TSAM DANCES AND MASKS THE ORIGINS Tsam (Cham in Tibetan) dances belong to the extremely ancient Doigar philosophy, according to which art “bequeaths form to independent imagination”, which is considered to be one of the ten kinds of wisdom. They were introduced in Tibet for the first time during the VIII century a.D. by the Indian Holy man Loron Dabamjunai, and from here, much later, they found their way to Mongolia. Since then, these dances were represented according to an ancient ritual which remained virtually unchanged to about the XVI century, and every monastery tweaked but a few details to make it original. During the Russian occupation of Mongolia, the Soviets outlawed their public representation. But they failed, seeing as they simply went underground and the ceremonies became secret and the cult to which they were attached survived.
THE MEANING It is a representation of the sacred mysteries, assembled to protect, give aid, guide and help meditate all those who are walking down the eightfold path, attempting to shake away the chains of material dependency. The dances seek to remind of the inescapability of death, the transience of the soul and the cycle of re-birth. Furthermore, and not less important, the masks seek to accustom the audience with the sight of several of the divinities during their living years, so that they will not be terrorized when they gaze upon them after death. The souls must cross the 49 days of Bardo before being able to be reborn, following the different stages of development. They are protected, warned and guided by these figures of demons in order to be reborn in higher levels and not to be blinded by the “earthbound dream”.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT Two different schools: the most ancient is the Mil Bogdo, which today no longer exists. Geser Tsam, however still survives, and is known for its refined decorations. It exhibited 108 characters and was enacted on the 9th day of the last month of summer (108 disciples of Buddha – 9 is the scared number for the Mongolian people during the day of Genghis Khan). They were seen as the symbol of the prevailing of good on evil; at the time it was likely that human sacrifices were made in order to appease spirits and demons and to ensure their favour during the following days. Lamaism took over these practices and made them its own, adapting them to its dogmas, without. However, being able to fully control them. The ancient shamanic symbolisms of the dances and masks were transformed into the triumph of Lamaism on the pagan world. Human sacrifices were abolished, since they did not have a place in the Buddhist teachings; a figure made from bread was sacrificed instead of humans. The dates were changed: the most important event was changed to Padmasambhava’s birthday. Other performances were enacted at the founding ceremony of new monasteries. New dialogue was introduced, since in the beginning the masks normally spoke magic incantations. This signified the passage from a pure cult activity to a theatrical form. The dancers could thus be lay people, and the role was no longer assigned exclusively to the monks. In Mongolia the first performance was enacted in Ulaan Baatar at the Bogd Gegen Monastery in 1811; Tibetan Buddhism exported to Mongolia several masters specialized in the art of Tsam. Here the dances were influenced by several factors, first of all by the nomadic lifestyle with its shamanic roots, then by the Chinese domination (the figure of the lion is almost exactly like the Chinese dragon). Among the many representations in Mongolia, the most important was Geser Tsam, which symbolizes the victory on the demons and on the enemies of Buddhism. Geser, the God of War, and also the protector of the Manchu dynasty, of all warriors and of fortunate hunting. The dancers wore splendid metal armours and spelled magical incantations against the demons.
(TSAM DANCE – URGA – early XX century)
The performance lasted for more than two hours, and thus required strong, young monks able to bear the weight of these heavy costumes, so richly decorated with jewels and coral. Another dance is the Erlig Tsam. the main character is the God of Law and Death, whose ancient name, passed on by shamanic cults, is Yama (*). Of particular notice is the Milaraspa Tsam (spoken Tsam) which tells of the life of Milarepa, a hermit. There is also a written version, which is quite a rare thing, since all the other ceremonies are based on the memories passed on from one generation of actors to the next. Its uniqueness lies in the fact that there are only two unmasked actors. The plot follows an ancient (YAMA mask – Choijin Lama museum – Ulaan Baatar) Tibetan legend in which a Red Deer, since it is being hunted, is asking the hermit for shelter. The hermit will be able to convince the hunter of “retribution for all offenses” and to convert him to the practicing tolerance.
(TSAM DANCERS – URGA – early XX century)
CERIMONIES IN ULAAN BAATAR A dedicated space was set up in the capital and featured seven concentric circles, traced within a large square. In the centre of the smallest circle was a Zor, a kind of pyramid made from various sorts of grain or from flour, and on its peak was a skull. The ceremony started with the apparition of the Lingka, a sacrificial puppet made from a kind of dough and which was placed next to the Zor (the puppet replaced human ). The dances were commenced by two characters which represented skeletons and with typical skull-like masks: the Citipati. Their role was to extinguish all desire, which was considered to be the cause of reincarnation, by performing ritualistic gestures and by continuously repeating mantras.
Later they were joined by other characters like the Chaghan Ebugen, the old white man along with his eight children and some demons which, dancing along the circles, repelled curses directing them towards the Lingka.
(CHAGAN EBUGEN – URGA – early XX century)
(SHIVA mask – Choijin Lama museum – Ulaan Baatar)
Another character suddenly appears at this point: a lama with a deer mask (Shiva) which cut down the Lingka with a sword. It is interesting that the Lingka was made from a dough containing large quantities of yeast. The puppet’s middle would swell during the ceremony, making for a very visual and dramatic effect which was able to convince all those present that all manners of evil had effectively been conveyed into the Lingka. The location of the various actors was established in a very rigid manner. The inner-most circle was reserved for the ceremony’s master-lama, middle circle was for the demons, while the outer-most was paced by the Shanag or Black Berets, the only mask-less characters., which represented the very ancient Bon religion, tied to the shamanic cults.
The last character to appear on stage was Yama, God of the Underworld and supreme judge of the deceased and which the Mongolians call Erlig Khan. His mask was an Ox or Bull’s head with a lasso for capturing the souls in one hand, while in the other he had a skeleton. His appearance represented the height of the ceremony. Another detail which should be mentioned concerns the masks which represented the other divinities: without eye-holes. They were considered to be more than mere masks, they were the temporary dwelling of the gods while they were stationed on earth, and thus were honoured, when left unused, with special daily rituals. (YAMA mask – Choijin Lama museum – Ulaan Baatar)
INITIATION The training of a dancing monk was, and still is, lengthy and complex. First of all he must learn all the movements of the dance by heart, then he must understand the general meaning of the Tsam and lastly he must practice the specific forms of meditation associated with it. In an extremely complicated ritual the monk receives an initiation from his master who will grant him permission to execute the dance after having memorized the prayers and the visions relative to the various moves, movements and gestures. Only thanks to initiation will the dancer be able to perform the Tsam, and through this performance, come into contact with the very nature of the mind. Thus, it is possible to say, with a certain freedom of speech, that Tsam is a kind of “meditation in movement”. Through his actions, helped by the music, by the of (URGA – early XX century) Mantras, by the symbols conveyed by his costume, the dancer establishes a direct link with the divinity he his representing. And this bond is extremely strong. The dancer, in essence, “becomes” the divinity. He identifies with it completely and by means of the strength of this identification, he reaches a higher level of conscience. Generally the monk is able to choose freely if he wishes to set himself to studying and practicing Tsam. To be selected to take part in a Tsam is usually considered to be a privilege, since the dancers are expected to be imbued with special skills: a considerable ability to learn, a healthy and well-proportioned body, ready reflexes. Once he has been selected the monk must undergo a very complex training period. The elegance in body movements, the ability to maintain focus on the visions, the perfect control in the relationship between body-word-mind… these are all goals which the dancers achieve after many years. The state of balanced harmony which characterizes an expert dancer is the result of an effort which lasted for several years.
THE ESSENCE OF TSAM It would be admissible to wonder, and ask how much of the Tsam ritual farmers, breeders and nomads might understand. However, it is evident that most of the audience, no matter their level of religious understanding, is able to capture the essence of what the rituals mean. The people believe the dancers to more than simple monks, they identify them with the characters they portray, and associate them with the divinities which, through the celebration of Tsam, manifest themselves in the flesh in order to speak to the world of humans. All those who watch the ritual dances are able to perceive that, for the entire duration of Tsam, the separation between material and spiritual, human and divine, visible and invisible, is mysteriously abolished and the soil upon which the ritual is performed has become a space allowing for direct and explicit communication between the infinitely small (mankind and his every day life) and the immeasurably big (the world and the divinity). It is difficult, perhaps even impossible, to explain by words the mystical atmosphere generated by Tsam. An atmosphere where sophisticated elements of Buddhist psychology are able to communicate to the mass of gathered people which is attending the dances, and thus convey, thanks to this “medium”, the deep secrets and truth of Tantric Buddhism. To attend one of these performances can prove to be an extraordinary and very special experience. Even if most of the symbols employed by the dancers may result obscure and meaningless, you will feel involve nonetheless in the incredible richness of the language used by the dance. The strength of the message contained in the Tsam is such that it grossly sidesteps any limits established by lack of “literal” comprehension of its expressive codes. Those who attend these rituals, even when they do not possess the intellectual tools to understand move after move, step after step, exactly what story the dancers are telling, will nevertheless be touched by the flow of deep-set images which are being guided towards him. This is not a rational kind of communication, but rather a series of perception which move on a subliminal level and directly touch the spectator’s subconscious thanks to the universal power wielded by the symbols. THE MASKS During the last years of the XIX century and the first of the XX century, the most important monasteries of Urga (Ulaan Baatar) renovated the Tsam costumes and masks thanks to the intervention of the sculpture artist Puntsag Osor, who set measurements, colours and shapes in order to produce well-proportioned and expressive masks, able to convey in the best possible way the features behind each character. (These can be seen at the Choijin Lama Khiid and Zanabaar Museums in Ulaan Baatar).
Masks in Mongolia are constructed using the Paper Mache technique, as is done in Tibet. Wooden masks can be found in Sikkim or in Buthan, while they are in leather in the regions of Baikal. Each monastery expressed its own style: certain monasteries produced small masks, as large as a human head, which allowed the actors to see through the eye-holes. The ones from the Ikh Huree monastery were about twice as large as a head and sight was possible through the mouth. Furthermore, large masks represented divinities, while the smaller ones were for human characters. As for the Mongolian Tsam masks, it is not farfetched to say that these objects have reached an unprecedented level of refinement, exceptional size associated with expressions rarely achieved anywhere else.
CHAGAN (or TSAGAN) EBUGEN (Old White Man)
(TSAM DANCE – URGA – early XX century)
A well known Mongolian and Tibetan deity of protection. It originally represented the forefather of the various tribes and is considered as the protector of herds and crops. It is a god of fertility and also a symbol of longevity. an interesting fact: the Buryat people (a Mongolian ethnicity which practiced Christianity), identified him with St. Nicholas; on the other hand, the shamanic cult identified him as a kind of Pan, a spirit of nature. During the performances he a side role: he exits from the stage and limping along slowly, leaning on a walking stick and moves among the audience, expressing in silence his enthusiasm and participation for the show. His movements, his costume, and his expressions remind us of a Chinese character, Shoulao, the god of long life. His mask is a large bald head of an old man whose forehead is often adorned by an oversized wart. His skin is a light pinkish colour and his face is framed by a long white beard. His clothes include a very simple long white tunic. His waist is clasped by a belt sporting the typical knife of the Mongolian nomadic horsemen and attached by a small chain to
a tobacco bag and a flint. He caries a rosary (mala) around his neck, featuring huge grains and leans upon a pilgrims staff, which ends with a dragon’s head (most probably a remainder of his ancient shamanic origins). People are eager to be touched by his staff, in order to obtain long life. Often, during the festivities, he will pass out sweets or tobacco to the children. His movements are like those of an old man, slow and suffering.
KHOKHIMOI (Lord of the graveyards) This couple of masks originated in the ancient shamanic performances. According to a Tibetan legend, this would be a couple, husband and wife, who in a previous life had chosen an ascetic life and were subsequently killed and skinned by assassins while they were meditating. It is commonly believed that these creatures reach the earth through the fire wisps and that their permanence is bound to these, as they slowly die out. Their function during the performance is to remind everyone and to help people to deal with the fact that death is something from which we cannot escape.
The mask is a huge white skull which may have an open mouth, or show its bared teeth. It almost always has an orb normally occupied by the third eye in the middle of his forehead. Its costume is a tight jacket and white trousers with black or red stripes. In his right hand he carries a staff featuring a skull, whose purpose is to scare off crows and evil spirits. Differently from the staff of the old man, to be touched by this staff means to shorten your life on this earth. One of their effective functions was to keep the audience away from the stage area. The dance executing small circular motions, alternating the steps with their feet.
ERLIG KHAAN or YAMA (God of the Dead) This figure has been taken from the pantheon of Indian deities. It is not a mistake to compare this character with the Hades, the Greek god of the underworld, or with the Egyptian god Horus. It is the emblematic example of “terrible god”. He is accompanied by Lhamo, the queen of the dead, which, according to the occasion, can be either Yama’s wife or mother. It is considered to be the most important mask in the Tsam performances. As a matter of fact his role is assigned only to those monks who have shown particular signs of integrity and spiritual purity. The mask is a giant bull’s head featuring two large horns with golden tips (the five skulls represent victory on the five elements of the world). Behind the crown is a kind of fiery halo which symbolizes the victory of knowledge on ignorance. Ever-present is the third eye in the middle of the forehead. His costume is particularly rich and complex; dark blue is the main colour both in the mask and in the costume, in order to convey a sense of threatening graveness. His vests were completed by rich gold and silver ornaments, while his chest features a golden Dharma wheel or a silver mirror, the latter reminding the audience to judge their own conscience. In one hand he carries a magic club in the shape of a child’s skeleton, while in the other he carries a kapala (a bowl made from the a human cranium). His movements are very slow and carefully measured.
(TSAM DANCE – URGA – early XX
DSHAMRANG or JAMSRANG (God of War)
(TSAM DANCE – URGA – early XX century)
He too belongs to the group of “terrible gods” but, conversely from the others, he does not have a counterpart among the Indian deities, so it is believed that his origins are to be found pre-Buddhist Mongolia. He seeks to sacrifice those humans who do not keep to their oaths. During the performance he is followed by minor characters called the “knife bearers”. Before the rise of Buddhism, he was probably the receiver of human sacrifice. The mask features a very intense dark red colour, encrusted with red coral. The colour is intended to symbolize a power and a strength to which one must kneel. This masks also carries the five skull crown and the third eye in the middle of the forehead. The mouth is open and shows long, sharp teeth. The costume, in itself very rich and complex, was sometimes covered with a warriors golden hauberk. In one hand he holds a sword for destroying evil and “eradicate” ignorance, while in the other he carries a human heart or a precious gem able to grant any wish. His movements are slow and measured.
SHIVA (The Deer) He is the servant of Yama and of the Prince of the Demons (Mahakala) It is probably one of the most ancient ritual mask of them all, and its origin possibly hearkens back to prehistoric times. At the beginning of civilization, both the deer and the bull were masks used to celebrate the ceremonies celebrating the summer solstice, when a new life cycle began with the returning of the light. In many religions of the northern hemisphere the deer is still a symbol of the reawakening of life and light. Deer and bulls are among the main characters in fertility rituals which originated in prehistoric times. An example of this can be found in the Lascaux Caves in the Perigord region (France). The deer is associated with the symbols of fertility, to the point that even today the antlers of the strongest animals are cut and pulverized in order to be sold on the Chinese market as a powerful aphrodisiac. In Mongolia deer antlers are used by the shamans during rituals for guaranteeing that a herd will be able to breed healthily, and they usually adorn their headdress during the dances accompanied by sacred drums. The Tsam deer masks keeps true to the natural colour of the animal, and thus uses dotted browns and greys. The mask, during the more important ceremonies can also feature the skull crown, while the many-pointed antlers can carry jewels and long leather strips. The dance follows a wild and frantic rhythm, in search of ecstasy.
GONGOR It is a kind of protecting saint which is assigned with the duty of keeping away poverty and misery from the people. The mask is a light base colour, white like his costume, and this reminds of the colour associated with peace and goodness. There is a variation on this theme: NAMSRAI, whose face and vests are golden. Gongor’s mask has a five emblem crown and the ferocious expression of the “terrible gods�. He has an open mouth with sharp pointy teeth. He also features the third eye in the middle of his forehead. In his hands he keeps a precious stone which grants wishes and a vessel holding the water of immortality.
NAMSRAI or BISMAN TENGRI This is the god of Abundance and derives from the Indian god Kubera. His colours are yellow, gold and dark red; he carries a crown with the five golden emblems. His costumes is richly decorated with gold trimmings and jewels. In one hand he holds the Ichneumon (symbol of abundance) out of which jewels are spewing, while in the other he carries a jewel which is able to grant wishes. He dances slowly around a chest and bestowing blessings.
BAR (The Tiger) This deity is honoured and feared in the entire South-East Asia area. In Tibet it is considered to be an extremely powerful deity who lives under the surface of the earth guarding an immense treasure. During Tsam performances he appears to be one of Yama’s servants, and his appearances are quite rare.
SENDOM (The Lion) He is one of Lhamo’s servants and he originated in India as Simhavaktra (the being who walks on air). In the ancient world it was considered to be a female mask, a kind of sorceress who offered her services to the lama. The mask can be either white or blue, with a greenturquoise mane, a three or five skull crown and his very characteristic open nostrils. He is dressed in red, carries a sword and a kapala or serpent. His dance moves are very fast. BUKH (Ox) and MAKHI (Bull/Ox) A servant to Yama. The mask is either blue or black. His costume is blue with different colour ornaments. In one hand he holds a magic club, while in the other he holds a small miniature blue model of an ox. His dance moves are vey fast.
KHANGARD or GARUDA (Bird) He derives from a Indian and Tibetan deity who is identified as being the enemy of the serpent god Naga. He easily entered the pantheon of Mongolian deities, since he was tightly bound to the Sky which the ancient Mongolians honoured since pre-Buddhist times. According to common Mongolian (and Tibetan) beliefs, he is the protector of the mountains. And he is considered to be the protector of the mountains surrounding Ulaan Baatar and the capital itself. The mask is reminiscent of an eagle’s head with a cock’s crest and two horns. He may also carry a serpent in its beak or in his hand. In the other hand he holds a belt.
(TSAM DANCE – URGA – early XX century)
MAHAKALA or GOMBO He is an emblematic figure of the Pantheon of Tsam deities. He is the Prince of the Demons, the Lord who controls disasters and calamities. He is the protector of faith and represents the tremendous effort needed to defeat evil. In Sanskrit his name means “the Big Black”, and his colour, black or dark blue, reflects his ability to absorb and dissolve everything. Originally, he was a demon, who was then tamed by
Avalokitesvara (Buddha of Compassion). He carries the five skull crown in order to transform the five vices (anger, lust, ignorance, jealousy, pride) into five virtues. He can hold the kartika to cut down the ego, a kapala containing the blood of his enemies, a damaru (an hourglass shaped drum) used for waking men from ignorance. He carries a mala around his neck made from skulls and can use a trident whose blades represent the three jewels of Buddhism; lastly the noose to re-capture those who have not kept their vows or those who wandered away from the path of Dharma. His costume is dark with green, pink and gold ornaments; his movements are very particular: the dance starts off very slowly, with open arms and raising his right foot, then he lets his mask fall forward and slowly turns around. Later, the rhythm speeds up to the point that, in order to sustain the effort, this role is assigned only to the best dancers.