tests may reveal structural changes in certain areas of the

brain however, these changed may not be apparent early in the course of the disease. (Harms 7, 2011). Therefore, brain-imagining tests are often run multiple times and compared as symptoms progress. These tests can also be used to rule out other conditions that may be causing symptoms (Harms 7, 2011).

Description: MRI tests displays the cell death in the brain of a person affected by Huntingtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s disease. It shows the outline of the caudate (left), cerebellar volumes (center), and cerebral (left). Four sets of scans are shown, as the disease progresses cell death becomes more prominent.

Doctors may also order Electroencephalogram or an EEG if the patient has been experiencing any seizures. EEGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s use a series of electrodes attached to the scalp in order to record the electrical activity occurring in the brain. Certain abnormal patterns in the electrical activity of the brain could indicate problems likely contributed to seizures, or other symptoms the individual may be experiencing. Electroencephalograms are more often run on patients with Juvenile

Huntington’s due to the common recurrent seizure in individuals fifteen years or less (Harms 7, 2011).

The discovery of the Huntington’s disease gene in 1983 allowed for the first

direct genetic test for a person displaying symptoms of the disease. The test confirms a diagnosis of Huntington’s disease which may be helpful if there is no family history of HD, or another family member was diagnosed through genetic testing. Using a blood sample the genetic test analyzes the DNA from the Huntington’s disease mutation by counting the number of repeats in the Huntington’s disease gene region. A normal person without Huntington’s has twenty-eight CAG repeats, while a person with Huntington’s has forty or more. One positive test does not necessarily confirm a diagnosis; therefore, multiple tests are typically run (Medicinenet 5, 2010).

Pre-symptomatic or predictive testing can also be conducted for those family

members who may have the Huntington’s disease passed down from a family member. If a parent has Huntington’s, the child has a fifty-fifty chance of inheriting the gene. The test requires tissue and blood samples to be taken from both the affected and non-affected members of a family, in order to determine markers specific to that family. A marker is a piece of DNA that lies near a gene and is usually inherited with it. The discovery of the first Huntington's disease marker is what allowed scientists to locate the Huntington's disease gene on chromosome 4. Presymptomatic testing uses CAG repeats to help detect Huntington’s disease mutation in the blood (Medicinenet 6, 2010).

Before a person can undergo pre-symptomatic testing he or she must have:

neurological testing, pretest counseling, and follow up. The purpose of the neurological test is to see if the person requesting testing is showing any symptoms of Huntington’s. A person must undergo pretest counseling in order to learn about Huntington's disease, about his or her own level of risk, and about the testing procedure. The person is also informed about the test limitations, accuracy and potential outcomes. After this, the person decides if he or she wants to go through with testing (Medicinenet 6, 2010).

The Unified Huntington’s Disease Rating Scale or UHDRS is a research tool

developed by the Huntington’s Study Group or HSG. The UHDRS is used to provide a uniform assessment of the clinical features and course of HD in an afflicted individual. The components of the UHDRS include a motor assessment, cognitive assessment, behavioral assessment, independence scale, functional assessment, and total functional capacity (TFC) (Kieburtz 1, 2011). Each assessment contains its own components, and each component is scaled between zero and four; zero being no HD symptoms and four being symptoms at their maximum. Each category can then be scored anywhere between zero and twenty-eight points (Phillips 3, 2005).

Patients with HD must be scored in all areas in order to be considered a candidate for clinical trials. The UHDRS has undergone extensive reliability and validity testing, and has been used as a major outcome measure by the HSG in clinical trials (Kieburtz 1, 2011).

The Population That is Most Typically Affected by Huntingtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s disease:

Huntingtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s disease is a hereditary disease, meaning it is passed down from

generation to generation. HD is an autisomal dominant disease, which means an individual only needs to inherit one gene in order to develop the disease. With the exception of genes on the sex chromosomes, a person inherits two copies of every gene, one copy from each parent. The parent could pass on either the healthy or defected gene, therefore giving each child a 50 percent chance of having HD (Harms 3, 2011).

Description: This pedigree or genealogy shows that if there is an afflicted parent each child has a 50 percent chance of inheriting the disease.

On average, Huntington’s disease affects anywhere from 5-10 people out of a population of 100,000, with an average of about 7 people. Two to four times as many people have inherited the gene mutation, but are not yet symptomatic (Seedberger 1, 1999). More than 15,000 Americans people have Huntington’s disease, and another 150,000 have a 50% chance of getting it (Furtado 1, 1998).

Juvenile Huntington’s makes up 5.4% of the population of those afflicted with the disease (Seedberger 1, 1999). A child whose parent has the disease has a one in two chance of inheriting it. Only in rare cases does HD develop without having a family history of the disease. Such an occurrence can be caused by a genetic mutation, which happens during a father’s sperm development (Harms 4, 2011). Huntington’s does not favor age or gender and therefore, each sibling have the same chance of inheriting the disease.

The age of onset for Huntington’s varies from person to person. It can

appear in a person as young as two and as old as eighty. However, the disease is most often diagnosed between the ages of 30-50 with the most common age of diagnoses being around the age of 40 (Seedberger 1, 1999). If the disease is diagnosed before the age of eighteen this is called “early onset” or “Juvenile Huntington’s” (Medicinenet 4, 2010). The earlier the Huntington’s is diagnosed the more quickly the disease develops. The progression of early onset Huntington’s is so rapid that the afflicted person is usually dies within ten years. The later Huntington’s is diagnosed the slower it develops. There is an average of 15-20 years from the beginning of symptoms to death (Knowels 5, 2004). Neurologists can

easily predict the length of life for an afflicted individual based on their level of cognitive ability (Appai-Kubi 1, 2001).

The highest prevalence of the disorder in the world is near Lake Maracaibo in

Venezuela where Huntington’s disease affects about 700 people out of 100,000. The state of Zulia has the largest family afflicted with Huntington’s with as many as 1,800 afflicted people. One thousand four hundred of these people are currently living with the disease or have the risk of inheriting it. The afflicted families live in great poverty and have little medical care available to them. Multiple members of the house are in different stages of the disease and it is often left up to the younger children to take care of and support the family. Dr. Margot de Young is a Venezuelan physician who has been providing care to these afflicted individuals. Although there is no cure for Huntington’s, studies of the people of Venezuela have lead to tremendous breakthroughs and understanding of the disease (Collaborators 1, 2008).

The Suspected Cause of Huntington’s Disease:

Huntington’s disease results from genetically programmed degeneration of

neurons in certain areas of the brain (Phillips, P.1, 2010). HD is inherited as an autosomal disorder with complete penetrance as a result of a mutation on IT 15 on the short leg of chromosome 4 (Seedberger P.1, 1999). The mutation is caused by nucleotide base pair (CAG) repeats at the end of the gene. This gene produces the protein Huntington, the function of which is still unknown. Yet, physicians do know that it is present in cells and needed for cell life. The expansion of the CAG repeats cause a region of polyglutamine on the Huntington protein that increases the

function of a cysteiene protease called apopain. The protease is known to play a role in apoptosis (a type of programmed cell death) and it is thought that the Huntington mutation leads to inappropriate apoptosis or destruction of cells. This cell destruction is specifically targeted to the basal ganglia and cortex, but it is not understood why (Furtado, P.1, 1998).

Huntington’s causes genetically programmed degeneration of the nerve cells

(neurons) in certain areas of the brain. It specifically affects the basal ganglia cells located deep in the brain and serves many functions, including movement. This degeneration is what causes the uncontrollable movements, loss of intellect and emotional disturbances in an afflicted person. Inside the basal ganglia the neurons of the stratum are affected. The brain’s outer cortex that is responsible for perceptions and memory also decline as the disease progresses (Medicinenet, P.2, 2010).

A person without Huntington’s could have as many as 35 CAG repeats. A

person with Huntington’s will have 39 repeats, and a person with 36-39 may or may not be afflicted with the disease. The people in the middle range however, do have a chance of producing offspring with Huntington’s although they might not be afflicted with the disease themselves. Those with Juvenile Huntington’s can reach up to 100 CAG repeats and most inherit the gene from an afflicted father (Seedberger, P.1, 1999).

Description: The picture above displays nucleotide base pairs (CAG) repeats on chromosome; the gene that produces the protein Huntington. A person afflicted with HD (bottom) has a significantly higher number of CAG repeats then an un-afflicted individual (top).

Impact of Huntington’s Disease on Patients and Their Families:

Huntington’s disease impacts both the afflicted person and the family very harshly. After a person is diagnosed with Huntington’s it is suggested that both the patient and his or her family seek psychiatric help to learn how to cope with the disease. It is especially difficult as the disease progresses and the person loses control of his or her body. This includes the ability to walk, talk, eat, and control self-help needs such as dressing and toileting. Therefore, Huntington’s patients will

require around the clock medical care. Despite these losses the patient is completely aware of what is going on. As a result Huntington’s disease has been known to cause high rates of suicide among its patients. The greatest risk of suicide occurs before an official diagnosis is made and in the middle stages of the disease, as individuals lose their independence (Harms, P.5, 2011).

It is necessary in the beginning stages of the disease that a person gets into

much physical condition as the disease allows (Medicinenet, P.11, 2010). This is because it allows patients to do better with the disease and it also gives them a feeling of the independence they might soon lose. Huntington’s patients will lose their ability to talk and remember information due to their cognitive decline.

Therefore, strategies such as repeating words back to them helps them to remember and understand what you are saying. Speech therapy can also be helpful. Even though a patient cannot talk, he or she can still understand (Medicinenet, P.11, 2010). Therefore it is necessary for family members or medical assistants to keep the patient’s environment as normal and as comfortable as possible.

Huntington’s disease affects a person’s ability to chew and eat food

independently. Therefore, caregivers should give plenty of times for meals. Food might also need to be cut or thinned in order to make it easier to eat and to decrease the risk of chocking. Chewing and eating therapy can also be helpful for those afflicted with Huntington’s disease (Medicinenet, P. 11, 2010). The disease causes patients to become hungrier and therefore, if not watched closely they can often die of starvation. Afflicted individuals need proper nutrients. They should eat five meals a day and an average of 5,000 calories (Seedberger, P. 5, 1999). Dehydration

is also a risk, so caregivers need to make sure that patients stay hydrated (straws are often helpful) (Medicinenet, P. 11, 2010).

Huntington’s Disease completely shuts down a person’s motor and cognitive

skills until the victim is completely dependent on others for help. Eventually a person with Huntington’s disease will become fully dependent on others. Towards the end of the disease an afflicted individual will likely be confined to a bed and unable to speak. However, a person’s understanding of surroundings and interactions remain intact for a long time (Harms, P.5, 2011). Patients often experience dementia and lose their ability to control their bodies’ movements. For example, seizures often occur in individuals with Juvenile Huntington’s. In addition, a person might also have trouble with discrimination, finances, self worth and relationships. Other causes of death may also occur as a result HD such as: choking, injuries related to falls, Pneumonia and other infections (Harms, P.5, 2011).

Treatment of Huntington’s Disease:

There is no known cure for Huntington’s disease, however doctors can help

manage the disease as best they can. Medication can be prescribed to help control the movement disorder. The medication however should be used only when it is needed (when symptoms become a problem) because side effects can occur which can worsen the condition. For example, when an afflicted individual is on medication it is difficult to tell whether a patient’s personality is a reaction to the medication or a symptom of the disease. Other symptoms can also include fatigue, restlessness, and hyper-excitability (Appai-Kubi, P.1, 2001). Medication cannot

prevent the physical, mental and behavioral decline associated with Huntington’s disease (Harms, P.1, 2011).

In August 2008 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved

Tetrabenzine to treat Huntington’s chorea, making it the first drug approved in the U.S. to treat HD (Phillips, P.1, 2005). Anti-depressants, antipsychotics, and moodstabilizing drugs can be prescribed for depression and other psychological and behavioral disorders. Movement disorder medications such as Tetrabenzine and antipsychotics can be prescribed to help with suppressing movement and chorea (Harms, P.8, 2011). Tranquilizers for anxiety, and lithium for mood swings can also be prescribed (Medicinenet, P.7, 2010).

Different therapies are also available to individuals afflicted with

Huntington’s to allow them to cope better daily with the disease. Speech therapy is very common because Huntington’s disease can significantly impair the control of muscles in the mouth and throat. These muscles are essential for speech, eating and swallowing. A speech therapist can help improve patients’ ability to speak more clearly or teach them to use communication devices as their speech declines. Such devices could include electronic communicators and hand-made boards covered with pictures of everyday items and activities. Speech therapists may also address difficulties with muscles used with eating and swallowing due to the risk of choking (Harms, P. 8, 2011).

Physical therapy can be helpful due to the loss of motor control in patients

with HD. A physical therapist can teach appropriate and safe exercises that can enhance strength, flexibility, balance and coordination. These exercises can help an

individual maintain mobility as long as possible and reduce the risk of falls.

Learning appropriate posture and supports to improve posture can help decrease the severity of some movement problems. Physical therapists can also provide instruction on appropriate use of a device, when assistive devices such as walkers or wheelchairs become necessary. They can also create exercise regimens to help individuals adapt to the new level of mobility (Harms, P. 8, 2011).

When a person with Huntingtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s loses his or her ability to perform daily

tasks or becomes dependent on others, occupational therapy may be helpful. An occupational therapist can assist the HD patient, caregiver or family members on the use of assistive devices that help improve functional mobility in the home. These devices may include: handrails, eating and drinking utensils such a straws (for people with limited fine motor skills), and assistive devices for activities such as bathing, dressing or walking (Harms, P.8, 2011).

Psychotherapy is also very effective due to the high rate of depression and

suicide in HD patients. A psychotherapist, psychiatrist, psychologist, or clinical social worker can provide talk therapy to help a person manage behavioral problems and coping strategies. They may also help facilitate communication among family members who are having trouble coping with HD or the psychological disorders that can result because of it (such as depression, bipolar disorder). Also, psychotherapy will help an afflicted individual manage expectations during the progression of the disease (Harms, P.8, 2011).

Current Research and Experimentation of Huntington’s Disease:

Neurologists and other physicians are working hard to understand

Huntington’s disease and the genes’ effects on the body. Now that the Huntington gene has been located, neurologists are working towards understanding how it causes the disease in the body. Neurologists and physicians are also studying afflicted patients in order to gain a greater the understanding of the symptoms and progression of the disease. Having a greater understanding allows physicians to develop new and successful therapies (Medicinenet, P.13, 2010).

Physicians use medical imaging such a PET scans (positron emission

tomography) in order to see what the mutated gene does to affect the brain and other structures in the human body. PET scans can display many abnormalities in the body and brain. Physicians hope that PET scans can reveal some abnormalities that point toward Huntington’s disease. PET scans are also used to locate dead neurons and other deteriorating parts of the brain that are caused by Huntington’s.

Functional MRI’s are used to see how Huntington’s disease kills neurons in the brain. Imaging allows physicians to see the changes in the brain and calculate the time they happened during the progression of the disease (Medicinenet, P.13, 2010).

Small rodents such as rats are being bred in laboratories in hopes of

duplicating the feature of Huntington’s disease in them. This will allow scientists to learn more about the symptoms and progression of the disease. Physicians hope to reproduce the same changes in rats (as humans undergo) and stop the process of nerve death in the body. Investigators are also attempting to build genetic models

of Huntington’s disease patients by using transgenic mice. To do this they take an altered human Huntington gene and plant it in the embryos of mice. The creation of these mice will allow in-depth studies and testing of new medicines. The idea of inserting DNA with CAG repeats into mice is also being investigated. This would allow scientists to explore the CAG repeats instability and the progression of the disease (Medicinenet, P.13, 2010).

Investigators are implanting fetal tissue into rodents and other small animals

in hopes that the same neurological degeneration will not occur as it does in patients with Huntington’s. Investigators are taking degenerated tissue and replacing it with fetal tissue to study the effects. They implant fetal tissue with the hope of understanding, restoring, or replacing functions typically lost as a result of neuron degeneration (Phillips, P.1, 2010). The research is slow but it has given many hints to the strength of the gene and its relentlessness on the body.

Investigators are looking to use brain tissue implants to further Huntington’s disease research. After testing the idea on animals and studying the results, they are hoping that a similar transplant can be possible with humans (Medicinenet, P.13, 2010).

Clinical studies are one of the most important medical developments to help

physicians gain a greater understand of Huntington’s disease. These clinical studies may one day lead to the development of drugs or other treatments that can cure the progression of Huntington’s disease. Drugs being tested are separated into categories, those that control symptoms, slow the rate of progression, and block affects of toxins, and those that may aid the progression of the Huntington gene.

Genetic studies including age of onset, inheritance patterns, and familiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; mutation marks are used to give investigators a better understanding of how the disease is passed from generation to generation. Likewise, cognitive, intellectual, and movement tests are also conducted to help better understand the development of patient symptoms. Some of the tests may include eye, learning, memory and physiological tests (Medicinenet, P. 11, 2010).

Scientists are working to understand the Huntington Disease gene and its

production. The function of the Huntington gene is not yet fully understood, however it is known that it is necessary for life. This was concluded after testing rats in laboratories with no Huntington gene. The rats did not develop very far before dying. The Huntington gene is an abnormal gene that only causes harm to certain areas of the brain. Scientists are researching to see if the gene is interfering with normal functions of the cells or not. One theory is that people with Huntingtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s disease have areas of the brain that are more sensitive to abnormal proteins than normal proteins (Medicinenet, P. 11, 2010).

Studies of Huntington Diseases are focusing on understanding the death of

nerve cells and receptors. Neurons in the brain are classified both by size and appearance. Scientists are aware that the destruction of neurons occurs in multiple categories of brain cells. Scientists are discovering, however, that degeneration of medium, spiny neurons are common in Huntingtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s disease. NINDS research also suggests that the loss of specific types of neurons and receptors are responsible for different symptoms and stages of the disease (Medicinenet, P. 11, 2010).

Description: The human brain, showing the impact of Huntingtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s disease on the basal ganglia. There is much more cell death in a brain with HD (top), then a normal brain (bottom).

In spiny neurons, scientists have discovered two types of changes. In the

intermediate stages of Huntingtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dendrites (found on every nerve cell, extend out from the cell body and are responsible for receiving messages from other nerve cells) grow out of control. In advanced cases of the disease degeneration causes parts of the dendrites to swell, break off, or disappear. Scientists believe that these processes might be an attempt by cells to rebuild themselves. As the new dendrites grow however, they might be adding to cell death. Although scientists do not yet

know why these chances occur or how to stop them, these studies give visible evidence of the degeneration of nerve cells and suggest possible new experimental therapies (Medicinenet, P. 11, 2010).

The cause of cell death in Huntingtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s disease is not yet known, however

scientists are paying close attention to the process of programmed cell death that occur in patients. Scientists have discovered a series of events that lead to the death of cells. These include excitotoxicity (overstimulation of cells by natural chemicals found in the brain); defective energy metabolism (a defect in the power plant of the cell, called mitochondria where energy is produced); oxidative stress (normal metabolic activity in the brain that produces toxic compounds called free radicals); and trophic factors (natural chemical substances found in the human body that may protect against cell death) (Medicinenet, P. 11, 2010).

Description: Cell growth in a person with HD and a person without. Cells of a person without HD (right) are able to grow and mature correctly. Cells of a person with HD (left) are unable to mature, go through four stages of death.

Conclusion and Hope for a Cure:

Huntingtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s disease is an inherited, progressive neurological disease with

devastating motor, behavioral, psychiatric and cognitive deficits. It has a tendency to cause dementia and suicide in the later stages of life. Symptoms of the disease include rapid, ceaseless movement or tics, slow cognitive decline, and psychiatric disturbances. Huntingtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s is a hereditary disease occurring in children as young as two years and adults as old as eighty (Seedberger, P.1, 1999) and is passed from generation to generation. There is no known cure for Huntingtonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s disease. There is much research being done in the areas of brain imaging, animal testing, fetal tissue analysis, molecular genetics and clinical studies. Scientists hope that their research will one day lead to a cure.

Bibliography:

Source 1 (Internet Source): Appai-Kubi, Dr. Linda. (2001). Huntington’s Disease [Online]. Available: http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/diseases/facts/huntingtons.htm

Source 2 (Internet Source): Furtado S. and Suchowerky O. (1998). Neuro History [Online]. Available: http://dwb4.unl.edu/Chem/CHEM869N/CHEM869NLinks/neuroscience.abo ut.com/science/neuroscience/library/weekly/aa070698.htm

Source 3 (Internet Source): Harms, Rogers W. (MD). (2011). Huntington’s Disease [Online]. Available: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/huntingtons-disease/DS00401

Source 4 (Internet Source): Kieburtz, K. (2011). Unified Huntington’s Disease Rating Scale (UHDRS) [Online].

Available: http://www.huntington-studygroup.org/Resources/UHDRS/tabid/67/Default.aspx

Source 5 (Book): Knowles, Johannah; Huntington’s Disease; The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc, New York, NY., 2004.

Source 6 (Internet Source): Phillips W, Barker R. (2005). Chorea Matters [Online]. Available:

http://www.choreamatters.com/?gclid=CIaV9KiK7agCFUPf4AodhBGxDw

Source 7 (Journal): Seedberger, Lauren C. (MD); Movement Disorders: Huntington’s Disease; Colorado

Neurological Institute, Englewood, CO., 1999.

Source 8 (Internet Source): Swierzewski, Stanley J. (MD). (2000). Signs and Symptoms of Huntington’s Disease,

Huntington’s Complications [Online]. Available: http://www.neurologychannel.com/huntingtons/symptoms.shtml

Source 9 (Internet Source): Kathy, Tamazi. (1996-2010). Huntington’s Disease (Huntington Disease) [Online].

Available: http://www.amedicinenet.com/huntington_disease/article.htm

Source 10 (Article): Venezuela Project Collaborators. The Venezuela Huntington’s Disease Project; Hereditary Disease Foundation, 2008. Available: http://www.hdfoundation.org/html/venezuela_huntington.php

Source 11 (Journal): Vishnu, Kona (MS). Conditions and Disease: Brain and Nervous system;

OmniMedicalSearch, New York, NY., 2010.

Pictures 1. http://www.xenazineusa.com/AboutHuntington/Signs-And-Symptoms.aspx 2. http://jnnp.bmj.com/content/75/2/213.abstract 3. http://sites.google.com/site/geneticdisorders6/huntington-s-disease 4. http://medicinanteckningar.blogspot.com/2010/03/rorelsesjukdomarmovement-disorders.html 5. http://doctorsgate.blogspot.com/2010/10/huntington-disease.html 6. http://nickelsgen677s09.weebly.com/

It Has a Backbeat, You Can’t Lose It An Essay Examining How Music Sparked Widespread Individualism and Gave the Public a Rebellious Medium from which to Prosper.

by Michal Grabias, 11 In 1986 a rap group named Run-DMC remixed the popular song by Aerosmith, “Walk this Way;” the song became an instant hit and spread through the nation like wildfire. By using a white song as the vehicle for black music, Run-DMC opened HipHop to the mainstream audience and ignited a golden age of rap which would last well into the ’90s; black music became the sound of white America.

But this was not the first time.

Americans in the 1950s faced great pressure to cease any individualistic aspirations, for the public at large was “powerfully energized by fear of being outcasts” (Miller 6). McCarthyism prevailed over much of the culture, especially the middle class; even the actions of the President were dictated by this surge toward conformity (Rovere 5). The time between 1949 and 1960 “was more an era of fear than fun” where “radicalism was singularly suspect and nearly driven out of existence” (Miller 6). This oppressive environment created the beginnings of a counterculture that would grow to define the following decade, but this movement needed a medium to become more than a daydream of repressed youths; rock and folk music answered that call. Deriving from the music traditions of blues and jazz, rock and folk music became the vehicles for selfexpression and rebellion against authority by transferring the counterculture embodied and advocated by its predecessors; for example, folk drew from the “black music traditions of the South” (Brinkley 842). The rebellion embodied for the last three centuries by black blues and jazz music became the anthem of white America by keeping the art form and message but changing the messenger’s ethnicity. For example, the emergence of Elvis Presley in 1956 was the result of the public’s growing desire for rock and roll music but mainstream society’s (and this includes business’) concurrent refusal to allow black musicians to play for the audience. Following the role created by Presley, scores of bands like the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, and Jefferson Airplane introduced the antiestablishment message to the public en masse, as “rock was among the many expressions of the impulses that came to be known as the counterculture” (Brinkley 854).

This counterculture was a rebellion against “the fear-driven suppression of dissent” (Edward Morgan 212). The revolution spread through a common medium, something that could span across different cultures and regions and associations—and that was music, a unifier listeners frequently surrender their emotions to and are likewise inspired and moved by (Levitin 243); individuality became something to respect and strive toward, as the music encouraged rebellion against “‘uptight’ adulthood” and pressures to conform (Edward Morgan 174). Bill Morgan’s description of the time summarizes that historic change well when he states that it was the dawn of a new era of personal freedom, idealism, and experimentation. Young people in increasingly greater numbers were beginning to rebel against all types of

Grabias/ It Has a Backbeat, You Can’t Lose it conformity. They struggled to free themselves from middle class expectations and social constraints of their parents’ generation. (203)

Rock and Folk music of the ’50s and ’60s, which developed from two genres which are defined as countercultural (Blues and Jazz), changed how individuality was both perceived and received by the general public by inspiring a willingness to deviate from tradition and conformity.

The Roots of a Rebellion Rock and folk music had such a strong impact on its audience because of its roots.

“Blues is the parent of all legitimate jazz” (Jones Blues People 17), and the nonconformity of these two genres (Jones Blues People 188) appeared through the music they inspired, rock and contemporary folk (Brinkley 806).

But before one can explain why the cultural revolution of the ’50s and ’60s happened, it is crucial to show what exactly makes blues and jazz so countercultural in the first place; the answer lies in their history.

This story begins with the blues, a genre of music born from the rebellion of the African slaves because “the immediate predecessors of blues were the AfroAmerican/American negro work songs” (Jones Blues People 18). Due to the white slavemasters’ fear of African insurrection, “almost every aspect of African culture took a new less obvious form or was wiped out altogether” (Jones Blues People 15-16) so that the suppressed people would not have any common unifiers. Any physical evidence of African culture was destroyed; that is why the arts survived, because there was no “artifact” for the captor to eradicate (Jones Blues People 16). This is where the counterculture of blues music comes in: this genre was created as a form of rebellion against the conformist pressures created by the majority-in-power. The blues songs (a capella at this point) were sung in the fields because slaves were not permitted to converse during working hours; so they sang, communicating at a level that must have appeared non-threatening to their overseers.

But the fact that slaves were singing was not enough, for “blues could not exist if the African captives had not become American captives” (Jones Blues People 17). The original Africans sang traditional pieces from their homeland, songs of hope and overcoming hardship, but these new fields they were cultivating were not their own, and so as years went by the songs became less optimistic (Jones Blues People 19). The reference also changed because the children of the Africans did not have an account of what the motherland was like; America became the subject of these songs (Jones Blues People 18). The blues was created as the work songs became less hopeful due to deteriorating work conditions. Along with speaking in the fields, slave masters forbade referencing various gods and using drums during songs, and so the songs about the terrible work conditions became even more secular (Jones Blues People 19). The blues became a conversation about hardship and suffering, even though these topics were not to be discussed because they would unify the workforce; from its very beginnings it was

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countercultural and rebellious, but the undermining of European conventions does not stop there.

The way in which this music was treated by both the performer and the audience differed greatly from that of popular European music, the must of the slave masters. The presentation alone is countercultural because the “tense, slightly hoarse-sounding vocal techniques of the work songs and the blues stem directly from West African musical tradition” (Jones Blues People 26), the exact kind of history the oppressive majority wished to destroy. By keeping the art alive, the slaves were quietly rebelling. Another non-traditional aspect of the genre was the call-and-response between the singer and the audience; these antiphonal singing techniques came from West Africa, another aspect of the culture kept alive through this rebel music (Jones Blues People 26). This art form purposely deviated from the precedents set by Western musicians, as LeRoi Jones explains: “while the whole European tradition strives for regularity- of pitch, of timbre, and of vibrato- the African tradition strives precisely for the negation of these elements” (Jones Blues People 31). Blues became a method of revolting against injustice and conformity, an aspect that developed into a fundamental part of the genre, and this revolt continued via the groove of the music as well.

One of the most well known features of this native music is the contrapuntal rhythm, a cornerstone of African music; this in itself is a rebellion against the conformity of traditional European songs (Jones Blues People 25). Not only the words but also the actual sound of the music is countercultural to that introduced by mass media. While European music is “art,” African music is “functional” (Jones Blues People 28-29); the function is to undermine the desires of a captor, whether that is a slave master, a racist public, or a society that wants everyone to be and act the same.

Not only was the content and presentation of the songs countercultural, but also the creation of these songs did not follow traditional white European values. While the western tradition emphasized the importance of having written work so that it could be reproduced as “art,” the work songs (and thus the blues) were mainly improvised (Jones Blues People 27). This style tied in to the “functional” aspect of the music; the songs were performed to express sorrow, frustration, anger, pain, and any other emotions, and so they would be created live on the spot to best embody the feelings of the singer. While in the Western world it is the “artifact” that is beautiful, in the African culture it is the “expression” that is beautiful—this is why improvisation is so respected (Jones Blues People 30).

Although “blues did begin at slavery” (Jones Blues People 50), it is the time after the Civil War (and the Emancipation) that shaped the blues into what it is today; during the first years after the war blues was at its farthest from mainstream society because it lost the superficial white articulations that the slaves had added to keep their white masters happy (Jones Blues People 59). This was the beginning of contemporary blues.

At first, yells issued by the singer became defining features of the music, as “the shouts and hollers were strident laments” (Jones Blues People 60); the time after socalled emancipation were among the most difficult, and so the blues medium, which had always been used as an expression of emotional discomfort, became defined as one for embodying sorrow.

But it is during these years that blues changed from a means of conversation and unity into a full-fledged art form. Black blues music changed by adding features of

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Western music to its composition; the eight and sixteen bar ballads were a combination of African lyrics and rhythm with an imitation of the white master’s musical form (Jones Blues People 61). After this adoption, blues morphed into its present day form, a 12 bar ballad, to better accompany the call and response style once instruments became part of the music (Jones Blues People 68). Suddenly, this historically iconoclastic music was being written like its Western counterpart, while retaining its countercultural message. As well, once the freed slaves mastered English, the vocals became more than just “shouts and hollers,” opening up the music to a wider audience (Jones Blues People 63). These two developments led to the music becoming more “white friendly” and, consequently, more marketable and appealing to the general public—the people who, after all, finance professional musicians. The music changed from being something anyone could do to an art done by professionals (Jones Blues People 82). At this point musicians who wanted to master “European” instruments used blues’ countercultural message, but instead of vocals they focused on timbre; the Jazz age began (Jones Blues People 70).

The Counterculture Moves to Mainstream Society Now that the origin of American counterculture in music has been discussed, it is important to explain how it changed from a small niche in the music market to a fullfledged craze, and the conversation begins with Jazz. Before rock and folk music even existed, Jazz was spreading countercultural black music to the general public; for example, in the 1920s, Jazz—in the form of swing music—was the music played at the underground bars, quite literally the sound of rebellion (Yurochko 47). While the blues spread through small communities, Jazz both appealed to and was able to accommodate the desires of large audiences; to understand why the public flocked to the sound of dissent created by rock and folk music, one must first examine the genre that established the precedent of music being able to spread ideas and act as a unifier on a large scale.

As with its predecessor, jazz music is “an expression of an attitude” (Jones Black Music 13); while musical notes replace vocals, the message is still the same: there is no need to conform to the desires of others. This view is evident even in the physical creation of jazz music, as the artists leave traditional European values behind and consider that “harmony, in jazz, is a guide rather than a goal” (Tirro 149). The music that would soon be spreading through mainstream culture was not following traditional values, not conforming, and most importantly developing a stigma because it was not expressly approved by the white majority (Jones Black Music 11). Jazz music was able to expand on the blues’ work by keeping its countercultural roots while rapidly expanding to meet the demands of its growing audience, but the question is: how did jazz change from the music of the former slaves to the music of the former masters?

The story begins in New Orleans. Creoles (African-Americans mixed with Spanish or French) were among the first people to start playing jazz, and they began in New Orleans (Yurochko 9). Jazz began as a combination of European melody and African rhythms, a mixture that not only made the music enjoyable to mainstream audiences but also allowed it to keep its countercultural roots (Yurochko 11). By having a conforming melody, jazz music was able to enter popular culture without the aforementioned approval of the white people who controlled society at the time; this was

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rebellion at its finest. But more changes needed to occur before jazz was able to dominate the publics’ lives.

1919 signaled the beginning of a trend that would continue for generations to come: white artists would play black music, and in doing so they would make those black musicians more publically respectable. In 1919 the Original Dixieland Jazz Band, an all white band playing black music, made their first recording, and their following popularity made sure that jazz was in the lives of much of the public (Yurochko 28). The band’s music was considered “vulgar, with sexual overtones, by the general public” (Yurochko 33), and yet their popularity increased, another trend which would be seen in the ’50s and ’60s with the music inspired by jazz’ countercultural lifestyle.

This lifestyle challenged how one is supposed to go about a day, as the jazz man’s day was inverted: his work, sleep, and recreation hours were greatly different than that of the general public’s because of the demands of the job (Tirro 266). Traditional conventions say that one sleeps at night, works during the day, and has recreation in the afternoon, but the jazzman works at night, sleeps during the day and afternoon and has time for recreation in the early morning after a performance. Not only were these men not following pre-approved methods of playing music and sending pre-ordained messages, but also they were living in a manner not condoned by popular culture. Jazz was not only a rebellious music, it was a lifestyle embodying the counterculture.

After the 18th amendment, speakeasies became popular, and jazz (usually in the form of swing) was the sound of this counterculture (Yurochko 47). Harlem became a hub for entertainment because the black gangsters would gladly cater to the desires of the rich white people looking for entertainment (Yurochko 51). More and more people became exposed to this “new” sound, and even after prohibition ended the need for more of this music grew. So while jazz music still only assimilated into the public eye through white musicians (Yurochko 48), this public was still regularly experiencing black culture and rebellion. Also, the most prominent musicians were receiving recognition regardless of race, regardless of what the media wanted: the epitome of counterculture.

Louie Armstrong was a well-known jazz musician even though he was not white; his talent and skill won him respect from both fellow musicians and the public. While the white bands had introduced black music to the masses, Armstrong showed what the genre was like when it was not an imitation solely to please the people dictating culture; his popularity showed that the mindset worked. For example, even though racial inequalities forced him to have an all white band except for a drummer for a crowd of 1,500 mostlywhite people (Bradbury 85), it was still a white audience coming to see a black man play music; slowly the public was moving towards seeing the original musicians play the music they invented, a development which would be seen again in the late ’50s.

Louie Armstrong continued the rebellious mindset of jazz by being one of the first musicians to even challenge the original challenge to popular music: the art of improvisation. He began soloing as a paraphrase on the melody, and in doing so he changed how people perceived how songs needed to be written; he made soloing into an art (Yurochko 35). Armstrong set the precedent that not even jazz music was safe from rebellion; from this notion, Bebop arose.

Bebop began in 1945 as a rebellion against the “sanitized” swing music of the ’30s and ’40s (Yurochko 101). The musicians revolted against nearly every aspect of the music; they played and wrote it for themselves instead of for the public for whom they

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performed. The music was made for listening instead of dancing, which was previously the main reason jazz was played, and they made the style technically demanding on the player so that only a select group of talented artists could even play this style of jazz (Yurochko 102-103). The performers spoke their own language and embodied the counterculture their music had grown from. From 1945 to 1955 (Yurochko 101) bebop thrived as the epitome of rebellion, and it is no surprise that time-wise bebop (and jazz in general) is a prelude to the massive anti-conformity culture running rampant in the ’60s; it set the precedent. *** Now it has been established that blues and jazz are embodiments of the counterculture, but before one can understand the influence they had on rock and folk music, one must analyze the time period in which the two genres developed.

Conformity in the 1950s “The Red Scare was a widespread phenomenon that affected almost every area of American Life” (Brinkley 767). Indeed, although the ’50s are remembered as “a golden age of innocence and simplicity,” fear dominated life (Miller 5-6). The reason that “the fifties witness[ed] much less happy nonsense, much more conformity” (Miller 7) is that the “fear of being suspected of communism” made the general public conform so as to not risk the chance of being accused, much like the Salem Witch Trials (Brinkley 784).

Thus, at the beginning of the decade very few people challenged traditional values because “nonconformists and rebels were subject to harsh conformist pressures” (Miller 11).

The “hunt” for communists even extended to local communities, as “not to be outdone by the federal government, states, cities, and counties set up their own loyalty programs” (Miller 26). The fear mongering by McCarthy was systematic and sweeping.

Scholars, who are historically critical thinkers and challenge oppressive societies, also fell to the pressure imposed by society; as Miller explains, “like nearly everyone else, most intellectuals were staid, respectable, and conformist” (Miller 220). They were considered “respectable” because they did not question this lifestyle, an embodiment of the massive suppression of individualism that was present in the 1950s. Women were subject to greater pressures to conform than ever before, as evident through an article in a women’s health magazine that said “the family is the unit to which you most genuinely belong… the family is the center of your living. If it isn’t, you’ve gone far astray” (Miller 147). During this decade the oppressive forces seemed to make a significant impact, as “the very different rebellions of career women and flapper never won over a majority of women. Many women resented, even feared, these figures” (Miller 149). Due to fear of being different, many women conformed and lived the life society thought was best for them. The House Un-American Activities Committee even forced Hollywood to creating entertainment conforming to the Nation’s anti-radical and anti-communist fervor (Miller 316-317).

So the question now arises: how was rock and folk music able to rise from these harsh conformist pressures? What made these new art forms so prevalent and

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“dangerous” to the status quo that “the New Haven, Connecticut police chief banned all rock and roll parties” (Miller 291)? The answer lies in the free market.

The majority dictates popular culture; this statement may seem redundant but it is at this level of simplicity that an examination of conformity must begin. What is produced at the highest volume is that which has the most “marketable value”, the work that is amiable to the greatest number of people: the majority. In a Capitalistic economy, especially in the days before Youtube and pocket camcorders gave anyone the ability to voice an opinion en masse, this “marketability” dictated which ideas, among other things, were heard and which were left as white noise. A profit-driven business will invest in whatever will produce the greatest response from the largest number of people; in business, if something is not conducive to a profit then there is no justifiable need for it.

A basic supply-and-demand curve will show that the most favorable economic conditions are those with a high demand (Boyes 41), and this narrative’s figurative “demand” is that of the majority’s need for entertainment—that is, the needs of baby-boomer children and teenagers. The television and radio stations, magazines, and concert halls then supply the entertainment for a profit, either by direct payment or through advertising.

The greatly increased amount of wealth, compared to previous decades, made the American middle class a “more dominant force than it had ever been before” (Brinkley 798), and so the free market ended the decade’s strict conformity. Business’ largest demographic, teens who were imitating their parents’ consumerist tendencies (Miller 292), demanded music that the adults in the country for the most part did not approve of; the payola scandal of the late ’50s showed that mass media would go to any length to please its demographic (Rielly 162). The baby boomers learned how to exert their own consumerist influence and began dictating the market; traditional market theory, which would have pushed swing records and Hit Parade songs, became invalid because the youth suddenly demanded countercultural music (Davis 209). Businesses took these requests and made sure that the music that would gain the largest audiences is what would be played, and that was exactly what the conformist culture wanted least.

Although the ’50s were a decade of widespread conformity, teenagers began exerting influence that would only grow as time passed. *** Blues and jazz music were embodiments of the counterculture. The early ’50s were a case study in the results of wide spread conformity, as Douglas Miller explains “we confused order with freedom, conformity with maturity” (393-394). While the mainstream culture was entering a stagnant stage, the era of the “Hit Parade” (Seeger 169), the traditionally countercultural music was busy breeding a new type of revolution, with blues giving its structure and jazz its mindset. These two factors combined to form the medium that the nation’s youth would use to up rise and regain the individuality that was taken by their oppressive culture.

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Grabias/ It Has a Backbeat, You Can’t Lose it The Creation of a Movement

The new “professionalism” present in the blues, as mentioned earlier in this paper, led to a change from the medium being a vehicle to describe real sorrow and hardship to one of imitations (Jones Blues People 87). This imitation was necessary because as songs were recorded complete improvisation became impossible; the audience wanted to hear the hit song as they knew it, not as how the performer felt that night (Jones Blues People 103). But with recording and race records, though at first confined to ghettos (Miller 293), the sound of rebellion was transmitted to more people than ever before. With the major broadcasting stations (CBS, NBC, and TBS) focusing on creating programs for the new and popular television, music became the main entertainment on radio (Brinkley 806). Radio “DJs” now had the power to broadcast music formerly restricted to those in black neighborhoods or ones who went searching for it. Alan Freed, for example, “legitimized” the music by being a white DJ playing R & B music during his timeslot; suddenly, black music was entering white homes (Miller 295). LeRoi Jones sums up what happened when he contends that the important idea here is that the white musicians and other young whites who associated themselves with this Negro music identified the Negro with this separation, this nonconformity. (Blues People 188) The formerly “underground” culture became the epitome of “cool,” and it is at this point that the sounds previously restricted to those lowest in societal hierarchy became engrained in the mainstream. *** Although contemporary folk and rock music emerged at roughly the same time, for clarity sake (because, sadly, written text is usually read linearly) their creation will be covered in two separate sections.

Folk Music When folk spawned from the blues, and as it drew from the “black music traditions of the south” (Brinkley 842), the genre not only borrowed the structures but also the countercultural message. This new form of music influenced both the performer and the audience to question and rebel against authority just as its predecessors had done, but now the idea was transmitted to much larger audiences. The question may remain as to why the new style of music became popular instead of its predecessor, and that is because “the blues was understood to be adult music, which made it of virtually no interest to the largest segment of the record-buying public” (Davis 209). Alan Brinkley explains the new found popularity when he claims that the search for an “authentic” alternative to what many considered artificial, consumerist culture of modern

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Grabias/ It Has a Backbeat, You Can’t Lose it America—helped produce the revived popularity of folk music in that turbulent era. (Brinkley 842)

As the ’50s became the ’60s, folk also experienced a surge in followers because folk songs have traditionally been protests songs, and the Vietnam War created a generation of protesters (Brinkley 842). It was the straightforward rebellion that folk provided that drew so many to its sounds, as Pete Seeger explains when speaking about why he personally preferred folk music to all others: They weren’t afraid of being tragic instead of just sentimental. They weren’t afraid of being scandalous instead of giggly or cute. Above all, they seemed frank, straightforward, honest. By comparison, it seemed to me that too many art songs were concerned with being elegant and too many pop songs were concerned with being clever.

(Seeger 13) But now that the reason for both its succession and success has been established, it is time to look more closely at three of the most important factors in the folk revival of the ’50s and ’60s: Leadbelly, ease of creation, and the Beats.

Although Huddie Ledbetter, referred to as Leadbelly, died in 1949 (Seeger 27), he “laid the cornerstone of the folk revival” (Davis 165). His repertoire focused on songs dated before the 1900s, frequently being known for playing “negro folk music” (Seeger 28); he brought these songs back to the forefront of American media, songs like “Goodnight Irene,” which would become a hit single for the Weavers when they chose to cover it in the ’50s (Davis 165). Pete Seeger says that people began listening to and playing folk music because “Americans were curious to rediscover their roots, to learn about their own country’s heritage (Seeger 11). Leadbelly simplified this process by bringing songs back for the public; while traditionally songs were originally performed by black artists and made popular by white ones, he was the first blues performer to win a large white audience without first appealing to black listeners (Davis 165). Woodie Guthrie, one of the country’s most famous folk singers, said that “the best and loudest singer I that I ever run into his name was Huddie Ledbetter” (Seeger 27). He is the transition from blues to folk; he gained fame for his combination of blues and folk, paving the way for future artists to take what he began and make it flourish. LPs and artists like Leadbelly “handed a silver platter [of] some of the world’s best songs” (Seeger 11).

As Leadbelly re-introduced America to its roots, the music simultaneously became much easier for people to create because of the wealth the middle class had with which to buy instruments and the free time teenagers possessed (Miller 292). Now professionals were not the only ones learning songs because a large investment was not needed since folk music could be performed with just an acoustic guitar; in fact, this was the first type of music with mass appeal in the 20th century that encouraged playing with only acoustic instruments. As well, the “do-it-yourself” that developed due to all the new

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leisure activities, such as skiing, bowling, painting, and the like, available due to the newfound affluence of the middle class influenced people, especially the youth, to be less content with sitting and watching others participating in the artistic endeavors (Seeger 11). “Dissatisfied with the machine-made commercial way” that popular music was created, teens decided to look into the music of their grandparents because they could make and play it at home (Seeger 153). Also, socially, a growing number of young Americans began to express their disillusionment with what they saw as the shallowness and oppressiveness of their culture” (Brinkley 789) This was a rebellion made easier because through folk music “young people found that there was a way to make social comments about events in present-day America— comments they had been unable to make any other way” (Seeger 11). The youth was beginning to find its voice, both respecting and encouraging individuality; the Beats embodied that newfound mindset.

Folk musicians began living in Greenwich Village in New York City in the late ’50s because of “spirit of artistic freedom and vitality that was growing” there (Bill Morgan 127). Folk “seemed to reflect the ‘authenticity’ that youth culture was attempting to find” (Brinkley 843) and “the most caustic critics of bureaucracy, and of middle class society in general, [was] a group of young poet writers generally known as the ‘Beats;’” they attacked the rampant conformity present in the United States (Brinkley 805).

Although Jack Kerouac said that the Beat Generation had ended in 1950, the press and many of the would-be Beats followers ignored this statement by one of the founders of the movement (Bill Morgan 134); thus this paper references the Beats as present in the ’50s and ’60s because “the Beat Generation’s aspirations were echoed in the next generations search for greater personal freedom and liberty” (Bill Morgan 203), the “next generation” being the children of the ’50s and ’60s.

“In the wake of the artistic stagnation under McCarthyism, many Americans wanted the freedom to exchange ideas freely” (Bill Morgan 128), and the idea of the Beats encouraged this type of thinking, so more people joined their movement. The Beats “were drawn to the black culture of jazz,” and it is through this immersion in refined sources of counterculture that the original Beat poets established their rebellious message.

Many young people looked toward Allen Ginsberg for “leadership and guidance” because his views were similar to the ones the new generation wanted accentuated.

Among other things, anti-conformist sentiments were especially strong, as was their belief that everyone should have equal rights (Bill Morgan 203). The Beats’ encouragement of individualism and the embrace of countercultural ideas shaped the folk music they inspired. Many of the Beat poets protested military conflicts, and the Vietnam War “further reinforce[ed] the connection between the Beats and the new American counterculture” (Bill Morgan 205). Although directly the Beats were poets, they blurred the line between spoken word and song. Even people who had never taken an interest in the Beats were “indirectly influenced by them because of their effects on the new generation of singer-songwriters like Dylan” (Bill Morgan 205). The Beats re-invigorated the youths’ appreciation with poetry, and they and their followers introduced the idea that

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poems could be songs (and vice versa); frequently the streets of Greenwich Village would be packed with tourists trying to experience the movement (Sounes 75). All the counterculture traditionally associated with folk was embodied by one of the disciples of the Beats, Bob Dylan. He “changed music in the 1960s by bringing poetic lyrics to popular song” (Sounes X).

Dylan was the final step in bringing the countercultural blues music to the masses, as “there was, of course, a strong element of black music in the country blues tunes of Bob’s debut album” (Sounes 113). This influence can be seen in the melody of “Blowin’ in the Wind,” as the melody is very similar to that of the African-American spiritual “No More Auction Block” (Sounes 114). He also showed his roots with the Beat Generation by creating songs that were “essentially poems set to music” (Sounes 167), among them “Master’s of War,” which, as a protest song, combined both the Beats’ structure and message (Edward Morgan 133). Upon seeing the success Bob Dylan was having, Ginsberg realized that “the poet’s unaided voice was no match [against instrumental] when it came to reaching large audiences,” they type of “large audiences that Beatinspired folk was entertaining (Bill Morgan 227). Dylan was the culmination of the last two hundred years.

The countercultural movement began with slaves rebelling against the conformity masters tried to instill in their communities by telling their traditional folk stories through pre-blues songs (Jones Blues People 28). The blues began as folk songs, poems without music, but with emancipation became instrumental. This instrumental music was passed from artist to artist until is became part of the repertoire of artists such as Leadbelly, Guthrie, and Seeger. These artists set the groundwork for the Beat Generation to adopt the countercultural message and pass it on to even larger audiences. These audiences then used the wealth of the middle class to learn and create rebellious music to voice their frustrations. Bob Dylan took everything that had happened prior and combined it to create a soundtrack for the anti-establishment, anti-conformity, anti-stability era, becoming an icon in the process. Then he takes his countercultural message to heart and shocks everyone by creating folk rock. *** Folk music took off the late ’50s and gained tremendous popularity in the ’60s because it was anti-establishment music; this was the sound that the youth were looking for to help them fight the conformist society their parents had tried to force them into. But while blues was fueling the folk revival, it was also busy introducing a completely new form of music: rock and roll.

Rock Music The blues, as explained earlier, is countercultural by nature, so it is only right that its musical successor would change the way music would be created, performed, and experienced permanently. Formulas for creating music did not work anymore, as much of the ’50s was a rebellion against such structured and predictable outcomes (Seeger 24).

The musicians no longer dressed in suits, but, instead, they aimed to be outrageous, as Grace Slick of Jefferson Airplane frequently demonstrated with such stunts as “dressing up as a nun to flashing her breasts” (Rielly 167). Individuality would be at an all time

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high, as Jimi Hendrix would embody, for example, by entering a British bar dress purple scarves, “huge translucent halos of frizzy hair,” bright bell bottom pants, a pirate shirt, and a cape (Cross 2); at no previous time would one find a respected musician walking into an establishment dressed like that. Audiences would frequently elicit the help from illicit drugs, such as LSD and marijuana, to experience the music in different ways, altering their perception of both reality and what one can do. The nation was affected so strongly by rock because “while folk music often expressed the ideals of young people in the 1960s, rock music expressed their desires” (Brinkley 854); the mindset was that “almost anything was possible in music” (Rielly 152). But before rock could give a “vent to impulse and instinct, to physical and emotional (as opposed to intellectual urges” (Brinkley 854), it would need to be created.

Chuck Berry, whose “licks” defined rock and roll (Davis 208), was one of the first people to create rock music by taking blues rhythms and making them straight quarter notes. He and other rock pioneers, such as Little Richard, merged blues and jazz (Edward Morgan 188), and in doing so began a music genre which would induce a counterculture the size of which mainstream society had never experienced. But before they could do that, they would need to find someone charismatic (and white) enough to be able to transmit this rebellious music to the public at large: that someone was Elvis Presley, as “Elvis treated thousands of white teenagers to their first sugared taste of black music” (Davis 209).

Elvis Presley made his debut in 1956 and he was by all means an instant success, as Brinkley explains Presley’s music, like that of most early white rock musicians, drew heavily from black rhythm and blues traditions, which appealed to some white youths in the early 1950s because of their pulsing, sensual rhythms and their hard-edged lyrics (Brinkley 806).

The difference was his mixture of country, pop ballads, and the blues made him a “cultural juggernaut” (Miller 301). As sex was highly repressed in the ’50s (Miller 293), his countercultural sexual lyrics and pelvic motions appealed greatly to the subconscious desires of the youth; this would become a precursor to the “free love” movement. Presley took the blues previous artists had created and carried it forward; for example, one of his hit singles, “Hound Dog,” is in fact an old blues song traditionally sung by African American women; this allowed the anti-establishment music to spread to larger audiences than ever before and cause a greater impact on mainstream society. One of the reasons Elvis is so crucial to the creation of ’60s rock is because he “became a symbol of youthful determination to push at the borders of the conventional and acceptable” (Brinkley 806), an ideal that would be part of the aspirations of the countercultural generation of the 1960s. In the 1950s rock began doing what jazz music had done in the ’20s and ’30s: “defin[ing] both youth culture as a whole and the experience of a generation” (Brinkley 807). But then Elvis went to serve in the United States Army. ***

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The previous section’s story of folk evolution ended with Bob Dylan, and now it is time to pick up with him one year before he switched to electric instruments at the 1965 Newport Folk Festival.

The rock and roll created by Chuck Berry, Elvis Presley, Little Richard, and similar artists had become very formulated by the early ’60s, much like the Hit Parade songs of the ’50s, but the British invasion changed that by showing that “this form of music could still be exciting and hugely popular” (Sounes 166). in 1964 the Beatles entered the United States and began what would be called the “British Invasion,” and in doing so the Beatles spread the popularity of rock that Presley began (Brinkley 856). One of their songs, “Rock and Roll Music,” is a cover of a song by Chuck Berry, its rhythm structure is based off of the blues; this is an example of how strong blues’ influence in rock music still was. Dylan admired the Beatles, as he “recognized the importance of the group in bringing new life to a musical genre he had grown up with but had abandoned for folk music because it did not seem to offer him enough” (Sounes 166). It was the Beatles who inspired Dylan to add rock to his routine, furthering the anti-conformity of folk, as he was now rebelling against traditions of the medium. He was now singing with rock and roll backing music, showing that music could be intellectually and emotionally satisfying and still rock and roll (Sounes 167). This folk-rock era was “an era associated primarily with ideals of peace and harmony” (Sounes 179). Folk Rock also tied in closely with rock and roll, as “the Beatles were greatly influenced by Dylan” (Sounes X), with Paul McCartney saying that in 1968 “Dylan was influencing us quite heavily at that point” (Sounes 212). Most notable is how far this music, which will now be referred to simply as rock, reached, as “perhaps the most pervasive element of the new youth society was one that even the least radical members of the generation embraced: rock music” (Brinkley 856), and because of this in the late 1960s rock music was part of almost all areas of life (Edward Morgan 190).

Rock bands of the mid-to-late ’60s shared two things: musical roots and core idealism. These new musicians, especially the ones from England, ignored the “sanitized” pop rock that mainstream culture was trying to push in the early ’60s and instead focused on the major figures in early rock, such as Chuck Berry and Elvis (Edward Morgan 189).

In terms of idealism, all of these bands were fighting against conformity and embracing the counterculture their music cultivated (Edward Morgan 189). Edward Morgan goes on and explains that the emergence of rock and roll music was perhaps the primary influence [to the counterculture in the 60s…] The foremost bands of the 1960s “British invasion”- the Beatles and the Rolling Stones- were heavily influenced by Fifties rock and roll figures like Chuck Berry, while Bob Dylan followed in the footsteps of the folk underground of the Fifties. Together with rock and roll’s driving kinetic sound, the rebellious culture represented by Elvis Presley […] openly defied the prohibitions of adult society.” (Edward Morgan 172-173)

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This rock was a “blending of tradition and revolution” (Rielly 151) because “rock music of the mid to late Sixties evolved from two sources: the rock and roll craze of the Fifties and the folk revival of the early Sixties” (Edward Morgan 188), while it held its countercultural roots it also expanded on them and changed music permanently. *** Traditional African folk songs added instruments, became the blues, which developed into jazz—a countercultural art form in its own right. Jazz fueled innovation and antiestablishment sentiments until the folk revival of the ’50s, which was inspired through blues folk songs and jazz. Blues at the same time was inspiring rock and roll music, which would begin creating the framework for the counterculture of the ’60s. Folk and rock finally met in 1965, and by this time the entire generation of young people was smitten with anti-establishment fervor. Suddenly, ideas which had been suppressed and taboo in ’50s mainstream society were on display and encouraged by the music dominating all aspects of life. *** Without much doubt, “rock music had come to epitomize revolution” because “it represented a rejection of the culture of one’s parents and a breakdown of established order” (Rielly 172). Before moving forward though, one more question needs to be answered. Why was the youth so strongly affected, so strongly calling for a revolution and embracing the newly popularized music and ideas when it was in the open for all to experience? The reason is that people tend to become less open to new experiences as they age. During our teenage years, we begin to discover that there exists a world of different ideas, different cultures, different people. We experiment with the idea that we don’t have a limit on our life’s course, our personalities, or our decisions to what we were taught by our parents, or to the way we were brought up. (Levitin 232) Rebellion, in a sense, came naturally to the youth because they had not become accustomed to “how things are;” thus idealism, through the music, was able to spread and thoroughly enter the generations psyche. Now, it is time to analyze the impact of this music and its various countercultural messages.

Outcomes, Shortfalls, and Legacy Through music the counterculture, which had been hidden in the underground for centuries, became a staple of the American mainstream by the late 1960s. Just as pop artists lost their mainstream audience to rock and folk musicians (Rielly 162), traditional

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values fell to individuality and rebellion; rock and folk music succeeded in defining an entire generation. The music, which originally “offered a fundamental challenge to the American middle-class mainstream” (Brinkley 856), now became the driving force behind the social changes sweeping across the United State; changes empowered by the musically introduced pride in individuality. The anti-establishment of rock and folk had taught an entire generation to rebel against authority and precedents, which for this youth meant revolting against conformity, as a popular thought was that “the first responsibility of the individual is cultivation of the self, the unleashing of one’s own full potential for pleasure and fulfillment” (Brinkley 856). Edward Morgan Individuality was not only something to be respected, but the youth was being actively encouraged by its media to strive for anti-conformist behavior; from here, individuality began to shape some of the most vibrant social revolutions to happen in the United States.

The most well known social change in the 1960s is the civil rights movement. By no means was this movement caused purely by music, but the revolution needed a soundtrack, and the counterculture met that need. Folk has traditionally been protest music, and one of the largest protests at the time was equal human rights; for example, “we shall overcome” was often sang at civil rights demonstrations, and even covered by popular protest singer Joan Baez (Rielly 153). Among others, Bob Dylan, Joan Baez, and the group Peter, Paul, and Mary “took folk music once again into social activism, especially in support of the civil rights movement” (Rielly 153). But musicians weren’t the only ones embracing the counterculture, as Dick Clark’s television programs, which introduced much of mainstream America to rock and folk artists, had “white and black teenagers together on a national television program for the first time” (Rielly 162). Dick Clark and musicians used the strength of music to empower resistance, and to spread the message to people who had not yet experienced the rebellion. Bob Dylan was one of the main people responsible for merging these folk themes with big rock beats, making folk rock and showing that one can make rock music with a protest message (Rielly 156); now, now only was the subtext of rock music countercultural, but the actual words were now rebelling against tradition.

Rock stars were now being deliberately outrageous (Brinkley 854), mainly because the music “reflected and expressed the subjective impulses that permeated the counterculture” (Edward Morgan 188). This outrageousness entered the popular culture because listeners to the music wanted to imitate their idols, and the behavior spread to the youth. The sexual revolution was born.

One of the most apparent outcomes of the rapid spread of countercultural music was the free love movement, which occurred because rock music from Elvis Presley to the Twist to the Beatles liberated young whites from the repressive separation of mind and body; “it afforded them the possibility of reclaiming their Bodies again after generations of alienation and disembodied existence” (Edward Morgan 193-194).

Traditional values became irrelevant, as the youth began to rebel against physical conformity embrace sexual freedom, due to a combination of the new-found focus on self

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and partly because being open about sex was a rebellion against prior mainstream culture.

This desire to break out of the “repressive state of mind” (Edward Morgan 196) not only led to changes in what rights the population believed every individual had and what he or she could do with whomever he or she wanted, but it also altered how people interacted socially.

While rock and folk music and their countercultural messages did create a mentality that encouraged the focus on the self, it also inspired a sense of community with all the people that believed similar things and had common goals, like fighting for freedom (Edward Morgan 194) because music is the vehicle for social bonding and societal cohesion. Music and musical preferences become a mark of personal and group identity and of distinction (Levitin 232).

Teenage years are emotionally charged “times of self-discovery” (Levitin 231), and with so many baby boomers the combination of emotional volatility and countercultural messages culminated in the cultural even known as the peace and love movement. The Monterey Pop Festival, possibly known best for Jimi Hendrix’s legendary performance, happened in June of 1967, and is credited with starting what would be called the Summer of Love (Rielly 171). San Francisco, specifically the neighborhood of Haight-Ashbury, became the hub of this “hippie” movement, the culmination of everything the counterculture had aimed to do; everyone felt free and uninhibited and people pushed the boundaries of what they could do (Edward Morgan 180). The residents of HaightAshbury would have events celebrating individualism called “Human Be-Ins,” and everyone would push the boundaries both socially and mentally (182). But from here the shortfalls of this free society began to appear. Drug use was becoming rampant; marijuana became “as common a youthful diversion as beer drinking” (Brinkley 856). As the ’60s progressed, the individuals began to go even farther passed traditional norms, challenging tradition in even more outrageous ways (Brinkley 856).

LSD became hugely popular during the ’60s because it now offered another challenge, one towards the fundamental perception of reality (Rielly 166). Once the drug was banned in 1965, musicians began to try and replicate the drugs effects by changing the structures of songs, changing the volumes in the songs, and “adding other sensory stimuli such as flashing lights” (166); the Beatles song “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds” is a perfect example of a song meant to replicate some of the auditory effects of LSD as John Lennon’s voice changes pitches frequently and the instrumentation creates a feeling of disembodiment. The rebellious outrageousness became a fixture of society, almost something to be expected, and musicians especially aimed to embody it at any opportunity. For example, Grace Slick was invited to go to the White House to meet President Nixon; so, of course, she brought Abbie Hoffman and they schemed to add LSD to the President of the United States’ drink (Rielly 167). Their attempt was foiled by the secret service. ***

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Without a doubt, the ’60s led to a massive changes in society, specifically individualism. Musicians began to take the stance that Pete Seeger had about music in the ’50s, that I am against the Hit Parade because I am against anything that would make a sheep out of a human being. […] The gods of mass production may proclaim that it is much cheaper, much more efficient to produce everyone’s music at one place and at one time. But which would you rather have- cheap music or good music? (Seeger 169) The artists, and their listeners, would not be controlled by the same oppressive powers that had tried to suppress rebellion in the ’50s, but for every Bob Dylan, living into old age as a breathing legend, there was a Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, or Jim Morrison dying young, symbols of the “decade’s combination of enormous talent and tragic lack of selfdiscipline” (Rielly 170) The counterculture inspired many people to revolt against unjust and oppressive organizations, but for every Max Scherr of the Berkeley Barb, one of the most prominent underground newspapers spreading news that “established” organizations would not (Edward Morgan 204), there was a radio DJ willing to play the countercultural music only if money was involved under the table. Although illicit substances were a defining part of the counterculture (Rielly 166), for every youthful soul using narcotics to experience existential revelations, there was an addict looking for a way to legitimize his or her drug usage. Ultimately, for every Woodstock, the epitome of peaceful coexistence, there was an Altamont, a symbol of the violence and dangerous inhibitions of the countercultural movement (Rielly 171). The events of the 1960s took 200 years to create, and for good or bad, the changes to individualism became permanent.

The End? No, The Beginning The power of art is that it can connect us to one another, and to larger truths about what it means to be alive and what it means to be human (Levitin 244).

Art changed how people saw their communities, other people, and themselves. It showed that individuality is something to be respected and even encouraged, to rebel against that which is oppressive and embrace what is free. Blues, and its successor jazz, had been encouraging this individuality for over a hundred year; folk and rock then took the counterculture and caused a craze of rash individualism that, at times, threatened to destroy the movement from which it spawned. Tradition meant nothing; different became a goal and conformity a curse word. In this anti-establishment generation nothing was safe from rebellion or questioning; the people would not be sheep and the mainstream not their shepherd. ***

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But the changes that occurred in the 1960s did not become confined as an anomaly of the generation; no, the change in individualism has stayed with Americans every since.

Although Americans will probably never have another “Summer of Love,” that mindset is still engrained in the mainstream subconscious, something that prior to the 1950s had been reserved for the countercultural and hidden music of the oppressed. The various protests and revolutions of the two decades changed the both the perception and reception of individualism, and embodied the community that this music fostered; the Beatles said it best: I get by with a little help from my friends I get high with a little help from my friends

Works Cited Boyes, William and Michael Melvin. Fundamentals of Economics- Fourth Edition. Ed. Kathleen McMahon. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009.

Bradbury, David. Armstrong. London: Haus Publishing, 2003.

Brinkley, Alan. American History. Twelfth Edition. New York, New York: McGrawHill, 2007.

Cross, Charles. Room Full of Mirrors. New York, New York: Hyperion, 2005 Davis, Francis. The History of the Blues. New York, New York: Hyperion, 1995.

Jones, LeRoi. Black Music. New York City: William Morrow & Company, Inc., 1968.

Jones, LeRoi. Blues People. New York, New York: Morrow Quill Paperbacks, 1963.

Lennon, John; McCartney, Paul; Harrison, George; Starr, Ringo. With a Little Help from My Friends Levitin, Daniel. This Is Your Brain on Music. New York, New York: Penguin Group, 2006 Miller, Douglas, and Marion Nowak. The Fifties. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1975.

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Morgan, Edward. The 60s Experience. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991.

Morgan, Bill. The Typewriter is Holy. New York, New York: Free Press, 2010 Rielly, Edward. The 1960s. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2003.

Rovere, Richard. Senator Joe McCarthy. New York, New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc., 1959.

Seeger, Pete. The Incompleat Folksinger. New York, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972 Sounes, Howard. Down the Highway. New York, New York: Grove Press, 2001.

Tirro, Frank. Jazz: A History. New York City: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1977.

Yurochko, Bob. A Short History of Jazz. Ed. Rachel Schick. Chicago: Nelson-Hall Publishing, 1993.

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Neurotheology: Global Unity on the Divisive Grounds of Religion Jasmin Patel Jasmin Patelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s article, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Neurotheology: Global Unity on the Divisive Grounds of Religionâ&#x20AC;? (2011), argues that all humans throughout time and space have undergone the same religious experience which has simply been described in ways which were meaningful to each individual society. Patel defends this claim by observing the argument through the logos and the mythos. In the logos study, she explains how across all religious boundaries, supplicants have demonstrated the same neurological activity despite their varied beliefs. Furthermore, the physiological response is blind to religious denomination. A study into the central myths of six societies coupled with a glance into recurring elements within the tales forms the mythos observation. With these two elements, Patel hopes to describe the possibility of a globally unifying religious ground, rather than a violent segregating cultural element, and as such she is writing for any reader willing to welcome alternate perspectives. Jasmin Patel will be studying at the University of California, Berkeley where she will study Cognitive Science and apply the intricacies of the human mind to creating a greater global understanding.

Worcester Academy

Patel 2 Neurotheology: Global Unity on the Divisive Grounds of Religion Albert Einstein once explained of religion, “The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and science…To know what is impenetrable to us really exists, manifesting itself as the highest wisdom and the most radiant beauty which our dull faculties can comprehend only in their most primitive forms” (Davis 49). Perhaps the world’s greatest scientist praises the value of religion, yet religion and science are militant combatants in the fight to establish absolute truths. What one claims true, the other often condemns. Questions with no unassailable truth continue to exacerbate the conflict between the two ideas. In essence, science and religion do not mix.

Since the Age of Enlightenment, the two fields have struggled to coexist in a way that satisfies the principles of each. As the existence of God has not yet been, or is not ever, scientifically provable, the two fields thus create a tension in the other’s framework. Despite tensions, some have found ways that the two are able to coexist and in fact enhance each other.

Science provides explanations to what certain phenomena are; religion describes why. When these two intersect, however, fundamental theories are called into question. Scientists explain the creation of the Earth over 4.5 billion years ago, yet over 45% of Americans agree that God created the world under 10,000 years ago (Krauss 128). In the case of Intelligent Design, science and religion attempt to complement each other, but there is still a disparity between the scientifically provable and the religious.

Religion itself introduces deep-rooted ideological conflicts across the globe. Monotheistic religions, such as the Abrahamic religions, fundamentally oppose the polytheism of Hinduism, Buddhism, the Greco-Roman pantheon, and Chinese folk religion. Furthermore, these religions cannot relate to the spiritual movements of indigenous African and Australian religious groups.

Within the United States alone, over 87% of people claim some religious affiliation. In India, that number drastically increases to 99.9%, and furthermore Saudi Arabia cites a 100% Muslim population based on self-professed belief, habits of prayer, and religious attendance (cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/). Recently, we as a global population have been confronted with the emotional and often physical violence that ensues from religious disparities. From the Crusades to the Inquisition to the 2001 attack on the New York City Twin Towers, religious terrorism has plagued the globe. The most secular countries are those with the lowest rates of social dysfunction based on twenty-five identifying factors, such as abortion, teen pregnancy, homicide, sexually transmitted diseases, unemployment, poverty, and others.

Religion, conscious or subconscious, is a driving force for passion. Now, more than ever, this passion has become a globally divisive factor and a justification for large-scale religious terrorism. Fanatics are quick to dismiss commonalities across religions, and as a result the world has suffered from aggressive ideological tension.

Despite major ideological incompatibility, scientists have made major strides in the nascent field of neurotheology. Aldous Huxley, who coined the term in his novel Island, described the neurotheologian as “somebody who thinks about people in terms, simultaneously, of the Clear Light of the Void and the vegetative nervous system” (Huxley 112). What if human beings are in fact genetically hardwired for religious experiences? God would be given a scientific basis. What if we all share the same religious experience? If there were in fact a physiological basis for religious experiences, humans across the globe would be given a commonality, a shared experience which is merely translated in distinct ways which classify as “religion”. On an anthropological level, comparing the fundamental myths* of societies can

Patel 3 provide insight into the similar psychological satisfaction each myth provides. On a scientific level, researchers are conducting revolutionary experiments to monitor the effect of religious experience across different religious distinctions. Since the Paleolithic Period, homo sapiens has developed closely related mythology in order to achieve some sense of psychological satisfaction, a process which neurotheology claims is both emotionally and physically beneficial.

Despite violence and aggression increasingly defining the global conflict between religion and science and religions themselves, the biology of belief can be a unifying factor; on both an anthropological and neuroscientific level, humans share a common religious experience more fundamental than the ideological conflicts that presently serve as the basis for religious tension. *This paper will refer to tales within religious scriptures and other folktales as myth. The designation as myth does not declare any particular event historically “true” or “false”, but rather provides the “recognition” of the way life is. Through the medium of symbols, myths strive to provide an explanation to the world that is psychologically satisfying to the intended reader and his or her society. As such, modern critics such as professor Mircea Eliade of the University of Chicago claim that myth is the foundation of religion and thus religion can be broken back down to its individual mythological elements. History instead provides an account in terms of exacts: dates, names, statistics, and cause-and-effect. A myth may in fact be the historical truth; however, the intent is mythic and as such its function is to declare an unassailable truth “beyond history” (OB Davis 10). With these definitions, myth is isolated from neither religion nor from history. Instead, this convention is applied in order to study and scrutinize a scope of religious belief or spiritual folklore without claiming the absolute factuality of one particular tale over the other. Myth instead derives its value by appealing to a sense of familiarity within each person.

Within the category of myth, the tales are collectively under the same scope of scrutiny for analysis, rather than posited as the absolute or historical truth. The truth of the myth derives from whether or not it is able to stimulate a sense of recognition; as such, the value of myth is highly individualized. No one myth—or, by extension, religion—can be or will be treated with greater esteem than another. Similarly, myth will henceforth encompass religion and history solely as they pertain to the society to which they belong.

Why do we seek out religion?

Though anthropological research shows the psychological commonalities across mythology, it does not explain why we seek it out. Religion and spirituality are elements of society; however, society has changed vastly since the origins of mythology in prehistory. As humans evolved, we somehow retained and perhaps adapted our “god spot”. If all myth contains a common foreground, there ought to be a biological similarity as the source. This theory is not simple. Research into the physical effect of religion has been studied, and findings are generally accepted. However, whether religious phenomena are merely consequences of physiological

Patel 4 stimulus or divinely intertwined remained taboo. The field of neurotheology aims to break down the barriers in order to explain these taboo questions of our religious capacity.

The benefits of religion stretch from emotional to societal to physical.

Research has indicated that dedicated

(Marks 177)

adherence to individual religious practice positively impacts followersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; biological health. In addition to temporal lobe stimulation and a reduction of parietal lobe activity, meditation and prayer generate a response by which humans can induce a multisystem bodily relaxation. This so-called â&#x20AC;&#x153;relaxation responseâ&#x20AC;? is triggered across all religions which contain practices of deep prayer and meditation. In the brain, relaxation mechanisms trigger an increased level of dopamine and serotonin. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter which affects emotional response and the ability to experience pain and pleasure; serotonin is produced in the brain and in the intestines and it is the neurotransmitter most closely linked to effects of depression. Though its levels cannot be measured in the brain, scientists prescribe medications which increase serotonin levels to treat depression. Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and peyote, both hallucinogenic drugs, act on the same receptors as serotonin to increase levels in the brain but prevent negative feedback to reduce reuptake. In normal functioning, serotonin is used for relaxation; in excess, it can transform to a dangerous element of an illicit substance (serendip.brynmawr.edu). Stimulating religious experience through a hallucinogenic is a common phenomenon as it produces similar effects as LSD, peyote, and high levels of serotonin and dopamine. Even today, modern shamans utilize the techniques of ecstasy to create a

Patel 5 hallucinogenic high in order to feel closest to god. As anthropologist Karen Armstrong explains, “spiritual flight does not involve a physical journey, but an ecstasy in which the soul is felt to leave the body” (Armstrong 26). An increase of these neurotransmitters is responsible for the sensation of “spiritual flight”. Deep meditation reduces sympathetic nervous activity, which is responsible for the body’s fight-or-flight mechanisms, and it activates messengers in the parasympathetic nervous system, resulting in a reduction of muscle tension. Though dopamine, similar to adrenaline, is a transmitter of the sympathetic nervous system, its function is primarily for emotional response rather than bodily stress. Furthermore, the parasympathetic nervous system stimulates the anterior pituitary; this glandular stimulation deactivates the adrenocortical axis, which produces adrenocorticotropic hormone, or ACTH. This is the hormone by which the body responds to stress by increasing the production and release of corticosteroids from the adrenal cortex.

The adrenocortical axis is also responsible for the release of Antidiuretic

hormone (ADH) to the kidneys. Retention of ADH lowers blood pressure and heart rate, further relaxing the body’s central systems. In the brain, relaxation mechanisms trigger an increased level of dopamine and serotonin. Together, meditation and other deep prayer ritual stimulate a total body relaxation response which improves mental and physical health by reducing stress.

On a societal level, mythology has served several advantageous roles. Individual as well as communal behavior altered as a result of collective belief. Survey research has discovered that people who are more religiously active have reduced levels of alcohol and drug abuse, smoking, unsafe sexual activity, suicide, violent behavior, and unhealthy diet. As a result of the increased blood dopamine levels, religious devotees benefit from the aforementioned behavioral advantages. Certain religious groups which contain stricter religious tenants, such as the Mormons and the Seventh-Day Adventists, boast lower cancer levels and an overall increase in

Patel 6 longevity. In fact, these religious groups have cancer rates which are “one-half to two-thirds” that of the general population; compared to a control group of non-Mormons, Mormons have an increased life expectancy of up to 7 years. Furthermore, as a result of a stricter diet and safer practices, Mormons and Seventh-Day Adventists exhibited lower mortality rates from hypertensive heart disease, rheumatic heart disease, and ischemic heart disease than the general population. More recent research by Dr. Harold Koenig of Duke University has shown that “religiously active persons of any denomination who live healthy life-styles…appear to have the same low cancer rates as Mormons”. Other research shows an average life expectancy increase of 7.6 years in a pool of persons who practice religion regularly (more than once a week) compared to those who do not. In certain communities, such as African Americans, regular attendants had a life expectancy of almost 14 years longer than those who did not, based on a random sample generated across the United States (Marks 178-179). The societal effect of religion is subtle yet vital. Collective practice facilitates increased social support which directly leads to an increase in mental and physical health. Religious communities provide an alternative social community in which people can find support when the family structure is insufficient to meet challenges. Common belief also provided a means by which to unify smaller tribal units as societies began to grow and expand. Thus, devoted religious belief seems to correlate to increased physical and behavioral health, and as such it would be an evolutionary advantage to retain.

The Frontal and Parietal Lobes Human beings are capable of vast, complex, intricate mental processes. Perhaps one of the most unique human capacities is the ability of mythology. The intricate specialized regions

Patel 7 within the brain allows for these capacities. The largest region of the brain is the cerebrum; the cerebral cortex, the gray matter located on the outside of the cerebrum, is further divided and specialized into the temporal, occipital, parietal, and frontal lobes and laterally into left and right hemispheres. While every lobe of the brain is crucial for functioning, the functional and structural forefront of the brain is the frontal lobe. The frontal lobeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lateral division also further specializes by function; the left frontal lobe houses the machinery for language related movement, and the right frontal lobe controls non-verbal functions. Combined, the frontal lobe is collectively responsible for nearly all behavior. Beneath the cerebrum is the limbic system, a fibrous region containing deep nuclei and the olfactory apparatus. The limbic system includes the hypothalamus, hippocampus, the amygdala, and other nearby areas. This system is a primitive region of the brain which is responsible for sound, smell, vision, memory, and emotion. The limbic system then transmits electric signals to the frontal lobes which induce the appropriate physiological response. Because of its crucial function, neurotheologians have determined the limbic system and the frontal lobe as the primary centers of phenomena of faith in the human brain. Damage to these areas most directly result in states of mind which closely relate to spiritual experiences.

Neurotheologians also point to another lobe, the parietal lobe, as significant to spiritual phenomena. The parietal lobe is largely responsible for orientation and a sense of time, space, and self. When one steps on a sharp object, it is the parietal lobe which transmits the signal for immediate response. While scientists had originally designated religious phenomena to the frontal lobe, recent strides by neurotheologians such as Dr. Andrew Newburg of the University of Pennsylvania have established connections between meditation, spiritual mindfulness and decreased parietal lobe activity. By conducting thousands of experiments monitoring brain

Patel 8 activity, neurotheologians such as Dr. Andrew Newburg have finally begun to establish parallels between neurological function and the physiological response of spirituality (“God on the Brain”). Both the frontal and parietal lobes in conjunction with the limbic system provide the neurological framework for the complex abstract phenomena of religion. The entire frontal and parietal circuit works in conjunction with the temporal lobe to provide sensations of selfawareness, joy, and awe. Though scientists know the role of each of the lobes, whether belief is an effect on the brain or if it is a product of the brain remains to be proven. Furthermore, establishing parallels between the brain and the mind does not negate religion or religious experience, but rather prompts an intellectual curiosity into the subtle mechanisms in the brain which house the capacity for such higher level thought.

Temporal Lobe Epilepsy and Deep Religious Experience As previously noted, the temporal lobe has a vital function in physiological responses to emotion. Provided that the brain’s electrical activity continues in relatively harmonious rhythm, neuronal activity progresses normally. With temporal lobe epilepsy, however, the frontal lobe experiences abnormal electrical activity that often results in visual hallucinations.

Neurotheologians are now citing this condition as a possible source of deep religious experience.

Temporal Lobe Epilepsy [TLE], was first cited in medical books by Hippocrates. In his book, “On the Sacred Disease” (400 B.C.E), Hippocrates explains how the most abundant examples of TLE within his patients come from “such person as the conjurors, purificators, mountebanks, and charlatans

…who

give

themselves

out

for

being

excessively

religious”

(classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/sacred.html). Now, scientists and doctors recognize religious hallucinations as a symptom of TLE in a minority of patients. Though the connections between

Patel 9 TLE and religious revelation has been cited since 400 BCE, dismissing the divine revelation of religion’s leading figures as a result of illness meets with quick opposition as a vastly taboo inquest. It is impossible to retroactively diagnose TLE; however, modern imaging technology has made it possible to inspect neuronal activity of religious experiences of temporal lobe epileptics.

Both Rudi Affolter and Gwen Tighe are afflicted with TLE. Furthermore, they both claim to have experienced spiritual sensations during an episode. Beyond this, the two could not be more dissimilar. Tighe is a devout Roman Catholic living in England. She had struggled with the illness as a child, but she was relatively unaffected in her later years, until she gave birth. After giving birth to her son, Charles, Tighe claimed that she, her husband, and Charles, were the “holy family”, as Lady Mary, Joseph, and Christ respectively. Such a deep religious experience is not common, however. Furthermore, critics can claim that Tighe’s religious experiences were nothing more than a consequence of the trauma of birth. As a critical counterexample, Rudi Affolter is and has been a steadfast atheist, even after claiming to have experiences a true spiritual sensation. While he does not experience religious hallucinations regularly, his most powerful image came from picturing the depths of hell. Within it, Rudi claimed that he was scorned by God and left to be condemned in the pits of hell. Rudi Affolter and Gwen Tighe have the same condition: their frontal lobes experience abnormal electrical activity. However, the same abnormality in the same locality of the brain manifests itself as two distinct religious experiences. In the same way, the original global religions may just have risen from the powerful religious visionary experiences of prophets, translated into the distinct world religions of the world (“God on the Brain”).

Patel 10 While it is impossible to retroactively prove with absolute certainty that certain figures of history were afflicted with temporal lobe epilepsy, comparing the experiences of the prophets with the known experiences of temporal lobe epileptics reveal a convincing possibility. Several of the world’s most prominent religious figures, such as Muhammad and Ellen White, have all described the circumstances of their religious revelations with similar symptoms of TLE. For the Islamic prophet Muhammad, onlookers have cited multiple case of typical epileptic behavior.

One follower noted, “when revelations descended upon Allah’s Messenger (may peace be upon him) even during the cold days, his forehead perspired.” Another explained the when Muhammad received his Divine revelation, “the Prophet’s face was red and he kept on breathing heavily for a while and then he was relieved.” (answering-islam.org). Ellen White is a guiding founding of the Seventh-day Adventist Movement, with a presently twelve million member following. During her revelations, she wrote over 100,000 pages of intricately detailed descriptions of hundreds of visions “inspired by God.” Within these, she describes numerous visionary experiences lasting from fifteen minutes to three and a half hours. Her intense religious visions probe the question—was Ellen White a prophet from God, or a temporal lobe epileptic?

As aforementioned, it is scientifically impossible to retroactively diagnose this condition.

However, an investigation into Ellen White’s childhood provides fitting evidence for epilepsy.

One day as a nine year old child, Ellen White was chased home by an older girl, and Ellen was struck in the nose by a heavy stone when she turned back to see her pursuer. She was knocked unconscious to the ground and fell into a coma for several weeks. The figure below shows a probable diagram of Ellen White. The temporal lobe, the main region responsible for such religious phenomena, is located directly beyond the eye orbital where the thinnest skull bone exists. Such a severe trauma to that region may likely have caused bleeding, and the coma

Patel 11 resulted in amnesia and the possibility of triggering TLE. Seventh-day Adventist neurologist of Loma Linda University Medical Center, Dr. Daniel Giang, refutes the claim with the argument that Ellen White’s revelations began

nearly eight years following the trauma. However,

with the magnitude of Ellen White’s trauma Moses and the Burning Bush, from St. Isaac’s Cathedral, St. Petersburg, Russia

and the resulting prolonged comatose state, there remains a possibility of Ellen White’s

ordinarytimedevotions.wordpress.com/

epilepsy-induced visionary experiences. In addition to these figures central to their respective religions, leaders such as St. Paul, Moses, and Hindu mystics reflect a seemingly epileptic account of experiences. St. Paul encountered God, “and for three days he was without sight” (Act 9:9); Moses heard the power of God from a burning, illuminated bush; Hindu mystics similarly claim divine connection in brightly colored auras. While religious hallucinations only occur in a minority of patients, roughly 80% of all epileptics experience some level of auras or lights (www.macalester.edu/psychology/). Yet again, the same condition is translated in a variety of ways to reflect a unique spiritual experience. Thus, though it is impossible to diagnose with full certainty, parallels between the accounts of spiritual leaders and temporal lobe epileptics are evident and may hold the key to unlocking the planet’s neurotheological commonalities if these

Patel 12 leaders did in fact experience the divine through the same phenomenon, and religion was merely a socially appropriate translation of these instances.

The God Helmet: Using Science to Generate a Religious Response While research is beginning to illuminate the effect of temporal lobe epilepsy in religious phenomena, it does not explain the neurological effect for the majority, those who are not afflicted. Though, clearly, not every person is an epileptic, there is a similar neurological effect between the two phenomena. As aforementioned, temporal lobe epilepsy is the result of abnormal electrical impulses in the frontal lobe. Dr. Michael Persinger of Laurentian University hypothesized that if he could stimulate the same electrical abnormality, he would be able to create artificial religious experience and thus proves religion’s neurological origins. The mechanism transmits weak magnetic waves across the temporal lobe in order to generate a similar effect on brain waves as an epileptic episode which produces religious hallucinations. He named this device “the God helmet”. By transmitting these signals, Persinger selectively activates the temporal lobe and heightens its impulses. The helmet does not cause God to appear, but rather it stimulates regions of the brain which produce the sensations associated with deeply religious phenomena.

The “God helmet” proved surprisingly effective. Persinger and his staff experimented on thousands of volunteers across all religious backgrounds. 80% of those examined reported experiencing a sensation of lurking entity, what Persinger named the “sensed presence”. Though magnetic wave frequencies were adjusted slightly for each subject, they all underwent the same type of stimulation and experienced the same sensation. To demonstrate the revolutionary new discovery, Persinger invited Richard Dawkins, author of The God Delusion to whom atheism

Patel 13 against religion is a matter of truth versus ignorance, to experience religious phenomena for himself. While Dawkins reported a “tickling” sensation, he did not report any overwhelming religious sensation. It still remains possible that Dawkins received the proper messengers, yet did they did not manifest into the “sensed presence” that others reported. Persinger and his team explain that in order to experience the true spiritual effect, the magnetic waves need to be slightly altered in order to attain the proper shape and to be directed to a particular lobe. Each person has a specific temporal lobe specificity to which they respond and interact with the magnetic waves. Richard Dawkins, and perhaps atheists across the globe, had substantially lower temporal lobe sensitivity than religious followers. This idea seems to defend the neurological basis of religion. Even though subjects reported the same phenomenon, they were of differing religious backgrounds. As the earliest religious figures experienced the sensations, they translated them into ways which were meaningful for their respective societies.

Trans-Religiosity While “the God helmet” offers evidence as to what occurs when external stimuli are applied inward to the brain to stimulate false religious experience, it does not provide insight into devoted prayer’s effect outwards. To answer this question, Dr. Andrew Newberg of University of Pennsylvania conducted experiments to demonstrate the neurological activity of prayer. His research has also exposed the role of the parietal lobe, in addition to the frontal and temporal lobes, in a complete religious experience.

In order to clearly monitor the brain activity of his subject, Dr. Newberg injects a radioactive tracer into the brain to measure blood flow. In this particular study, Dr. Newberg monitored the prayer of Dr. Michael Bane, a devout Buddhist. The brain activity of the figure

Patel 14 above shows a high increase in frontal lobe

activity

(dingo.care2.com/pictures/c2c/share/26/267/781/2678134_370.jpg). More revolutionary was the discovery that at the peak of Bane’s meditation, the parietal lobe nearly halted all activity. The parietal lobe is responsible for our sense of time, space, self, and orientation; this provides an explanation as to why meditation stimulates a loss of self into the devoted task, an ideal which is central to most religious faiths. From monotheism to polytheism to spiritualism, belief systems have underscored the value of achieving a loss of self to the religious sensation. For the Christians, the idea is coined “unio mystica”, or mystical union; for the Hindus, the soul and god are one; for the Buddhists, followers must find oneness with the universe. The underlying ideas are the same, despite the vastly different tenants of each religion.

To clearly reflect that Dr. Michael Bane’s religious experience is not isolated to the deep focused meditation rituals of Buddhism, he conducted the same experiment on Franciscan nuns and compared the results to those of Tibetan Buddhist monks. The two distinct prayer patterns yielded the same brain activity as all studied prayers such as decreased parietal functioning and stimulated frontal and temporal lobes. Scientifically, the exact same chemical process is responsible for the strict monotheistic followers as well as for the spiritualists, yet socially we are unable to acknowledge ideological similarity and traverse the divisive line of religion to

Patel 15 acceptance. Long standing divisions stemming from religious differences may render placation nearly impossible. However, Dr. Andrew Newberg’s work provides strong evidence for the theory that religions may have stemmed from few distinct “divine experiences” and translated to meet the psychological needs of the individual situation.

Dependence on Myth Homer once said, “All men have need of the gods” (Davis 26). Whether it is a consequence of evolutionary advantage or a true divine signal, myth has shaped and defined culture since the earliest formations of civilization and become a social necessity. Myth serves two vital societal purposes: it provides a means by which man can define the facts of the world around him as well as creates a framework for his perception and experience of that world. As Barbara Sproul explains, myth “makes [man’s] past sensible, present meaningful, and future possible. Around its central value, he constructs his life” (Sproul 5). Man has used myth to since as early as the Paleolithic Period to modernity and in all likelihood will continue to apply myth in the future (Armstrong 12). Society united under one common system of beliefs, and thus the growth of stationary civilization units was possible. Distinct from folklore and legend, mythic truths are considered “sacred and absolutely true” (Davis 26). Myth fills psychological needs that the present state of the world creates. While rationality can explain the need for hunting, only a mythical framework can provide the psychological comfort for killing. Similarly, science can explain the biochemistry of a cancer, yet it cannot explain why the world is afflicted with so much chaos. By satisfying this underlying need for why, myth effects the perceptions of the universe of its adherents, and it shapes the relative definition of meaning and purpose into absolute truth. The creation myth is perhaps most central in these values, and defines the truth

Patel 16 within the scope of “cultural relativism” (Barbour 155). In the scope of the unknown universe, societies used their creation myths to define their significance in the vast ambiguities of time and space. Cultures have varied degrees of interest of origins, yet creation myth still provides insight into society’s ideals and perceptions, from procreating to justifying the hunter lifestyle. Whether it be the Big Bang Theory or creation ex nihilo, the creation story attempts to create an absolute truth for the individual society despite the relative nature of the universe.

By defining each myth’s “ground” of being, anthropologists have been able to gain insight into the sense of identity of each culture (Sproul 6). Myths are highly individualized to each culture; one society’s absolute truth may be completely meaningless to the other. For example, the tale of a great flood is a repeated theme, but it would be incongruous to a society in moderate climate. Similarly, hunting tales would be ill suited for gathering groups. Each group regards its own myth as the absolute truth, however. While all myths cannot coexist as the ‘true myth’, each story is especially pertinent to society of its respective group and thus is as close to absolutely true as possible. Just as neurotheology provides evidence for a common religious experience, comparing the creation myths of societies highlights the recurring elements of ideologies across the globe. Though it is uncertain whether society shaped around its creation story or whether the creation story was shaped to match its society, myth is a clear reflection of the society’s environment.

Common Myth Elements Although some mythical elements emerged as early as circa 8000 to 2000 BCE, we have preserved and continued to adhere to the principles of these tales (Armstrong 12). If myth is a reflection of the individual society and most societies transform vastly even in a period of a

Patel 17 decade, then should ancient myths be rendered archaic by modernity? Clearly, the answer is no.

Not only is mythology a vital part of historical social studies, it is and always has been an integral part of contemporary culture. Myth is one of the remaining cultural threads to link us to our ancestors of thousands of years ago, yet it still provides a similar sense of psychological support to comprehending the unknown.

When our ancestral myths conflict with others, massive warfare can occur. An instinctive impulse within man causes us to defend these integral elements of identity against competitors of absolute truth. Naturally, differences in mythology are endless. From the great flood myths to the gods who sacrificed themselves to create the world to the dissipation of a great spirit into the natural landscape, it is not difficult to see why myth is a major divisive factor in the world.

Despite these differences, myths from all across the globe show striking similarities. At the most fundamental level, there are in fact a very few number of stories which have been transformed as needed by the individual society. In the same way that the same neurological activity may be responsible for the diversity of religions in the world, mythological commonalities provide the same common background of theology in this highly segregated world. Though there are also an endless number of commonalities in creation mythology, this paper will focus on four major themes: dualism, the relationship of earth and sky, the flood, and the pantheon.

Dualism is a vast idea, yet it is central to many myths. This idea appears in a variety of forms and in vastly differing belief systems. While the contrasts themselves may be unique, they each serve a â&#x20AC;&#x153;black and whiteâ&#x20AC;? demonstration of the mythâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fundamental idea. By highlighting the two opposing ideas, the myth most clearly identifies its advice or message. Common juxtapositions include the duality of good-evil, order-chaos, man-nature, man-woman, creatordestroyer, and death-rebirth. In addition, the earth-sky dualism is a major relationship addressed

Patel 18 in many myths, and as such it will be treated as a distinct theme. It is not surprising that the technique of dualism is so pronounced throughout the mythological field. Armstrong explains that, “mythology often springs from profound anxiety about essentially practical problems, which cannot be assuaged by purely logical arguments” (Armstrong 30). If this theory is true, then dualism is the most comprehensive way by which people would be able to rationalize the extremes and chaos in the world.

The flood is another often-repeated plot element of myths to explain the world’s chaos.

Not only do floods provide a means by which gods can showcase their power, but they also provide a rationale to the great natural phenomena in the world around their societies. As aforementioned, this element is typically showcased in regions which are regularly afflicted with extremes of weather conditions or are typically at the mercy of their climate for sustenance.

Some myths describe the origins of the earth as a primal oceanic state; others describe the feats of a hero who has to overcome the woes of the sea, while others describe the flood as punishment inflicted as an act of vengeance upon man by the gods. Inundation often involves an angry god cleansing the world, and thus they are cautionary tales demonstrating the consequences of straying from “proper” conduct. Flood tales also instill a sense of fear into the audience by highlighting the fragility of each human race to the whim of the gods. If a leader was able to instill a sense of subordination into his followers, he could rule with greater ease.

Furthermore, the sea represents an entity which is vast and beyond mortal comprehension. Its depths remained, and in some places still remain, a mystery. As such, the flood is a regularly exploited theme across different cultures’ myths.

Similar to the vast, unknown effect of the flood, the relationship of the earth and sky is a common motif due to its mystifying largeness. While humans were beginning to expand across

Patel 19 the globe, the sky remained an unknown, inaccessible territory. Still today, though we have physically pushed into the frontier of space, the infinite largeness of the universe is awe-inspiring to even the most scientifically minded astrophysicists; even modern theory explains that the expanses of the universe are infinite and are thus unattainable by humans. Modern science has merely put a label on the entity which myth attempted to rationalize. In attempt to bridge the disconnect between the mortal and divine realms, societies across the globe utilized the axis mundi to attain a physical and spiritual intimacy with the gods. Flights and heights are both recurring elements in myth which serve to magnify the physical disconnect between the mortal and the divine as well as contrarily offer an attainable proximity to the gods. Similar to the flood, the disparity between the gods and the mortals served as an opportunity for a leader to claim absolute authority due to his particularly intimate relationship with the gods. Once power could be amassed, societies could strengthen as units, and thus they were less vulnerable to the damaging effects which erased small nomadic clans, such as greater susceptibility to attack and disease. The relationship of the earth to the sky in myth provided the immense backdrop for mythic tales and legends for both political and spiritual goals.

Particularly in the polytheistic and spiritual religions, the pantheon is one of the most essential motifs. Whether there are thousands of gods or one spirit transcending upon the entirety of the universe in each element, they all share one common home base: the pantheon. Like the earth/sky relationship, the pantheon represents a location which is unattainable to mortals and houses the divinity of all the gods combined. The collective power magnifies the disconnect between the mortal and the immortal and consequently increases the sense of fear which provides a rationale for societal unity and leadership. Unlike the earth/sky relationship, however, the Pantheon is not necessarily located in the heavens. Even still, it represents a location which is

Patel 20 unattainable to humans despite man’s physical and technological advancement. The Pantheon also can be interpreted as an emblem of the compatibility of lifestyle between the mortals and the divine; it is a stationary, safe home space fit for the gods which is an ideal in many societies as it promotes unity and collectivism. The home of the gods becomes and ideal for behavior and social structure and is thus a recurring motif in many myths.

A Mythological Observation by Geography Egypt, Ancient Egyptian Mythology Just like Egypt’s historical background, its myth is complex and heavily varied. In fact, Egypt’s mythological history is likely contrived as a consequence of its history, rather than coincidentally. As one of the world’s first great civilizations, Egypt was constantly plagued by militant warfare and the struggle for power. Prior to unification, Egypt consisted of forty-two distinct districts called “nomes”, each further divided into individual towns or villages that surrounded temples to its patron god. Ancient Egypt was thus home to thousands of gods. When a new leader fought his way to power, his localized god became the central god of Egypt.

Though there were thousands of Egyptians gods, there were clear recurring themes and story elements to Creation. All of the myths explained that the sun god was at the center of the universe, and creation emerged from a watery abyss known as “Nu” or “Nun” (Davis 75). In the most commonly accepted Creation myth, the god Atum (eventually known as the god Re) rose from the lifeless ocean and stepped onto a pyramid-shaped mound known as benben. There is little detail to Atum’s origins beyond kheper, or “coming into being” (Sproul 81). To create man, Atum masturbated then “poured seed into [his] mouth” to create his twin sons Shu and Tefnut,

Patel 21 gods of air and moisture, respectively. He then bathes the land in his tears to create fertility. The following is a translated passage of Egyptians’ creation myth:

In this tale, many of the aforementioned themes are highlighted to create a comprehensive view of Egyptian culture. Not only is the flood motif employed, but also the dichotomy of life-death is highlighted. The tale also reflects the importance of the earth/sky relationship. The original landscape consisted of complete watery lifelessness, or Nu. Despite Nu’s “state of inactivity”, the mightiest god emerges from his depths. Because of Egyptian society’s dependence on the Nile for sustenance, the emergence of life from the uncertain depths of the water is more psychologically appropriate for that particular society. The duality of the creation story also parallels the contrasting life-giving and destroying nature of the Nile. Then, as Atum climbs to the pyramid-shaped mound, he solidifies the intimate relationship of the earth, the mound, and the sky, through Atum the sun god. The significance of a relationship to the sun is perpetuated throughout Egyptian society, most clearly in the creation of the three Great Pyramids of Giza,

Patel 22 standing at 450 feet today. The Great Pyramids are only three of thirty-five remaining pyramids in Egypt, making the pyramid structure a clearly central emblem of Egyptian belief. The value of the pyramid likely derives from its four slanted edges, mirroring the rays of the sun (Davis 101).

In Egyptian culture, we can clearly see a reflection of fundamental ideas presented in myth transcending into the culture of its respective society, though it would be obscure and meaningless to another.

Mesopotamia, Sumerian Mythology In Mesopotamia, the most lasting mythic tale is the Epic of Gilgamesh. Though not strictly a creation story, the tale of Gilgamesh similarly lays out ideals for Sumerian society through the use of several of the recurring mythological motifs. Captured in stone from around the 3rd millennium BCE, the Epic of Gilgamesh describes the tyrannical rule of Gilgamesh, who was two-thirds god and one-third man. Gilgamesh then seeks out Utnapishtim, the survivor of the Great Flood and which was unleashed on man as a consequence of his “noisy and unruly behavior” and the only human granted immortality (Wilkinson & Philip 147); however, he finds out that Utnapishtim was able to survive the flood because the goddess Ea advised him to build a boat and was gifted immortality when he survived. Jealous of Utnapishtim’s immortality, Gilgamesh sets off to the Underworld in which there is a plant that grants eternal youth at the bottom of the lake. Though he finds the plant, a snake stole the plant and ate it, leaving Gilgamesh vulnerable and friendless.

There are several themes involved in the Epic of Gilgamesh. The Flood inflicted by the gods upon an unruly people is a motif repeated in many myths across the globe, and it was first introduced in this tale. Myths such as the biblical tale of Noah, the Eastern Slovenian story of

Patel 23 Kranyatz and the Great Flood, and the Greco-Roman myth of Zeus’s storm weathered by Deucalion and his wife Pyrrha, all involve the angry gods imposing a massive cleansing flood upon an undeserving human race. In each of those stories as well as many others, the single survivor of the flood is considered the ultimate hero and is responsible for the new generation of man. Socially, the message of this technique is clear: the one who follows the gods’, or a higher authority’s, advice is the one who will succeed. Especially in a nascent society such as ancient Mesopotamia, a docile populace would be particularly advantageous. Mesopotamian society also surrounded the gods’ pantheon. The religion of Mesopotamia was highly polytheistic, so the central temple within each city was charged with the divine power of all the gods of the region.

These pantheons would often take upwards to the sky, creating an axis mundi between the earth and the sky in the shape of a ziggurat. The necessity of this type of religiously centered structure derived from the fact that that Sumerian society, as well as all societies throughout early Mesopotamia, was a theocracy. Leaders relied on divine right to establish authority, and thus the principles for the leaders’ greatest ease were depicted in the society’s most passed down tradition.

India, Hindu mythology The Rig-Veda, India’s first sacred book, contains 1,028 hymns collected by the Aryans as they first entered into India. As a polytheistic religion, it is no surprise that there are over a thousand myths in just one of India’s sacred books. The progression of Hinduism created a religion in which one central deity is manifested in thousands of gods in a pantheon of divine spirit. Eventually, when a particular god’s name was mentioned, it was functional rather than

Patel 24 linked to specific personality traits. The creation story of Rig-Veda X, cxxix is a hymn that uses the effect of duality in an attempt to explain the origins of the universe: WHEN neither Being nor Not-being was Nor atmosphere nor firmament, nor what is beyond.

What did it encompass? Where? In whose protection?

What was the water, the deep, unfathomable?

Neither death nor immortality was there then, No sign of night or day.

That One breathed, windless, by its own energy: Nought else existed then.

In the beginning was darkness swathed in darkness; All this was but unmanifested water.

Whatever was, the One, coming into being, Hidden by the Void, Was generated by the power of heat.

In the beginning of [One] evolved, Became desire, first seed of mind.

Wise seers, searching within their hearts.

(Sproul 183)

In addition to the multiple use of duality to transcend the linguistic barriers of explaining the universe’s origin, the hymn mentions the unknowable depths of the ocean just as the Mesopotamian and Egyptian myths mentioned. Furthermore, this hymn explains how the origins of “the One” can be explained as “coming in to being”, the same translation of the Egyptian hieroglyphics in the tale of Atum. While this is only one of hundreds or even thousands of creation stories within India, anthropologist Barbara Sproul explains that it is “one of the most profound and sophisticated of creation myths” (Sproul 183). Perhaps this sophistication derives because it does not offer an overtly socially advantageous answer to the questions, but rather it recognizes the limits of knowledge. This does not mean that myth played a minimal role in Indian society. On the contrary, myth was a vital component to describing social behavior. Anna Dallapiccola explains, “Myth permeate the totality of India culture, mementoes of mythical events dot the whole country, old myths are told anew and new myths are created…Each story is connected to many more, one more exciting than the previous; each merges in an ocean of stories” (Davis 326). Furthermore, the other myths of the Rig-Veda and other sacred texts offer one suggestion to thousands of equally valuable others, which is more psychologically

Patel 25 comforting as it provides a comprehensive variety of solutions to answering the universe and society’s questions.

Eurasia, Judeo-Christian Mythology Even within the monotheistic religions of Judaism and Christianity, there are various accounts of Creation. The first creation story in the Bible is Genesis 1-2:3. Between the two versions of creation, this tale depicts creation with the flattest tone, seemingly devoid of any emotional bias. It describes the origin of the world in a matter-of-fact manner, and by doing so it seems to limit the symbolic effect and thus employ fewer dubious elements for its more modern audience. It explains how, “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. The earth was without form and void, and darkness was upon the face of the deep; and the Spirit of God was moving over the face of the waters” (Sproul 123). Once again, the world as depicted as completely devoid in an oceanic abyss. The origins of the earth regularly revert back to the deep impenetrable, primal, perilous expanse as a logical starting point for life. The first line also already portrays the important relationship of the earth and the heavens, highlighting the contrast between heaven, as the pantheon for God and his other divine figures, and the devoid earth. The myth then explains that things “came into being” (like in Egypt and India) by God’s will: “And God said ‘Let there be light’; and there was light” (Genesis 1:3). There is a similar distancing from detailed explanation to the origins of life, and instead the myth primarily highlights that it was God’s omnipotent will at work. It does not stimulate further inquiry or questioning like the Rig-Veda, but it does similarly lay the framework for a society built around the whim of god.

Despite the relative newness of this myth over the aforementioned myths, it shares several of the

Patel 26 key ideas. These key ideas are simply manifested in ways which are meaningful to the individual cultures.

Guatemala, Quiché Mayan Mythology At the heart of Quiche Mayan ideology is the Popol Vuh. It is a sacred text similar to the Bible for Judaism and Christianity which explains Creation as well as laying out proper conduct for their culture’s religious traditions. Even after being conquered in 1524 by Pedro de Alvarado, the Popol Vuh managed to persevere when a copy was transcribed to Latin script by a member of the tribe and later copied by Father Ximénez in the late 1600s which still survives. The Quiché Maya tradition describes the creation of the earth from the same empty expanse of earth and sea as many other myths. There was one god from the sea, Gucumatz, and one from the sky, Heart of Heaven, and they are the ones who decide to create life on earth to praise the work of the gods.

After planning the population of the earth, the two gods declared, “Thus let it be done! Let the emptiness be filled! Let the water recede and make a void, let the earth appear and become solid; let it be done. Thus they spoke. Let there be light, let there be dawn in the sky and on the earth! … Then the earth was created by them…Earth! They said, and instantly it was made” (Sproul 289). When this first round of beings was unable to praise the gods beyond howls and barks (the original animals), the gods try again and create another generation from clay. Unfortunately, this group is similarly incapable of praising the gods and dissolve in water. In an exasperated final attempt, the two gods consult the elderly diviners Xpiyacoc and Xmucane, who advise them to use wood as the medium for creation. The two gods create men from wood and women from reeds; however, despite this new generation’s ability to speak, they lack souls and refuse to worship the gods. As a result, Gucumatz and Heart of Heaven send a flood to destroy the earth.

Patel 27 The Popol Vuh then shifts into an adventure narrative of two sets of twins who violently battle demons from the underworld following the flood, and they ultimately come back to life at the surface after their bones had been crushed to powder.

Though the tales of the Popol Vuh have clearly distinct elements, it also shares many of the mythological motifs of the above societies. The original world for the Quiché was filled with nothing but the sky and the sea as well as the gods who are responsible for them. The blank canvas earth is a traditional origin point as it combines the mystical unknown elements of both the sky and the sea to attempt to make known means of the creation of man. Just as in Genesis’s depiction of God’s creation, the sky and sea creator gods create the world through their will.

Although this myth is more elaborate in its background, it still reflects the same lack of depth to the earth’s creation beyond the omnipotence of the gods. The myth also employs several dual images. However, in Quiché Mayan culture, the duality is complementary rather than contrasting. From the sea/sky relationship to the two elder diviners to the twins, the stability of the number two is still utilized without necessarily manifesting as a contrast. Furthermore, the two gods become dissatisfied with the behavior of mankind, and so they release a flood as a punishment. Just like in the Epic of Gilgamesh, Noah’s tale, and Kranyantz, among many others, there are survivors who go on to become the first men to repopulate the earth in one of the most evident uses of duality—death and rebirth. The tale of the two twins is not only heroic, but it is also cautionary. Just like several other myths, Quiché Mayan society is closely related to the values depicted in the creation myth. While promoting heroics and necessary violence, the creation myth warns against the consequences of straying from religious obligations.

Patel 28 Iceland, Norse Mythology One of the most geographically isolated societies was the Nordic civilization. However, despite their physical separation, the creation story still employs several fundamental common mythological motifs as the remainder of the world, promoting the idea that the religious experience is one shared across the globe but manifested in distinct patterns to mirror the society’s needs. In the Norse creation story, the world exists on the precipice of two extremes: the icy world of Niflheim and the fire-pit of Muspell. In between the two regions is Ginnungagap, the “beguiling void” which is the battleground for the two elements (Davis 299).

The elements collide to create a frost monster named Ymir as well as a primeval cow called Audhumla whose milk nurtures Ymir. Due to the heat created by Muspell, Ymir begins to sweat; then, his children are born from the sweat of his armpit and his leg. Meanwhile, Audhumla frees another frost giant named Buri from beneath the ice. Buri becomes the grandfather of the line of gods when his son, Bor, marries the giant Bestla. In a tale similar to the Greek Creation story, the sons of Bor exact vengeance upon Ymir for his tyranny by killing him. They then dismember his body and use the elements to create the world: the sky is formed from his skull; his brain becomes the clouds; his bones become rocks, and river and seas are created from his blood.

However, the blood is so powerful that it ultimately drowns all the remaining frost giants except for two.

Once again, the society’s myth is a clear reflection of the ideals of the civilization.

Though Viking culture promoted violence and aggression, excessive anger and lack of authority was looked down upon, as mirrored in the fate of Ymir. Within the Norse creation story, we see several elements which appeared throughout the world and through various time frames. For example, the duality of the ice and the fire is the setting for the earth’s creation. Though it is not

Patel 29 the sky and sea calm tranquility, it still represents the idea of battling opposing elements which combine to create the dual foundation of man. Furthermore, even though the sons of Buri eliminated the anger of Ymir by killing him, his violence continued to plague the world through the flood of his blood. Like the ocean, the flood of blood represents a natural cleansing through a brutal measure. Just as in the other myths, the Norse creation story is likely only suitable for Nordic society. The fire and ice setting is one which would have been vivid as well as terrifying for the audience as it recalls the violent setting of Scandinavia. Furthermore, the violence of the creation heroes may seem distasteful to some societies; however, Nordic society welcomed and promoted such

http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/episodes/iceland-fire-and-ice/introduction/3022/

aggression. It was the means by which the society could conquer and establish its authority, a virtue at the center of the Nordic culture.

Thus, it is no surprise that on superficial glance, the story of the Norse people and the story of a forgiving and nurturing God in Judeo-Christian mythology were incompatible. However, on a fundamental level, these two stories as well as thousands of other myths across the world portray a shared set of mythological motifs in order to provide a social guide for their respective societies.

The Universal Religious Experience The notion that the Egyptian masturbating deity has any correlation to the wintery giant Ymir seems unlikely, superficially. Furthermore, that the quiet prayer of Christianity and the

Patel 30 vivacious chants of African tribal religion attempt to attain the same religious effect may even seem absurd. Neurotheology and careful analysis of central religious mythology reveals just the contrary: humans are linked together by an innate spiritual tendency which is manifested in various ways as distinct beliefs. This paper only examined the elements of six distinct creation stories, but tens of thousands of these stories exist across the globe, many of which share the common thematic elements of the aforementioned. No matter how distinct societies can be in geography, time, and ideology, there is an indubitable link (perhaps genetic) which weaves its way throughout the globe.

On the most fundamental level, all humans seek out the comforting, whether it be explaining extreme weather conditions or providing meaning to violence and tyranny. As the world shapes, so do our beliefs; we believe that which is best suited for our individual situations.

Our myth will continue to evolve as new challenges are brought to light, since a new problem is quickly placated by the creation of a new mythical truth. Myth, in thousands of various ways, assuages the fears of the audience by creating order to chaos, and ultimately that is the goal of myth across the globe. Modern research has now provided neurological evidence for a shared religious experience. If all humans share a common physiological function, and their myths are ultimately embellishments repeated elements, then religion can be perceived in a new light; it will transform from something destroying the fabric of peace to strengthening the global bond.

The notion that unity can be forged from something which has been responsible for millions of deaths over thousands of years is daunting. The world will likely not drop its weapons and forsake all religious warfare, especially since this trend been repeated since prehistory; however, this recent research opens the possibility of a new appreciation for the unified global identity as well as for the distinct cultures.

Patel 31

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