WUPR Issue 22.3: Tourism

POLITICAL REVIEW | NATIONAL

Washington University

POLITICAL REVIEW 22.3 | May 2015 | wupr.org

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TOURISM

A Tale of a Lot of Cities Serena Lekawa

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São Paulo and the 2016 Summer Olympics

Editors-in-Chief:

Joy Chiang

Aryeh Mellman

How Breaking News is Breaking News

Executive Director:

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History for Tourists

Staff Editors: 22

“Stranger Danger” and the Sharing Economy

Higher Stakes Demand Better Safeguards of Defendant Rights

Joe Lenoff

Alex Weil

Rachel Butler

Caitlin Lee

NATIONAL

Cuba: Where Tourism Meets Socialism Rachel Butler

Confronting our Guillotines Benjamin Szanton

Features Editor: Grace Portelance

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Corporate Imperialism Samuel Leiter

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Nahuel Fefer Sonya Schoenberger

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Hannah Waldman

Samuel Klein

Gabriel Rubin

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Billie Mandelbaum

American Students Abroad Simin Lim

INTERNATIONAL

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Director of Design:

Voluntourism: More Harm than Good?

Andrew Kay

Daniel Knudsen

Assistant Directors of Design: Nikolai Laba

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The Past and Future of Militourism

Ezekiel Saucedo Alicia Yang

Aaron Christensen

Director of New Media: 18

“Hijab Tourism” and the Cultural Appropriation of Dress in America

Ari Moses

Rachel Sumption

Managing Web Editors: Henry Kopesky Aaron Christensen

Finance Director: Alex Beaulieu

Cover Spread: Yuwei Qiu

Theme Spread: Andrew Kay

Dear Reader, Following in the footsteps of Hillary Clinton, Marco Rubio, and Rand Paul, we would like to introduce ourselves to America.

We are Aryeh Mellman and Billie Mandelbaum, WUPR’s new Editors-in-Chief.

We’ve both been longtime members of WUPR and have held several different editorial positions. We hope to bring this knowledge to bear in continuing to produce a magazine composed of thought-provoking and informative content.

To riff on Hillary Clinton’s recent campaign announcement video: everyday Wash U. students need a champion, and we want to be those champions.

When selecting the theme for our first issue, we wanted to compile an issue that was both relevant to students and salient in current events. To that end, we chose tourism.

As the school year draws to a close, some students will return from their time abroad, while others will spend their summers traveling to foreign countries.

Although we tend to treat such travel as routine, tourism entails more than just a plane ticket and a camera. When we step into another country and culture, we bring with us both the physical and metaphorical baggage that comes with being a foreigner.

In this issue, our writers explore the topic of tourism from multiple angles. In her article about “hijab tourism,” Rachel Sumption writes about the appropriation of Islamic culture that arises when non-Muslim women choose to veil themselves.

Serena Lekawa discusses the way in which local cultures are affected by tourism. Detailing the long history of “militourism,” Aaron Christensen explicates how ISIS hopes to exploit the controversial phenomenon. In addition to written content, our outstanding design team has created visually-compelling infographics and illustrations to complement our writers’ work.

We wish the class of 2015 (and especially our beloved predecessors Gabriel T. Rubin and Sonya A. Schoenberger) the best of luck with their future endeavors.

To those returning in the fall, we hope you have a restful summer, and we look forward to generating political interest and facilitating meaningful dialogue over the coming year.

Bon Voyage!

Billie Mandelbaum and Aryeh Mellman Editors-in-chief

TOURISM

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POLITICAL REVIEW | TOURISM

POLITICAL REVIEW | TOURISM

A TALE OF A LOT OF CITIES: ECONOMY, CAPITAL, AND CURRENCIES OF SELF

simply commands frequent popularity turnover,

Serena Lekawa | Illustration by Alex Chiu

W

however, remains unclear.

Something happened last weekend, and it

hen in Rome, we do as the Romans

A certain intentionality seems clear among

do. It is common knowledge that

travelers. That is, they want to be somehow

Romans parade around their city with

affected: enlightened, relaxed, rejuvenated,

Chips in pub windows.

hand and melting gelato in the other, searching

to recognize that their bearing-of-witness does

for that one café next to the church from the Da

not take place in a sociopolitical void. How,

Vinci Code—the one the locals go to. Tourist

then, have cultures worldwide been themselves

locals, given we properly “immerse” ourselves

Where there’s an economy, there’s capital. But who stands to gain, and how?

system)? Or are we just ‘localized tourists’—

our afternoon Vatican tour—another regular pastime of your typical Roman. Wow. Wasn’t that great? Can you believe our tour guide met James Cameron? What’s next? Limoncello and Bolognese followed by a nighttime Segway tour of the Forum? Ready troops? Let’s go!

FIRE IN THE HOLE! There’s something nostalgic about this scene —a millennial’s take on family travel a la the 1985 film European Vacation. However, while my family’s trip to Italy certainly evokes something of the “classic” image of tourists most of us recognize, a globalizing world changes the way we try to experience it.

Moreover, “the world” (i.e., the world as a

affected by tourism?

patchwork of cultural hotspots and tourist

Over time, and especially in wake of rapid

industries) responds in turn.

modernization, the tourism industry has become

The tourism industry today has precursors in European Grand Tours and the “educational journeys” of the Enlightenment, and took a more familiar shape with the rise of middle-class mobility and a growing interest in leisure in the 1960s.

In his paper “The History of Tourism: Structures on the Path to Modernity,” Dr. Ueli Gyr of the Institute of Popular Culture at the University of Zurich attributes the commercialization of

a vitally important source of revenue in countries worldwide. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council’s 2015 annual update, travel

went to the grocery store, cooked dinner, and

Grand Tours of old—bestows a peculiarly liminal

invigorated, cultured. However, it’s important

according to schedule, we’ll be right on time for

p.m., watched Netflix, and did homework. I

“Study Abroad”—perhaps a modern take on the

the iPad edition of Fodor’s Travel Guide in one

joints rip you off, everyone knows that. If all goes

was at once great and terrible: I woke up at 12

ate it without taking a picture first. Well, have

identity on its participants. Are we tourists? Are

I done it? Have I escaped London’s evil-twin

we locals? Are we students-turned-honorary-

tourist void and entered the mindscape of a real Londoner? Or have I simply become the worst

(or at least figure out the public transport

embodiment of my stagnating travel blog?

It’s hard to say what’s worth more, and where

lucky brats inflating our CVs and Instagrams

it’s worth more. Is one form of identity more

while natives of our host country roll their eyes?

valuable as personality currency back home

Furthermore, does it even matter?

versus here in London?

Honestly, it might not. But it is interesting. As

It’s equally difficult to understand the broader

study abroad students, our commonplace,

ramifications of this changing self-projection,

understatedly bizarre presence makes us ideal

focused more on telling people in the future

lab rats, in that we tend to cash in “tourist

about where they’ve traveled to in the past.

capital” like no one else. What’s more, we do it

There is definite potential here to change the

for 6 months straight—and then pretty much

way tourist economies receive travelers in

forever more. Who knows, if Facebook’s not obsolete by then maybe I’ll back-stalk “the

go to Camden Lock Market, because it will be

I won’t lie: I’ve Instagrammed, Facebooked,

abroad album” and show it to my grandkids.

WAY crowded with tourists.

and blogged my fair share of market lunches,

The thing is, where there’s an economy, there’s

Study-Abroad kids may deal in extremes, but

capital. But who stands to gain, and how? The

these spoils of travel, material and otherwise, are

revenue from tourist economies may come back

found among all kinds of modern globe trekkers.

in cash to those in their respective country’s (or

Can destination landscapes and the economies

state’s, or town’s) industry. But in this case there

that depend on them keep up? Does the process

is another form of “capital” to be made, and

required wrest away the city’s soul, rendering it

tourists are the ones cashing in.

a docile, navigable, shadow of its history? Or is it split into “authentic local” and “non-authentic

tourist “capital” would help predict them.

newfound vague Euro-coolness, spontaneity,

Well, what can I do now—forsake my American

and a temporary free-spirited lack of concern

accent and limit my outings to grocery stores and

for my figure. I mean I had to get an ice cream,

chain cafes? Or should I own it: buy a figurine of

we just, like, got lost on this random street and

a double-decker, and take a photo with the guy in

found the cutest hole-in-the-wall spot. We

the red coat and big black furry hat?

are totally friends with the guy there now,

tourist” divisions? After all, my British flatmates

of worldliness as prestige. As mentioned

What’s more, the summary reported that 123

recommended I visit Borough Market and the

earlier, the practice born of parading wealthy

of the researched countries, including Greece,

South Kensington Museums—and yet they’ve

So what exactly does this phenomenon

child-adults around Europe in the name of

never been themselves. Past a certain point,

mean for the industry? If roving millennials

But if you have a nice camera (or a quasi-new

Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Turkey, saw their Direct

proper Western education remains one for the

these may become one and the same, and

are more interested in city “secrets” than

iPhone), you can zoom in pretty dang close. And

Travel and Tourism GDP surpass that of their

financially comfortable. But as globalization,

“authenticity” may be a moot point all together.

venerated guidebook classics, marketing

no one will know the difference.

wider economy.

technology, and social media expand, how do

To get a little existential (and I think the best and

may swing more heavily towards Buzzfeed-

we measure “tourist capital” today? The number

most tragic documenters of travel are): If it’s in

style advertisements of the “Top 12 Quirkiest

of pictures we post, locations we check into, or

front of us, who is to say it isn’t “real”?

Brunches in London” than the tried and true

of a nation’s economy leaves its mark on

mentality to Thomas Cook, the inventor of the

the social, cultural, and physical texture of a

“all-inclusive holiday.”

country’s experience for travelers and locals

Or perhaps it’s something less visual, but equally

alike. Tourists are spenders who know what they

travel with the distinct intention of happening

tangible: the stories we come back with, the

want, and locals who stand to profit will gladly

upon “hidden gems,”a fortuitous inevitability

advice we’re eager to give—which dorm is best,

install half-luggage trollies in brick walls labeled

given their expert sense of wanderlust and

which bar is the perfect middle ground between

“Platform 9 3/4 ,” or advertise real BRITISH Fish &

proclivity to document.

cheap and grimy, and which days to totally NOT

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have thresholds, maybe recognizing flows of

Of course, there’s nothing new in the idea

of my own father’s vacation boot-camp

whether to learn, lounge, or simply enjoy.

blurry cathedral in the background speaks to my

elements of place. If these economies indeed

GDP in 2014, and created 105 million jobs.

It’s almost a given that such a significant part

have ventured to experience the wider world—

Chocolate chips look better in sharp HD, and the

themselves in both physical and imaginary

and tourism contributed $2.4 trillion to world

tourism and the birth of itineraries reminiscent

For centuries, people (of particular means)

funky dinners, and food-porn-worthy desserts.

the present moment. Such changes manifest

the wear on our selfie-stick handles?

It often seems that new-age social media junkies

let’s make that our place.

Well let me tell you something—they don’t let you get that close anymore.

English Breakfast Establishment. Although, making this hypothetical list could be an ironic kiss of death for the “quirk” factor. Can a gem still be “hidden” if it’s all over the Internet? More importantly, can it still be a “gem” if it’s no longer hidden? Whether this compels tourist-seeking establishments to manufacture secrecy, or

Serena Lekawa is a junior in the College of Arts & Sciences. She can be reached at slekawa@wustl.edu.

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POLITICAL REVIEW | TOURISM

POLITICAL REVIEW | TOURISM

AMERICAN STUDENTS ABROAD Infographic by Simin Lim

IN 2012/2013

289,408 48.3%

HISTORY FOR TOURISTS T Gabriel Rubin

The top 5 leading desinations for U.S. students to study abroad were: United Kingdom, Italy, Spain, France, and China U.S. students studied abroad for academic credit

he designers of the Tennessee

the economy, the modernization brought about

the history of its partisan resistance instead

Bicentennial Mall State Park had an

by the Tennessee Valley Authority, the sacrifices

of dwelling on the fact that many Nazi death

unenviable job. Located in thriving

made by Tennesseans in foreign wars). But

camps lie in plain view just outside the country’s

downtown Nashville, the park seems distantly

they nonetheless all point toward a narrative of

major cities. It’s why Mexico emphasizes the

removed from the darker aspects of Tennessee’s

progress—shining downtown Nashville is only

rich cultural heritage of the Aztecs and Mayans

history. On a cloudy Monday in March, most of

steps away. Such a narrative implies that these

while distancing their national myth from the

the visitors were more focused on the food they

sacrifices were necessary for Tennessee

enslavement and genocide of those populations.

bought at the nearby farmers’ market than on

to become what it is today.

the granite timeline of Tennessee history located

of the Wash U student body had studied abroad at some point during their undergraduate career

in the park. While Nashville’s popularity seems to be at an all-time high, the ways in which the city and the state of Tennessee deal with their history of enslavement show a dangerous tendency towards erasure of past crimes. As a younger, more progressive generation flocks to the city, state-sanctioned revisionism promotes a distorted and sanitized narrative that fools the public about Tennessee’s true history.

The leading fields of study among U.S. students abroad include STEM subjects (23%), social sciences (22%), and business (20%).

The timeline’s designers knew that Tennessee’s history (and U.S. history more generally) privileges white landowners, and they made

3%

studied abroad for an academic year

a conscious effort to include information about marginalized groups like AfricanAmericans, women, and Native Americans.

favor of small tidbits of progress or more minor admonishments of the ruling class. The contrast between two nearby items is telling: the first

U.S. study abroad students studied for a summer team or a period of eight weeks or less.

notes that the Tennessee Constitution of 1834 “continued to deny suffrage and took away free African-American male voting rights.” The second, a few feet away, informs the visitor

37%

studied abroad for one quarter or a semester

that by 1836 “Tennessee became a leading agricultural state,”—failing to mention that this

proudly notes that Rosa Parks “studied civil disobedience” at a “folk school” in 1932. Any mention of racist violence—like riots trying to

commentary. But civic architecture and staterun museums and memorials play a key role in

Americans, slavery, restriction of women’s rights) and the “good” history (the growth of

choose to include (or find it unavoidable not to include) the more tragic elements of that history. Where history is mentioned, it will almost always point towards a larger narrative of progress. The people were able to overcome tragedy, oppressive systems became extinct, and marginalized groups joined the fabric of society. But when Tennessee celebrates its tercentennial in 2096, will it publicly remember that in 2013 African-Americans were over three times as likely to live in poverty as white Tennesseans? Or that due to centuries of recognized Native American tribes in Tennessee today? Unlikely. If the status quo is any indicator of the future, we can safely assume that state narratives will continue to privilege narratives of progress over the ugly truths of history.

Guard and paved the way for further progress.

of state history in a blurb close-by.

show the “bad” history (expulsion of Native

in charge of writing that history, they may

that the violence was stopped by the National

granite timeline for insightful historical

of conflicting motivations, seeking at once to

preferable to “bad.” When state entities are

accompanied by a note that assures the visitor

had already referred to another negative aspect

history of the state. The park is a hodgepodge

importance. “Good” history is obviously

prevent the de-segregation of public schools—is

Of course, no one should rely on a park’s

cannot properly reflect the bloody, oppressive

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its depiction of events of the past century. It

mentioned in this item, because the designers

that celebrates the bicentennial of Tennessee

Data from the Institute of International Education’s 2014 Open Doors report

Indeed, the timeline’s tone notably shifts in

was made possible by slave labor. Slavery is not

Spatially, the aesthetics of a timeline in a park

the culture, climate, affordability, and historical

expulsion and genocide, there are no federally-

But, in doing so, they effectively glossed over the systematic oppression of these groups in

60%

The story that Tennessee tells about itself indicates how much it wants to engage with its history and the contemporary effects of that history.

Tourists are drawn to destinations because of

the development and preservation of collective memory. The story that Tennessee tells about itself indicates how much it wants to engage with its history and the contemporary effects of that history.

Cities, states, and countries that rely heavily on tourism have an incentive to represent their history in a way that portrays them in the most favorable light possible. This is why Poland

Gabriel Rubin is a senior in the College of Arts & Sciences. He can be reached at grubin@wustl.edu.

invests so much time and energy rehabilitating

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POLITICAL REVIEW | TOURISM

POLITICAL REVIEW | TOURISM

“STRANGER DANGER” AND THE SHARING ECONOMY Caitlin Lee

M

y kindergarten years were ripe with

At TEDGlobal2012, Rachel Botsman, a

the consumer wants. Today’s traveler despises

service that connects hosts and guests that

ID” consists of connecting any other online

an actual system in place that oversees and

wisdom. In between naps and snack

former director at the Clinton Foundation,

the term “tourist,” equating it with “Rick Steves

have never met before, seems contradictory

profile (Facebook, Google, or even LinkedIn

conducts thorough checks on drivers. The

time, I learned two valuable lessons:

reflected on the magic of collaborative

worshipping, directionally challenged, culturally

given many of the negative connotations

account) to your Airbnb account. There is

NYC Taxi & Limousine Commission’s website

1) Share with others and 2) Don’t trust

consumption. This idea takes our innate

deficient ignoramus.” They are not tourists;

and lack of trust associated with Craigslist, a

nothing mentioned about confirming the

clearly states the steps that potential drivers

strangers. I picked up the idea of sharing quite

desire to create meaningful connections and

they are travelers, humbly seeking “off-the-

website that has been around for twenty years.

validity of a user’s answers, government-issued

must pass before becoming certified. These

easily. The concept of strangers was equally

empowers us to do so. Thus, collaborative

beaten-path” experiences. That is why for

Despite the successful number of used cars

ID, or additional online profile. The “Host

include a drug test, fingerprinting, a criminal

simple –don’t help strangers find their cat, let

consumption evokes empowerment as both

our generation, a $180 one-night stay booked

purchased through the site, the darker side of

Guarantee” does not guarantee that your host

background check, a defensive driving class,

them into your house, or go inside their car.

consumers and humans.

through Airbnb is more than just living quarters

Craigslist does exist. Since 2009, 45 murders

has undergone an extensive background check.

and a sex trafficking awareness course. Drivers

Simply put, sharing is good and strangers are

(bed, bathroom, kitchen). It’s the added bonus

have been facilitated through the site. Notions

Instead, it guarantees the host that Airbnb will

hired through Uber and Lyft undergo poorly-

bad. Fifteen years later, I didn’t expect that these

of immersing oneself in a

about “stranger danger” are not outdated.

cover any property damages in the off chance

conducted third-party background checks that

new neighborhood, conversing with the

This is an issue that has been overshadowed

that it occurs. It took me a matter of two

do not run through police or FBI databases and

local hosts, maybe even experiencing some

by our society’s eagerness to connect on both

minutes to become a certified Airbnb host with

often do not require fingerprints.

authentic meals.

a global and local scale.

a verified ID. All it took was a Facebook profile

Airbnb’s recent updates show that they are

Collaborative infrastructure necessitates

making a concerted effort to encourage

more regulation – or at least some regulation-

interaction between strangers. In January, they

given its current absence for Airbnb. The “trust

launched their One Less Stranger campaign,

and safety” section of Airbnb’s website seems

which gives $10 to 100,000 Airbnb users

to go for the minimalistic look, especially in

values, concepts, doctrines—whatever one might label them—would be confronted and challenged in the adult world.

The advent of new technologies, new social networks, and new ways of doing things create internal conflicts in what we once believed to be fundamentally true and what is now accepted as the norm. A tech startup, Airbnb, might be one of the least likely forces to fuel this internal conflict. Yet they are

Travel today has been redefined by the sense of authentic and local experiences. When we explore new areas, we no longer want to be the tourist.

and a phone number so that I could receive their confirmation text. The official jargon coolly posted onto their website cultivates a sense of safety. Upon closer inspection, they are nothing but empty promises.

empowerment, and local travel experiences.

us to connect while traveling. Travel today has

stranger-turned-good-

The idea of sharing essentially defines Airbnb’s

been redefined by the sense of authentic and

friend Geo sound? Sounds like a recipe for

business model. With Airbnb, one can rent

local experiences. When we explore new areas,

meaningful experiences.

out their living arrangements to prospective

we no longer want to be the tourist. The term

guests on the Internet. Unless one considers

doesn’t fully encompass travellers’ intentions

As a young female who loves traveling and

regards to its content. They mention that they

We can look to Uber – not as a model of what’s

it possible to “get to know” someone through

to immerse themselves in the authentic culture

“[do] not routinely perform background checks

right with regard to safety and regulation, but

online reviews and ratings, both parties are

among the local people. The term isn’t good

on [their] users,” and list several features that

what is wrong. Within the past year, there

complete strangers.

enough. As a seven year old startup, Airbnb

build trust, including a “secure messaging

have been many allegations of Uber drivers

system, user reviews, the Host Guarantee,

assaulting, kidnapping, sexually harassing or

and Verified ID.” These measures might

raping passengers in Chicago, Philadelphia,

impress the general public; they’re already

New Delhi, Boston, and San Francisco. With

booking that “original Mongolian yurt” in

the “barely-there” regulation that governs Uber,

Dresden, Germany. But for someone who

these incidents are sadly not too shocking. The

wants more information, what will they find?

New Yorker reported that at the SXSW music

Essentially, “Verified ID” means that the Airbnb

festival in March 2013, Uber recruited drivers

user has uploaded any government-issued ID,

through Craigslist.

notions of “stranger danger” and sharing at

Airbnb embodies but one example in “the sharing economy.” This sharing economy cultivates a socio-economic system in which people can share either human or physical

then post their story on social media. Lucky strangers have been recipients of vintage motorcycle jackets and ice cream. Similar to EatWith, Airbnb has launched a pilot program in which homeowners can host meals for groups of strangers. How does a locally-

odds with each other; and for no other reason

already represents up to 17.2 percent of hotel room supply in New York and 11.9 percent in Paris. The company has surpassed the Hilton, the InterContinental, and Marriott in the number of rooms it

makes a conscious effort to avoid tourist traps, Airbnb sounds like the answer to my aspirational post-grad wanderlust. Yet, stranger-danger messages nag in the back of my head. A 2014 Gallup study reported that “37% of adults do not feel safe walking alone at night.” This percentage was slightly higher for females. How do we reconcile this with the fact

offers globally.

that Airbnb, a company that essentially puts

economy, providing a means of communication

Entrepreneurial hospitality apps are catching

worth over $13 billion and has over 10 million

for services like Uber, Lyft, and TaskRabbit. We

on to this idea of “local experiences.” The app

guests and 1 million properties listed? Where

can also look at Airbnb as fitting into this idea

EatWith allows travelers to experience culture

does this trust come from when people are

of “collaborative consumption,” in which people

by sharing meals prepared locals’ homes.

scared to walk in the familiarity of their own

receive the benefits of ownership with reduced

Travel tours pride themselves on their ability to

neighborhood, let alone a foreign one?

personal burdens and costs.

offer local guides, local hotspots,

resources in mutually profitable enterprise.

Technology is a key component of the sharing

and local tastes because they know that’s what

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can do for us. With Airbnb, technology has empowered us to make meaningful to trust.

sourced, Jamaican-inspired brunch cooked by

view strangers. Airbnb puts our preconceived

easily get lost in the idea of what technology

spend that money on a complete stranger and

More than a place to stay, Airbnb empowers

have reshaped how we’ve been taught to

our society into an idealistic world. We

connections. Lost in this idea, we become quick

than to provide meaningful connections,

have not only revolutionized travel, but also

the sharing economy simplify and generalize

around the world. Users are encouraged to

With Airbnb, it’s the idea that as travelers, we are empowered to make meaningful connections through our own humanity.

Lost in this idea, we become quick to trust.

actually one of the most powerful, as they

The advent of innovation and the explosion of

strangers in other strangers’ homes, is now

Our society’s quick acceptance of Airbnb, a

Yet tragically, as much as the sharing economy and the tech world want to believe we’ve outgrown “stranger danger,” this issue hasn’t gone away. Aside from a few minor blemishes, Airbnb has a pretty clean record as of now.

But given countless incidents related to Craigslist and Uber, how much longer can Airbnb go with their current lack of regulation and safety measures? This isn’t an issue that we should simply wait out, in anticipation of

such as a driver’s license or passport. Keep in mind, that this can be bypassed if one so chooses, simply by answering a couple

something more consequential than stolen jewelry or damaged family heirlooms. The sharing economy isn’t an isolated bubble.

Unfortunately, it’s situated in an environment full of uncontrollable variables that require regulation. It’s a senseless thing to ideate, create, and participate in the innovative shared economy when the infrastructure for such a system cannot ensure the safety of travelers, individuals, and communities.

Recruited drivers were then immediately launched into a 40-minute orientation followed

questions about yourself instead.

by a brief background check, with little regard

The second step in achieving this “Verified

companies have issues of their own, there is

for their qualifications. While regulated taxi

Caitlin Lee is a junior in the Olin Business School. She can be reached at caitlinlee@wustl.edu.

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POLITICAL REVIEW | TOURISM

POLITICAL REVIEW | TOURISM

CUBA: WHERE TOURISM MEETS SOCIALISM Rachel Butler | Photographs by Rachel Butler

“

S

OCIALISMO O MUERTE,” reads a

on a seperate currency from the general

Beyond working as waiters, there are myriad

section of walling in large red letters

economy; the currency of that economy, the

other ways in which Cubans work for tourists.

along the main road leading from the

Cuban Convertible Peso (CUC), is set at par with

There are often musicians playing not just on the

José Martí International Airport into the city

the US dollar, and thus is much more valuable.

streets but in restaurants and tourist attractions

of Havana. Declarations such as these pepper

The only way to obtain CUCs is through tourists.

like musuems or hotels, and they are often not

the city’s roads and walls, visible reminders of

Other Cubans are paid in nonconvertible Cuban

hired by anyone but work solely for tips. Then

the Cuban government’s official ideology. And

pesos, worth about 1/25 of a dollar.

there are people who will salsa dance or rumba

yet, my experience as a tourist in Cuba showed me that often, in order to truly live Cubans have to work beyond the bounds of their

In effect, most people in Cuba are working for tips: we met waiters at restaurants who

socialist society.

worked as doctors by day, but lived off the

Twelve WashU students, two professors, and I

salary that a doctor might make is equivalent to

traveled to Cuba over spring break through the

approximately $67 per month, still not enough

College of Arts & Science’s FOCUS program.

to live comfortably. To make things even more

money they made through tips. The highest

For the entire academic year, Professors Joseph Schraibman and Elzbieta Sklowdowska taught us about Cuba’s culture and history, “from colonialism to communism.” We learned about the reign of dictator Fulgencio Batista and his close ties to the United States, about the Socialist Revolution led by Fidel Castro, the

with tourists, and also ask for tips. There are also people who work in restrooms in almost every tourist establishment, handing you toilet paper and squeezing soap onto your hands at the sink in exchange for a few pesos. At one rest stop our bus let us off at on a long trip out of Havana, there was no running water, and we paid a man to manually flush the toilet.

Does the fact that tourists continue to flock to the country, now more than ever, help to substantiate Cuba’s repressive laws rather than force them to change?

creation of the US Embargo, and the subsequent fall of the economy and rise of ideological

difficult for the waiters, Cubans can’t afford to

A more troubling aspect of this need for work

repression on the island.

eat at almost any of the restaurants that tourists

outside of daytime jobs is the proliferation of sex

frequent. Our group was often the only one

tourism in Cuba. When our class went out to

eating at these restaurants. A typical meal that

bars and discoteques, the only women we saw

we ate on the trip cost about $10 per person—

besides other tourists were prostitutes. They

more than half a month’s salary for the average

cater to foreigners at these nightclubs, often set

Cuban. There are very few restaurants, stores,

up solely for tourism, in order to earn a living.

However, nothing we had learned in class prepared me for the experience of being a tourist in Cuba. The most striking aspect of the experience was the inequality between inhabitants of the island and visitors like me.

Among the island’s permanent residents, income inequality is relatively low, with roughly 80 percent of Cubans working in the

or other businesses that cater to the means of Cuban citizens, since by far the most money comes from tourists.

To make things even more difficult for Cubans attempting to earn a living through tourism, the industry itself is still frowned upon by the Cuban

public sector and being paid highly regulated

Beyond the shortage of actual currency in the

government. Until 1997, any contact between

government salaries. Even those working in the

country, simply finding enough food is an issue

Cubans and tourists was de facto outlawed,

private sector recieve their payment through

for many Cubans. Citizens of Cuba receive

and police still often demand identification

the government, as any company that hires a

monthly food rations, consisting of a few pounds

checks of any Cubans seen in contact with

Cuban must pay the government which in turn

of rice, beans, and sugar, some potatoes or

tourists, while tourist identification is almost

pays that employee. The average monthly wage

plantains, and occasionally a dozen eggs and

never checked. Many hotels and services were

in Cuba is 471 Cuban pesos per month, which

meat, though those rations are less reliable.

restricted solely for tourist use by law until

amounts to only 19 US dollars—less than one

Adults are not given milk rations since there are

2008, leading many Cubans to apply the phrase

dollar per day. During my visit, I carried more

so few cows in Cuba—only children under the

“tourism apartheid” to the industry. Since

money in my pocket than the average Cuban

age of 7 receive milk. It’s a crime to slaughter

the government needed foreign currency so

makes in a month.

a cow in Cuba, punishable by up to 10 years in

much, tourists were segregated from much of

prison. All the beef that we were served in the

Cuban society in private enclave resorts where

country had to be imported from other countries

Cubans were not permitted to venture. Though

for the benefit of those who could afford it—

Raúl Castro officially ended these policies in

primarily tourists.

2008, Cubans remain de facto barred from

In order to make enough money to get by, almost all Cubans have to find additional means beyond their official jobs. Many of these involve tourists. In Cuba, the tourist economy operates

10

these establishments, as the vast majority of

Cubans do not have access to the kind of money

friends and acquaintances in the country. These

sailboats or boat cruises are available for rent

necessary for tourist-level luxury.

items included shoes, clothes, medicine, and

to any visiting tourist, native Cubans are, by

toys—all things that are difficult for Cubans to

law, prevented from even setting foot on a boat

procure in any other way.

without a government permit.

consumer goods. The most conspicuous of

All of the ways in which Cubans rely on

Does the fact that tourists continue to flock

these shortages is the lack of post-embargo

tourism to make ends meet raises a complex

to the country, now more than ever, help to

cars, and the prevalence of cars from the 50s

set of ethical dilemmas. Throughout the

substantiate Cuba’s repressive laws, rather than

and 60s, as well as other creative modes of

trip, I wondered whether my presence in the

force them to change? Still, in the short term,

transportation. There are taxis made of two cars

country helped to justify the government’s

tourism helps many of the island’s inhabitants to

connected end to end and motorcycles made

deficiencies in providing for its people. When I

make a living. As I boarded a plane off the island,

from old tractor parts that all travel next to an

ate at restaurants, I was giving much-needed

filled mostly with tourists going back to their

endless variety of antiquated car models on the

tips to the waiters, and yet I was also enjoying

comfortable homes, this question remained

street. The buildings that line the streets are

a meal that few Cubans could ever afford.

unanswered.

also often anachronistic, with dated architecture

The same went for my hotel, where I tipped

and peeling paint due to a lack of construction

the housekeepers and yet knew that they

materials. There are also very few clothing or

would never be able to afford a night in such

shoe stores within the budget of the average

a place. This same dilemma of inequality

Cuban, so many augment their clothing rations

applies to tourism all over the world, yet it felt

(which are not much) with found or used

especially pressing in Cuba, where most all of

items. When we were preparing for our trip,

the inhabitants are kept at such low economic

our professors asked us to take as much as we

standings through government repression and

could fit in our suitcases to bring to their various

lack of funds. A poignant example is that though

Walking through the streets, it is immediately noticeable that there is an almost total lack of

Rachel Butler is a freshman in the College of Arts & Sciences. She can be reached at rachelkbutler@wustl.edu

11

POLITICAL REVIEW | TOURISM

POLITICAL REVIEW | TOURISM

FOOD RATIONS IN CUBA’S PLANNED ECONOMY

Photographs by Rachel Butler

Infographic by Andrew Kay

Meat products are distributed separately, if available, following a different rationale. These are distributed every 15 days, and usually rotate (that is, the product type changes on each delivery). Fish, beef, ground beef (usually mixed with soy), chicken, sausages and ham fall in this category. Quantities, and prices, differ for each meat product (beef, 0.5 lb/person each 15 days, whereas chicken is 1 lb/person every 15 days).

12

PRODUCT

QUANTITY

PRICE (in Cuban Pesos)

RICE

6 POUNDS

0.70 / POUND

BEANS

20 OUNCES

0.32 / POUND

WHITE SUGAR

3 POUNDS

0.15 / POUND

DARK SUGAR

3 POUNDS

0.10 / POUND

MILK

1 LITER/DAY

0.25 EACH

EGGS

12

0.15 EACH

POTATOES/ BANANAS

15 POUNDS

0.40 / POUND

(2.7 KILOGRAMS)

(570 GRAMS)

(1.4 KILOGRAMS)

(1.4 KILOGRAMS)

(6.8 KILOGRAMS)

13

POLITICAL REVIEW | TOURISM

POLITICAL REVIEW | TOURISM

MORE HARM THAN GOOD: VOLUNTOURISM’S DANGEROUS PRESENT AND SCARY FUTURE

Volunteering abroad is not a hopeless cause.

There are many who use it to good effect. But they do it by eliminating any idea that they are helping those in need. Instead, they are working together with another culture for mutual

Daniel Knudsen | Illustration by Ezekiel Saucedo

T

benefit. An American cannot accurately identify problems in another, relatively unknown society

he effects of the most recent recession

Volunteer trips are typically no longer than two

The situation in Ghanaian orphanages is no

any more than a foreign culture can adequately

on American culture are many and

weeks. The idea of being able to save people in

isolated incident. Cambodian orphanages

assess our own. Successful work abroad

varied, and among them is a new respect

such a short timeframe is almost as laughable as

are also heavy recipients of voluntourists. In

requires asking others how we can best partner

for frugality. This presents a dilemma for

it is offensive; as the educational group Global

addition to the same negative psychological

with others to mutual benefit. Our contribution

those who have the means and desire to take

Solutions puts it, “It suggests that Westerners

impacts experienced by Ghanaian orphans,

need not be manual labor and poorly planned

a vacation and are also concerned with the

are somehow able to swoop in and solve the

there has also been an explosion in the number

houses and libraries when it can much more

effect of their spending habits on their image.

problems of a country in a few days abroad

of unregistered, privately owned orphanages in

effectively be capital, organization, health

For many such people, a compromise is found

that citizens of that country have been working

Cambodia. These orphanages take advantage

professionals, and engineers. Nobody is useless

in the form of volunteer tourism, commonly

to solve for years.” Individuals travel to these

of volunteer tourists who do not do research

to the cause. For example, a college student may

known as “voluntourism.” Voluntourism is

places en masse because they believe that

on the institution and will happily provide

have the ability to network, raise money, and tell

an umbrella term that refers to travel which

their mere presence is enough to improve

free labor and cash when shown children in

stories, but most American college students are

includes volunteering for a charitable cause.

quality of life.

decrepit conditions. To further exploit the

not better construction workers or orphanage

scam for money, orphanage operators will

employees than those native to a foreign culture.

Though this type of travel has been present for well over a century, it has become especially popular in recent years by giving participants a chance “to do something good” in addition to enjoying their exotic vacation. In 2014 the market for volunteer tourism was worth approximately $2 billion and involved 1.6 million people. Yet volunteer tourism has unexpectedly problematic consequences that go unnoticed by

One reaction to the above criticism is the fair statement that intentions are one thing, and results are another, and the attitude of participants should not be judged too harshly so long as those in need come out better off than they started. Yet the material damages of voluntourism can be enormous. These damages stem from the aforementioned focus on benefits

keep children in destitution regardless of the excess funds they receive in order to maintain

It is past time for voluntourism in its current

the influx of resources. The Huffington Post

predominant form to be recognized for the

reports that 72 percent and 90 percent of

harmful phenomenon that it is. Wanting to

children in orphanages in Cambodia and Ghana,

volunteer abroad is not inherently bad. But

respectively, still had

we must end the ethnocentric mentality that

at least one parent.

we know best, that our society is superior, and be willing to work with other cultures in a

to the volunteer, and not the community. For

Other types of voluntourism exist, with similarly

cooperative effort for a better world. We should

uninvolved.

example, a common destination for volunteers

disastrous unintended consequences. Among

support sustainable growth, and recognize our

are orphanages; they are attractive because

the most visible and harmful are construction

limitations. Anyone that wants to experience

The damaging aspects of voluntourism begin

of the immediate satisfaction of working with

projects. Construction is particularly satisfying

with the attitude of volunteers. Voluntourism is

children whom life has thrust hardship upon.

for the volunteer; the work is hard, the results

capital and sending labor instead, aid groups

and in need of a Western hero to save them. It

frequently performed with the wrong intentions.

Yet volunteer involvement in orphanages has

are tangible, and the bragging rights are

and volunteers deprive local workers of jobs,

propagates an us versus them mentality, where

Too many make the trip with the intention of

become one of the most frequently damaging

immense. Perhaps most attractive is the fact

and lose valuable opportunities to improve

we view other countries as wrong, and our own

“finding themselves” by aiding a foreign country.

facets of voluntourism. Orphanages in Ghana

that many construction jobs can be done by

the economy. This is best illustrated by the

as right in such a way that we ignore domestic

They leave the complex problems of Western

with heavy Western involvement become

minimally skilled workers. Yet these projects

experience of former voluntourist Pippa Biddle,

issues, pretending our country is perfect. And

society in order to face the “simple” troubles of

oases of Western culture; orphaned children,

are often ludicrously unsustainable. Houses in

who on a trip to Tanzania discovered that she

the fact that volunteers leave too quickly to see

those they perceive to be in need. Others travel

already isolated from their community, are

Haiti, for example, help a few of the displaced,

and her fellow volunteers were so out of their

the consequences of their actions permits them

because they feel a great need to help move the

then separated from their birth culture by the

but then the construction workers pack up and

element in building a library for an orphanage

to revel in the glory of a new Facebook profile

human race forward, in order to “save” a life.

influx of English speaking volunteers. While

head home, forgetting that having a house does

that every night the structurally unsound bricks

picture, a throwback to the week they spent

they are lavished with attention from foreigners

not provide food, clean water, employment, or

they laid were disassembled and rebuilt by their

helping “the needy.”

for the duration of their time in the orphanage,

safety. What it does provide is happiness for

guides. In the words of Biddle, “It would have

they are alienated from their surroundings.

Westerners who have done their good deed for

been more cost effective, stimulative of the local

Additionally, Al Jazeera reports that the rapid

the year.

economy, and efficient for the orphanage to take

many volunteers, and which rarely occur to the

Yet these attitudes, while superficially harmless or even admirable, represent an extension of the paternalism that continues to haunt Western society. The first case, of “finding oneself,” is a fine reason for something like backpacking in the mountains but among the worst for volunteer work. To volunteer is to work for the good of a community but frequently, to voluntour is to work for the good of oneself. For the latter case, seeming altruism is almost without fail a case of what is known as Western Savior Complex.

14

turnover of volunteer caregivers is an incredibly unhealthy environment for children, who repeatedly build bonds and then grieve for loss of adult relationships in the absence of family.

This causes children to develop long term problematic attachment patterns and leads to unstable, poorly adjusted adults, whose plight is less attractive to voluntourists.

and anyone that wants to be physically present to work with others for the good of the community may find that opportunities surround them at home. Collectively we have the power to raise quality of life all over the world, both at home and overseas; all it takes is finding the right approach.

Therein lies the symbolic crux of the problem; voluntourists treat foreign societies as their

our money and hire locals to do the work.”

cause – but nobody is a cause. No society a

those that require relatively unskilled labor, are

The incorrect belief that any given American

not in need of saving. When we send aid to other

a tragically inefficient use of resources. It strains

possesses the set of skills to solve another

countries, it is because we are working together

imagination to find a reason to pay thousands of

country’s problems is a symptom of the

for a common goal; anyone who believes it is

dollars in airfare and lodging to bring a crew of

Western Savior complex, and does incalculable

their birthright and obligation to travel in order to

untrained Americans to do construction work

cultural damage. It perpetuates the stereotypes

help those less unfortunate has good intentions

that a local crew could do. In failing to invest

of other countries being entirely “third world,”

yet a poisonous attitude.

At the same time, such projects, specifically

new cultures without voluntourism canbackpack,

voluntourist visits is wrong or helpless. They are

Daniel Knudsen is a freshman in the School of Engineering and Applied Science. He can be reached at danielknudsen@wustl.edu

15

POLITICAL REVIEW | TOURISM

POLITICAL REVIEW | TOURISM

THE PAST AND FUTURE OF MILITOURISM

Aaron Christensen

T

he rise of ISIS has appalled the West

Giusseppe Garibaldi. Fleeing political

they came (most of them, illegally) from all of

country. But most academics today agree

and source of glory, reminiscent of William

of aloof foreign militourists over an alienated

not only in how remarkable the group’s

persecution at home, he moved to South

the myriad Italian mini-states. The Expedition

that the jihad was fought and won mainly by

Walker’s campaigns across Central America.

majority population. Using the infighting of

atrocities have been, but also in how

America to find a new role in the many conflicts

of the Thousand, as it was later known, was one

Afghans. The thousands of foreign mujahedeen,

Many others are youth who, despite having

the International Brigades and ruthless power

familiar the images of an ISIS fighter’s act of

raging there. He became an important soldier

of the first stateless armies in modern history,

termed the “Afghan Arabs,” frequently came

no military experience, come to Syria out of

politics of William Walker as examples, uniting

defection seem. ISIS recruits go to fight in

and political figure, fighting for one cause

and arguably the most successful. Not only did

from well-to-do Arab families. Many intended

their ideology alone, as George Orwell did

ISIS’ militourists with diverse ideologies and

Syria much the same as Americans go on

alongside other Italian expatriates before

when he went to Spain.

motives will be no easy task. In January, ISIS

Garibaldi’s Thousand conquer Sicily and much

to fight but struggled to enter Afghanistan,

vacation, freely and independently leaving their

of southern Italy, but they also formed a potent

and instead spent most of their time along the

home countries and taking a romanticized trip

symbol of a resurging Italian nation that helped

Pakistani border rehearsing an ideology insisting

abroad. Recruits hope to find excitement and

to unify the peninsula.

on the significance of their actions. When they

a sense of meaning abroad that they could

Probably the largest and most famous wave

not find at home. Historically, many soldiers

of militourists, at least before the rise of ISIS,

have travelled far from their homes to fight in

did fight, the militourists frequently annoyed and hindered the efforts of their Afghan comrades.

What is unique about ISIS is that it aspires

The increasing ease of international travel and communication permits faster, easier, and larger scale movements of foreign fighters.

reported that it had foiled an attempted coup by some of its members in the city of Raqqa. There are also increasing reports that dozens of ISIS fighters have been executed for attempting to return home, seeing themselves as militourists on a temporary mission and not as immigrants.

was comprised of the International Brigades

When they left, the Afghan Arabs took home

that joined the Spanish Civil War in the mid-

traditional Afghan dress as a new exotic fashion.

1930s. The war was largely a proxy struggle for

The foreign mujahedeen were not unlike the

the growing antipathy between communism

stereotype of today’s Western “voluntourists,”

and fascism, prompting tens of thousands

arrogant foreigners who intervene to save

of militourists to travel to Spain and fight for

others, accomplish little, but return home with

the left-wing Republican government. The

inflated self-confidence and cultural trinkets.

International Brigadists were a diverse group

The foreign mujahedeen’s greatest impact

spotlight, militourism has a long history.

of left-wing students and intellectuals (among

occurred after the war as the militourists

them George Orwell), Communist Party cadres,

returned home, when their experiences

In the United States, the 1794 Neutrality Act

and unemployed workers from across Europe

and cooperation formed the bedrock for a

to be far more than militourism. Almost all

now easily possible for a committed would-be

explicitly prohibits Americans from waging

and North America who volunteered to fight

transnational Islamist movement of which ISIS is

prior militourist groups were a minority in a

fighter to travel to the other side of the world

in the Spanish war. Despite the supposed

an offshoot.

foreign army, while foreign militourists form the

in a few hours. Despite the opposition and

majority of ISIS fighters. Nor does ISIS have the

hindrance of the international community, ISIS

support or funding of a foreign government, as

militourists continue to find their own ways to

the International Brigades had from the Soviet

their destination. Western fighters in the YPG

Union. ISIS does not simply seek volunteer

have also taken advantage of easy travel to fight

fighters; it wants immigrants to the nationless

for a very different cause, such that militourists

state it is building in the heart of the Middle

are now fighting each other in an increasingly

East. ISIS propaganda since the declaration of

chaotic and complicated conflict. With growing

the Caliphate not only exhorts Muslims to fight

political disillusion and apathy in the West,

for ISIS, but also insists that it is the duty of all

the world’s most restive regions are becoming

Muslims to emigrate to and live in the Caliphate.

hotter destinations for vacationers like them,

Some of the most publicized recent cases of

who want to shoot more than just video, and

immigrants to ISIS have been of

reload rather than relax.

foreign lands. The most interesting among them are those armed volunteers who visit foreign lands intending to do more than sightsee.

“Militourists” are those who disregard rigid national boundaries and freely travel abroad to extra-legally participate in military conflicts.

Although the media’s focus on ISIS has recently brought international militancy into the

war against a government with which the

William Walker (above) and Giuseppe Garibaldi (below)

United States is at peace. Yet militourism is a

unity of cause, the International Brigades were

recurring pastime in American history, starting

racked by infighting over differences of

in the mid-19th century, when a chaotic Latin

ideology and allegiance.

Over 100 Westerners, most of whom have

After their harrowing combat, the Brigadists

fighting against ISIS’ militourists in the Kurdish

would learn a painful lesson on how a country’s

YPG militia. Many are former American soldiers

attitudes towards its nationals fighting abroad

who fought in Iraq and now return to the

may change with political circumstances. In

country without the official permission of their

World War II, former Brigadists had a passable

government, while others have little experience

reputation in America for their prior service as

but are appalled by ISIS’ actions. Though these

“premature antifascists.” Rick Blaine, Humphrey

Western fighters are heroes in the public

Bogart’s lead character in “Casablanca” and

spotlight today, the lesson of the International

a classic American hero, is himself mentioned

Brigades suggests that they may not always

to be an ex-Brigadist. But with the onset of the

remain so. The YPG is closely allied with the

Cold War, their connections to communism

Kurdistan Workers Party, a US-designated

meant many Brigadists in the United States

terrorist organization, and if the greater threat

wound up investigated or blacklisted in

of ISIS is defeated, these Western militourists

the McCarthy era.

could find themselves on the wrong side of

America attracted American militourists who made a name for themselves as filibusteros, meaning “pirate” or “freebooter” (the term was later applied to the freebooting legislative tactic, the “filibuster”). The most famous of the filibusteros, William Walker, led a private army across Central America, conquered territory, and founded two short-lived republics where he led as president. He then participated in a Nicaraguan civil war before usurping power for himself as President of Nicaragua. Many Americans lionized the filibustero adventures in Central America, seeing them as an integral part of America’s role in the Western Hemisphere. The romance of the filibustero was not entirely contrived, as Walker proved that a small band of adventurers could have a major geopolitical impact.

The political chaos of 19th century Latin America attracted other foreign revolutionaries, among them the young Italian dissident

16

hopping to a new conflict. Decades later,

But ISIS is not the only militourist wave today. neither Kurdish nor Arab ancestry, are currently

another conflict.

Garibaldi returned to Italy a hero and quickly

Not all militourists seeking glory abroad

put his new fame and military experience to

contribute productively to the causes they

There are now militourists on both sides of the

use. In 1860, he led a force of a thousand Italian

join. One of the original transnational Islamist

trenches, and although they may claim a higher

nationalist volunteers on a military campaign to

militancy operations was the war against the

unity, many ISIS fighters are precisely that. Some

unite the Italian peninsula. Although Garibaldi’s

Soviet Union in Afghanistan, supposedly won

are veterans of many insurgencies who

soldiers saw themselves as nationally Italian,

by an influx of foreign faithful fighting in the

have embraced ISIS as a new employer

If militourism’s history is any judge, ISIS is likely only the beginning of waves of foreign fighters in the 21st century. In an increasingly globalized world, the actions of ISIS have not just regional, but global ramifications, especially amid growing fears of ISIS-sponsored terrorism.

The increasing ease of international travel and communication permits faster, easier, and larger scale movements of foreign fighters. It is

women and children coming not to fight, but to make permanent homes as civilians.

Militourism is ephemeral since every trip must come to an end, but ISIS wants the Caliphate to be a lasting project.

The ultimate question is whether ISIS’ state building is succeeding. The few available reports out of ISIS-held territory suggest that foreign fighters, many of whom do not even speak Arabic, are at odds with the local population.

The Caliphate seems less a perfect union of Muslims from all nations and more like the rule

Aaron Christensen is a sophomore in the College of Arts & Sciences. He can be reached at aaronchristensen@wustl.edu.

17

POLITICAL REVIEW | TOURISM

POLITICAL REVIEW | TOURISM

“HIJAB TOURISM” AND THE CULTURAL APPROPRIATION OF DRESS IN AMERICA Rachel Sumption | Illustration by Savannah Bustillo

T

his time last year, I walked into a fabric

The political significance of Islamic dress in

documented on popular visual media sites such

store in Tangier, Morocco, where the

the United States is not written about with the

as Tumblr and Buzzfeed—a Buzzfeed-produced

owner ushered me over to a display of

same vigor as Islamic dress in France or the

video titled “Women Wear Hijabs for a Day” has

elaborate Bedouin headscarves and asked me

Netherlands, because the US has not taken a

over 3.5 million views. The collapsed metaphor

if I wanted try one on.

strong federal stance on wearing different head

between travelling and empathetic experience

coverings in the workplace. In a misguided effort

is not well received by Islamic feminists, who

to make the hijab socially acceptable, media

reject the assumption that hijab tourists can

maelstroms are replaced with the phenomenon

articulate the true motivations behind veiling.

“All the girls do it, it’s okay,” he assured me, gesturing to a group of Spanish women vigorously taking selfies in one shop corner. I declined his invitation, explaining that I didn’t

of Americans “dressing up” as hijabi women.

In July 2013, Islamic feminist blogger The

see how a staged photograph of me in a

Lauren Shields’ 2013 Salon article “My Year of

Hijabinist pointed out the deep problems with

Moroccan keffiyeh would help me to become

Modesty” was the most publicized in a decade’s

wearing the hijab as an experiment. The blogger

a more empathetic tourist. Tourism stresses

worth of neo-Orientalist experiments in wearing

wrote, “Only if you view Islam as a religion

gathering new experiences and “walking in the

religiously and culturally significant clothing for

devoid of intellect, understanding and civility

shoes” (or keffiyeh, I suppose) of the native

short periods of time. She published her article

does it become necessary to have a non-Muslim

citizens of the country one visits. Well-traveled

retroactively, after she removed the headscarf to

woman ‘translate’ the experience of veiling.

people are lauded as tolerant and cosmopolitan,

return to her everyday life as a Georgia seminary

The entire premise of hijab tourism relies on

but does the ethos of tourism really propel

student. According to her article, her only prior

the assumption that Muslim women cannot be

enlightened understanding?

relationship with a hijabi woman was a guest

trusted to talk intelligently and articulately about

lecturer in a class who had previously complied

their own experiences.”

This ethos is visible not just among foreigners who go abroad, but also within a single country when people desire to understand what life is like for citizens who have been labeled as foreign or “other.” John Howard Griffin’s 1961 novel Black Like Me is perhaps the most famous American example of cultural tourism. In the book, a white male darkens his skin and travels

Hijab tourism and the stories of non-Muslim white women wearing the veil crowd out crucial narratives of Muslim populations in the US.

through the South to stand in “the flesh of an utter stranger.” A 2011 review of the novel published in the Guardian suggested that the black experience in the Jim Crow South is comparable to the experience of American Muslims after 9/11: “Some of the country’s most powerful mainstream religious and political leaders unthinkingly (or worse, deliberately) conflate Islam with terrorism and

with modesty expectations in a Middle Eastern country. In the article Shields reminisced, “And for nine months, I covered all of my hair, wore nothing that was so fitted that I felt like I had to sit or stand funny to look good, and never exposed my knees or my shoulders, except at home. With rare exceptions, I wore no makeup or nail polish. It was kind of brutal,

Some American activists have advocated for pairing short-term hijab tourism with publicity about the lives of Muslim women who wear hijab on a daily basis. Nazma Khan, a Bangladeshi-American woman and founder of World Hijab Day, explains that she wants both Muslim and non-Muslim women to experience wearing the hijab for a day in order

and really liberating.”

to reduce discrimination against hijabi women

the Black Like Me method to explore a visual

Several years earlier, a writer for the Huffington

and non-Muslim women everywhere to walk

symbol of Islam: the hijab, or scarf that covers

Post explicitly referenced Black Like Me in an

in my shoes, perhaps things would change,”

the hair and leaves the face exposed. They hope

article titled “Islamic Like Me: Taking on the

Khan explained at a 2014 conference. The

to use this experience to gain perspective, but

Veil.” When a Pakistani-American shop owner

World Hijab Day website also amplifies the

their touristic journey stagnates the progress of

asked the writer why she was buying a niqab,

voices of Muslim women who wear the hijab

advocacy for American Muslims.

she answered, “I’m travelling.” The experience

regularly through a “My Story” archive. These

of women wearing hijab has also been

narratives have only reached a small fraction

savagery.” Interestingly, in the years after this article, Caucasian women increasingly use

18

throughout the world. “If I could invite Muslim

of the audiences reached through articles

“Saving Muslim women allows us to ignore

Asia, or other countries with modest traditional

published by media giants, but they work to

the complex entanglements in which we are

dress feel that they can experience the culture

correct misguided motives for hijab tourism.

all implicated and creates a polarization that

fully by “dressing up” in accordance with local

Nazma Khan may disagree with the Hijabinist’s

places feminism only on the side of the West.”

trends. My experience in Morocco was not

condemnation of hijab tourism, but the fact

Much of the media coverage surrounding hijab

a unique one, but normalizing the cultural

remains that World Hijab Day substitutes the

tourism implies that the choice for women to

appropriation of dress is no less reprehensible

temporary experiences of non-Muslim women

wear the hijab shows the “backwardness” of

than normalizing the appropriation of skin color,

in place of informed and lasting solidarity.

other societies. One hijab tourist pointed out,

nationality, or gender.

Wearing the hijab as an experiment in modesty ignores the significance of the hijab, niqab, haik, and other forms of culturally significant dress as cause for discrimination in American society. Protests of cultural appropriation ensued over Caucasian people

“I feel like in some cultures they don’t have a choice,” and other common responses exhorted American women to fight against forced dress codes in other countries. By celebrating hijab tourism in the United States, female travelers to the Middle East, North Africa, Southeast

Those Americans interested in religious equality will not become effective agents of change merely by pretending to identify with the population they are trying to ally themselves.

Hijab tourism and the stories of non-Muslim white women wearing the veil crowd out crucial

parading as African Americans in books such

narratives of Muslim populations in the United

as Black Like Me. However, similar uproar has

States. With rising populations of Muslim

not erupted over the cultural appropriation

Americans, the movement for interreligious

of Islamic symbols, although 43 percent of

coexistence in America must be fronted by

Americans feel “at least a little” prejudiced

Muslim voices telling their own stories about life

towards Muslims. Hijab tourism also fails to

with hijab. Instead of rushing to wear someone’s

elucidate some of the intersectional forms of

shoes, ask her to tell you how it is to wear them.

prejudice hijab wearers face.

In a research study by Islamic studies Professor Akbar Ahmed at American University titled

Rachel Sumption is a junior in the College of Arts & Sciences. She can be reached at rachel.sumption@wustl.edu.

“Journey into America,” white female subjects wore headscarves and compared their experiences with non-white subjects as a way to capture the experience of American Muslims after 9/11. According to Gawker Media’s blog Jezebel, the study’s results showed these academic hijab tourists that “prejudice against Muslims and assumptions about Muslim women are also deeply rooted in race” Nonwhite wearers of the hijab also cannot escape xenophobic associations of “foreignness”— associations with foreign countries that have been sensationalized in Western media for their gender norms and forms of dress. When Danielle Crittenden was first inspired to write “Islamic Like Me,” she asked her husband what it was like to wear “those black cover-ups they wear in Saudi Arabia and those other Middle Eastern countries.”

Academics such as Lila Abu-Lughod have decried the prejudices that taint Western feminists’ reactions to Islamic dress in Muslimmajority countries. Abu-Lughod has said,

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POLITICAL REVIEW | NATIONAL

POLITICAL REVIEW | TOURISM

SÃO PAULO AND THE 2016 SUMMER OLYMPICS

Joy Chiang

A

fter hosting the World Cup in 2014,

and receive millions of tourists. Furthermore, the

again to prepare for the Olympic games is

Brazil is set to host the 2016 Summer

infrastructure and stadium are already in place.

unappealing, as preparations are estimated

Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro.

So why would São Paulo prefer to opt out?

to cost another $28.5 million. Itaquerão is the

In early March, the Olympic Committee announced the seven stadiums selected to host the soccer tournaments. Except for the Olympic stadium in Rio de Janeiro, the stadiums selected for the Olympics also hosted the World Cup games. Rio de Janeiro houses two stadiums— the Maracanã, which hosted the World Cup final, and the Olympic stadium. The other cities, which include Belo Horizonte, Brasília, Manaus,

Despite popular belief, the millions of tourists drawn to Brazil during the World Cup did not result in much positive economic impact.

Brazil spent $3.6 billion total on the 12 new stadiums for the World Cup. The São Paulo stadium, originally estimated at $356 million, cost $513 million. Protests against the use of money towards stadium and tourist-oriented

home stadium of Corinthians Paulista is one of the most popular football clubs in São Paulo.

When the stadium was built, it was expected that the team would become the owners through paying half of the construction costs.

However, the club is struggling and looking for alternate means, such as selling naming rights; shelling out even more for their stadium is not appealing to the club.

Salvador, and São Paulo, house one stadium each.

infrastructure rather than healthcare or education were frequent in the lead up to

The organizers of the Olympic Games, the local

However, even though the stadiums are already

the World Cup. In addition, the government

government of São Paulo, and the Corinthians

built, there may still be a problem. Expressing a

had planned on expanding the airport and

Football Club have held meetings as they

lack of enthusiasm, local officials of São Paulo

metro line to connect the city of São Paulo to

attempt to come to an agreement. These games

say the city cannot promise to participate

the airport outside of the city in Guarulhos,

are a good bargaining tool for the football club,

as a host of the Olympic soccer tournament

yet never completed the project. Many such

who has asserted their opposition to paying

due to the high costs associated with hosting.

projects were cut short or canceled due to

additional costs, while acknowledging the honor

Interestingly, with a population of 11.32 million

the time constraint. The stadium itself, which

of being chosen to host. For now, São Paulo is in

people in 2011, São Paulo is not only the largest

hosted the opening game, was not completed

the midst of deciding and has yet to commit to

city in Brazil but also the economic and financial

in time, with the roof not fully finished until

hosting the games. As the dilemma continues to

center of the country, which makes opting out

after the World Cup had ended.

unfold, it will be interesting to see whether São

of hosting the Olympics significant. This is puzzling, since hosting the Olympics would be an opportunity to relive the excitement and glory of the World Cup, enjoy the public’s attention,

Due to the exorbitant costs of the World Cup, São Paulo is less than enthused about hosting the Olympics. The idea of footing the costs

Paulo views the glory and prestige of hosting the Olympics to be worth of the costs.

Joy Chiang is a student in the College of Arts & Sciences.

She can be reached at joy.chiang@wustl.edu

HOW BREAKING NEWS IS BREAKING NEWS Samuel Klein | Illustration by Sara Wong

I

flip my laptop open, open my web browser,

“more conflict and more

and click on the shortcut for NBC News. It’s

sensationalism.” While

one of many news sites I keep bookmarked

some may just consider it

for easy access, just as any responsible political

overzealous, others label

junkie should. “BREAKING NEWS,” declares the

it fearmongering. It drives

red-on-white banner at the top of the page.

up ratings, at least for now,

A few years ago, my heart would have jumped at the sight of such an assertion. Something

but it may prove to be a detrimental strategy in the long-term.

is happening! There will be more to come

When people tune in to CNN, or perhaps more

as the story unfolds! But I’ve since become

likely, see it on at the airport, there is now

desensitized—not just to big news itself,

an expectation that there will be coverage or

although that has certainly happened as well—

analysis of a newsworthy event. Conversely,

but to the urgency of so-called “breaking news.”

on network TV and non-news cable stations,

I am entirely unfazed by the bright notice, and

where most Americans probably spend most of

after glancing over the page, I check to see what

their TV time, the entertainment is presented

all the fuss is about.

without interruption—Scott Pelley won’t be

“BREAKING NEWS: WATCH AARON HERNANDEZ MURDER TRIAL LIVE.” Evidently,

breaking in to NCIS unless something critically important has happened.

this “news” has been breaking for two weeks

Indeed, the final metric of true “breaking news”

now, because the alarmist header has been

is whether it interrupts popular programming.

adorning the site for that long. Only on a few

There is little downside to a news agency

occasions, like a plane crash or foreign election,

transmitting a breaking news alert on a website,

has it been bumped to describe those other

smartphone lockscreen, or 24-hour news

more newsworthy events.

network, because these are outlets where

The trend is not exclusive to NBC News.

The CNN and Fox News websites and the Associated Press app on my phone have all, in my unscientific personal experience, increased the quantity of their “Breaking News” announcements in the past months and years.

But is there really more news today than there was last year?

This trend is a product of a larger problem in the modern media landscape. The 24-hour news cycle provides the infrastructure to cover substantial news stories, but when none are taking place, there is a void to be filled. As Jon Stewart noted in an expectedly heated interview on Fox News Sunday, in the absence of large news events, networks “are not just going to say, ‘there’s not that much that’s urgent or important.’” Instead, as Stewart knows all too well, the networks present

such messages are expected and not too distracting. Thus, on these media, companies are incentivized to label everything as “breaking” and push minutiae to the forefront.

Among these so-called developing stories are events that are previously scheduled (Obama’s weekly video address), largely insignificant (George Zimmerman, Trayvon Martin’s killer, getting a DUI years after the event that gave him notoriety), or yet another minor detail in a largely manufactured crisis (they didn’t find the Malaysian Airlines plane in the fifth place they checked, and now they’re moving to the sixth).

These increased notifications and alerts must be generating additional ad revenue, or else the companies would cease to emphasize

altogether). They will ignore the banners at the top of the websites. And the news that actually is breaking, that actually does matter, will be less noticed as a result of the diluted power of the term “breaking news.” Major stories, of course, will still disseminate very quickly—but for many significant news items the effect will be lost.

There is another major issue with the 24-hour news cycle, and it works in tandem with the overzealous use of “breaking news.” There is a race among the news outlets to break stories first, and it can be dangerous. Back in 2012, when the Supreme Court upheld the individual mandate provision of the Affordable Care Act, the Court opinion began by saying that the law was dubiously legal. CNN, Fox News, and others, in a race to break the news, declared that the Court had struck down the individual mandate, a central tenet of Obamacare.

Breaking news graphics adorned the screens, alerts went out to phones, and huge text graced their web pages. A few minutes later, after actually reading the opinion and discovering that the mandate was a legal tax in the eyes of the Court, they issued more alerts and graphics correcting the mistake.

Everyone wants to know what is happening in the world. We want to know what is important.

If only the major news organizations were capable of making those distinctions! Perhaps the delayed and measured reaction to the news inherent in the floundering medium of newspaper is not such a bad thing.

them. Eventually, however, the tide could turn.

People might start disabling notifications on their phones (or maybe just delete the apps

Samuel Klein is a freshman in the College of Arts and Sciences. He can be reached at klein.s@wustl.edu

Construction of the Arena Corinthians in São Paulo.

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POLITICAL REVIEW | NATIONAL

POLITICAL REVIEW | NATIONAL

HIGHER STAKES DEMAND BETTER SAFEGUARDS OF DEFENDANT RIGHTS Alex Weil

T

CONFRONTING OUR GUILLOTINES Benjamin Szanton

I

n the United States, we believe in executing

only one dose of the drug remaining. However,

day during parts of the French Revolution, and

our worst criminals. About 60 percent of

Ohio will be hesitant to experiment with a

victims died almost instantaneously. Today,

Americans support capital punishment, and

different drug cocktail after the horrific death of

bringing back the guillotine would offer the

this majority support is likely to persist for the

Dennis McGuire, a death-row inmate convicted

60 percent of Americans who believe that our

he way we deal with sexual assault

assault crimes. It is precisely because of the

Code requires that students be afforded a

accusations on campus is broken, and, in

gravity of these charges, though, that we must

presumption of innocence, the USAIB code

foreseeable future. Although there is a sizeable

of the 1989 murder of a pregnant woman. In

worst criminals deserve to die a chance to make

the interest of our campus community,

be sure that those found guilty of sexual assault

explicitly states that “the procedures found

opinion gap between the general American

January 2014, McGuire gasped for breath for 25

that happen in a more humane way than even

have had fair and just judicial processes.

in Sections V and VII [of the Student Judicial

populace and young people on many social

minutes before succumbing to an experimental

a carefully orchestrated lethal injection, and

Code]… are inapplicable.” A judicial proceeding

issues, 56 percent of 18 to 29-year-olds

combination of drugs. Three months later,

certainly far more humanely than the botched

that does not safeguard this basic right of

support the death penalty.

Oklahoma subjected Clayton Lockett, convicted

science experiments performed on Dennis

of kidnapping, rape, and murder, to a similarly

McGuire and Clayton Lockett. As civilized and

botched execution.

hygienic as injections may seem, it is hard to

we must work towards a more just system.

Historically, many universities lacked policies for dealing with campus sexual assault, which resulted in ineffective investigations, victimblaming, and minimal punishment for those responsible for sexual violence. Washington University established the University Sexual Assault Investigation Board (USAIB) to handle cases of alleged sexual crimes in response to past incidences of mishandled sexual assault cases and new interpretations of Title IX, the federal law that bans gender-based discrimination. While the University’s intentions in establishing the USAIB were undoubtedly just, Washington University has gone too far in its efforts to prosecute sexual assaults, creating an environment that disregards fundamental rights of the accused. As an

USAIB procedures fail to provide a number of important procedural safeguards. These lapses have the potential to undermine the credibility of our University’s judicial system.

First, USAIB policies do not ensure a defendant’s right to unbiased judges or a fair trial. USAIB rules do not require board members to recuse themselves if they have conflicts of interest. It would be clearly unacceptable for a close friend or mentor of any party to judge a case involving an acquaintance, but the USAIB code would allow this situation to occur.

The code also states, specifically, that “formal rules of evidence are not applicable,” and provides no other rules to replace these

institution dedicated to liberal ideals and

evidence standards. Through centuries of

engaging issues on their merits, Washington

judicial reforms, courts have developed rules

University can, and must, do better.

of evidence designed to ensure fair trials by

To be clear, this is not an argument against punishing those who have committed sexual assault. Sexual violence cannot be tolerated, and those who are found guilty of sexual crimes deserve punishment. The key phrase here, however, is “found guilty.” Before imposing

prohibiting evidence that, among other things, is unreliable or would cause the judges to be biased against the defendant. The fact that the USAIB upholds no rules of evidence calls into question the integrity of the entire judicial process for sexual assault cases.

punishment, we must give everyone the chance

In 2000, for example, Brandeis University—

to defend him or herself at a fair trial before

which then had an evidentiary policy similar

unbiased judges. We must afford the accused

to the USAIB’s—convicted a student of sexual

the presumption of innocence, and we must

assault, based partially on testimony that the

ensure that he or she has received sufficient

defendant was a “self-motivated egotistical

notice of the trial, as well as time to prepare.

bastard,” and that the complainant “looked like

Unfortunately, the USAIB’s procedures provide defendants with none of these things, disregarding the fundamental fairness and violating the basic rights of the accused. The allegations that come before the USAIB are

a rape victim.” Such evidence has no probative value; it does nothing to support the defendant’s guilt, and only prejudices the judges. The USAIB need not establish rules as formal as those used in courts, but justice requires that it prohibit, at a

the accused cannot be legitimate, and this departure from judicial standards is particularly dangerous given the high stakes surrounding sexual assault cases.

Third, the university’s Title IX coordinator, or anyone that he or she appoints, is permitted to punish the defendant with any penalty short of suspension or expulsion, at any point before, during, or after the USAIB’s investigation, and regardless of the USAIB’s verdict. Clearly, the university community’s safety is of paramount importance, and the University should take all reasonable measures to ensure that our campus is safe for everyone. However, the Title IX coordinator’s nearly unlimited latitude to punish a student who has been acquitted compromises the integrity of our judicial system.

Among other things, defendants before the USAIB have no right to call witnesses, respond to the claims against them, appeal their cases, or even be notified in advance of the charges against them.

In his 2014 end-of-year reflections, Chancellor Mark Wrighton wrote, “the work of addressing the structural inequalities of the world … is work we must do together, across disciplinary and cultural lines and in partnership with others.”

As we work together to combat sexual violence in all its forms, we cannot yield to the temptation to make hasty judgments or overbroad assumptions. Judicial proceedings should be fair, prompt, and unbiased; this community deserves nothing less.

The system is highly vulnerable to racial bias, and capital punishment doesn’t seem to be much of a deterrent to crime.

The U.S. is not alone in condoning statesanctioned killing; China, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Iran and North Korea execute their own citizens on a similar scale, and 36 other nations, most of which are in the Middle East and Southeast Asia, also permit capital punishment. However, the majority of the world has increasingly cut its ties with the death penalty. This retreat presents a problem for the United States, which relies on imports for its lethal injection drugs. Now, four years after a European Union export ban on sodium pentathol, an anesthetic used in virtually every American lethal injection cocktail, the United States is about to run out of its supply.

Texas, by far the nation’s leader in the number of

minimum, such blatantly prejudicial testimony.

prisoners executed, has seven people scheduled

expulsion, public humiliation, and difficulty

Second, the USAIB fails to ensure that

the state only has enough sodium pentathol

finding future employment. Such consequences

defendants are initially presumed innocent.

are justified, given the seriousness of sexual

Though Section V of the Student Judicial

serious matters—a guilty verdict can result in

22

to die over the next two and half months, but Alex Weil is a freshman in the College of Arts & Sciences. He can be reached at alexweil@wustl.edu.

for two more executions. The state of Ohio has

There are a myriad of reasons to oppose capital punishment. It costs somewhere between four

consider a 20-minute-long, agonizing death as anything other than cruel and unusual.

and ten times as much taxpayer money per

Ultimately, if we can accept large expenditures,

year to hold death penalty trials and to keep

the execution of some innocent people, and

the condemned on death row than it would

discriminatory sentencing, but cringe at

to uphold a sentence of life imprisonment.

guillotines, we should not accept the death

We know some innocent people are killed;

penalty. If a guillotine seems barbaric, maybe

an average of three to five inmates out of the

that’s because it is, as is any system of state-

3,000 held on death row in the United States

sanctioned killings. Americans want to support

are exonerated each year. Moreover, the system

the death penalty in the most abstract way

is highly vulnerable to racial bias, and capital

possible. Talking about the specifics makes

punishment doesn’t seem to be much of a

us uncomfortable. But that’s exactly why we

deterrent to crime.

should discuss them.

Even if, in the face of this evidence, we Americans believe that there exist unthinkably terrible crimes that deserve a death sentence, we cannot condone execution methods that cause painful, drawn-out deaths. Many other methods have been tried over the long history of people killing each other. Utah got ahead of the curve in March, legalizing firing squads in cases in which a prisoner chooses them, or in the event that lethal injections are unavailable.

But by and large, Americans are reluctant to get behind any alternate means of execution. Less than 20 percent of adults in an NBC News poll supported gas chambers, the electric chair, firing squads, or hangings.

However, the NBC poll respondents weren’t

As civilized and hygienic as injections may seem, it is hard to consider a 20-minutelong, agonizing death as anything other than cruel and unusual.

asked about an execution method once heralded as modern and humane. The guillotine, developed in medieval Europe, was popularized during the French Revolution largely because it was seen as a more compassionate way to kill, and was still used in France through the 1970s. Guillotines killed hundreds of people a

Benjamin Szanton is a freshman in the College of Arts & Sciences. He can be reached at Benjamin.szanton@wustl.edu.

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POLITICAL REVIEW | INTERNATIONAL

POLITICAL REVIEW | INTERNATIONAL

CORPORATE IMPERIALISM T Samuel Leiter

he United States is about to enter into

Chevron, the second largest oil and gas

to by some as an ‘inner mafia,’ sit on the same

The most glaring example is a case in which,

tribunals. These nations are typically those

The Obama administration argues that

the largest trade deal in history. This deal

company in the United States, is currently

arbitration panels, act as both arbitrators

according to the Transnational Institute, “the

most in need of new regulation in areas of

international arbitration tribunals encourage

will expand a system that allows wealthy

in an ongoing legal battle with Ecuador over

and counsels and even call on each other as

Philippines government spent US $58 million

labor, human rights, public health, and the

interstate investment and will incentivize “U.S.

corporations to exploit developing nations

Chevron’s destruction of the Amazon rainforest.

witnesses in arbitration cases.”

to defend two cases against German airport

environment. The TPP will discourage new

companies [to] engage in and benefit from

and will open up the United States to similar

In 2013, Ecuador’s highest court ruled that

operator Fraport—the equivalent of the salaries

regulations, keep operating costs cheap, and

increased trade” by protecting foreign investors

exploitation. This deal, which you may not be

Chevron was responsible for $18 billion dollars

of 12,500 teachers for 1 year, [or] vaccination for

let catastrophes due to negligence (like the BP

against government attempts to expropriate

familiar with, is the Trans-Pacific Partnership

in damages. Unfortunately, the Bilateral

3.8 million children against diseases such as TB,

oil spill) occur without consequence for the

company assets. According to Mark Weaver

(TPP). The current members are: Australia,

Investment Treaty (BIT) between Ecuador and

diphtheria, tetanus, polio.” The average cost of a

corporations responsible.

of Emory Law School, expropriation “involves

Brunei, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico,

the United States gave Chevron an alternative

New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, the United

to paying up. Instead, throughout the process,

States, and Vietnam. Together these countries

Chevron has been conducting a separate legal

compose 40 percent of world GDP and 26

campaign through an international arbitration

percent of world trade.

tribunal. In 2013, the international arbitration

Despite its importance, the deal is hardly

tribunal absolved them of any responsibility for environmental damage done based on a paltry

The corruption and problems with the international arbitration tribunals are not limited to the incestuous nature of the relationship between the judges and lawyers suing on behalf of the corporations. The Transnational Institute’s report continues, “Several prominent arbitrators have been members of the board of major multinational corporations, including those which have filed cases against developing nations.” The bias in such cases is self-evident.

a small amount, and the costs go beyond the settlements and lawyers’ fees.

THE TPP: EXPANDING AN ABUSIVE SYSTEM

$50 million dollar cleanup.

As a result of ties to the suing multinational corporations and their lawyers, the Institute

Of the 12 countries currently negotiating the

the deal has been kept secret from Congress

While Ecuador is considering pulling out of

finds that “arbitrators have failed to consider

terms of the Trans-Pacific Partnership, ten,

and the American people. In fact, only the

the BIT, doing so could come at a substantial

anything but corporations’ claims of lost

including the United States, have agreed to

administrations of the negotiating countries

economic cost. Ecuador would lose out on all

profits in their rulings” and rejected the idea of

be subject to lawsuits held in these infamous

covered by the mainstream media. While there have been some leaks in the negotiations,

and roughly six hundred “trade advisors” are

the benefits of such trade deals, and could also

giving “greater consideration to international

international arbitration tribunals. The TPP

in the know.

potentially lose any assets in the United States

environmental and human rights law in

would authorize these tribunals “to order

equal to the costs of Chevron’s lawyer fees if

investment arbitration.” That’s wonderful news

unlimited sums of taxpayer compensation

Ecuador refuses to pay them.

for multinational corporations interested in

for health, environmental, financial and other

These so called “trade advisors” are really lobbyists for various wealthy and influential corporations and are pushing policies that will benefit their employers at great cost to the world. Some of the most well-known companies in the world, from IBM and Intel to Ford and Coca-Cola, pepper the list.

ECUADOR VS. CHEVRON These companies have various interests at stake in the TPP negotiations, but they stand

public interest policies seen as frustrating

Not only could Chevron (or any other company) avoid having to pay for environmental or health damages, they could sue the government for enacting policies in response to the malfeasance.

to gain the most from the expansion of the investor-state dispute system to the countries in the TPP. This system would empower

CORRUPTION WITHIN TRIBUNALS

exploitative and destructive business practices, but extremely troubling to the average person.

a host state directly or indirectly nationalizing

case amounts to roughly $8 million dollars. Not

the corporations’ expectations.” The amount is based on the “expected future profits” the

The three private attorneys who serve on the tribunals often rotate between suing governments on behalf of corporations and serving as judges on the tribunals.

and impartial way to resolve disputes” according to proponents of the system. Although it is true that some nations have nationalized industries or otherwise expropriated company assets in the past, the scope of international arbitration tribunals goes far beyond measures to prevent expropriation.

Even if proponents of the investor-state dispute system are correct that the investor-state dispute system would help attract foreign investors, the costs are too great. International arbitration tribunals overwhelmingly favor companies and give companies the power to discourage sovereign nations from passing important regulation that might hurt a

The TPP will also amplify the tribunal’s ability

company’s profits, but help people. The TPP

have earned “in the absence of the public

to enforce their rulings, which exposes the US

will be the single largest trade agreement to

policy it is attacking.”

to risks previously only felt by economically

date that pushes this corrupt system. It opens

weak nations. Under the TPP, refusal to comply

up more countries to lawsuits through these

could result in asset seizure in any of the twelve

tribunals and puts the United States at a more

countries that signed the TPP. Furthermore,

serious risk of losing one. In the 21st century,

unlike smaller trade deals with developing

anything from raising the minimum wage to

nations, pulling out of the TPP to avoid

putting a cap on carbon emissions is going to

enforcement would incur significant costs.

cut into corporate profits – that doesn’t make

While the current system protects corporations from paying up when they are sued by nations, under the TPP, corporations will have the authority to prosecute signatories of the TPP for enacting regulatory policies if the policy cuts into the company’s expected future profits. Not only could Chevron (or any other company)

Lastly, until now, the United States has

The tribunal’s decision seems awfully

Much of the evidence regarding international

avoid having to pay for environmental or health

signed trade agreements including provisions

laws to directly sue TPP governments in foreign

convenient, and one might not be too surprised

arbitration disputes shows that colonialism

damages, they could sue the government

for international arbitration tribunals with

tribunals.” The foreign tribunals, known as

to learn that the three private attorneys who

has not disappeared, it has simply changed its

for enacting policies in response to the

developing nations. Capital generally flowed

international arbitration tribunals, pose serious

serve on the tribunals often rotate between

face. Multinational corporations based in the

malfeasance.

from the United States to these developing

risks to the ability of sovereign nations to

suing governments on behalf of corporations

West with ties to the elite Western law firms

protect the best interests of their citizens by

and serving as judges on the tribunals. In fact,

that make up both the counsel and the judges

expanding environmental, labor, and public

according to the Transnational Institute, a

typically sue and profit immensely from the

health regulations. This is exemplified in an

European think tank partially funded by the

system. Developing nations are forced to pay

ongoing case between current TPP member

European Union, “Just 15 arbitrators, nearly all

hefty settlements in addition to legal fees with

Ecuador, and Chevron, which has also been

from Europe, the U.S. or Canada, have decided

taxpayer money that could be better spent on

represented in TPP negotiations.

55 percent of all known investment-treaty

improving the country.

24

international arbitration tribunal is “an efficient

tribunal surmises that the corporation would

“foreign firms …to skirt domestic courts and

disputes. This small group of lawyers, referred

an investment of a foreign investor.” The

Lawyers in international arbitration disputes explicitly “encourage corporations to use lawsuit threats as a political weapon in order to weaken or prevent laws on public health or environmental protection.” As a result, developing nations are especially weakened by any strengthening of international arbitration

those policies undesirable.

nations, not the other way around, meaning US companies would sue the governments of developing nations. However, Japan and Australia, are capital rich nations with wealthy companies capable of launching successful lawsuits against the United States. This raises serious concerns that regulations meant to protect American citizens will be in jeopardy.

Samuel Leiter is a freshman in the College of Arts and Sciences. He can be reached at sjleiter@wustl.edu.

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