Types ofParticipatory Budgeting Programs

36 Brian Wampler

few projects and spent less than 10 percent ofthe proposed resources.Thus, there are positive demonstration effects in Porto Alegre but few in Recife.

Since participatory budgeting programs are geared toward redistributing public resources,evaluations ofparticipatory budgeting should include an analysis ofwhere resources are spent within the municipality.Such an analysis requires that similar data be produced over a number ofyears to allow plausible inferences to be made about spending patterns.

Only one study,ofPorte Alegre,has measured the distribution of resources within a municipality (Marquetti 2002).This study combines 10 years ofparticipatory budgeting data and 1991 census data to determine if there is a relationship between participatory budgeting investments and lower social indicators.

The results show that participatory budgeting spending in Porto Alegre has indeed been concentrated in the poorer regions ofthe municipality.Poor regions receive more spending per capita than wealthier regions.This is the most compelling evidence that participatory budgeting is promoting social justice by increasing the investment ofmunicipal resources in lower-income neighborhoods.Marquetti (2002) claims participatory budgeting has had a distributive effect,because Porto Alegre’s municipality spent the majority of its investment resources during the 1970s and 1980s in middle-class neighborhoods.He thus infers that participatory budgeting has had a significant redistributive effect.

Types ofParticipatory Budgeting Programs

Participatory budgeting programs have two main tracks.One track,“participatory budgeting public works,”focuses on specific public works projects, which range from the paving ofspecific streets to the building ofday care centers.This track garners the lion’s share ofcitizens’interest,because it involves the distribution ofresources to specific projects.

The second track,“participatory budgeting thematics,”focuses on generalspending policies.These policies focus on more general trends,such as allocating increased spending to a particular type ofhealth care program. These meetings tend to draw better-informed activists,who are more likely to be part ofan issue-oriented social movement.

Public Works Programs Most participatory budgeting programs initially focus on public works;over time discussions broaden to include general social policies.There are several

A Guide to Participatory Budgeting 37

pragmatic reasons why governments initially dedicate their time and energy to specific projects.

First,the focus on specific public works establishes a direct connection between participation and outcomes.When participants select a specific project,an expectation is created that the government will implement it. When the government successfully implements selected projects,it reinforces the notion that participation in participatory budgeting is a valuable tool forpromoting change (Wampler 2004b;Wampler and Avritzer 2004).The government ofPorto Alegre,for example,has established a track record of implementing participatory budgeting projects within two to three years. Participants know that decisions they make will result in government action. The government’s efforts have helped stimulate accountability in Porto Alegre because participants believe the government will fulfill its promises.

Second,the focus on specific public works represents an effort to allow communities to define their own development.The underlying assumption is that citizens understand their own problems better than government officials and will therefore be able to match proposed public works to their needs.By giving citizens the power to select public works,participatory budgeting programs contribute to the decentralization ofthe decision-making process. Many neighborhood groups first propose small projects and then expand the range and size oftheir demands over time.For example,a neighborhood association might initially work for street paving but later make demands for housing projects or the establishment ofhealth centers.Public learning occurs,especially when the government successfully implements participatory budgeting projects,as delegates begin to strategize about how to receive additional (and often larger) projects.

Third,local governments are often responsible for small infrastructure projects (in wealthier cities,governments can sometimes also tackle major infrastructure projects,such as housing).In countries where state or provincialgovernments provide these services,it may be more appropriate to adopt participatory budgeting at these higher levels ofgovernment.Public works have long been a key source ofpatronage between governments and community leaders.By placing public works at the center ofparticipatory budgeting,it is hoped that the cycle ofpatronage politics can be broken.Breaking the cycle ofpatronage entails public discussions ofpublic works,access to technical information,and the eventual implementation ofprojects.By removing public works from the clientelistic exchange,governments and community leaders hope to generate a new type ofpolitics.

Fourth,focusing on specific public works allows participants to gain a better understanding ofwhat authority and responsibility the municipal