SOCIAL 8

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Lesson 1

Physical Characteristics of Asia

The world Asia which originated from the Aegean word ―Asu‖, meaning the breaking of down, was first used by the Greeks but is not found in any vocabulary of Asian languages.

Asia is the largest continent in the world which measures 48, 680, 144 square kilometers. It covers 1/3 of the total land area of the world, while the remaining 2/3 is divided into 6 continents: North America, South America, Europe, Antartica, Africa and Oceania including Australia. Asia is divided into 5 regions on the bases of topography, physical characteristic, climate, culture and race in each country.

Southwest Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, East Asia, and North Asia. Asia includes 49 countries (including east Timor). At present Asia has an estimated 3, 998 billion populations. It has be said that the extent of the container is equal to the number of different races in it. It comprises different religions, languages, customs and beliefs of Asians.

Asia is also panorama of nations. Some of the world‘s largest and smallest nations in terms of area and population are located in Asia.

Topography and Climate Southwest Asia is known for its oil mines which are the region‘s most important product.

Southwest Asia has a total land area of 6, 830, 956 square kilometers. Most of these lands are desert, are rocky, mountainous and rough.

Climate varies according to location. Extreme or average cold and hot climate are observed in this region. There are also places that do not experience rainy season.

Natural resources Southwest Asia is rich in natural resources like clay, which is used in making pots, briks and jars. Marbles, cement, gold, bronze, tin, mercury, and oil are also found in the region. Oil is considered the most important natural resources in Southwest Asian countries as half of their livelihood depends on it. The biggest oil deposits in Asia are found in Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar and Oman.

Farming is not suited in Southwest Asia because of its climate. However, many Southwest Asians still engage themselves in farming especially those in coastal areas and in places where there is regular rainfall.

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Countries in Southwest Asia 1. Afghanistan- Way of the Ancient Invader 2. Armenia- Historical Remnants of the Past 3. Azerbaijan- Land of the brave warrior 4. Bahrain- land of Two Rivers 5. Cyprus- Rich Land in the Mediterranean River 6. Georgia- The Richest republic in the former Soviet Union 7. Iran- land of the great Emperor 8. Iraq- land of the First Civilization 9. Israel- Birthplace of Judaism and Christianity 10. Jordan- land of the Sacred and the Secular 11. Kuwait- Remnants of the Historical Typhoon in the Desert 12. Lebanon- Forerunner of Civilization 13. Oman- Little Kingdom in the Powerful Monarchy 14. Qutar- land of the Seven Shiekdom 15. Saudia Arabia- Birthplace of Islam 16. Syria- land of Saladin 17. Turkey- Land of the Ottoman Turk 18. United Arab Emirates (UAE)- Pirate Coast 19. Yemen- Land of Sheba Exploration Answer what are asked in the following sentences.

1.

2.

3.

4.

What are the five regions in Asia?

Which country in Southwest Asia has a climate which is similar to desert?

From what perspective should we study Asia?

In your opinion, how are the countries in Asia grouped and what are the bases for their groupings? Explain.

5. Why are the places surrounding Iraq called the Fertile Crescent? How do the two rivers help in the livelihood of the people?

Group the different countries inside the box according to the regions where they belong and write their respective capital cities.

Lebanon Iran Oman

North Korea

Thailand

China

Taiwan

Cyprus Turkey

Mongolia

Siberia

Bhutan

Maldives

Make a pie graph showing the different continents in the world. Provide the correct figures representing the size of each continent.

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Terms to define 1. Geography 2. Topography 3. Peninsula 4. Archipelago 5. Mountain 6. Desert 7. Starit 8. Climate 9. Weather 10. Taiga 11. Plateau 12. Volcano 13. Lakes 14. Tundra 15. Humidity 16. Precipitation 17. Levant 18. Latitude 19. Deciduous 20. Steppe 21. Savanna Follow up Questions 1. How is Asia presently divided? Name the countries that belong to each group.

2. Describe the physical features of Asia.

3. Show how mountains affect the climate of the region.

4. Name the different landforms and water forms of Asia. Give examples for each classification.

Activity 1. Draw the map of Asia showing the countries for each region and their capital.

2. Make a table showing the type of climate, their description and the countries that belong to each classification.

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Lesson 2

Theories about the origin of the Philippines

What is the origin of the Philippine? Consider the following explanations: Three phenomena try to explain the origin of the Philippines, diastrophism, volcanism, and gradation. Diastrophism is the movement of the plates in the first layer in the crust of the earth, resulting in the opening of other layers.

An earthquake of tectonic origin is an example of the effect of diastrophism.

Volcanism is the movement of molten lava from beneath the earth to the surface.

The eruption of a volcano shows the phenomenon of volcanism.

Gradation is the leveling of a land surface, resulting from the concerted action of erosion and deposition.

There are also other theories that attempt to explain the origin of the Philippines.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Asiatic Theory of Dr. Leopoldo Faustino Pacific Theory of Dr. Bailey Willis Continental Drift Theory Land Bridges Theory

Asiatic Theory According to Leopoldo Faustino, the Philippines archipelago was formed by the process of diastrophism. The process involves the movement of the earth‘s crust resulting in the rising up of the other parts of the earth and the sinking of some parts.

This happens through folding, faulting and wrapping of lands. It was believed that the Asian Continental Shelf is a part of the Philippines so it was called Asiatic Theory.

According to this theory, the outline of the Philippine archipelago was formed after the Paleozoic Era two hundred million years ago. During this period, there was a widespread and large movement beneath and on the surface of land and ocean. As a result, the part of the land that rose up became mountains, hills and cliffs and the part that sank became oceans and other bodies of water. When the land mass in Asia moved to the south, it caused depression and the outline of the archipelago appeared. As evidence of this, the ocean that separates the Philippines and the continent is shallow while the Pacific Ocean in the eastern part of the country is deep. The mountain ranges in the country passes through the coast of the continent.

These are some of the evidence which prove that the Philippines is connected the continent of Asia.

Pacific Theory Bailey Wills was the first scientist who theorized that the Philippines archipelago was formed by eruption of volcanoes under the Pacific Ocean in the Young Ji international School / College

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eastern boundary of Asia. This is called the Pacific Theory According to this theory; the eruption of volcanoes took place two hundred million years ago. Through the process of volcanism, the molten lava under the volcanoes that were closer separated because of the force of the eruption. This was also the cause why there are wide bodies of water in between the islands. The process of volcanism happened not only in the Philippines but also in Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia, Solomon Islands and New Zealand. These countries are located in the Ring of Fire. There are two hundred fifty five active volcanoes found in these countries. The Philippines has twenty four active volcanoes that often erupt. The Philippines is also located in the Circum-pacific belt where earthquake often occurs.

Continental Drift Theory Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist stated that two hundred million years ago, Pangea or Pangara, the only existing continent was divided into two; the Laurasia in the northern hemisphere and the Gondiwanaland in the southern hemisphere. It was believed that the Philippines was part of laurasia. In fact, before the Pleistocene Period there was a land bridge that connected the Philippines and Vietnam. As the Earth rotated the Philippines floated from the continent of Asia and finally separated from it. The location of the country now is called the Philippines plate which is a subplate of the Eurasian Plate.

Land Bridges Theory According to the land Bridges Theory, the main islands of the country were all connected to each other and the to other countries of Southeast Asia Palawan, Mindanao and Sulu were connected with Borneo and Borneo was connected with other countries in Asia. It was believed that these land bridges served as the roads used by the first inhabitants in our country. The five land bridges formed during that period were the following: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Palawan-Borneo Philippine-Taiwan-Asia Borneo-Sulu-Mindanao Celebes-Mindanao New Guinea-Mindanao

Many geologists accepted the land bridges theory because there was few bridges connecting the Philippines and Asia. After the Ice Age, these land bridges sank. As the ice melted the water in the sea rose causing the lower region of the earth to sink including the land bridges which caused the Philippines to be separated from Asia.

Exploration List down the information asked for in the following: Young Ji international School / College

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A. Three phenomena about the origin of the Philippines _________________________________________. _________________________________________. _________________________________________.

B. Four theories about the origin of the Philippines _________________________________________. _________________________________________. _________________________________________. _________________________________________.

Introspection 1. Which theory about the origin of the Philippines is acceptable to you? Why? 2. Is it important for you t know the different theories regarding the origin of the Philippines even if you believe that the world is created by God? Why?

Lesson 3

South Asia

South Asia is a very panoramic region. Its impressive physical features and diverse cultures and technologies make up what we term a many-faceted land.

The whole of South Asia has an area of 4, 489, 240 sq. km. it is composed of India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Bhutan, Maldives, and Sri Lanka. The biggest country in South Asia is India, Pakistan and Bangladesh were originally part of India.

Topography and Climate There are different kinds of soil in South Asia. Alluvial soil is found in the plains of Indo Gangetic, the wide central part of the subcontinent of India from Bengal Bay in the east to Arabian Sea to the west. There is also the reddish laterite which is rich in iron-oxide, quasi-laterite like. The soil in the Indian Peninsula is basalt and is found in the Deccan Plateau.

China in South Asia varies. It is cold during the months of December until February, warm and dry from March to May and humid with shower during the months of June, July, August and September. The climate is very cold with snow in some parts of South Asia, like that of the Mt. Everest.

Agriculture Wheat, rice, barley, sugarcane, corn, peanut and cotton are planted in the plains and valleys of Indus River, Ganges and Brahmaputra. The principal products of the region are jute, ivory, rubber and cotton.

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Farming is progressive in the region because of the Indus and Ganges Rivers which flow with melted ice into the Himalayan mountain ranges. They serve as irrigation in the fields near the valleys, plateaus and plains of India.

Natural resources There are many mineral reasons in South Asia. The Decan Platea is a source of metal, limestone and manganese in the region. Carbon, silver, chromites, vanadium, ruby and sapphire are also found in the region.

Countries in South Asia Bangladesh- Land of the Bengali Bangladesh is formerly a part of east Pakistan or east Bengal. It is located on the eastern part of India and is surrounded by Nepal, Bhutan, and Myanmar.

The country has a wide and fertile delta wherein the Ganges and Brahmaputra flow to the Bengal bay. This makes agriculture progressive in Bangladesh. Jute is the country‘s principal product. However, Bangladesh is still one of the poorest countries in the world because of calamities that brought damages to farm products and livestock‘s.

The country has made significant progress in human development in the areas of literacy, gender parity in schools and reductions of population growth.

However, Bangladesh continues to face a number of major challenges, including widespread political and bureau tic corruption, economic competition relative to the world, serious overpopulation, widespread poverty and an increasing danger of hydrologic shocks brought by ecological vulnerability to climate change.

Bhutan- land of Lions with Good Bearing Bhutan is located between India and China. Climate is hot in the lowlands and the climate is cold in the highlands near the Himalayas. There are also places that experience snow the whole year round. Most of the communities in the country are located far from each other because of the topography. The Bhutanese call their country Druk Yul, which means the ―land of the dragon‖.

Bhutan balanced modernization with ancient culture and traditions under the guiding philosophy of Gross national Happiness. Rampant destruction of the environment has ben avoided. The government takes greats measures to preserve the nation‘s traditional culture, identity and the environment.

India- Birthplace of Buddhism and Hinduism India has a total land area of 3, 287, 590 square kilometers, and ranks seventh among the largest countries in the world.

India is surrounded by Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh. It is a big peninsula facing the Indian Ocean.

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Twenty three percent of the land in India is covered with forest where wild animals live. Although fifty seven percent of the Land is agricultural, harvest is not good due to irregular rainfall.

Economic reforms since 1991 have transformed India into one of the fastest growing economies in the world. However, it still suffers from poverty, literacy disease and malnutrition. A pluralistic, multingual and multiethnic society, India is also home to diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats Maldives- Islet of East Asia The republic of Maldives is the smallest country in Asia.

Maldives is composed of 1, 200 small islands of corals in the Indian Ocean.

There are wide bodies of water in the country and fishing is its main resources of livelihood. There are many beautiful beaches with white sand which are good for swimming and strolling. The people use boat as means of transportation and for earning a living. The agricultural products are breadfruit, pepper, coconut and sweet potato.

Nepal- land of the Great Himalayas The Kingdom of Nepal is located in the mountain ranges of the Himalayas with China on the north and India on the south. It is divided into three principal geographical divisions the Upper region, the Mountainous region and Swamp, Forested and Farmland region.

The Nepalese live by means of farming and logging. Climate in Nepal varies according to location.

Nepal is a country of highly diverse and rich geography, culture and religion.

The mountainous North has eight of the worlds ten highest mountains, including the highest, Sagarmatha, known in English as Mount Everest.

Pakistan- land Born from India Pakistan comprises an area of 803, 940 sq. km. and is considered the home of Muslim Indians.

Located in the northwestern part of India, Pakistan is surrounded by Iran, Afghanistan and China. Pakistan is mountainous with three mountain ranges: the Himalayas, Karokorams, and Hindu Kush. Climate varies according to the season and location.

Sri Lanka- Land of the Jewels Formerly Ceylon, Sri Lanka is considered one of the world‘s loveliest places.

Sri Lanka is located on the southwest and central part of Asia, on the southern part of India. A strait separates the country from India. The southern part is mountainous and plains are found in the northern part. Beautiful sceneries are also found in the plateaus.

Temperature is high in Sri Lanka because the country is located near the equator. Tea is the country‘s principal product.

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The country is famous for the production and export of tea, coffe, coconut, rubber and cinnamon-which is native to the country.

Exploration I. Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.

1-2 The two countries referred to as former parts of the India are ______________ and ___________.

3-4 The __________ and __________ serve as the sources of irrigation in northern India.

5. The biggest country in South Asia is _______________.

6. Located between India and China is ______________.

7-10. The types of soil found in South Asia are _____________________, ___________________, _____________________, and ________________.

II. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the types of climate in South Asia?

2. What are the means of livelihood in South Asia?

3. What are the different products in South Asia?

4. How do the Indus River and the Ganges River help the people of South Asia for their livelihood? Explain.

Lesson 4

East Asia

East Asia has been traditionally called Far East. The term ―far east‖ indicates the remote eastern edge of Asia with its island rights that face the Pacific Ocean.

East Asia is composed of Japan, Korea, Mongolia, China and Taiwan. It has a total land area of 11, 794 sq. km. according to experts, East Asia is the most secluded region in Asia as there are many obstacles before reaching the region like the mountain in Western China, deserts in central Asia and the vast oceans going to Southeast Asia.

Topography East Asia is a mountainous region. If you look closely at the map of China, you will notice that China is divided into two parts by mountain ranges in the west going to the east.

Weather condition in East Asia is brought by southwest monsoon and is considered as monsoon climate. Due to the vastness of the region, climate in the different countries of East Asia varies. Countries found in the lower latitude Young Ji international School / College

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experience warm weather and other places in East Asia like Himalayas are covered with ice.

Natural Resources The mountain range of greater Kingan is in the northern part of China which looks like a sentry to the plains of Manchuria and occupies the lower side of the Shansi plateau. The plateaus cover wide reserves of carbon. Deposits of carbon, metal and oil are found in East Manchuria and minerals like gravel and sand are found in the surroundings of Hwang Ho River while a big deposit of metal is found in the Yangtze River.

Countries in East Asia Japan – land of the Rising Sun Japan was called Nippon by its people which means ―Land of the Rising Sun‖.

Japan is an archipelago in the east coast of Asia. It is surrounded by Russia in the north, Korea in the west and Taiwan in south. It has four principal islands: Hokkaido, Kyushu, Honshu, and Shikoku. Most of these islands are rocky and mountainous. There are many volcanoes in the country and some of them are active.

Many Japanese are engaged in farming proof of this is the rice fields in plants near the seacoast of the country. In addition, they made terraces in the hills like the Banawe Rice Terraces in Mountain Province in the Philippines. Farming is progressive in the country although at present only one fifth of the total land area is utilized for farming.

Korea Korea is formerly as Choson, and is also romantically called the ―Land of the Morning Calm‖ because of her serene, misty mornings.

Korea is a peninsula surrounded by China, Russia and Japan and has a total land area of 219, 027 sq. km.

Korea is mountainous especially in the eastern part. It is 160 kilometers away from Japan and is near the province of Manchi which is believed to be origin of the Koreans.

Valleys, brooks and farms are found in the western part of Korea. Rice and barley are the principle crops planted and harvested in Korea. Although there are few minerals found in the country it has vast expense of forests which serve as the source of livelihood for Koreans. North Korea occupied a big part of the country than South Korea but have the same rich rice fields and mountainous places which are the sources of their industries.

Mongolia – Land of the Cavalier Mongolia is one of the biggest countries in Asia. It has a vast expanse of plains and tending of animals is the chief source of livelihood which improves the Young Ji international School / College

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country‘s economy. In Mongolia, animals are more take care by the people than their population.

Mongolia is surrounded by Russia and china. The climate varies-it is very hot in the desert and is uninhabited. Climate in the mountains however is cold.

Deposits of charcoal, gold, tungsten, uranium and gas are found in the country.

Lands forms in Mongolia include plateaus, deserts and mountains. Farming is not the source of livelihood in the country because it seldom rains and the climate is very hot. As a re result, there is scarcity of good and people move from one place to another to look for pasture lands for their animals. The development of civilization in Mongolia is slow as their physical characteristics are not suited for investment.

The mountainous part of the country that often experiences rainy days is located in the north and northwestern parts. These parts are grassy which good pasture lands for animals are. The rocky Gobi desert is on the south, and divides Mongolia into two parts: the Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia. Outer Mongolia is not plain but enough supply of irrigation.

Taiwan- Country in Search of self-Identity Taiwan is formerly known as Formosa. When Portuguese navigators changed upon Taiwan in 1590, they called the island ―llha Formosa‖ or ―Beautiful Island‖ because of its scenic beauty. It is a mountainous island and is 140 kilometers away from the coast of China.

China – Red Dragon of Asia The name China was taken from Chi‘n, the fourth dynasty which ruled the country from 221-206 B.C. considered as the third largest country in the world.

Explanation I. Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.

1. Minerals like gravel and sand can be found in _______________.

2. The climate of Japan is ___________________.

3. Taiwan is formerly known as ________________.

4. The third biggest country in the world is ____________________.

5. Tending of animals largely helps the economy of _____________.

6. Almost all of the provinces of China have deposits of _______________.

7. The origin of the first Korean is ________________.

II. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the natural resources found in East Asia? What do you think is the relationship of these natural resources and the general economic situation of East Asia?

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2. To which does the economy of Mongolia depend on? Why? 3. How does Taiwan increase its crops?

4. Why was Korea divided into two?

Terms to Identify 1. Tundra 2. Taiga 3. Steppes 4. Caviar 5. Natural gas 6. Loess 7. Metal 8. Natural resources 9. Fossil 10. Handcraft Follow up Questions 1. Name the natural resources of the following regions: a. North Asia b. East Asia c. Southeast Asia d. South Asia e. Southwest Asia 2. Show why some countries produce more agricultural products that the others.

3. Explain the steps taken by Asians to discover substitutes for oil.

4. What are the different gems found in Asia? Which country produces them?

5. Discuss the role played by physical features and climate on the natural resources of a nation.

Activity 1. Make an economic map of Asia showing the products of each country.

2. Make a scrapbook of the raw materials found in Asia and opposite each list the finished products that can be made from them.

3. Make a research on how to conserve and properly use natural resources.

4. Make a research on other sources of energy in the Philippines. Identify the places in the Philippines where they are being used and produced.

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Lesson 5

Central and North Asia

Topography and Climate Mount Ural which is located in Russia separates the continents of Asia and Europe. Siberia is the wide region located in Russia. It has a very cold climate so the place is uninhabited; however, fertile soil can be found in some places. The there principal rivers in the region Ob, Yenisey and lena are always covered with ice which flow all the way to Arctic Ocean. The cold reason in Central Asia usually last for six months so warm season is short.

Natural Resources Although covered with ice, rich deposits of minerals like carbon, steel, oil, metal tin, gold and diamond are found I the region. Food production is slow due to extreme cold temperature.

Countries in Central Asia  Kazakhstan- land of Promise for Oil Industry Kazakhstan was a former territory of the Soviet Union but it separated to form an independence republic. It is surrounded by Russia on the north and west; Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan on the south and China on the southeast.

Kazakhstan is a mountain country. The plains are almost dry and do not have trees. It has also a wide desert. Farm lands can only be seen in the northern part of the country.

The main industry of Kazakhstan mining and oil refinery. It has rich deposits of bronze, lead, zinc, nickel, metal, manganese, gold and silver.  Kyrgyzstan – Mountainous Country in Western Asia Like Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan was a former territory of the Soviet Union and declared its independence in 1991 after its collapse.

Kyrgyzstan is surrounded by Kazakhstan on the north, China on the east, Tajikistan on the south and Uzbekistan on the west.

There are many mountain ranges, valleys, plateaus and big potholes in the country. Kyrgyzstan is rich in minerals with mining as one of its industries.  Tajikistan- rebel State of Former Soviet Union Tajikistan is surrounded by Uzbekistan on the west, Kyrgyzstan on the north, China on the east and Afghanistan on the south.

The country is mountainous and many of the mountains are covered with ice.

Farming is the main livelihood of the people and their main product are cotton rice, wheat and fruits. Tajikistan is rich in minerals with rich deposits of oil, uranium, mercury, charcoal, lead and zinc.

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 Turkmenistan Turkmenistan is a country with a very hot climate which explains its dry and barren land. It seldom rains in the country because a big part of it is occupied by the Karakum Desert.

Turkmenistan is found near the Caspian Sea and its surrounded by Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan and Iran. It has a total land area of 488, 100 sq. km.

Although the land is barren, the people produce cotton, grapes, corn and wheat.

Oil is the most important product of the country. It has also deposits of sulfur and charcoal.  Uzbekistan- Center of the Ancient Silk Road A country in Central Asia which is bounded by Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan and Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan is the leading producer of cotton in the world.  Russia Russia is the largest country in the world. It occupies 1/9 of the total land area of the world and covers one part of Europe and one part of Asia.

Exploration I. Copy the chart in your notebook and write down the needed information. Analyze the data gathered and report them in class.

Name of Land area Present head Principal Gross National country of state Products product

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II. Analyze the following questions.

1. Is food production really slow in Central Asia? Support your answer.

2. How does climate affect the livelihood in central Asia? Explain your answer.

3. Why are there very few natural resources in Siberia?

4. What is the most important product in Turkmenistan? Why?

Lesson 6

Legalism: law as the Moving Force of Society

Like Taoism, Legalism, has no single founder. It was born out of the collective idea of people with similar ideas and beliefs.

Legalism believes in the law as the highest authority. It has three most significant elements: the fa (law), the shi (legitimacy of the leader), and the shu (method of leadership) Fa, or the law. In ancient times, the law was the domain of the leader. No one knew what the law was because it was the leader‘s prerogative. He had the right to change it as he pleased. The assumption was that the leader could change the law out of his goodwill based on the merits of the cases or issues involved. On the other hand, the change could also be the result of anomaly or corruption.

In Legalism, the law is written and is disseminated to the people. Everyone under the leader is equal according to the law. The system of law governs the state rather than the leader. The king and his ministers are regarded as mere parts of the system or machinery of the state and despite the underserved status or ineptitude of the leader, the state can still function because of the existence of law and order. The law is implemented based on a system of strict rewards and punishments.

Shi or the legitimacy of the leader. Unlike other philosophies that look for the highest intellect and sense of morality as the qualifications of a leader. Legalism gives credence to the power of the position and not the individual occupying it.

Legalism is a pessimistic philosophy. Its followers contend that while having a sage or philosopher-leader is ideal, only a few people actually fit the requirements. The more practical method is to have a system of governance that even an ordinary leader can administer and the state remains solid. The maintenance of order should be given priority.

Therefore, whoever leads can be powerful because of the authority of the position and not through any special quality or skill.

Shu (method of leadership). The discussion on morality and nature of people has no place in Legalism. Benevolence has nothing to do and has no role in the governance of the state; as long as the people are strongly and strictly governed, they will neither become lazy nor lose respect for authority. Laws based on benevolence are only applicable in the short term. Eventually, it will serve as reasons for chaos and downfall. If Taoism and Confucianism value the past, Legalism turns Young Ji international School / College

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its back on it. The conditions of the past are different, and previous successes may not necessarily carry over to the present.

Important Texts. The han Feizi is considered as the basic guidebook of Legalism. It contains teaching that should be learned by a king. It has 55 chapters on various themes. Other chapters are similar to the Taoist precepts on the things that a leader should avoid. Some examples of these advices are as follows for the king not to give complete trust to his ministers and women, and avoidance.

Han Feizi was trained in the Confucian tradition. Because he stuttered when he spoke, han Feizi was not able to do what common philosophers normally didtravel to various kingdoms to discuss travel to various.

Taoism: Unity with the Flow of nature Taoism, or Daoism, is a philosophical, ethical, and religious tradition of Chinese origin that emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao (also romanized as Dao). The term Tao means "way", "path" or "principle", and can also be found in Chinese philosophies and religions other than Taoism. In Taoism, however, Tao denotes something that is both the source and the driving force behind everything that exists. It is ultimately ineffable: "The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao." While Taoism drew its cosmological notions from the tenets of the School of Yin Yang, the Tao Te Ching, a compact and ambiguous book containing teachings attributed to Laozi (Chinese: 老子; pinyin: Lǎozǐ; Wade–Giles: Lao Tzu), is widely considered its keystone work. Together with the writings of Zhuangzi, these two texts build the philosophical foundation of Taoism. This philosophical Taoism, individualistic by nature, is not institutionalized.

Institutionalized forms, however, evolved over time in the shape of a number of different schools. Taoist schools traditionally feature reverence for Laozi, immortals or ancestors, along with a variety of divination and exorcism rituals, and practices for achieving ecstasy, longevity or immortality.

Taoist propriety and ethics may vary depending on the particular school, but in general tends to emphasize wu-wei (action through non-action), "naturalness", simplicity, spontaneity, and the Three Treasures: compassion, moderation, and humility.

Taoism has had profound influence on Chinese culture in the course of the centuries, and clerics of institutionalised Taoism (Chinese: 道士; pinyin:dàoshi) usually take care to note distinction between their ritual tradition and the customs and practices found in Chinese folk religion as these distinctions sometimes appear blurred. Chinese alchemy (especially neidan), Chinese astrology, Chan (Zen) Buddhism, several martial arts, Traditional Chinese medicine, feng shui, and many styles of qigong have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history. Beyond China, Taoism also had influence on surrounding societies in Asia.

After Laozi and Zhuangzi, the literature of Taoism grew steadily and was compiled in form of a canon—the Daozang—which was published at the behest of Young Ji international School / College

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the emperor. Throughout Chinese history, Taoism was several times nominated as a state religion. After the 17th century, however, it fell from favor.

Like other religious activity, Taoism was suppressed in the first decades of the People's Republic of China (and even persecuted during the Cultural Revolution). Today, it is one of five religions recognized in the PRC, and although it does not travel readily from its Asian roots, claims adherents in a number of societies. Taoism also has sizable community in Taiwan and in Southeast Asia.

A Chinese philosopher defines Daoism as ―early forms come from understanding and experience of the dao. Experience of the dao is an irreducible element of the formation and transformation of Chinese experience of the ultimate‖.

Origins and development

Laozi is traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism and is closely associated in this context with "original", or "primordial", Taoism. Whether he actually existed is disputed; however, the work attributed to him – the Tao Te Ching – is dated to the late 4th century BC Taoism draws its cosmological foundations from the School of Naturalists(in form of its main elements – yin and yang and the Five Phases), which developed during the Warring States period (4th to 3rd centuries BC).

Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism: 1. Philosophical Taoism, i.e. the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi 2. techniques for achieving ecstasy 3. practices for achieving longevity or immortality 4. exorcism.

Some elements of Taoism may be traced to prehistoric folk religions in China that later coalesced into a Taoist tradition. In particular, many Taoist practices drew from the Warring-States-era phenomena of the wu (connected to the "shamanism" of Southern China) and the fangshi (which probably derived from the "archivistsoothsayers of antiquity, one of whom supposedly was Laozi himself"), even though later Taoists insisted that this was not the case. Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to "... magic, medicine, divination, methods of longevity and to ecstatic wanderings" as well as exorcism; in the case of the wu, "shamans" or "sorcerers" is often used as a translation. Thefangshi were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists, and relied much on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities.

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The first organized form of Taoism, the Tianshi (Celestial Masters') school (later known as Zhengyi school), developed from the Five Pecks of Rice movement at the end of the 2nd century CE; the latter had been founded by Zhang Daoling, who claimed that Laozi appeared to him in the year 142. The Tianshi School was officially recognized by ruler Cao Caoin 215, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return. Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE. Taoism, in form of the Shangqing school, gained official status in China again during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative.

The Shangqing movement, however, had developed much earlier, in the 4th century, on the basis of a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a certain Yang Xi in the years between 364 to 370.

Between 397 and 402, Ge Chaofu compiled a series of scriptures which later served as the foundation of the Lingbao school, which unfolded its greatest influence during the Song Dynasty (960–1279). Several Song emperors, most notably Huizong, were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts and publishing editions of the Daozang.

In the 12th century, the Quanzhen School was founded in Shandong. It flourished during the 13th and 14th century and during the Yuan dynasty became the largest and most important Taoist school in Northern China. The school's most revered master, Qiu Chuji, met with Genghis Khan in 1222 and was successful in influencing the Khan towards exerting more restraint during his brutal conquests. By the Khan's decree, the school also was exempt from taxation.

Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes under the Ming (1368–1644).[36] The Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), however, much favored Confucian classics over Taoist works.

During the 18th century, the imperial library was constituted, but excluded virtually all Taoist books. By the beginning of the 20th century, Taoism had fallen much from favor (for example, only one complete copy of the Daozang still remained, at the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing).

Today, Taoism is one of five religions recognized by the People's Republic of China. The government regulates its activities through the Chinese Taoist Association. Taoism is freely practiced in Taiwan, where it claims millions of adherents.

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Ethics

A Taoist Temple in Taiwan, showing elements of the Jingxiang religious practice and sculptures of Dragon and Lion guardians Taoism tends to emphasize various themes of the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi, such as naturalness, spontaneity, simplicity, detachment from desires, and most important of all, wu wei. However, the concepts of those keystone texts cannot be equated with Taoism as a whole.

Tao and Te[ Tao (Chinese: 道; pinyin: dào) literally means "way", but can also be interpreted as road, channel, path, doctrine, or line. [42] In Taoism, it is "the One, which is natural, spontaneous, eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It is at once the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue their course." It has variously been denoted as the "flow of the universe", a "conceptually necessary ontological ground",or a demonstration of nature. The Tao also is something that individuals can find immanent in themselves.

The active expression of Tao is called Te (also spelled – and pronounced – De, or evenTeh; often translated with Virtue or Power; Chinese: 德; pinyin: dé),[48] in a sense that Te results from an individual living and cultivating the Tao. Wu-wei The

ambiguous

term wu-wei (simplified

Chinese: 无为; traditional

Chinese: 無爲; pinyin: wú wéi) constitutes the leading ethical concept in Taoism.

Wei refers to any intentional or deliberated action, while wu carries the meaning of "there is no ..." or "lacking, without". Common translations are "nonaction", "effortless action" or "action without intent". The meaning is sometimes emphasized by using the paradoxical expression "wei wu wei": "action without action".

In ancient Taoist texts, wu-wei is associated with water through its yielding nature. Taoist philosophy proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts their will against the world, they disrupt that harmony. Taoism does not identify one's will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that one must place their will in harmony with the natural universe. Thus, a potentially harmful interference must be avoided, and in this way, goals can be Young Ji international School / College

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achieved effortlessly. "By wu-wei, the sage seeks to come into harmony with the great Tao, which itself accomplishes by nonaction."

Naturalness Naturalness (Chinese: 自然; pinyin: zìrán; Wade–Giles: tzu-jan; lit. "self-such") is regarded as a central value in Taoism.[56]It describes the "primordial state" of all things as well as a basic character of the Tao, and is usually associated with spontaneity and creativity. To attain naturalness, one has to identify with the Tao; this involves freeing oneself from selfishness and desire, and appreciating simplicity.

An often cited metaphor for naturalness is pu (simplified Chinese: 朴; traditional Chinese: 樸; pinyin: pǔ, pú; Wade–Giles:p'u; lit. "uncut wood"), the "uncarved block", which represents the "original nature... prior to the imprint of culture" of an individual. It is usually referred to as a state one returns to.

Three Treasures The Taoist Three Treasures or Three Jewels (simplified Chinese: 三宝; traditional Chinese: 三寶; pinyin: sānbǎo) comprise the basic virtues of ci (Chinese: 慈; pinyin: cí, usually translated as compassion), jian (Chinese: 俭; pinyin: jiǎn, usually translated asmoderation), and bugan wei tianxia xian (Chinese: 不敢为天下先; pinyin: bùgǎn wéi tiānxià xiān, literally "not daring to act as first under the heavens", but usually translated ashumility).

As the "practical, political side" of Taoist philosophy, Arthur Waley translated them as "abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal to assert active authority".

The Three Treasures can also refer to jing, qi and shen (Chinese: 精氣神; pinyin: jīng-qì-shén; jing is usually translated with "essence" and shen with "spirit"). These terms are elements of the traditional Chinese concept of the human body, which shares its cosmological foundation Yinyangism - with Taoism. Within this framework, they play an important role in neidan ("Taoist yoga").

I. Identification. Identify the following questions. __________________1. It was formerly called by the western writers as Central Asia. __________________2. It is a land almost surrounded water and connected with the mainland by an isthmus. __________________3. It is composed of several islands like the Philippines.

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__________________4. It is a plain with high elevation and it is sometimes known as tableland. __________________5. It was formerly known as Far East, the area fronting the Pacific Ocean. __________________6. It is a mass of land that raises high above their surroundings. __________________7. It is a spring in the earth‘s surface surrounded by an accumulation of ejected material forming a hill or mountain from which heated matter is or has been ejected. __________________8. It is a broad, level land formation __________________9. It is land without plants due to its sandy structure. __________________10. It is the biggest body of water. __________________11. It is a large, natural stream of water usually fed by converging tributaries its course and discharging into a larger body of water, as into the ocean, sea, or lake. __________________12. It is a body of water surrounded by land. __________________13. It is a body of water partly enclosed by land. __________________14. It is a narrow body of water connecting two big bodies of water. __________________15. It is the only continent in the world to experience all kinds of climate from the freezing cold of Siberia to the hot temperatures at the deserts of western Asia II. Multiple Choices. Encircle the correct answer.

1. It is found approximately from 10° to 25° north and south of the equator. a. Tropical Savanna b. Tropical monsoon c. climate 2. The deepest freshwater lake in the world and the third largest lake in Asia a. Lake Baikal b. Lake Buhi c. lake Chada 3. The highest mountain in the world. a. Mt. Fuji b. Mt. Everest c. Mt. Makalu 4. Smallest volcano in the world a. Mt. Hibok Hibok b. Taal Volcano c. Mt. Kanlaon 5. It refers to marshy plain. a. Taiga b. tundra c. maica 6. Russian word meaning forest a. Taiga b. tundra c. maica 7. Japans major crops a. rice b. pineapple c. corn 8. It provides strength to rail and beams for abrasives in rock crushing machinery. a. iron b. manganese c. metals 9. It is natural resources that cannot be renewed or replaced, unlike plants and animals.

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a. metals b. iron c. manganese 10. It is used to form of radioactive isotopes for scientific experiments, medical research, industry and production of energy in nuclear power plants. a. copper b. uranium c. nonmetals 11. It is a source of energy is the mixtures of gasoline and alcohol which can be used in motor vehicles. a. Alcogas b. biomas c. wind 12. The instrument used captures the energy from the sun. a. Biomas b. solar energy c. biomas 13. Rice granary of the Philippines a. North Luzon b. Central Luzon c. North Mindanao 14. One of the falls in the Philippines that providing the needed power to provide electricity in the areas. a. Maria Cristina Falls b. Angel falls c. Marian Rivera Falls 15. He is a Dutch, discovered the remains of man in Java, Indonesia. a. Dr. Eugene Dubois b. Dr. Haiden Kho c. Dr. Efanio Magnifico 16. The first to use the wheeled vehicle. a. Peking Man b. Sumerians c. Arabians 17. In Summerians they developed a system of writing, using wedge-shaped characters known as a. Ziggurat b. cuneiform c. Potter‘s wheel 18. The outstanding epic of the Babylonians. a. Gilgamesh b. Code of Hammurabi c. cuneiform 19. The Babylonians greatest contribution to world civilization. a. Gilgamesh b. Code of Hammurabi c. cuneiform 20. One of the Seven Wonders of the World. a. Hanging Garden of Babylonians b. Pagsanjan Falls c. Angels Falls 21. What do you call the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers? a. Garden of Eden c. Mesopotamia b. Addamman d. Lebanon 22. Which great king of Akkad founded the world‘s first empire nearly 1000 years before the existence of the Egyptian empire? a. Nabopollassar c. Sargon b. Tiglath Pileser d. Nebuchadnezzar 23. The people of the first military empire were also one of the most cultured in ancient civilization. Who were they? a. Assyrians c. Sumerians b. Chaldeans d. Akkadians 24. What do you call the multi-leveled Sumerian temple resembling a modern skyscraper? a. Pagoda c. ziggurat b. Tower of Babel d. Chonsongdae 25. Which ruler composed one of the first codes of law and founded the Babylonian Empire in about 1800 BC? Young Ji international School / College

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a. Nebuchadnezzar c. Justinian b. Hammurabi d. Sardanalus 26. Which people introduced the use of iron in the ancient world? a. Aramians c. Babylonians b. Akkadians d. Hittites 27. Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos are important cities of which empire? a. Babylonians c. Phoenicia b. Chaldea d. Corinthia 28. Who killed Goliath of Gath for whose act was named successor to King Saul? a. David c. Nehemiah b. Shadrach d. Solomon 29. Nineveh was the capital of which empire? a. Syria c. Sumeria b. Numidia d. Assyria 30. Nebuchadnezzar was the greatest ruler of which empire? a. Achaemenid c. Sumeria b. Macedonia d. Chaldea 31. Who conquered and dissolved the Persian Empire in 331 BC? a. Philip of Macedon c. Gordius b. Cyrus the Great d. Alexander the Great 32. What city in the Fertile Crescent was the site of the famous hanging gardens? a. Jerusalem c. Damascus b. Nineveh d. Babylon 33. The head or supreme god of Babylonians. a. Marduk c. Karduk b. Andok d. Sandok 34. The moon god a. Sin c. Shamash b. Ea d. Singkamsh 35. The god of wisdom and spell a. Sin c. Shamash b. Ea d. Singkamsh III. Answer the following questions. (5 points each) 1. Why Hammurabi was considered one of the great rulers of the ancient period?

2. Describe the physical features of Asia.

3. Why some countries produce more agricultural products than the others?

4. Explain the implications of young population on the economy of a nation.

IV. Enumeration 1-6 Sources of Energy Young Ji international School / College

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7-12 Several factors affect the migration or movement of people from one place to another.

8-10 Population Problems in Asia 11-15 Chinese Civilization/Dynasty V. Matching Type. Match column A to column B. Column A _____ 1. Korea _____ 2. Japan _____ 3. Thailand _____ 4. Myanmar _____ 5. Laos _____ 6. Vietnam _____ 7. Malaysia _____ 8. Indonesia _____ 9. Philippines _____ 10. Mongolia _____ 11. China _____ 12. Taiwan _____ 13. Quatar _____ 14. Oman _____ 15. Lebanon

Lesson 7

Column B a. Forerunner of Civilization b. Little Kingdom in the Peaceful Monarchy c. Land of the Seven Shiekdom d. Country in Search of Self-Industry e. Red Dragon of Asia f. Land of the Cavalier g. Pearl of the Orient Sea h. the Great Archipelago i. Cradle of the Malay race j. Where Wars Never End k. Kingdom of the Million Elephants l. The Golden land m. Land of the Free n. The Land of the Rising Sun o.The Land of the Morning Clam p. The Richest Republic in the former Soviet Union

Legalism: law as the Moving Force of Society

Like Taoism, Legalism, has no single founder. It was born out of the collective idea of people with similar ideas and beliefs.

Legalism believes in the law as the highest authority. It has three most significant elements: the fa (law), the shi (legitimacy of the leader), and the shu (method of leadership) Fa, or the law. In ancient times, the law was the domain of the leader. No one knew what the law was because it was the leader‘s prerogative. He had the right to change it as he pleased. The assumption was that the leader could change the law out of his goodwill based on the merits of the cases or issues involved. On the other hand, the change could also be the result of anomaly or corruption.

In Legalism, the law is written and is disseminated to the people. Everyone under the leader is equal according to the law. The system of law governs the state rather than the leader. The king and his ministers are regarded as mere parts of the system or machinery of the state and despite the underserved status or ineptitude of Young Ji international School / College

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the leader, the state can still function because of the existence of law and order. The law is implemented based on a system of strict rewards and punishments.

Shi, or the legitimacy of the leader. Unlike other philosophies that look for the highest intellect and sense of morality as the qualifications of a leader. Legalism gives credence to the power of the position and not the individual occupying it.

Legalism is a pessimistic philosophy. Its followers contend that while having a sage or philosopher-leader is ideal, only a few people actually fit the requirements. The more practical method is to have a system of governance that even an ordinary leader can administer and the state remains solid. The maintenance of order should be given priority.

Therefore, whoever leads can be powerful because of the authority of the position and not through any special quality or skill.

Shu (method of leadership). The discussion on morality and nature of people has no place in Legalism. Benevolence has nothing to do and has no role in the governance of the state; as long as the people are strongly and strictly governed, they will neither become lazy nor lose respect for authority. Laws based on benevolence are only applicable in the short term. Eventually, it will serve as reasons for chaos and downfall. If Taoism and Confucianism value the past, Legalism turns its back on it. The conditions of the past are different, and previous successes may not necessarily carry over to the present.

Important Texts. The han Feizi is considered as the basic guidebook of Legalism. It contains teaching that should be learned by a king. It has 55 chapters on various themes. Other chapters are similar to the Taoist precepts on the things that a leader should avoid. Some examples of these advices are as follows for the king not to give complete trust to his ministers and women, and avoidance.

Han Feizi was trained in the Confucian tradition. Because he stuttered when he spoke, han Feizi was not able to do what common philosophers normally didtravel to various kingdoms to discuss travel to various.

Chapter Summary  Like Taoism, Legalism was established out of the collective contributions of many people. Legalism believes in the law that governs society. The law is considered the highest authority. Society should be guided by the fa or law of society the shi or the legitimacy of the leader, and the shu or the art of leadership. The leader is expected to allow benevolent to guide his actions.  In accordance with this belief, the law should be written and disseminated to the people. This is to prevent the leader from making his own law and changing it as he pleases.

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

In the eyes of the law, all human beings are equal. The law will be administered by the people and not just the leader, who, in reality is also under the power of the law. This system flows from the system of reward and strict punishment for violations.

Ethics A Taoist Temple in Taiwan, showing elements of the Jingxiang religious practice and sculptures of Dragon and Lion guardians Taoism tends to emphasize various themes of the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi, such as naturalness, spontaneity, simplicity, detachment from desires, and most important of all, wu wei. However, the concepts of those keystone texts cannot be equated with Taoism as a whole.

Population of Southeast Asia The population of Southeast Asia is more or less 531 million. It is estimated that there are 19, 946 people living in every square mile in the region. The ancestors of the region come from Central Asia and South China. Chinese and Indians came from the different regions in Asia and migrated to this region.

Before the invaders conquered Vietnam, farming was the main source of livelihood of the people. Families were closely-knit and their welfare came first before anything else. The father was the head of the family and the eldest son was the right hand or the assistant head. The structure of the family extended which was composed of parents, children and families of their children. Oftentimes, the parents were the ones who chose the husband for their daughter. Like the Chinese, the Vietnamese have many ceremonies to honor their head.

Life changed when Vietnam was conquered by the French. There were many families who were separated because family members worked in factories built by the French.

War broke out between North and South Vietnam which brought lots of miseries to the people and caused the widespread separation of families. The Vietnamese government recruited the youth to take part in the war while those who were left at home moved from one place to another at avoid the damages brought by the war. The Americans aimed their attacks at the fields and forest to destroy their crops which caused hunger to the Vietnamese people. Many died in the war while others fled to neighboring countries. This caused the full scale separation of families.

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When the Communist party won, the Vietnamese families obeyed the communist principles. Men and women were given equal work. Religions ceremonies honoring their ancestors were given a new perspective in order to have a secure ideology for each group.

Burma is one of the countries with a small population and has its own structure of government. Most of the Burmese women are diligent in taking care of their families. Burmese women enjoy many rights compared with women of other Asian countries. If a Burmese woman gets marries, she can retain her family name and she also has the right to own properties like house and lot. Many of the Burmese women work outside their homes and put up their own business.

Exploration I. On the answer lines, write the word True if the statement is correct, otherwise underline the word that makes it wrong, and make the statement correct. _______1. The Chinese also migrated to Southeast Asia. _______2. A big part of the population of Southeast Asia can be found in the rural areas. _______3. Only few farmers in Southeast Asia have the capacity to buy modern farming machineries. _______4. The main source of income in Vietnam is flows vase making. _______5. The main source of livelihood in Burma is jewelry making. _______6. A law in Burma states that if a woman gets married, she should use the family name of her husband. _______7. A Burmese woman has the right to own lands. _______8. The Vietnamese has any ceremonies to honor their dead ancestors. _______9. The population of Southeast Asia is more or less 4, 812, 000 million. _______10. Burma is one of the industrialized countries in the world.

II. Fill in the table below descriptions of the families and the population of Vietnam and Burma based on the information and data you have researched.

Vietnam Burma

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III. Answer the following questions.

1. Why do Burmese women enjoy more rights than women in other Asian countries?

2. Why is there a rapid growth of population in Southern Asia?> 3. Why did the Vietnamese consider the father as the protector of the family?

4. Who have better rights, Burmese women or Filipino women? Why? Introspection On the space below write your opinion about the importance of the mother in a family. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________

Lesson 8

Population of South Asia- Asian History

South Asia is one of the most thickly populated regions in the world.

Population in this region is more than one billion, and there are 8, 399 people who live in every square mile. There are tracts of land for agriculture as well as big cities for commerce. Majority of the people are poor and poverty is attributed to rapid population growth. India has the biggest population (one billion) in South Asia while ten percent of the population of the region lives in Pakistan, Bangladesh and other countries. Other groups comprise the South Asian population. They are the Sinhalese and Tamils from Sri Lanka and from the Maldives, and the people of Bhutan.

The white race of Indo-Aryan, black Dravidian, Afghan, Russia and Iranian are found in South Asia. Seventy five percent of the people in South Asia in their living in fields and pasture lands. The poor farmers filled lands for the landlords while others own small farm lands.

Large buildings, wide roads, supermarkets and big houses are found in cities.

However, poverty is evident because of squatters living in cities.

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Government attempts at alleviating the poor conditions of the people and at raising the standard of living have not been effective because of rapid population growth.

Daily support to big families is seen as the main problem in South Asia. The father or head of the family for that matter double time so he can support his family and give them basic needs.

Some places in South Asia do not have adequate supply of water and electricity. Water is fetched from wells and people use oil lamps.

Hindu is the national language of the Indians: the people of the Maldives speak Sinhala; and Urdu is the national language of Pakistan. The people of Bhutan speak Bhutanese and the Bangails of Bangladesh peak Bengali.

Control of Population Growth With the desire of the Indian government to country rapid growth of population, there was a time that vasectomy was enforced. Sanjay Gandhi, the son of former Prime Minister India Gandhi enforced and led this project which was rejected by the people so it was stopped.

The Indians believe that having a family is not only the marriage of two people but also the marriage of two families. There are many arranged marriages in India although children can refuse to this kind of arrangement.

The Indians believe that having a family is not only the marriage of two people but also the marriage of two families. There are many arranged marriages in India although children can refuse to this kind of arrangement.

Indian also believes in the value of family solidarity. To them a family is not only composed of parents and children but also of families of their children who are already married.

At present, there are Indians who live in low-cost housing projects provided the government. One big problem in India is the people in the province who got to the cities in search of good life but end up vagabonds.

A serious problem in India which was solved by the government was the insufficient supply of food and medicine. It was found out that insufficient food and medicine supply was the cause of high mortality in the country, but was solved in 1950 when the government was able to supply potable water, clean food and good health sources to the people. It resulted to an improved longevity of life of the people to more than 25 years.

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Pakistan and Bangladesh Pakistan is the third world country. Only few of the Pakistanis own cars and provinces, many of them use camels, cows, horses and donkeys. In cities, there are few telephone units, telegrams, television stations, radios and newspapers.

Bangladesh is the 8th most populated country in the world. Poverty is widespread. Farmers do not have enough harvest. Houses are small and do not have electricity.

In 1975, there was increased food production in Bangladesh built was not enough for the whole population. The scarcity of food and dirty surroundings are some of the causes of the rapid widespread of diseases like cholera, tuberculosis, leprosy, malaria and others. The country also lacks hospitals, medicines, doctors, nurses and other hospital equipments.

An ordinary worker earns 50 dollars or roughly P2, 500 yearly. Arrival raising, planting fruits and vegetables are the means of livelihood of the people of Pakistan.

Exploration I. Identify what is referred to in each sentence.

1. It was enforced in India to curb population growth.

2. The former prime minister of India who implemented ―men sterility through vasectomy.‖ 3. A black race that live in South Asia.

4. One of the thickly populated regions in the world.

5. The 8th thickly populated country in the world.

II.

Copy and fill in the column of the characteristics of the following countries in South Asia and answer the questions that follow. Make this as basis for your answer.

India Pakistan Bangladesh

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1. What similar experiences do the people of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh have?

2. What did they do to alleviate poverty in their respective countries/ 3. In what ways are India, Pakistan and Bangladesh similar?

4. What were the causes of the growth of population and the prevalence of diseases in south Asia?

III.

In a clean sheet of paper, illustrate the problems of the people living in South Asia as a result of population growth. Explain your work in class.

Lesson 9

Asia’s Religion

Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, with millions of different peoples following a wide variety of different religions. Asia was the birthplace of most of the world's mainstream religions including Christianity, Islam, Judaism,Hinduism, Buddhism, Co nfucianism, Taoism, Jainism, Sikhism, Zoroastranism, as well as many other beliefs.

Judaism Judaism is the predominant religion in Israel, which has a nominal Jewish population of about 7 million, though the matter of distinguishing Jewish religious, cultural and ethnic identity is a complex one.

Christianity

CSI - The first Anglican Church in India Christianity is a widespread minority religion in Asia with more than 260 million adherents constituting around 6.5% of the total population of Asia. Only five countries are predominantly Christian: Cyprus, which is predominantly Orthodox; the Philippines, which is the third-largest Roman Catholic nation in the world; East Timor; Armenia, which was the first state to adopt a Christian denomination as its state religion; and Georgia. Christianity also accounts for 29.2% of South Korea's population (54.5% of its religious population) and is now the predominant religion Young Ji international School / College

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in South Korea, Christianity is also a large minority religion in Lebanon accounting for 40% of its population.

Asian countries with large Christian populations are Philippines (84 million), China (40 million),India (24 million, concentrated especially in the NorthEastern and Southern parts of the country), Indonesia (23 million), South Korea (15 million), Vietnam (7 million), Japan (2.5 million) and Malaysia (2.5 million).

There are still large ancient communities of Arab Christians in Lebanon, Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Israel and Palestine numbering more than 3 million in West Asia.

Bahá'í Faith The Bahá'í Faith is an Abrahamic religion although it is quite different from Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. It was so founded by Bahá'u'lláh in what was then Persia (also known as Iran). Today the largest national population of Bahá'ís is inIndia with between 1.7 million to 3.2 million where there is also the Lotus Temple.

Significant populations are found in many countries including Vietnam and Malaysia where "about 1%", some 260,000, of the population are Bahá'ís. In other places, like Kazakhstan there are 25 Local Spiritual Assemblies.

In modern day Iran, the religion is severely persecuted (see Persecution of Bahá'ís).

In neighboring Turkmenistan, Bahá'í Faith is effectively banned, and individuals have had their homes raided for Bahá'í literature. For further information, see Bahá'í Statistics for Asia and Category:Bahá'í Faith by country.

Islam Islam is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion articulated by the Qur'an, a book considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God[1] (Arabic: ‫هللا‬ Allāh) and by the teachings and normative example (called the Sunnah and composed of hadith) of Muhammad, considered by them to be the last prophet of God. Islam is the largest religion in Asia with approx. 1.1 billion adherents which is 25% of Asia's population.[12] South Asia and Southeast Asia are home of the most populous Muslim countries, with Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh having more than 100 million adherents each. According to U.S. government figures, in 2006 there were 20 million Muslims in China. In the Western Asia, the non-Arab countries of Iran and Turkey are the largest Muslim-majority countries. In South Asia, Pakistan and Bangladesh are the countries with the largest Muslim-majority. In Central Asia, Afghanistan and Uzbekistan are the countries with the largest Muslimmajority.

Malaysia is 61.3 percent Muslim, Indonesia is 79 percent Muslim, Brunei is 67 percent Muslim, the Maldives are 100 percent Muslim, and Saudi Arabia is 97 percent Muslim.

Of the 104 million strong populations of the Philippines, around 5 to 10 percent, some 5 to 10 million people are Muslim. India's Muslim population is 13.4% Young Ji international School / College

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of the total, approximately 161 million people. Thailand's Muslims make up 4.6 percent of the population, or approximately 3 million people. Also Sri Lanka's Muslims make up 10 percent of the population, or approximately 2.5 million people

Mosque in Afghanistan The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, a minority Muslim sect, originated on the Asian continent in 1889 in Qadian, India. The community had 10 million members as of the 1980s. As of 2008, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community has been established in all Asian countries except for Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Georgia and North Korea.

Ahmadis are most persecuted in Asia, particularly in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia and India.

Taoic religions East Asian religions (also known as Far Eastern religions, Chinese religions, or Taoic religions) form a subset of the Eastern religions.

Confucianism Confucianism was founded in China by the famous philosopher, Kǒng Fūzǐ (more commonly known in English-speaking countries as Confucius). Confucianism is a complex system of moral, social, political, philosophical, and quasi-religious thought that has had tremendous influence on the culture and history of East Asia.

Some consider it to be the state religion of East Asian countries because of governmental promotion of Confucian values.

Today the Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese diaspora has brought Confucianism to the world.

Daoism Taoism (modernly: Daoism) is a philosophical and religious tradition that emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao(modernly romanized as "Dao"). The term Tao means "way", "path" or "principle", and can also be found in Chinese philosophies and religions other than Taoism. In Taoism, however, Tao denotes something that is both the source and the driving force behind everything that exists.

It is ultimately ineffable: "The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao. Laozi is traditionally regarded as the founder of the tea party examen and is closely associated in this context with "original", or "primordial", Taoism. Whether he actually existed is commonly disputed; however, the work attributed to him – the Daodejing – is dated to the late 4th century BC Young Ji international School / College

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Taoist propriety and ethics may vary depending on the particular school, but in general tends to emphasize wu-wei (action through non-action), "naturalness", simplicity, spontaneity, and the Three Treasures: compassion, moderation, and humility.

Significant Taoist communities can in China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam along the Chinese, Korean, Japaneseand Vietnamese diaspora.

be

found with

Chinese ethnic religion Chinese folk religion are a label used to describe the ethnic religious traditions which have been a main belief system in China and among the Han Chinese ethnic group for most of the civilization's history until today. Shenism comprises Chinese mythology and includes the worship of shens (缞, shÊn; "deities", "spirits", "awarenesses", "consciousnesses", "archetypes") which can be nature deities, Taizu or clan deities, city deities, national deities, cultural heroes and demigods, dragons and ancestors. "Shenism" as a term was first published by A. J. A Elliot in 1955. It is sometimes categorized with Taoism, since over the worldinstitutional Taoism has been attempting to assimilate or administrate local religions. More accurately, Taoism can be defined as a branch of Shenism, since it sprang out of folk religion and Chinese philosophy. Chinese folk religion is sometimes seen as a constituent part of Chinese traditional religion, but more often, the two are regarded as synonymous. With around 454 million adherents, or about 6.6% of the world population, Chinese folk religion is one of the major religious traditions in the world.

In China more than 30% of the population adheres to Shenism or Taoism.

Shinto Kami-no-michi is almost unique to Japan and the Japanese diaspora. It is a set of practices carried out to establish a connection between present-day Japan and its ancient past. Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written records of the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki in the 7th and 8th century. Still, these earliest Japanese writings do not refer to a unified "Shinto religion", but rather to disorganized folklore, history, and mythology. Shinto today is a term that applies to public shrines suited to various purposes such as war memorials, harvest festivals, romance, and historical monuments, as well as various sectarian organizations.

Mugyo Muism ("religion of the Mu") or sometimes Sinism (Shingyo, "religion of the gods", with shin being the Korean character derivative of [27] the Hanja), encompasses a variety of indigenous religious beliefs and practices of the Korean people, the Korean sphere and the Korean diasporas. In contemporary South Korea, the most used term is Muism and a shaman is known as

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a mudang (무당, 巫堂). The role of the mudang, usually a woman, is to act as intermediary between a spirit entity, spirits or gods and human beings.

Women are enlisted by those who want the help of the spirit world. Shamans hold gut, or services, in order to gain good fortune for clients, cure illnesses by exorcising negative or 'bad' spirits that cling to people, or propitiate local or village gods. Such services are also held to guide the spirit of a deceased person to higher realms. Today this religion is a minority, but has in recent years seen resurgence. 

Indian religions Indian religions are the predominant and oldest religions of Asia. Most of Asia's population follows Indian religions. All Indian religions originated in South Asia. These religions all have the concepts of dharma, karma, and reincarnation.

Hinduism Hinduism is the second largest religion in Asia with approximately 1 billion followers.

Hinduism is the majority religion in India, Nepal, and the Indonesian island of Bali, with strong minorities in the Asian nations of Bhutan, Fiji, Indonesia, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Singapore, and Sri Lanka. Before the arrival of Buddhism and Islam in Southwest Asia and Southeast Asia, Hinduism (and Shaivism in particular) was the most widely practiced religion in Southwest Asia and Southeast Asia.

Hinduism as we know it can be subdivided into a number of major currents.

The main divisions of Hinduism are Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Smartism and Shaktism.

The vast majority of present day Hindus can be categorized under one of these four groups, although there are many other, partly overlapping, allegiances and denominations.

Hinduism predates recorded history and is thought to have had a beginning during the Indus Valley Civilization itself. It has no single founder; rather, it is a diverse melange of traditions, practices, and lineages. Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhismemerged in ancient India from Hinduism.

Jainism Jainism is one of the oldest Indian religions. Jains are mostly found in India but are increasingly found throughout the world. Jains have significantly influenced and contributed to ethical, political and economic spheres in India. Jains have an ancient tradition of scholarship and have the highest degree of literacy for a religious community in India. Jain libraries are the oldest in the country. It has

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traditionally been confined to the Indian Subcontinent and West Asia. It is based on the teachings of Vardhaman Mahavir and also on 23 other Tirthankaras.

Buddhism Buddhism is the fourth largest world religion and the 3rd largest in Asia. It is dominant in Bhutan, Burma, Cambodia, China, Tibet, Japan, Taiwan, Laos, Macau, Mongolia, North Korea, Sri Lanka, South Korea, Thailand, Vietnam , Singapore and Hong Kong. It also has strong minorities in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Nepal, the Philippines and Russia.

Buddhism was founded by Siddartha Gautama, also known as Buddha.

Before the rise of Islam, Buddhism was one of the most widely practiced religions in Central Asia, ancient Persia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Indonesia.

Sikhism Sikhism is the fifth largest organized religion in the world. [43] And one of the most steadily growing. It is a monotheistic religion founded by Guru Nanak Dev in the 1500s. The religion professes its roots in the area of Punjab, whose territories form part of India and Pakistan. This system of religious philosophy and expression has been traditionally known as the Gurmat (literally the counsel of the gurus) or the Sikh Dharma. Sikhism originated from the word Sikh, which in turn comes from the Sanskrit root śiṣya meaning "disciple" or "learner", or śikṣa meaning "instruction".

Sikhism is the 3rd largest religion in India with 2% of the total population being Sikh.

There is also a large concentration of Sikhs in Malaysia, Thailand, Burma,the Philippines, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Hongkong, Singapore, Indonesia, Kuwait, U.A.E and Nepal.

Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism was once the state religion of the Persian Empire, but is now a minority mostly found in India and Iran. It worships a monotheistic god, Ahura Mazda, and was founded by Zoroaster. It is the original Iranian religion, and spawned Manichaeism and Mazdakism bishnoism .Zoroastrianism is a religion and philosophy based on the teachings of prophet Zoroaster (also known as Zarathustra, in Avestan), probably founded some time before the 6th century BC in Iran. The term Zoroastrianism is, in general usage, essentially synonymous with Mazdaism, i.e., the worship of Ahura Mazda, exalted by Zoroaster as the supreme divine authority.

In Zoroastrianism, the Creator Ahura Mazda is all good, and no evil originates from Him. Thus, in Zoroastrianism good and evil have distinct sources, with evil (druj) trying to destroy the creation of Mazda (asha), and good trying to sustain it.

Mazda is not imminent in the world, and His creation is represented by the Amesha Spentas and the host of other Yazatas, through whom the works of God are evident to humanity, and through whom worship of Mazda is ultimately directed. The most important texts of the religion are those of the Avesta, of which a significant portion Young Ji international School / College

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has been lost, and mostly only the liturgies of which have survived. The lost portions are known of only through references and brief quotations in the later works of (primarily) the 9th-11th centuries.

Zoroastrianism is of great antiquity. In some form, it served as the national- or state religion of a significant portion of the Iranian people for many centuries before it was gradually marginalized by Islam from the 7th century onwards. The political power of the pre-Islamic Iranian dynasties lent Zoroastrianism immense prestige in ancient times, and some of its leading doctrines were adopted by other religious systems. It has no major theological divisions (the only significant schism is based on calendar differences), but it is not monolithic. Modern-era influences have a significant impact on individual/local beliefs, practices, values and vocabulary, sometimes complementing tradition and enriching it, but sometimes also displacing tradition entirely.

Shamanism and Animism has historically been practiced in Asia, and is still practiced in most of Kalasha Sanamahi /Sanamahism Today it's experiencing a revival of old traditional religion like Sanamahism in most of Asia. In Manipur(Kangleipak),a state in the North East part of India is still following this 2000 years old religion by the people of both the valleys and hills till now.The study of Sanamahi religion may be termed as "SANAMAHISM" and the followers as SANAMAHISTS" it simply the cult of Sanamahi the creator of Meetei trinity, the Sidaba Mapu - the immortal one - the immortal trinity god which is in extensive use in ancient literature. The written literature of this religion is call PUYA. At the closed of the 20th century Sanamahism gained a strong foothold owing to the coming of modern education, increase in population and many other social factors.

The gap of untouchables between Sanamahism and Hinduism became almost abandon. During this period the impact of Sanamahism became more and more embedded in the hearts and mind of the people at large. As a result it gave a new hope and dimension in the process of the revivalist's movement of Sanamahism. Old beliefs and religious bindings were untied and the beliefs of emerging movement began to take their place. From the present population trend, the state of Manipur and its region has sharply increased of Sanamahi followers from the previous census.In the religious history of Manipur, the 14th of May, 1945, the Meetei Marup was formed in Manipur unanimously. This led to the revival of Sanamahi religion and its main follower in all aspect of traditional cultures, scripts of Meetei (Meetei Mayek), customary practices, and religious ceremonies relating to the Sanamahi society.

These formations also lead to the conflict between the followers of Sanamahi religion and those who followed Hinduism.

Exploration I. On the answer lines, write the answer to the following: Young Ji international School / College

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__________________1. The founder of Sikhism. __________________2. The indigenous religion of India. __________________3. The existence of man on earth is based on Dharmas or moral responsibility. __________________4. The rulers or warriors who protected their subjects. __________________5. The son-in-law of Amar das who became Guru in 1574. __________________6. This was known as the Golden Temple and eventually became the center of Sikh worship. __________________7. The oldest and the most sacred text of Hindu scriptures. __________________8. The most influential sacred text of Hinduism in the 20 th century. __________________9. The youngest religion in India.

II. Differentiate the beliefs of Hinduism from Sikhism using the chart below.

Hinduism

Sikhism

Introspection If you would be reincarnated, what would you want to become and why/ Draw your answer in the box and provide and explanation for it.

Drawing

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Enrichment 1. Research about the following and report it to class: a. Caste system b. Dharma c. Guru d. Karma 2. Invite a resource speaker who is an expert on the topic about Hinduism and Sikhism and conduct an open about ―Test of faith‖ of Hinduism Exploration I. Read the following statements and write your answer on the blanks. __________________1. The leader of Buddhism __________________2. The leader of Jainism __________________3. The oldest tradition of Buddhism __________________4. The meaning of Buddha. __________________5. A reincarnation of god Vishnu.

II. Answer the following questions: 1. How did Buddhism spread in India and China/ 2. Why is extravagance not allowed in Jainism/ 3. How did Jainism spread in India?

4. Why was Buddhism divided into two major movements?

5. How did Gautama get the insights of the meaning of life?

III. True or False: write true if the statement is correct and write false if it‘s not. _______1. Jainism was the religion of the followers of Vardhamana Mahavira. _______2. The Jains claimed that their religion was older than Hinduism. _______3. Hinduism is the oldest sect of all regions. _______4. Religious belief as old as the early civilizations _______5. Important groups that exerted influence during those times were the Sadducees, priest in the temple of Jerusalem. _______6. Most Buddhists feel that their harmonious relationship within the family and the community are the results of Buddhist teaching and practices. _______7. Taoism has been reflected in Japanese poetry and painting. _______8. In Christianity, the followers learned how to be humble and were made to follow the teachings of Christ. _______9. Religion, as a belief has touched the lives of the people. ______10. Religion has a deep impact upon the people of world. ______11. The Chinese founded different kingdoms in the Indus valley. ______12. Hindus engage in temple work ship and different spiritual cleansing practices such as bathing in the Ganges River. ______13. The Indus Valley civilization has brought not only various major religions, but also philosophies and practices. ______14. Confucius the King of master Young Ji international School / College

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______15. Guatama, who was the most respected philosopher in Chinese history.

IV. Multiple choices: encircle the correct answer.

1. A classic work by Homer a. Antogone c. Iliad b. Trojan women d. Cyclops 2. War between Troy and Greece a. Sumerian war c. Grecian war b. Trojan war d. Babylonian war 3. Invaded Create in 1450 B.C. a. Assyrians c. Myceneans b. Akkadians d. Chaldeans 4. Thrived in Crete Island around 2200 B.C. a. Minoan civilization c. Persian civilization b. Egyptian civilization d. Babylonian civilization 5. Birthplace of western civilization a. Ancient Rome c. Ancient china b. Ancient Greece d. Aztec 6. A pupil of Socrates a. Plato c. Aristotle b. Xerxes d. Pindar 7. Wrote the great play, The Persians a. Pindar c. Aeschylus b. Sophocles d. Euripides 8. A fortified hill for defense a. Acropolis c. acrobat b. Agora d. dam 9. The Greek god of war a. Venus c. Zeus b. Bacchus d. Ares 10. Period which followed the Greek Dark Age a. Trojan Age c. Stone Age b. Archaic Age d. Golden Age 11. Provided the world‘s first gunpowder a. Phoenicians c. Chinese b. Olmec d. Hebrews 12. Invaded the Indus valley in 1500 B.C. a. Sumerians c. Akkadians b. Assyrians d. Aryans 13. Placed emphasis on a new moral order a. Lao Tzu c. Buddha b. Confucius d. Solomon 14. The process of rebirth Young Ji international School / College

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a. karma c. yoga b. reincarnation d. meditation 15. Chinese dynasty with strong centralized government a. Zhou c. Chin b. Xia d. Shang 16. One of the oldest Indus valley cities a. Babylon c. Beirut b. Mohenjo-Daro d. Sidon 17. ―Father of many nations‖ a. Lao Tzu c. Buddha b. Confucius d. Solomon 18. River where Chinese civilization developed a. Nile c. Yangtze b. Jordan d. Shang 19. Supreme god of Hinduism a. Shiya c. Bhrama b. Krishna d. Hanuman 20. Taught the Noble Eightfold Path a. Gautama Buddha c. Abraham b. Confucius d. Lao Tzu 21. Period of Greek and Asian blending a. Macedonian Age c. Hellenistic Age b. Persian Age d. Hellenic Age 22. Summed up Greek mathematics a. Erastothenes c. Aristarchus b. Euclid d. Sophocles 23. Taught acceptance of reality a. Cynics c. Stoics b. Agnostic d. Epicureans 24. Pursued virtue above pleasure a. Cynics c. Stoics b. Agnostic d. Epicureans 25. Defeated by Alexander in India a. Porus c. Gupta b. Olympias d. maurya 26. Founded the League of Corinth in 338 B.C. a. Philip II c. Alexander the Great b. Justinian d. Basil II 27. One of Alexander‘s teachers a. Socrates c. Plato b. Cicero d. Aristotle 28. Revolted against Alexander‘s rule a. Sumer c. Thebes b. Assyria d. Babylon Young Ji international School / College

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29. His death made Alexander king of Asia a. Sostracus b. Darius 30. Ruled in Egypt after Alexander a. Seleucids b. Antigonids 31. The great Carthaginian general a. Darius b. Hannibal 32. Composed of Patricians a. House of Commons b. Consul 33. Mark Anthony, Lepidus, and Octavian a. First Triumvirate b. Consul 34. Conquered Rome in 600 B.C. a. Etruscans b. Syrians 35. Watched by Romans in theaters a. Wars b. Pantomime 36. Famous Roman writers a. Romulus and Remus b. Caesar and Cleopatra 37. Legendary funder of Rome a. Romulus and Remus b. Caesar and Cleopatra 38. Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar a. First Triumvirate b. Consul 39. Naval power which warred with Rome a. Sumer b. Carthage 40. Basis of Roman law a. Twelve tables b. Plebian 41. Decree which tolerated Christianity a. Edict of Milan b. Decree of Alexander 42. Became a partner of Constantine a. Licinus b. Cassius 43. Encyclopedia of Byzantine literature a. Suda Young Ji international School / College

c. Philip II d. Euclid c. Ptolemies d. Persians c. Alexander d. Octavian c. Senate d. Plebeians c. Senate d. Second Triumvirate c. Egyptians d. Persians c. Olympus d. Persians c. Virgil and Horace d. Brutus and Cassius c. Virgil and Horace d. Brutus and Cassius c. Senate d. Second Triumvirate c. Persia d. Babylon c. Senate d. Consul c. Edict of Constantine d. Edict of Rome c. Augustus d. Octavian c. karma Page 43

b. Odyssey 44. Statement of essential Christian beliefs a. Nicene creed b. New testament 45. Collapse of Byzantine Empire‘s period a. 1000s b. 1100s 46. Vision which Constantine saw a. Cross b. Angel 47. Defeated the Bulgarians in 1014 a. Darius b. Basil II 48. Constantine‘s major rival in the west a. Herodutus b. Justinian 49. Collected Roman laws under one code a. Eratosthenes b. Julius Caesar 50. Condemned Arianism a. Council of Nicaea b. Caligula

d. lliad c. Old Testament d. ten Commandments c. 1500s d. 1200s c. star d. Diamond c. Augustus d. Theodosius c. Licinius d. Maxentius c. Justinian d. Euclid c. Council of Trent d. Constantine

V. Answer the following questions. (5 points each) 1. What were the best qualities of Alexander that made him ―Great‖?

2. In your opinion, what contributed to Alexander the Great‘s talents and skills as a warrior and leader?

3. What resulted with the expansion of the Roman Republic?

4. How did Julius Caesar rise to power/ 5. Briefly describe the origins of the Roman people.

VI. Identification. Answer the following questions. _____________1. Indigenous religion of India _____________2. Officiate at religious ceremonies and study and teach the Vedas _____________3. The rulers or warriors who protect their subjects _____________4. Engage in trade, tend cattle and till the soil _____________5. The people who belong to this caste are considered outside the Varma _____________6. Unity of individual soul _____________7. Brahman _____________8. The creator _____________9. The preserver _____________10. The destroyer Young Ji international School / College

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_____________11. Goddess of smallpox _____________12. Goddess of snake _____________13. Goddess of music and arts _____________14. The wife of Vishnu _____________15. The monkey helper _____________16. The First Emperor of China _____________17. It was built to protect China from barbarian invasion and some say ―to fence in an entire nation‖ _____________18. Known as the ―martial Emperor‖ _____________19. It is made the caravan routes safe for trade and travel _____________20. Young Venetian trade who traveled with his father and uncle by caravan on the Silk Road VII.

Matching Types: Match Column A to Column B.

Column A ____1. samurai ____2. minaret ____3. hari-kiri ____4. Bushido ____5. Jupiter ____6. Venus ____7. Kamikaze ____8. Paterfamila ____9. Samurais ___10. Aurelius ___11. Christianity ___12. Gobi ___13. Nirvana ___14. Abraham ___15. Zazen ___16. Jahanger ___17. Antoninus ___18. Akbar ___19. Caligula ___20. Huang Ho VIII.

Column B a. divine wind b. the grandnephew of Tiberius c. supreme god d. goddess of beauty and love e. the way of the warriors f. towers where Muslims are called to pray g. the coldest desert in the world h. suicide by means of seppuku i. the center of the Roman family j. Grasper of the world k. fought a series of campaigns against Germanic l. Greatest Mughal ruler m. were the warier who fought for their land n. China‘s Sorrow o. a firm and kind ruler p. main religion o Byzantine Empire q. all pains, selfness, hatred and delusions r. Father of Jews s. to sit and meditate t. one who serves

Enumeration 1-10 Guru Teachers 11-14 Four Nobles 15-20 Five Presents of Buddhism

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Lesson 10

Asian Society

Forms of Family Families vary in terms of the number of marriage partners. Polyandry is a social order wherein two or more brothers share a wife. Polygyny is the practice in marriage wherein man is allowed to have several wives.

Marriages Marriages were mostly arranged by agreement between the two families concerned. 

India The Family in India.The family in India is composed of parents, the married sons with their wives and children, and unmarried children.

Marriage and Family.Marriage is performed to preserve the basic family unit.

Groom in India

Bride in India A woman in India.The Indian woman is taught that she must sacrifice herself for the happiness of others since childhood.

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China Family.Mencius, the Chinese philosopher, had written that the ―root of the empire is in the state, the root of the state is in the family.‖ Family Relationship.The parents had almost complete authority over their children.

Marriages.It is the primary obligation of parents to arrange the marriages of their children.

New Attitudes Toward the Family.Traditional attitudes toward the family are being modified in China in response to the changing pattern of modern life.

Women under communism.Since 1950, women had enjoyed political, legal, social, and economic equality with men. The communist party encouraged them to participate in political life. Women served as party leaders and held high-level government. 

Japan Structure of the Japanese Family.The traditional family includes the head and his wife, the eldest son either by birth or adoption, his wife and children, and any unmarried children.

Marriages.Among the Japanese, families still play a major role in selecting the prospective mate.

Family Relationships.The Japanese gives more importance to the relationship between parents and children than to the relationship between husband and wife.

Husband and Wife.Traditionally the loyalty of the husband is directed toward his parents and blood-relatives rather than his wife.

Family Council.The family council makes decisions on all matters which the family head considers important such as marriages, adoptions, investments, education, funerals and others.

Japanese Woman, Japanese women are traditionally considered to be subordinate to men, that they exist to serve man.

Terms to Identify 1. Family 2. Monogamy 3. Polygamy 4. Nuclear family 5. Caste 6. Marriage 7. Polygamy 8. Extended family Follow up Questions 1. Name the traits common to all Asian families.

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2. How were women treated before? Why? 3. Analyze the factors that influence the changes of family relationships of the Asians.

4. Why do Asians give much importance to the eldest son?

Evaluation True or False. _______1. The family structure in Asia is hierarchical. _______2. Today in China, women are permitted to study and work. _______3. Traditionally, many Asians practice the extended family type. _______4. Among the Filipinos, marriage joins individuals rather than the family. _______5. The Thai man at the age of 20 spends 3 months in a Buddhist monastery.

Lesson 11

Education in Asia

The Asian regions have had nations which are enthusiastic in education since ancient times. The system of the imperial civil-service examinations in China was epoch-making system positively appointing talents to the public service being the first in the world. Now the meaning which the educations in Asian region have is changing including these historical backgrounds. A lot of countries such as Southeast Asia heighten their enthusiasm for education day by day along the countries' economic development. Also, in the countries such as South Korea, Japan, and Singapore socially important meaning of one's background causes the heated educational phenomenon called the exam war. So forth, a lot of excellent talents are born from Asian countries.

But it is the fact that there is another side of the Asian education status quo.

There are countries with education not spreading through the farm villages. There are countries with big educational difference because of a gap such as between urban and rural regions and rich and poor. Also excessive elite education broadens this gap.

As you see the education in Asian countries to develop with various problems 

North Asia Before sovietisation, the children of North Asia were educated at home by their parents. One of the positive achievements of the Soviet regime in the region was the creation of Networks of primary, secondary, and higher education schools.

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The language in the primary and secondary level was in the vernacular including German. In higher education they used the country‘s dialect and the Russian language as their media of instruction.

In Tajikistan, most people aged 15 and older cn read and write as a result of the Soviet system of free and universal education. Until 1920, when the soviet authorities introduced secular education, the main education centers were Muslim Madrsas (religious). In principle, children are required to complete up to seven grades. However, the government has and mentioned adequate funding for the schools due to the economy of the country and political instability. For their higher education, there are universities and research institutions. Nowadays, the supreme issue is widening regarding the educational values for a stable development.

Before sovietisation, Kyrgyz were educated at home by their parents. Formal education, comprising study of religion and Arabic language were offered at theological seminaries in major cities. In 1917, about 1 % of the Kyrgyz population was literate. The Soviets changed that situation by instituting a comprehensive system of free and universal education. Education was compulsory for ten years or still the age of 16. Their higher education institutions are located in Bishkek.

Illiteracy was also high before the Soviet period in Uzbekistan. but it was gradually eliminated in 1970 as a result of the Soviet Union‘s emphasis on free and universal education. Since their independence, changes were introduced based on Soviet model: new curricula and textbooks, new teachers training programs, and a moldered degree system for higher education. New primary and secondary schools were opened s well as science and technology institutes to meet need of a developing nation.

Many education administrators and teachers south to bring back some older traditions, characteristics of the maktah or religious schools. Instructions in old Arabic script for the Uzbek language had been introduced and the curriculum had been rearranged to reflect Central sin history, literature and culture in a more positive way. 

East Asia The early history of Japanese education was deeply affected by the Chinese.

From the Chinese, the Japanese acquired new crafts and a system of writing.

Education in ancient Japan was more aristocratic than in the Chinese system, with noble families maintaining their own private schooling facilities. Durin the medieval military-feudal period. Buddhist temples assumed much responsibility for education.

Under the Tokuwa Shogunate, which dominated the country from 1600, educational facilities spread to create one of the most literate of all pre-modern societies.

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The samurai, s member of the ruling class during the Tokugawa period received distinctive education that emphasized character development that helped transform them from brought, often literate, warriors into gentlemen. The samurai code became a guide for civil administrators and army officers.

Common schools were established to accommodate children of the farmers, artisans, and merchants. Female education was neglected or limited to subjects that enhanced woman‘s marriage ability.

When Japan regained its sovereign status as a nation in 1952, the teaching of nationalistic ideology was banned, greater emphasis was placed on social studies and classroom procedures were redesigned to encourage self-expression.

Elementary and secondary schools were free and compulsory for nine yearsthis is, six years of elementary schools and 3 years junior high school. Beyond the junior high school level, education was optional and a small tuition fee was changed even in public senior high schools and public institutions of higher learning.

The schools were coeducational with the same curriculum for boys and girls.

Woman had the same educational opportunity as men did and attended the same university.

Because a degree from a good university is the means to better job, education was one of the competitive areas in the Japanese life. Top positions in Japanese society are usually held by graduates of the best universities. A degree from top universities is necessary to obtain the higher positions in government, the business world, and political life.

Japanese student‘s consistency score well in international tests for science and mathematics skills. 

Taiwan In 1952 less than 60 % of people over the age of 15 could read and write.

Educational reforms in 1968 extended compulsory education to 9 years. Taiwan‘s literacy rate climbed to 94 % by 1994. Education was free and compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 15 where students complete junior high school.

Presently, Taiwan has more than 100 colleges and universities. 

China The formal education in China can be traced back at least as far as the 16 th century B.C. Throughout this period, education was the privilege of the elite few and its main objective was to produce government officials. Earlier, the curriculum was centred on the so-called ―Six Arts‖- Rites, Music, Archery, Chariot-riding, History and Mathematics. However, based on the teachings of Confucius, during the spring and Young Ji international School / College

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autumn and warring states period, the curriculum gradually cave way to a model based on the Four Books and Five Classics. These works outlined the principles of society and government-s well as Code of personal conduct and collectively defined in the virtually all aspects of life and certainly on education, at least until the liberation and ascend by the Communities in 1949.

A system that educated an elite class was established and maintained, to perpetuate the generations of educated elite resting incongruously on a base of mass literacy. Civil service became the basis for the selection of imperial officers.

The examinations consisted of essay questions that tested the candidate‘s understanding of Confucian teachings. The student could prepare for these examinations by enrolling in private institutions like the shuyunan (E.Q.) which existed for no other reason than to prepare students for the civil service examinations.

It was believed that the study of Confucian teachings developed the scholar‘s moral virtues and enabled him to set a good example for the rest of the local community. As long as china was isolated from the rest of the world, the examination system served its people well. However, when western power came into the Chinese world, many of the officials selected by this system were to inflexible to deal wisely new problems.

Private tutors were also employed by the family, clan, or village to teach the classics to male students.

Education Under the Communists. The Cultural Revolutions in China boarded and changed the educational system. In 1949, only twenty five million children were enrolled in elementary school. Ten years later, the number had increased to 100 million in secondary schools. Before the Cultural Revolution, a college education was restricted to children of party officials and army officers. After the revolution, requirements became more lenient. The curriculum became more practical, for it included the Chinese language, Mathematics, Science, English and Russian. 

Korea Elementary education was compulsory for six years. Secondary education in three-year middle schools and 3 year high schools were not free and were highly competitive. Authorized private institutions existed side by side with the public schools. The secondary school curriculum stressed the liberal arts and neglected vocational and technical training. Adult education program became effective and it increased literacy rate.

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Education in North Korea had emphasized technical and specialized training.

Elementary and three years middle school also became mandatory. Later, technical schools were founded.

Southeast Asia 

Brunei Medical and educational services are well developed and are largely financed by revenues from petroleum production. Education is compulsory for children aged 5 to 16 years old and at all levels it is free. Primary and secondary educations are provided in Malay, English, and Chinese. The University of Brunei Darussalam is located in Bantar Seri Bagawan. There are also vocational schools and a teacher training institution. Government also shoulders the tuition fees of Brunei students who study at overseas universities. 

Singapore Although education is not compulsory in Singapore, primary school is free for six years and attendance is a must. Some also attend secondary schools. Since 1987 English has been the language of instruction but a policy of bilingualism requires that children must also be taught Chinese, Malay or Tamil. Institutes of higher learning include the National University of Singapore and Nanyang Technological University. 

Indonesia The Ministry of Education and Culture is responsible for Indonesia‘s four main divisions of education –primary and secondary, higher education, culture and out-ofschool education and sports. Primary education, which is both free and compulsory is divided into three semesters, secondary education is divided into two semesters.

There are also many private institutions at all levels.

The language of instruction is Bahasa Indonesia. Local regional languages (primarily Javanenese, Sundanese and Balinese) may be used during the first three years of primary school. Primary level is from rate 1-6, Junior secondary is Grade 79, Senior secondary (academic) is grade 10-12 and senior secondary school deals on technical /vocational areas. 

Philippines The public school system established by the Spaniards in 1863 was expanded by the Americans, and at the same period a teacher college, the Philippine Normal School and a state university, the University of the Philippines were founded. In 1972, reforms were instituted to make the educational system relevant to the modern needs. The curriculum was updated to include more vocational courses; Pilipino as well as English became the language of instruction Young Ji international School / College

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while in Mindanao they used the Arabic language. Elementary was still for 6 years and high school for 4 years and both was given free by the government. Ordinary courses were offered for four years. Much of the secondary and higher education were provided by private institutions. In 1973, entrance examination was given to those wishing to go to college.

Higher education is available in almost all provinces, but the greatest concentration of institutions is the Greater Manila area. 

Thailand In the early Thai history, education revolved around two institutions: one religious and the other royal. Buddhist monks gave basic education to boys in classes set within the compound of monasteries, while children of the royal family and from the families of the nobility were educated in order to serve in the court and govern in the provinces. Majority of the members of the society were made up of farmers, who saw little need for literacy.

It was during the region of Rama V that they realized the need for educated people to staff the growing bureaucracy. As a result, the Thai educational system was modernized and made more accessible to the general public. This begins with the 1898 Education Proclamation which was strongly influenced by the British system and in which two educational patterns were stipulated: the academic and vocational. 

Myanmar In Myanmar, education is free and compulsory for children from age 5 to 9.

Secondary education consists of four years of middle or vocational schools and an additional two years for high school. Instruction in primary and secondary schools are in Burmese. English is the second language taught in secondary schools.

Universities and post secondary educational institutions emphasized science and technology. Later, medical institutions were founded together with teachertraining institutions throughout Myanmar. 

Laos Traditionally, Laotian children were educated at home or in Buddhist monasteries. The monk taught young boys reading, writing, arithmetic and religious subjects. The first formal and secular school in Laos was built in 1902. It was a school for adults and concentration was on business and administrative study. In 1905, elementary grades for children were opened.

In 1917, the French introduced a common curriculum for the countries in IndoChina. At first, the teachers were French colonists but they were gradually replaced

by French-speaking Vietnamese.

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South Asia 

India After the Aryans‘ conquest of India, education was available to all castes except the Shudras and the harijans. Eventually, it was practically monopolized by the Brahmins. Brahmins studied the Vedas, the Kshatriya learned warfare, and the Vaishya learned arts and crafts, farming and trading. Most boys learned their skills from their fathers.

During the British rule, the east Indi Company ranted limited and by supporting Muslim and Hindu college. In 1816, group of Indians established the Hindu College of Calcutta and English language was taught.

Educated Indians were hired by the East Indi Company but were paid less.

Persian at first, reminded the official language of the government, but gradually.

English was adopted because many Indians were eager to learn English.

When Indi gained its independence in 1947, only 16% of its population could read and write, then in 1981, 36% was the national literacy rate. Literacy rates are highest in the cities. The increase reflected the attention given by the Indians government to improve the educational system it inherited from the British. Its goal was to provide free compulsory education for all children up to 14 years of age and to increase opportunities for high school and college education.

Vernacular languages had slowly replaced English in the classroom, but the shift had been hampered by lack of textbooks written in the langue of the people.

Many Indians graduates studied in foreign universities for advanced degrees and after the completion of their studies, they sty abroad because they cannot find suitable employment in Indi. The loss of thousand of medical doctors, scientists, economists, historians, and mathematicians was a severe blow because their skills were badly needed within the country.

Obstacles to Educational Progress Compulsory education, from three to six years, is the rule in all Asian countries. While a large percentage of six-and-seven-year old children start school, there is high rate of dropout. Poverty, poor health and the distance from schools keep many from finishing their studies. Other factors that contribute to dropout rates are failure of parents to appreciate the value of education and of the government to enforce compulsory attendance.

In all countries of Asia there is a great need for technical, vocational, and modern farming skills. Governments plan their educational program to teach people these skills but many Asians prefer to be trained for a civil service post, medicine or law. They consider these courses to be more prestigious than engineering, forestry, Young Ji international School / College

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and veterinary studies, thus there are often more people trained for such work than there are jobs available.

Another problem faced by the Asian countries is the relevance of students attending urban schools to return home to supply their training. Many find city life more attractive than the life style in the rural areas. Bright young college students are also reluctant to return to their countries after being educated at foreign universities.

Terms to Identify 1. Education 2. Secular school 3. Adult education 4. Primary school 5. Illiteracy 6. Reform 7. Technical school 8. Secondary school Follow up Questions 1. Discuss the educational reforms introduced by the Soviets in East Asia.

2. Explain the changes introduced in the Chinese educational system.

3. How did education affect the life of the Asians?

4. Explain the educational program of some countries of South East Asia.

5. Name some of the famous educational institutions in Asia.

6. How were the Japanese influenced by the western educational system?

Activity 1. Collect essays or articles related to education. Summarize each and report in class.

2. Make a report on the Philippine educational system categorized into: a. Pre-Spanish Period b. Spanish Period c. American Period d. Japanese Period e. Early Republic f. After the Martial Law Evaluation Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.

1._______ _______ is the basis of Chinese Civil Service Examinations.

2. Almost all countries of Asia offer a free _______ education.

3. The oldest university in the Philippines is _______.

4. _______ are known as religious schools of the Muslim.

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5. During the _______ Restoration of 1886, Japan underwent a radical transformation in education.

6. In the Philippines, the Spaniards introduced reforms with the passage of ____________.

7. In Thailand, it was during the reign of ____________ that they realized the need for educated people to stuff the growing bureaucracy.

8. During the early period Indian education was monopolized by the ___________.

9. They ___________________ were responsible for increasing the literacy rate of the people of North Asia.

Lesson 12

Economy of Asia

The science that deals with the production of distribution of wealth is known as economics. It is this knowledge that one can identify the resources of an area and how and where these resources can be used to meet the needs if the people.

Some governments have constructed modern communication, and transportation facilities, electric power, education and water facilities to help boost their economic development. Much of their industry is based on processing various agricultural products.

North Asia For most of the Soviet period, the economy of Central Asia was a component part of the bureaucratic command economy of the Soviet Union. All means of production were state-owned, and most types of private economic activity were prohibited. At the end of the Soviet period, Central Asia had been a slow and uncertain transition toward a market-oriented economy. 

Siberia Its widely dispersed sources of raw materials, Siberia‘s industries produce metal and metal products, textiles, vehicles, agricultural equipment, and construction materials. The major center of its metal production is Noril‘sk. The remoteness of many of Siberi‘s oil and gas deposits makes access and transport expensive.

Farming in Seberia is limited to the western and southwest where wheat, rye, oats, barley, and sunflowers re cultivated. They also develop a dairy industry. Farther east, they grow potatoes, grain, sugar beets, and flax. In this area people also herd reindeer for their milk, flesh, and hides. Seberi has developed its lumber and fishing industries.

The Trans-Siberia Railroad is considered to be Siberi‘s backbone in transportation.

The construction of roads and railroads on permafrost is difficult so they utilize air transportation.

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 Uzbekistan.

Fergana Valley occupies less than 5% of Uzbekistan‘ area, but it produces 30% of the country‘s cotton.

Republic of Uzbekistan (Uzbek: Oʻzbekiston Respublikasi, Ўзбекистон Республикаси), is a doubly landlocked country in Central Asia. It is a unitary, constitutional, presidential republic, comprising 12 provinces, 1 autonomous republic, and 1 independent city. Uzbekistan is bordered by five countries: Kazakhstan and the Aral Sea to the north; Tajikistan to the southeast; Kyrgyzstan to the northeast; Afghanistan to the south; and Turkmenistan to the southwest.

Once part of the Turkic Khaganate and later Timurid Empires, the region which today includes the Republic of Uzbekistan was conquered in the early 16th century by nomads who spoke an Eastern Turkic language. This region was subsequently incorporated into the Russian Empire in the 19th century, and in 1924 it became a bordered constituent republic of the Soviet Union, known as the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (Uzbek SSR). It subsequently became the independent Republic of Uzbekistan on 31 August 1991 (officially, as of the following day). Most of Uzbekistan's population today belong to the Uzbek ethnic group and speak Uzbek, a language belonging to the family of Turkic languages.

Uzbekistan's economy relies mainly on commodity production, including cotton, gold, uranium, and natural gas. Despite the declared objective of transition to a market economy, its government continues to maintain economic controls which deter foreign investment and imports in favor of domestic 'import substitution'. The policy of a gradual, strictly controlled transition to the market economy has produced beneficial results in the form of economic recovery after 1995.

Uzbekistan is a secular, unitary, constitutional republic with a diverse cultural heritage. The country's official language is Uzbek, spoken natively by approximately 85% of the population. Uzbeks constitute 81% of the population. Minorities include Russians (5.4%) and others (13.5%). A majority of Uzbeks (54%) are nondenominational Muslims. Uzbekistan is a member of the CIS, OSCE, UN, and the SCO.

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Map of Uzbekistan.

Uzbekistan has an area of 447,400 square kilometers (172,700 sq mi). It is the 56th largest country in the world by area and the 42nd by population. Among the CIS countries, it is the 5th largest by area and the 3rd largest by population.

Uzbekistan lies between latitudes 37° and 46° N, and longitudes 56° and 74° E. It stretches 1,425 kilometers (885 mi) from west to east and 930 kilometres (580 mi) from north to south. Bordering Kazakhstan and the Aral Sea to the north and northwest, Turkmenistan to the southwest, Tajikistan to the southeast, and Kyrgyzstan to the northeast, Uzbekistan is one of the largestCentral Asian states and the only Central Asian state to border all the other four. Uzbekistan also shares a short border (less than 150 km or 93 mi) with Afghanistan to the south.

Uzbekistan is a dry, landlocked country. It is one of two doubly landlocked countries in the world (that is, a country completely surrounded by landlocked countries), the other being Liechtenstein. In addition, due to its location within a series of endorheic basins, none of its rivers led to the sea. Less than 10% of its territory is intensively cultivated irrigated land in river valleys and oases. The rest is vast desert (Kyzyl Kum) and mountains.

The highest point in Uzbekistan is the Khazret Sultan, at 4,643 meters (15,233 ft) above sea level, in the southern part of the Gissar Range in Surkhandarya Province, on the border with Tajikistan, just northwest of Dushanbe (formerly called Peak of the 22nd Congress of the Communist Party).

The climate in the Republic of Uzbekistan is continental, with little precipitation expected annually (100–200 millimeters, or 3.9–7.9 inches). The average summer high temperature tends to be 40 °C (104 °F), while the average winter low temperature is around −23 °C (−9 °F). 

Environment Uzbekistan has rich and diverse natural environment. However, decades of questionable Soviet policies in pursuit of greater cotton production have resulted in a catastrophic scenario with the agricultural industry being the main contributor to the pollution and devastation of both air and water in the country.

The Aral Sea used to be the fourth-largest inland sea on Earth, acting as an influencing factor in the air moisture and arid land use. Since the 1960s, the decade when the misuse of the Aral Sea water began, it has shrunk to less than 50% of its former area and decreased in volume threefold. Reliable, or even approximate data, has not been collected, stored or provided by any organization or official agency.

Much of the water was and continues to be used for the irrigation of cotton fields, a crop requiring a large amount of water to grow.

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The question of who is responsible for the crisis remains open: the Soviet scientists and politicians who directed the distribution of water during the 1960s, or the post-Soviet politicians who did not allocate sufficient funding for the building of dams and irrigation systems.

Due to the Aral Sea problem, high salinity and contamination of the soil with heavy elements are especially widespread in Karakalpakstan, the region of Uzbekistan adjacent to the Aral Sea. The bulk of the nation's water resources is used for farming, which accounts for nearly 84% of the water usage and contributes to high soil salinity. Heavy use of pesticides and fertilizers for cotton growing further aggravates soil pollution.  History

Female statuette wearing the kaunakes. Chlorite and limestone, Bactria, beginning of the 2nd millennium BC.

Alexander the Great at the Battle of Issus.

The first people known to inhabit the Central Asian region of modern-day Uzbekistan were Iranian nomads who arrived from the northern grasslands of what is now Kazakhstan sometime in the 1st millennium BC. These nomads, who spoke Iranian dialects, settled in Central Asia and began to build an extensive irrigation system along the rivers of the region. At this time, cities such as Bukhoro (Bukhara), Samarqand (Samarkand) and Chash (Tashkent) began to appear as centres of emerging government and high culture. By the 5th century BC, the Bactrian,Soghdian, and Tokharian states dominated and ruled over the region.

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As China began to develop its silk trade with the West, Iranian cities took advantage of this commerce by becoming centres of trade. Using an extensive network of cities and rural settlements in the province of Mouwaurannahr (a name given the region after the Arab conquest) in Uzbekistan, and further east in what is today China's Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, the Soghdian intermediaries became the wealthiest of these Iranian merchants. As a result of this trade on what became known as the Silk Route, Bukhoro and Samarqand eventually became extremely wealthy cities, and at the time Transoxiana (Mawarannahr) was one of the largest, most influential and powerful Persian provinces of antiquity.

Registan, Sher-Dor Madrasah

Russian troops taking Samarkandin 1868.

Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great conquered Sogdiana and Bactria in 327 BC, marrying Roxana, daughter of a local Bactrian chieftain. A conquest was supposedly of little help to Alexander as popular resistance was fierce, causing Alexander's army to be bogged down in the region that became the northern part of the Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. The kingdom was replaced with the Yuezhi dominated Kushan Empire in the 1st century BC. For many centuries the region of Uzbekistan was ruled by the Persian empires, including the Parthian and Sassanid Empires, as well as by other empires, for example those formed by the Turkic Hephthalite and Gokturk peoples.

In the 8th century, Transoxiana, the territory between the Amudarya and Syrdarya rivers, was conquered by the Arabs (Ali ibn Sattor) who enriched the region with the Early Renaissance. Many notable scientists lived there and contributed to its development during the Islamic Golden Age. Among the achievements of the scholars during this period were the development of trigonometry into its modern form (simplifying its practical application to calculate the phases of the moon), advances in optics, in astronomy, as well as in poetry, Young Ji international School / College

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philosophy, art, calligraphy and many others, which set the foundation for the Muslim Renaissance.

In the 9th and 10th centuries, Transoxiana was included into the Samanid State. Later, Transoxiana saw the incursion of the Turkicruled Karakhanids, as well as the Seljuks (Sultan Sanjar) and Kara-Khitans.

The Mongol conquest under Genghis Khan during the 13th century would bring about a change to the region. The Mongol invasion of Central Asia led to the displacement of some of the Iranian-speaking people of the region, their culture and heritage being superseded by that of the Mongolian-Turkic peoples who came thereafter. The invasions of Bukhara, Samarkand, Urgench and others resulted inmass murders and unprecedented destruction, such as portions of Khwarezmiabeing completely razed.

Following the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, his empire was divided among his four sons and his family members. Despite the potential for serious fragmentation, the Mongol law of the Mongol Empire maintained orderly succession for several more generations, and control of most of Transoxiana stayed in the hands of the direct descendants of Chagatai Khan, the second son of Genghis Khan.

Orderly succession, prosperity, and internal peace prevailed in the Chaghatai lands, and the Mongol Empire as a whole remained a strong and United Kingdom. (Ulus Batiy, Sattarkhan)

Two Sart men and two Sart boys in Samarkand, c. 1910 In the early 14th century, however, as the empire began to break up into its constituent parts. The Chaghatai territory was disrupted as the princes of various tribal groups competed for influence.

One tribal chieftain, Timur (Tamerlane), emerged from these struggles in the 1380s as the dominant force in Transoxiana. Although he was not a descendant of Genghis Khan, Timur became the de facto ruler of Transoxiana and proceeded to conquer all of western Central Asia, Iran, Asia Minor, and the southern steppe region north of the Aral Sea. He also invaded Russia, Turkey, and Iraq, and placed Iran and India under his command before dying during an invasion of China in 1405.

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Timur was known for his extreme brutality and his conquests were accompanied by genocidal massacres in the cities he occupied.

Timur initiated the last flowering of Transoxiana by gathering together numerous artisans and scholars from the vast lands he had conquered into his capital, Samarqand. By supporting such people, he imbued his empire with a rich Perso-Islamic culture. During his reign and the reigns of his immediate descendants, a wide range of religious and palatial construction masterpieces were undertaken in Samarqand and other population centres. Amir Timur initiated an exchange of medical discoveries and patronized physicians, scientists and artists from the neighboring countries such as India; His grandsonUlugh Beg was one of the world's first great astronomers. It was during the Timurid dynasty that Turkic, in the form of the Chaghatai dialect, became a literary language in its own right in Transoxiana, although the Timurids were Persianate in nature. The greatest Chaghataid writer, AliShir Nava'i, was active in the city of Herat (now in northwestern Afghanistan) in the second half of the 15th century.

The Timurid state quickly split in half after the death of Timur. The chronic internal fighting of the Timurids attracted the attention of the Uzbek nomadic tribes living to the north of the Aral Sea. In 1501 the Uzbek forces began a wholesale invasion of Transoxiana. The slave trade in the Khanate of Bukhara became prominent and was firmly established. There were between 25,000 and 60,000 Tajik slaves in Bukhara alone in 1821. Before the arrival of the Russians, present Uzbekistan was divided between Emirate of Bukhara and khanates of Khiva and Kokand.

In the 19th century, the Russian Empire began to expand and spread into Central Asia. There were 210,306 Russians living in Uzbekistan in 1912. The "Great Game" period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. A second, less intensive phase followed the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. At the start of the 19th century, there were some 3,200 kilometres (2,000 mi) separating British India and the outlying regions of Tsarist Russia. Much of the land in-between was unmapped.

By the beginning of 1920, Central Asia was firmly in the hands of Russia and, despite some early resistance to the Bolsheviks, Uzbekistan and the rest of the Central Asia became a part of the Soviet Union. On 27 October 1924 the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic was created. From 1941 to 1945, during World War II, 1,433,230 people from Uzbekistan fought in the Red Army against Nazi Germany. A number also fought on the German side. As many as 263,005 Uzbek soldiers died in the battlefields of the Eastern Front, and 32,670 went missing in action.

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On 31 August 1991, with the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Uzbekistan declared independence. 1 September was proclaimed the National Independence Day. 

Politics of Uzbekistan

The Legislative Chamber of the Supreme Assembly (Lower House).

Islam Karimov, president of Uzbekistan, during a visit to the Pentagon in 2002.

After Uzbekistan declared independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, an election was held, and Islam Karimov was elected as the first President of Uzbekistan. However, the election was not democratic; Karimov's party was culpable of harassing political opponents and allegedly interfered with votes at the ballot box.

The first elections of the Oliy Majlis (Parliament or Supreme Assembly) were held under a resolution adopted by the 16th Supreme Soviet in 1994. In that year, the Supreme Soviet was replaced by the Oliy Majlis. Since then Uzbekistan has held presidential and parliamentarian elections on regular basis, but no real opposition candidates or parties are able to participate.

The third elections for the bicameral 150–member Oliy Majlis, the Legislative Chamber, and the 100–member Senate for five-year terms, were held on 27 December 2009. The second elections that were held in December 2004–05. The Young Ji international School / College

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Oliy Majlis was unicameral up to 2004. Its size increased from 69 deputies (members) in 1994 to 120 in 2004–05, and currently stands at 150.

The executive holds a great deal of power, and the legislature has little power to shape laws. Under the terms of a 27 December 1995 referendum, Islam Karimov's first term was extended. Another national referendum was held 27 January 2002 to extend the Constitutional Presidential term from 5 years to 7 years.

The referendum passed, and Islam Karimov's term was extended by an act of parliament to December 2007. Most international observers refused to participate in the process and did not recognize the results, dismissing them as not meeting basic standards. The 2002 referendum also included a plan for a bicameral parliament consisting of a lower house (the Oliy Majlis) and an upper house (Senate). Members of the lower house are to be "full-time" legislators. Elections for the new bicameral parliament took place on 26 December.

The OSCE limited observation mission concluded that the elections fell significantly short of OSCE commitments and other international standards for democratic elections. Several political parties have been formed with government approval. Similarly, although multiple media outlets (radio, TV, newspaper) have been established, these either remain under government control or rarely broach political topics. Independent political parties were allowed to organize, recruit members and hold conventions and press conferences, but they have been denied registration under restrictive registration procedures. 

Human rights in Uzbekistan

Andijan massacre The Constitution of the Republic of Uzbekistan asserts that "democracy in the Republic of Uzbekistan shall be based upon common human principles, according to which the highest value shall be the human being, his life, freedom, honor, dignity and other inalienable rights."

The official position is summarised in a memorandum "The measures taken by the government of the Republic of Uzbekistan in the field of providing and encouraging human rights‖ and amounts to the following: the government does everything that is in its power to protect and to guarantee the human rights of Uzbekistan's citizens. Uzbekistan continuously improves its laws and institutions in order to create a more humane society. Over 300 laws regulating the rights and basic freedoms of the people have been passed by the parliament. For instance, an office of Ombudsman was established in 1996. On 2 August 2005, President Islam Karimov signed a decree that abolished capital punishment in Uzbekistan on 1 January 2008.

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Old Uzbek man from central Uzbekistan.

However, non-governmental human rights watchdogs, such as IHF, Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, as well as United States Department of State and Council of the European Union define Uzbekistan as "an authoritarian state with limited civil rights"[29] and express profound concern about "wide-scale violation of virtually all basic human rights".[30] According to the reports, the most widespread violations are torture, arbitrary arrests, and various restrictions of freedoms: of religion, of speech and press, of free association and assembly. It has also been reported that forced sterilization of rural Uzbek women has been sanctioned by the government. The reports maintain that the violations are most often committed against members of religious organizations, independent journalists, human rights activists and political activists, including members of the banned opposition parties.

The 2005 civil unrest in Uzbekistan, which resulted in several hundred people being killed, is viewed by many as a landmark event in the history of human rights abuse in Uzbekistan. A concern has been expressed and a request for an independent investigation of the events has been made by the United States, European Union, the United Nations, the OSCE Chairman-in-Office and the OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights. The government of Uzbekistan is accused of unlawful termination of human life and of denying its citizens freedom of assembly and freedom of expression. The government vehemently rebuffs the accusations, maintaining that it merely conducted an anti-terrorist operation, exercising only necessary force. In addition, some officials claim that "an information war on Uzbekistan has been declared" and the human rights violations in Andijan are invented by the enemies of Uzbekistan as a convenient pretext for intervention in the country's internal affairs.  Administrative divisions Uzbekistan is divided into twelve provinces (viloyatlar, singular viloyat, compound noun viloyati e.g., Toshkent viloyati, Samarqand viloyati, etc.), one autonomous republic (respublika, compound noun respublikasi e.g.

Qoraqalpog'iston MuxtorRespublikasi, Karakalpakstan Autonomous Republic, etc.), and one independent city (shahar, compound noun shahri, e.g., Toshkent shahri). Names are given below in the Uzbek language, although numerous variations of the transliterations of each name exist.

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Political Map of Uzbekistan Area (km²)

Population (2008)

Division

Capital City

Key

Buxoro Viloyati

Buxoro (Bukhara) 39,400 1,576,800

3

Xorazm Viloyati

Urganch

6,300

13

Jizzax Viloyati

Jizzax

20,500 1,090,900

5

Navoiy Viloyati

Navoiy

110,800 834,100

7

Qashqadaryo Viloyati

Qarshi

28,400 2,537,600

8

Samarqand Viloyati

Samarkand

16,400 3,032,000

9

Sirdaryo Viloyati

Guliston

5,100

10

Surxondaryo Viloyati

Termiz

20,800 2,012,600

11

Toshkent Viloyati

Toytepa

15,300 2,537,500

12

Toshkent Shahri

Toshkent

335

2,192,700

1

Farg'ona Viloyati

Farg'ona

6,800

2,997,400

4

Andijon Viloyati

Andijon

4,200

2,477,900

2

Namangan Viloyati

Namangan

7,900

2,196,200

6

Qoraqalpog'iston Respublikasi

Nukus

160,000 1,612,300

1,517,600

698,100

14

The statistics for Toshkent Viloyati also include the statistics for Toshkent Shahri.

The provinces are further divided into districts (tuman).

Economy of Uzbekistan

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Tashkent

 Samarkand Uzbekistan has the fourth largest gold deposits in the world. The country mines 80 tons of gold annually, seventh in the world. Uzbekistan's copper deposits rank tenth in the world and its uranium deposits twelfth. The country's uranium production ranks seventh globally. The Uzbek national gas company, Uzbekneftegas, ranks 11th in the world in natural gas production with an annual output of 60 to 70 billion cubic meters. The country has significant untapped reserves of oil and gas: there are 194 deposits of hydrocarbons in Uzbekistan, including 98 condensate and natural gas deposits and 96 gas condensate deposits.

The largest corporations involved in Uzbekistan's energy sector are the China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC), Petronas, the Korea National Oil Corporation, Gazprom, Lukoil, and Uzbekneftegas.

Along with many Commonwealth of Independent States or CIS economies, Uzbekistan's economy declined during the first years of transition and then recovered after 1995, as the cumulative effect of policy reforms began to be felt. It has shown robust growth, rising by 4% per year between 1998 and 2003 and accelerating thereafter to 7%–8% per year. According to IMF estimates, the GDP in 2008 will be almost double its value in 1995 (in constant prices). Since 2003 annual inflation rates averaged less than 10%.

Uzbekistan has GNI per capita (US$1,900 in current dollars in 2013, giving a PPP equivalent of US$3,800). Economic production is concentrated in commodities. In 2011, Uzbekistan was the world's seventh-largest producer and fifthlargest exporter of cotton as well as the seventh largest world producer of gold. It is also a regionally significant producer of natural gas, coal, copper, oil, silver and uranium.

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Agriculture employs 28% of Uzbekistan's labour force and contributes 24% of its GDP (2006 data). While official unemployment is very low, underemployment – especially in rural areas – is estimated to be at least 20%.At cotton-harvest time, all students and teachers are still mobilized as unpaid labour to help in the fields. Uzbek cotton is even used to make banknotes in South Korea. The use of child labour in Uzbekistan has led several companies, including Tesco, C&A, Marks & Spencer, Gap, and H&M, to boycott Uzbek cotton.

Facing a multitude of economic challenges upon acquiring independence, the government adopted an evolutionary reform strategy, with an emphasis on state control, reduction of imports and self-sufficiency in energy. Since 1994, the statecontrolled media have repeatedly proclaimed the success of this "Uzbekistan Economic Model" and suggested that it is a unique example of a smooth transition to the market economy while avoiding shock, pauperism and stagnation.

The gradualist reform strategy has involved postponing significant macroeconomic and structural reforms. The state in the hands of the bureaucracy has remained a dominant influence in the economy. Corruption permeates the society and grows more rampant over time: Uzbekistan's 2005 Corruption Perception Index was 137 out of 159 countries, whereas in 2007 Uzbekistan was 175th out of 179 countries. A February 2006 report on the country by the International Crisis Group suggests that revenues earned from key exports, especially cotton, gold, corn and increasingly gas, are distributed among a very small circle of the ruling elite, with little or no benefit for the populace at large. The recent high-profile corruption scandals involving government contracts and large international companies, notably TeliaSoneria, have shown that businesses are particularly vulnerable to corruption when operating in Uzbekistan.

According to the Economist Intelligence Unit, "the government is hostile to allowing the development of an independent private sector, over which it would have no control". Thus, the middle class is marginalized economically and, consequently, politically.

The economic policies have repelled foreign investment, which is the lowest per capita in the CIS. For years, the largest barrier to foreign companies entering the Uzbekistan market has been the difficulty of converting currency. In 2003 the government accepted the obligations of Article VIII under the International Monetary Fund (IMF) providing for full currency convertibility. However, strict currency controls and the tightening of borders have lessened the effect of this measure.

Uzbekistan experienced rampant inflation of around 1000% per year immediately after independence (1992–1994). Stabilization efforts implemented with guidance from the IMF paid off. The inflation rates were brought down to 50% in 1997 and then to 22% in 2002. Since 2003 annual inflation rates averaged less than 10%.Tight Young Ji international School / College

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economic policies in 2004 resulted in a drastic reduction of inflation to 3.8% (although alternative estimates based on the price of a true market basket, put it at 15%).The inflation rates moved up to 6.9% in 2006 and 7.6% in 2007 but have remained in the single-digit range.

The government of Uzbekistan restricts foreign imports in many ways, including high import duties. Excise taxes are applied in a highly discriminatory manner to protect locally produced goods. Official tariffs are combined with unofficial, discriminatory charges resulting in total charges amounting to as much as 100 to 150% of the actual value of the product, making imported products virtually unaffordable. Import substitution is an officially declared policy and the government proudly reports a reduction by a factor of two in the volume of consumer goods imported. A number of CIS countries are officially exempt from Uzbekistan import duties.

The Republican Stock Exchange (RSE) opened in 1994. The stocks of all Uzbek joint stock companies (around 1250) are traded on RSE. The number of listed companies as of January 2013 exceeds 110. Securities market volume reached 2 trillion in 2012, and the number is rapidly growing due to the rising interest by companies of attracting necessary resources through the capital market. According to Central Depository as of January 2013 par value of outstanding shares of Uzbek emitters exceeded 9 trillion.

Uzbekistan's external position has been strong since 2003. Thanks in part to the recovery of world market prices of gold and cotton (the country's key export commodities), expanded natural gas and some manufacturing exports, and increasing labour migrant transfers, the current account turned into a large surplus (between 9% and 11% of GDP from 2003 to 2005) and foreign exchange reserves, including gold, more than doubled to around US$3 billion.

Foreign exchange reserves amounted in 2010 to 13 billion US$.

Uzbekistan is considered one of the fastest growing economies in the world (top 26) in the next decades according to a global bank HSBC survey. 

Demographics

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Wedding ceremonies

.Uzbek children Uzbekistan is Central Asia's most populous country. Its 30,183,400 citizens comprise nearly half the region's total population. The population of Uzbekistan is very young: 34.1% of its people are younger than 14 (2008 estimate). According to official sources, Uzbeks comprise a majority (80%) of the total population. Other ethnic groups include Russians 5.5%, Tajiks 5% (official estimate and disputed),Kazakhs 3%, Karakalpaks 2.5% and Tatars 1.5% (1996 estimates).

There is some controversy about the percentage of the Tajik population.

While official state numbers from Uzbekistan put the number at 5%, the number is said to be an understatement and some Western scholars put the number up to 20%–30%. The Uzbeks intermixed with Sarts, a Turko-Persian population of Central Asia. Today, the majority of Uzbeks are admixed and can trace their ancestry to the Mongols and the Iranian peoples.

Uzbekistan has an ethnic Korean population that was forcibly relocated to the region by Stalin from the Soviet Far East in 1937–1938. There are also small groups of Armenians in Uzbekistan, mostly in Tashkent and Samarkand. The nation is 88% Muslim (mostly Sunni, with a 5% Shi'a minority), 9% Eastern Orthodox and 3% other faiths. The U.S. State Department's International Religious Freedom Report 2004 reports that 0.2% of the populations are Buddhist (these being ethnic Koreans).

The Bukharan Jews have lived in Central Asia, mostly in Uzbekistan, for thousands of years. There were 94,900 Jews in Uzbekistan in 1989 (about 0.5% of the population according to the 1989 census), but now, since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, most Central Asian Jews left the region for the United States, Germany, or Israel. Fewer than 5,000 Jews remained in Uzbekistan in 2007.

Russians in Uzbekistan represent 5.5% of the total population. During the Soviet period, Russians and Ukrainians constituted more than half the population of Tashkent. The country counted nearly 1.5 million Russians, 12.5% of the population, in the 1970 census. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, significant emigration of ethnic Russians has taken place, mostly for economic reasons.

In the 1940s, the Crimean Tatars, along with the Volga Germans, Chechens, Pontic Greeks, Kumaks and many other nationalities were deported to Central Asia.

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Approximately 100,000 Crimean Tatars continue to live in Uzbekistan. The number of Greeks in Tashkent has decreased from 35,000 in 1974 to about 12,000 in 2004.The majority of Meskhetian Turks left the country after the pogroms in the Fergana valley in June 1989.

At least 10% of Uzbekistan's labor force works abroad (mostly in Russia and Kazakhstan).

Uzbekistan has a 99.3% literacy rate among adults older than 15 (2003 estimate) which is attributable to the free and universal education system of the Soviet Union. 

Kazakhstan Kazakhstan has three distinct economic regions. In the north and northeast are concentrated the manufacturing, refining and metallurgical facilities. Some of their products include heavy machinery, ball bearings, and refined petroleum products. The north-central region and cotton and rice predominate in the south. The country is also a major producer of meat and milk. Until the mid-1980‘s the west was famous for its fishing area and the destruction of the Aral Sea wiped out the fishing industry. On the western part is the oil production. The Tengis fields of the Mangyshlak peninsula holds oil as music as the fields of Saudi-Arabia.

Kazakhstan produces about 85 % of their electricity. In 1985 there were 37 steam-drive electric power plants, fuelled by coal. They also have three large hydroelectric power plants and a nuclear plant. In 1993, the country produced 23 million metric tons of crude oil and natural gas concentrate.

The country has also deposits of chromium, titanium, nickel, tungsten, molybdenum, bauxite and copper.

The export products of Kazkhstn include petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, refined copper and wool; its chief imports are refined petroleum products, motor vehicles and newsprint. 

Tajikistan During the Soviet period industrial development was introduced but Tajikistan remained predominantly agricultural. Their farming was cognized into two kinds of production units: collective farms and state farms. The collective farms concentrate on the production of fruits and vegetables like grapes, lemons, melons, cereals, potatoes and tobacco. The state farms are particularly associated with the cultivations of cotton. Both collective and state farms raise cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and poultry.

Light industry of Tajikistn refers to the processing of raw materials: cleaning cotton, extracting oil from cotton seed, spinning cotton thread, and processing silk.

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Their heavy industries include the manufacture of electrical equipment, machine tools, and asbestos products.

The minerals extracted in Tajikistan include coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium, tin, molybdenum, salt and mercury. There are deposit of semiprecious stones such as lapis lazuli, amethyst and turquoise. In 1999 old mining was started by the government with joint venture to small British mining company. 

Turkmenistan Turkmenistan is largely a desert country with intensive agriculture in irrigated oases and large gas and oil resources. Half of its irrigated land is planted with cotton, making it the world‘s tenth-largest producer. In 1998-2003, Turkmenistn suffered from the continued lack of adequate export routes for natural gas and from obligations on extensive short-term external debt. In 2003, the total exports rose by 38% because of higher international oil and gas prices. Due to its large deposits of oil and gas, the republic‘s leaders reoffered to the country as ―the future Kuwait‖. But the overall prospects in the near future are discouraging because of widespread poverty, the burden of foreign debt, and unwillingness of the government to adopt a market-oriented reforms.

They raise also Karakul sheep, which produce beautiful wool. Traditional industries include carpet and rug making, and the country is famous for its ―Bukhr‖ rugs. 

Kyrgyzstan The main economic activity in the mountain of Kyrgyzstan is ship building in the lowland it is cattle raising and cultivation of cotton, sugar beets and tobacco that predominates. The transition to a market-oriented economy effected agricultural yield, because of the increased cost of fertilizer and equipment and the privatization of collective farms.

The major mineral deposits of Kyrgyzstan are coal, antimony, mercury, uranium, lead, zinc, and rare-earth metals. Its antimony is renowned for its high unity. In 1992 a major old deposits was discovered near Kumtor and its reserves, if estimated reaches 5.5 billion tons which would make the country the world‘s seventh largest old producing country. The government signed a contract with Cameo, a Canadians mining company, to exploit the gold.

Kyrgyzstan‘s most valuable manufactured products re automated tools and equipments and spare parts. Their heavy industries include machined tools, ironpressing machinery, iron and steel pipes and tubing and farm equipment especially plows and tractions. They are also major producers of ferroconcrete building materials and asbestos-cement roofing materials.

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Among the countries of North Asia the transition to market-oriented economy proved to be difficult. Their national income was affected due to shortages, inflation and poorly mobilized work force. The government of new countries signed economic cooperation agreement among themselves in the hope of stabilizing the economy in the long term.

East Asia 

Japan Before and during the World War II, much of the Japanese economy was controlled by a dozen wealthy families known as Zaibatsu (―wealth cliques‖). The famous families were the Mitsui, Iwasaki, Sumitomo, and Yasud; they controlled most of the coal , iron, pulp, and aluminium industries. These business organizations remained intact after World War II and even expanded into shipping, banking, and other industries.

Farmlands in Japn are tilled intensively, and almost all farms have electricity and use modern machinery. These Japanese farms are among the most productive in the world due to advanced techniques. Rice is the staple food of the Japanese.

Other agricultural crops include potatoes, sugar beet, sugar cane, wheat, barley, mandarin oranges, cabbage, sweet potatoes, apples, melons, soya beans, tea and tobacco.

About two thirds of the total land area of Japan is woodland, some two-fifths of which contain softwoods. Ranks high in world production of timber but due to big demands type country still import much of its seeds.

Fish is the second staple food of the Japanese and fishing is one of their most important industries both for domestic and export markets. Japanese fishing fleet is one of the worlds largest. Their fishing industry is divided into three categories; offshore, coastal and deep-sea fishing. Offshore fishing used medium –sized bots, deep-se fishing use large vessels that operate in international fishing rounds and coastal fishing use either small boats or breeding techniques. Their annual catch includes sardines, bonito, crab, pike, prawn, salmon, Pollack, mackerel, squid, clams, saury, tuna and yellowtail. Japan is among the world‘s few remaining whaling countries in the world.

On the mineral deposits of Japan, limestone is the principal one and the others are coal, copper, lead, zinc, and quartile. Their quantities are insufficient to meet domestic demand.

In the mid-1990s Japan was the leading shipbuilding country in the world and was also leading in the production of electrical and electronic products, steel, and motor vehicles. They also produced passenger cars, trucks, millions of watches, Young Ji international School / College

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colour television sets, cameras and other electric and electronic items for the home and workplace. 

China China adopted the commune system. Each commune system was divided into production teams of about forty households. These households were responsible for farming a specific portion of the land. Private lots were given to the farmers. Communal living ended. Each person was guaranteed twelve hours a day for personal activities-eating, sleeping and recreation. Since 1979 farmers were allowed to sell fruits and vegetables they row on their private plots.

China is the world‘s largest producer of graphite, has the largest coal deposits, the world‘s largest reserves of antimony and tungsten and second to Saudi Arabia in oil reserves. Manchura is their principal mining region.

The most important agricultural products of Chin are rice and wheat.

Their large industrial bases are located at Tianjin, Wu Han and Gungzhou.

Southeast Asia 

Singapore Singapore is an economically successful country. Its economic success can be traced to its founding as an entrecote because of its strategic position and excellent harbor. It became the center of trans-shipment in the early twentieth century. Its port is known to be one of the largest in the world in terms of tonnage handled annually. It has more than 600 shipping lines heading super tankers, container ships, passenger lines, fishing vessels and even wooden lighter in its water. Having a popular harbor turned Singapore into a leader in shipbuilding, maintenance and repair.

The country import rubber and tin from Malaysia for processing. It is known today‘s as a major industrial and financial centre, and an important supplier of electronic components.

Singapore is now one of Asia‘s important financial centers, housing at least 130 banks. The Republic had excellent communication networks, linking it to the rest of the world through satellites and round the clock telegraphs and telephone systems. It has fully grown into an Asian Dragon. 

Brunei The economy of Brunei is dependent largely on the production of petroleum and natural gas. Oil fields were first discovered at Seria in 1929, and its production has now expanded to offshore fields. Crude oil output in 2001 was 79 million barrels.

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They also produce rubber, pepper, and animal hides. The production of rice, their chief food crop, does not meet the national needs. Local industries include cloth weaving and metalwork. The country has 1, 150 km roads mostly located along the cost but their main principal network of transportation in the interior are rivers. The gross domestic product of $15, 060 per capita in 1998 was among the world‘s highest, although much of this wealth is concentrated in a few hands. 

Indonesia Crude oil and natural gas are Indonesia‘s most valuable natural resources, and its major sources of export revenue. Most of the country‘s oil gas depends are located in Sumatra.

Indonesia is one of the world‘s major rubber producers. Other products of Indonesia include sugar cane, tea, tobacco, palm oil, cinchona, cloves, coacoa, sisals coconuts and spices. Rice is the major crop; they also produce cassava, corn, yarns, soybeans, peanuts and fruits.

They also raised burses and cattle. Fish are abundant, both in the ocean and in inland ponds.

The country was severely affected during the 1997-98 Asian financial crises but was able to rebound in 2000. Indonesian‘s main trading partners are Japan, United States, Singapore and South Korea. 

India Most of the people of India lived in villages. Families were interdependent and each village was largely self-sufficient. Most villagers were farmers, and their produce was used in the villages.

When the British came, they introduced changes in Indian life, some changes were favorable to the Indians and the others were not. To reduce famine, the British increased the irrigated farmlands to increase food production. Tax payments were suspended during famines and farmers could get loans to buy seeds or work animals. To make transportation easier they built railroads and improve reads.

The introduction of new technology in India brought progress to India‘s economy. The cotton mills, coal mines, the iron and steel company, and the construction of railroads and irrigation canals brought new employment opportunities. A new form of business organization, the corporation, was introduced and so was the banking system.

The Indian government encouraged the organization of cooperative farms. In a cooperative, members combine their land, tools, work animals and labor. Each member continues to own property but shares in the benefits of large-scale farming.

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The Indian government has also organized the community development Program to transform the economic and social life of the villages. 

Saudi Arabia.

After World War I Saudi Arabia became independent and was united under the leadership of Abdul Aziz Saud. Most of the people were illiterate and impoverished Bedouins.

With the discovery of oil reserves in 1938, life in Saudi Arabia changed.

Bedouins, whose fathers had been herdsmen, started driving trucks and working on oil rigs. They became familiar with western technology and western lifestyles.

The Saudis worked to build a prosperous and literate society that combined modern technology and traditional outlook. In 1950 Prince Feisal began a modernization program. He built hospitals, schools, and extensive irrigation worked.

When he became King in 1964, Saudi Arabia had several modern urban centers. He started modernization by providing education for all children. The government invested heavily in projects to bring water to its arid lands and to improve agricultural production. They hired technical advisers from the west and western educated Saudis to develop the industries.

Women were not permitted to work with men, to drive cars, or to ride alone in taxis. Most women continue to water veils in public.

Since 1970 the progress continued and Saudi Arabia became one of the wealthiest nations in the world. Its yearly income from oil was in billions of dollars.

Some of the amount was used to finance other modernization programs in other Arab states. Large amount of money were also invested in real estate, banks, and companies in industrialized states, around the world. These provided employment to people in other parts of the world.

The economy of Asia comprises more than 4 billion people (60% of the world population) living in 46 different states. Six further states lie partly in Asia, but are considered to belong to another region economically and politically. Asia is the world‘s fastest growing economic region. China is the largest economy in Asia and the second largest economy in the world.

As in all world regions, the wealth of Asia differs widely between, and within, states. This is due to its vast size, meaning a huge range of differing cultures, environments, historical ties and government systems. The largest economies in Asia in terms of both nominal and PPP gross domestic product (GDP) are the People‘s Republic of China, Japan, India, South Korea and Indonesia.

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Wealth (if measured by GDP per capita) is mostly concentrated in east Asian territories such as Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan, as well in oil rich countries such as Iran, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, United Arab Emirates. Asia, with the exception of Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore, is currently undergoing rapid growth and industrialization spearheaded by China and India – the two fastest growing major economies in the world. While east Asian and southeast Asian countries generally rely on manufacturing and trade for growth, countries in the Middle East depend more on the production of commodities, principally oil, for economic growth. Over the years, with rapid economic growth and large trade surplus with the rest of the world, Asia has accumulated over US$4 trillion of foreign exchange reserves – more than half of the world‘s total.

Terms to Identify 1. Economics 2. Export 3. Industry 4. Agriculture 5. Staple food 6. Metal 7. Tourism 8. Craft work 9. Import 10. Mineral deposits Follow up Questions 1. Identify the agricultural products of: a. North Asia b. East Asia c. Southeast Asia d. South Asia e. Southwest Asia 2. Name the country‘s leading in fishing industry. Give the kinds of fish they produce.

3. Explain the role of zaibatsu in economy of Japan.

4. What mineral deposits are found in: a. North Asia b. East Asia c. Southeast Asia d. South Asia e. Southwest Asia 5. How did the discovery of oil in some countries of Asian change their economic and social life?

6. How did these discoveries affect the countries not producing oil?

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7. Show how urban community development through the progress attained in the economy of the area.

Lesson 12

Asian Contribution to World Civilization

 Chinese culture For culture in mainland China after 1949,

A Chinese opera performance in Beijing known as Peking opera (京剧)

Popular Chinese lion dance (舞狮) during Wikimania opening ceremony

A fire dragon dance during Chinese New Year celebration in China 

Chinese culture is one of the world's oldest cultures. The area in which the culture is dominant covers a large geographical region in eastern Asia with customs and traditions varying greatly between provinces, cities, and even towns as well.

Important components of Chinese culture includes ceramics, architecture, music, literature, martial arts, cuisine, visual arts, religion etc.

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 Identity There are 56 officially recognized ethnic groups in China. In terms of numbers however, Han Chinese is by far the largest group. Throughout history, many groups have merged into neighboring ethnicities or disappeared. At the same time, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic and regional cultural traditions. The term Zhonghua Minzu has been used to describe the notion of Chinese nationalism in general. Much of the traditional identity within the community has to do with distinguishing the family name. 

Structure

Gold detailing on a throne used by the Qianlong Emperor. The Chinese dragon was a symbol reserved for the Emperor of China or high level imperial families during the Qing Dynasty  Social structure of China Since the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period, some form of Chinese monarch has been the main ruler above all. Different periods of history have different names for the various positions within society. Conceptually each imperial or feudal period is a similar, with the government and military official ranking high in the hierarchy, and the rest of the population under regular Chinese law. From the late Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE) onwards, traditional Chinese society was organized into a hierarchic system of socio-economic classes known as the four occupations.

However, this system did not cover all social groups while the distinctions between all groups became blurred ever since the commercialization of Chinese culture in the Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE). Ancient Chinese education also has a long history; ever since the Sui Dynasty (581–618 CE) educated candidates prepared for the Imperial examinations which drafted exam graduates into government as scholar-bureaucrats.

This led to the creation of a meritocracy, although success was available only to males who could afford test preparation. Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics.

Those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as jinshi, a highly esteemed socio-economic position. A major mythological Young Ji international School / College

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structure developed around the topic of the mythology of the imperial exams. Trades and crafts were usually taught by a shifu. The female historian Ban Zhao wrote the Lessons for Women in the Han Dynasty and outlined the four virtues women must abide to, while scholars such as Zhu Xi and Cheng Yi would expand upon this.

Chinese and Taoist sexual practices are some of the rituals and customs found in society. 

Values Chinese philosophy and Religion in China Most social values are derived from Confucianism and Taoism. The subject of which school was the most influential is always debated as many concepts such as Neo-Confucianism, Buddhism and many others have come about. Reincarnation and other rebirth concept is a reminder of the connection between real-life and the after-life. In Chinese business culture, the concept of guanxi, indicating the primacy of relations over rules, has been well documented.

Confucianism was the official philosophy throughout most of Imperial China's history, and mastery of Confucian texts was the primary criterion for entry into the imperial bureaucracy. A number of more authoritarian strains of thought have also been influential, such as Legalism.

There was often conflict between the philosophies, e.g. the Song Dynasty Neo-Confucians believed Legalism departed from the original spirit of Confucianism. Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today. In recent years, a number of New Confucians (not to be confused with NeoConfucianism) have advocated that democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values".

With the rise of European economic and military power beginning in the mid19th century, non-Chinese systems of social and political organization gained adherents in China. Some of these would-be reformers totally rejected China's cultural legacy, while others sought to combine the strengths of Chinese and European cultures. In essence, the history of 20th-century China is one of experimentation with new systems of social, political, and economic organization that would allow for the reintegration of the nation in the wake of dynastic collapse.  Language

Chinese calligraphy written by the poet Mi Fu of the Song dynasty Young Ji international School / College

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

Chinese language and History of Mandarin The ancient written standard was Classical Chinese. It was used for thousands of years, but was mostly reserved for scholars and intellectuals which forms the "top" class of the society called "shi da fu (士大夫）". Calligraphy later became commercialized, and works by famous artists became prized possessions. Chinese literature has a long past; the earliest classic work in Chinese, the I Ching or "Book of Changes" dates to around 1000 BC. A flourishing of philosophy during theWarring States period produced such noteworthy works as Confucius's Analects and Laozi's Tao Te Ching. (See also: the Chinese classics.)

Dynastic histories were often written, beginning with Sima Qian's seminal Records of the Grand Historian, which was written from 109 BC to 91 BC. The Tang Dynasty witnessed a poetic flowering, while the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature were written during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Printmaking in the form of movable type was developed during the Song Dynasty. Academies of scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to comment on the classics in both printed and handwritten form. Royalty frequently participated in these discussions as well. Chinese philosophers, writers and poets were highly respected and played key roles in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire. Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of the lives of the common people, often to the displeasure of authorities.

At the start of the 20th century, most of the populations were still illiterate, and the many mutually-unintelligible in different regions prevented communication with people from other areas. Reformers set out to establish a national language, settling on the Beijing-based Mandarin as the spoken form. After the May 4th Movement, Classical Chinese was quickly replaced by written vernacular Chinese, modeled after the vocabulary and grammar of the standard spoken language.

Mythology and spirituality

A Guan Yin wooden sculpture, Song dynasty, China, 12th century AD in Ethnological Museum of Berlin, Germany. Guan Yin is one of the spiritual figures of Chinese Buddhism.

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

Chinese spiritual world concepts, Chinese mythology and Chinese folk religion Chinese religion was originally oriented to worshipping the supreme god Shang Di during the Xia and Shang dynasties, with the king and diviners acting as priests and using oracle bones. The Zhou dynasty oriented it to worshipping the broader concept of heaven. A large part of Chinese culture is based on the notion that a spiritual world exists. Countless methods of divination have helped answer questions, even serving as an alternate to medicine. Folklores have helped fill the gap for things that cannot be explained. There is often a blurred line between myth, religion and unexplained phenomenon.

While many deities are part of the tradition, some of the most recognized holy figures include Guan Yin, Jade Emperor and Buddha. Many of the stories have since evolved into traditional Chinese holidays. Other concepts have extended to outside of mythology into spiritual symbols such as Door god and the Imperial guardian lions.

Along with the belief of the holy, there is also the evil. Practices such as Taoist exorcism fighting mogwai and jiangshi with peach wood swords are just some of the concepts passed down from generations. A few Chinese fortune telling rituals are still in use today after thousands of years of refinement. 

Literature

Four Treasures of the Study (文房四宝) - brush (笔), ink (墨), paper (纸) and ink stone (砚) in Chinese calligraphy traditions 

Chinese literature Chinese literature began with record keeping and divination on Oracle Bones.

The extensive collection of books that have been preserved since the Zhou Dynasty demonstrate just how advanced the intellectuals were at one time. Indeed, the era of the Zhou Dynasty is often looked to as the touchstone of Chinese cultural development. The Five Cardinal Points are the foundation for almost all major studies. Concepts covered within the Chinese classic texts present a wide range of subjects including poetry, astrology, astronomy, calendar, constellations and many others. Some of the most important early texts include I Ching and Shujing within the Four Books and Five Classics. Many Chinese concepts such as Yin and Yang,Qi, Four Pillars of Destiny in relation to heaven and earth were all theorized in the dynastic periods.

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The Song Dynasty was also a period of great scientific literature, and saw the creation of works such as Su Song's Xin Yixiang Fayao and Shen Kuo's Dream Pool Essays. There were also enormous works of historiography and large encyclopedias, such as Sima Guang's Zizhi Tongjian of 1084 AD or the Four Great Books of Song fully compiled and edited by the 11th century. Notable confucianists, taoists and scholars of all classes have made significant contributions to and from documenting history to authoring saintly concepts that seem hundreds of years ahead of time. Many novels such as Four Great Classical Novels spawned countless fictional stories. By the end of the Qing Dynasty, Chinese culture would embark on a new era with written vernacular Chinese for the common citizens. Hu Shih and Lu Xun would be pioneers in modern literature.  Music and dance Music and dance were closely associated in the very early periods of China.

The music of China dates back to the dawn of Chinese civilization with documents and artifacts providing evidence of a well-developed musical culture as early as the Zhou Dynasty (1122 BCE - 256 BCE). The earliest music of the Zhou Dynasty recorded in ancient Chinese texts includes the ritual music called yayue and each piece may be associated with a dance. Some of the oldest written music dates back to Confucius's time. The first major well-documented flowering of Chinese music was for the qin during the Tang Dynasty, although the instrument is known to have played a major part before the Han Dynasty.

There are many musical instruments that are integral to Chinese culture, such as the Xun (Ocarina-type instrument that is also integral in Native American cultures), Guzheng (zither with movable bridges), guqin (bridgeless zither), sheng and xiao(vertical flute), the erhu (alto fiddle or bowed lute), pipa (pearshaped plucked lute), and many others.  Arts For all major visual, performance or artistic categories see Arts of China.

"Nine Dragons" handscroll section, by Chen Rong, 1244 CE, ChineseSong Dynasty, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

Different forms of art have swayed under the influence of great philosophers, teachers, religious figures and even political figures. Chinese art encompasses all facets of fine art, folk art and performance art. Porcelain pottery was one of the first Young Ji international School / College

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forms of art in the Palaeolithic period. Early Chinese music and poetry was influenced by the Book of Songs, and the Chinese poet and statesman Qu Yuan.

Chinese painting became a highly appreciated art in court circles encompassing a wide variety of Shan shui with specialized styles such as Ming Dynasty painting. Early Chinese music was based on percussion instruments, which later gave away to stringed and reed instruments. By the Han dynasty papercutting became a new art form after the invention of paper. Chinese opera would also be introduced and branched regionally in additional to other performance formats such as variety arts.  Martial arts

Shaolin monks demonstrating the Chinese kung fu (中国功夫) at Daxiangguo Monastery, Kaifeng,Henan.

China is one of the main birth places of Eastern martial arts. Chinese martial arts are collectively given the name Kung Fu (gong) "achievement" or "merit", and (fu) "man", thus "human achievement") or (previously and in some modern contexts)Wushu ("martial arts" or "military arts"). China also includes the home to the well-respected Shaolin Monastery and Wudang Mountains. The first generation of art started more for the purpose of survival and warfare than art. Over time, some art forms have branched off, while others have retained a distinct Chinese flavor.

Regardless, China has produced some of the most renowned martial artists including Wong Fei Hung and many others. The arts have also co-existed with a variety of weapons including the more standard 18 arms. Legendary and controversial moves like Dim Mak are also praised and talked about within the culture. 

Fashion

Traditional clothing from Ming dynasty known as Hanfu (汉服) Young Ji international School / College

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Men and women in xuanduan formal wear at a Confucian ceremony in China  Clothing of China Different social classes in different eras boast different fashion trends, the colour yellow or red is usually reserved for the emperor. China's fashion history covers hundreds of years with some of the most colorful and diverse arrangements.

During the Qing Dynasty, China's last imperial dynasty dramatic shift of clothing occurred such as cheongsam or qipao, the clothing of the era before the Qing Dynasty is referred to as Hanfu or traditional Han Chinese clothing. Many symbols such as phoenix have been used for decorative as well as economic purposes. 

Architecture Chinese architecture, examples for which can be found from over 2,000 years ago, has long been a hallmark of the culture. There are certain features common to Chinese architecture, regardless of specific region or use. The most important is its emphasis on width, as the wide halls of the Forbidden City serve as an example. In contrast, Western architecture emphasize on height, though there are exceptions such as pagodas.

Another important feature is symmetry, which connotes a sense of grandeur as it applies to everything from palaces to farmhouses. One notable exception is in the design of gardens, which tends to be as asymmetrical as possible. Like Chinese scroll paintings, the principle underlying the garden's composition is to create enduring flow, to let the patron wander and enjoy the garden without prescription, as in nature herself. Feng shui has played an important part in structural development. 

Cuisine

Chinese meal in Suzhou with rice, shrimp, eggplant, tofu, vegetable, vegetarian duck with meat and bamboo Young Ji international School / College

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 Customs and etiquette in Chinese dining The overwhelmingly large variety of Chinese cuisine comes mainly from the practice of dynastic period, when emperors would host banquets with over 100 dishes per meal. A countless number of imperial kitchen staff and concubines were involved in the food preparation process. Over time, many dishes became part of the everyday-citizen culture. Some of the highest quality restaurants with recipes close to the dynastic periods include Fangshan restaurant in Beihai Park Beijing and the Oriole Pavilion. Arguably all branches of Hong Kong eastern style are in some ways rooted from the original dynastic cuisines.

Tea culture 

Leisure A number of games and pastimes are popular within Chinese culture. The most common game is Mah Jong. The same pieces are used for other styled games such as Shanghai Solitaire. Others include pai gow, pai gow poker and other bone domino games. weiqi and xiangqi are also popular. Ethnic games like Chinese yoyo are also part of the culture.

Indian literature 

Indian literature refers to the literature produced on the Indian subcontinentuntil 1947 and in the Republic of India thereafter. The Republic of India has 22 officially recognized languages.

All dates about the ancient Indian literature are not only uncertain, but are contested. European scholars from 18th century onwards estimated dates of various texts based on methods that Indian scholars consider arbitrary. The earliest works of Indian literature were orally transmitted. Sanskrit literature begins with the oral literature of the Rig Veda a collection of sacred hymns dating to the period 1500– 1200 BCE. The Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata appeared towards the end of the first millennium BCE. Classical Sanskrit literature developed rapidly during the first few centuries of the first millennium BCE, as did the Tamil Sangam literature, and the Pāli Canon.

In the medieval period, literature in Kannada and Telugu appeared in the 9th and 11th centuries respectively.[2] Later, literature in Marathi, Bengali, various dialects of Hindi, Persian and Urdu began to appear as well. Early in the 20th century, Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore became India's first Nobel laureate. In contemporary Indian literature, there are two major literary awards; these are the Sahitya Akademi Fellowship and the Jnanpith Award. Eight Jnanpith Awards each have been awarded in Hindi and Kannada, followed by five in Bengali and Malayalam, four in Oriya, three in Gujarati, Marathi, Telugu and Urdu, and 2 each in Assamese and Tamil.

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

Vedas Examples of early works written in Vedic Sanskrit include the holy Hindu texts, such as the core Vedas. Other examples include the Sulba Sutras, which are some of the earliest texts on geometry.. 

Epic Sanskrit literature Ved Vyasa's Mahabharata and Valmiki's Ramayana, written in Epic Sanskrit, are regarded as the greatest Sanskrit epics. 

Classical Sanskrit literature The famous poet and playwright Kālidāsa wrote one epic: Raghuvamsha (Dynasty of Raghu) ; it was written in Classical Sanskrit rather than Epic Sanskrit. Other examples of works written in Classical Sanskrit include the Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi which standardized the grammar and phonetics of Classical Sanskrit. The Laws of Manu is an important text in Hinduism. Kālidāsa is often considered to be the greatest playwright in Sanskrit literature and one of the greatest poets in Sanskrit literature, whose Recognition of Shakuntala and Meghaduuta are the most famous Sanskrit plays. He occupies the same position in Sanskrit literature that Shakespeare occupies in English literature. Some other famous plays were Mricchakatika by Shudraka, Svapna Vasavadattam by Bhasa, and Ratnavali by Sri Harsha. Later poetic works include Geeta Govinda by Jayadeva. Some other famous works are Chanakya's Arthashastra and Vatsyayana's Kamasutra.

After the Charyapadas, the period may again be split into (a) Pre-Vaishnavite and (b) Vaishnative sub-periods. The earliest known Assamese writer is Hema Saraswati, who wrote a small poem "Prahlada Charita". In the time of the King Indranarayana (1350–1365) of Kamatapur the two poets Harihara Vipra and Kaviratna Saraswati composed Asvamedha Parva and Jayadratha Vadha respectively. Another poet named Rudra Kandali translated Drona Parva into Assamese. But the most well-known poet of the Pre-Vaishnavite sub period isMadhav Kandali, who rendered Valmiki's Ramayana into Assamese verse (Kotha Ramayana, 11th century) under the patronage of Mahamanikya, a Kachari king of Jayantapura.

The most famous modern Assamese writers are Lakshminath Bezbaruah,Indira Goswami, Nirupama Borgohain, Birendra Kumar Bhattacharya, Homen Borgohain, Bhabendra Nath Saikia, Amulya Barua, Nabakanta Barua, Atul Chandra Hazarika, Nalini Bala Devi, Nirmal Prabha Bordoloi, Mahim Bora,Arupa Kalita Patangia, Syed Abdul Malik, Bhabananda Deka, Purobi Bormudoi, Mamoni Raisom Goswami, Arun Sharma, Anuradha Sharma Pujari,Atulananda Deva Goswami, Hiren Bhattacharyya, Hridayananda Gogoi, etc.

Badaga literature Young Ji international School / College

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The author of India's National Song 'Vande Mataram'.

The first evidence of Bengali literature is known as Charyapada or Charyageeti, which were Buddhist hymns from the 8th century. Charyapada is in the oldest known written form of Bengali. The famous Bengali linguist Harprashad Shastri discovered the palm leaf Charyapada manuscript in the Nepal Royal Court Library in 1907. The most internationally famous Bengali writer is Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore, who received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913 for his work "Gitanjali". He wrote the national anthem of India and Bangladesh namely, "Jana Gana Mana" and "Amar Sonar Bangla", respectively. He was the first Asian who won the Nobel Prize. Rabindranath has written enormous amount of Poems, Songs, Essays, Novels, Plays and Short-stories. His songs remain popular and are still widely sung in Bengal.

Kazi Nazrul Islam, who is one generation younger than Tagore, is also equally popular, valuable, and influential in socio-cultural context of the Bengal, though virtually unknown in foreign countries. And among later generation poets,Jibanananda Das is considered the most important figure.[7] Other famous Indian Bengali writers were Sharat Chandra Chattopadhyay, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Michael Madhusudan Dutt, Sunil Gangopadhyay etc.

Sukanta Bhattacharya(15 August 1926 – 13 May 1947) was a Bengali poet and playwright. Along with Rabindranath Tagore and Kazi Nazrul Islam, he was one of the key figures of modern Bengali poetry, despite the fact that most of his works had been in publication posthumously. During his life, his poems were not widely circulated, but after his death his reputation grew to the extent that he became one of the most popular Bengali poet of the 20th century.

Bengali is the second most commonly spoken language in India (after Hindi).

As a result of the Bengal Renaissance in the 19th and 20th centuries, many of India's most famous, and relatively recent, literature, poetry, and songs are in Bengali.

In the history of Bengali literature there has been only one path-breaking literary movement by a group of poets and artists who called themselves Hungryalists 

Bhojpuri literature The Bhojpuri-speaking region, due to its rich tradition of creating leaders for building post-independence India such as first President Dr. Rajendra Prasad followed by many eminent politicians and humanitarians like Dr. Krishna Dev Upadhyaya, was never devoid of intellectual prominence which is evident in its literature.

Bhojpuri became one of the bases of the development of the official language of independent India, Hindi, in the past century. Bhartendu Harishchandra, who is Young Ji international School / College

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considered the father of literary Hindi, was greatly influenced by the tone and style of Bhojpuri in his native region. Further development of Hindi was taken by prominent laureates such as Mahavir Prasad Dwivediand Munshi Premchand from the Bhojpuri-speaking region. Bhikhari Thakur, known as the Shakespeare of Bhojpuri, has also given theater plays including the classics of Bidesiya. Pioneer Dr. Krishna Dev Upadhyaya from Ballia district devoted 60 years to researching and cataloging Bhojpuri folklore. Dr. H. S. Upadhyaya wrote the book Relationships of Hindu family as depicted in Bhojpuri folksongs (1996). Together they have cataloged thousands of Bhojpuri folksongs, riddles and proverbs from the Purvanchal U.P, Bihar, Jharkand and Chotta Nagpuri districts near Bengal.

The Bhojpuri literature has always remained contemporary. It was more of a body of folklore with folk music and poems prevailing. Literature in the written form started in the early twentieth century. During the British era, then known as the "Northern Frontier Province language", Bhojpuri adopted a patriotic tone and after independence it turned to community. In later periods, following the low economic development of the Bhojpuri-speaking region, the literary work is more skewed towards the human sentiments and struggles of life.

In the present era, the Bhojpuri literature is marked by the presence of writers and poets like Anand Sandhidoot, Pandeya Kapil and Ashok Dwivedi, Editor of the popular Bhojpuri magazine Paati (Ballia), Onkareshwar Pandey (writer & Editor of world's first Bhojpuri news weekly, from Delhi) and others. In Maurititus, Dr. Sarita Boodhoo from the Mauritius Bhojpuri Institute has done volumes of work in following the Bhojpuri culture and language and documenting the indentured labourers' arrival on the island. Manoj Bhawuk came into limelight for his literary work in Bhojpuri Tasveer Zindagi ke and for his contributions in development of Bhojpuri Literature. In the United States, Sailesh Mishra, another contemporary Bhojpuri activist, poet and writer has been credited as the founder of Bhojpuri Association of North America (BANA) in 2005 and for his contributions in promoting Bhojpuri language and culture across the globe. He is also popularly known as the Creator of Bhojpuri Express Network (BEN) for uniting the online Bhojpuri community on the Internet. Further an avid Bhojpuri evangelist, Avinash Tripathi founded Bhojpuri Association of India (BHAI) in 2008 to represent the voice of Bhojpuri all over world. Newly associated and prominent part of this Bhojpuri literature is the Bhojpuri Sahitya Sammelan magazine with Arunesh Niran as its editor and Dr. Uday Prakash Pandey as coeditor. These people met a glory of reinvoking the links of Bhojpuri of Mauritius and India. There are many more efforts to avail the deserved value for Bhojpuri. 

Indian English In the 20th century, several Indian writers have distinguished themselves not only in traditional Indian languages but also in English, a language inherited from the British. As a result of British colonisation, India has developed its own unique dialect of English known as Indian English. Indian English typically follows British spelling Young Ji international School / College

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and pronunciation as opposed to American, and books published in India reflect this phenomenon. Indian English literature, however, tends to utilise more internationally recognisable vocabulary then does colloquial Indian English, in the same way that American English literature does so as compared to American slang.

India's only Nobel laureate in literature was the Bengali writer Rabindranath Tagore, who wrote some of his work originally in English, and did some of his own English translations from Bengali. India's best selling English-language novelist of all-time are the contemporary writers like Chetan Bhagat, Manjiri Prabhu and Ashok Banker. More recent major writers in English who are either Indian or of Indian origin and derive much inspiration from Indian themes are R. K. Narayan, Vikram Seth,Salman Rushdie, Arundhati Roy, Raja Rao, Amitav Ghosh, Rohinton Mistry, Vikram Chandra, Mukul Kesavan, Raj Kamal Jha, Vikas Swarup, Khushwant Singh, Shashi Tharoor, Nayantara Sehgal, Anita Desai, Kiran Desai, Ashok Banker, Shashi Deshpande, Jhumpa Lahiri, Kamala Markandaya, Gita Mehta, Manil Suri,Manjiri Prabhu, Ruskin Bond, Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni and Bharati Mukherjee.

In the 1950s, the Writers Workshop collective in Calcutta was founded by the poet and essayist P. Lal to advocate and publish Indian writing in English. The press was the first to publish Pritish Nandy, Sasthi Brata, and others; it continues to this day to provide a forum for English writing in India. In modern times, Indian poetry in English was typified by two very different poets. Dom Moraes, winner of the Hawthornden Prize at the age of 19 for his first book of poems A Beginning went on to occupy a pre-eminent position among Indian poets writing in English. Nissim Ezekiel, who came from India's tiny Bene Israel Jewish community, created a voice and place for Indian poets writing in English and championed their work.

Their contemporaries in English poetry in India were Jayanta Mahapatra, Gieve Patel, A. K. Ramanujan, Arun Kolatkar, Dilip Chitre, Arvind Krishna Mehrotra, Eunice De Souza, Kersi Katrak, P. Lal and Kamala Das among several others.

Younger generations of poets writing in English include Makarand Paranjape, Nandini Sahu, Arundhathi Subramaniam, Jeet Thayil, Ranjit Hoskote, Sudeep Sen, Jerry Pinto, K Srilata, Gopi Kottoor, Tapan Kumar Pradhan, Anju Makhija, Rukmini Bhaya Nair and Smita Agarwal among others.

A generation of exiles also sprang from the Indian diaspora. Among these are names like Agha Shahid Ali, Sujata Bhatt,Richard Crasta, Yuyutsu Sharma, Shampa Sinha, Tabish Khair and Vikram Seth.

In recent years, English-language writers of Indian origin are being published in the West at an increasing rate.

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Salman Rushdie, Arundhati Roy, Kiran Desai and Arvind Adiga have won the prestigious Man Booker Prize, with Salman Rushdie going on to win the Booker of Bookers. 

Hindi literature Hindi literature started as religious and philosophical poetry in medieval periods in dialects like Avadhi and Brij. The most famous figures from this period are Kabir and Tulsidas. In modern times, the Khadi dialect became more prominent and Sanskrit.

Chandrakanta, written by Devaki Nandan Khatri, is considered to be the first work of prose in Hindi. Munshi Premchand was the most famous Hindi novelist.

The chhayavadi poets include Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala', Prem Bajpai, Jaishankar Prasad,Sumitranandan Pant, and Mahadevi Varma. Other renowned poets include Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar', Maithili Sharan Gupt,Agyeya, Harivansh Rai Bachchan, and Dharmveer Bharti. Shankani written by Gaurav Bhasin. 

Gujarati literature Gujarati literature's history may be traced to the 1000 AD. Since then literature has flourished till date. Well known laureates of Gujarati literature are Hemchandracharya, Narsinh Mehta, Mirabai, Akho, Premanand Bhatt, Shamal Bhatt, Dayaram, Dalpatram, Narmad, Govardhanram Tripathi, Gandhi, K. M. Munshi, Umashankar Joshi, Suresh Joshi, Pannalal Patel and Rajendra Keshavlal Shah.

Gujarat Vidhya Sabha, Gujarat Sahitya Sabha, and Gujarati Sahitya Parishad are Ahmedabad based literary institutions promoting the spread of Gujarati literature.Umashankar Joshi, Pannalal Patel and Rajendra Keshavlal Shah have won the Jnanpith Award, the highest literary award in India. 

Kannada literature The oldest existing record of Kananda prose is the Halmidi inscription of 450 CE, and poetry in tripadi metre is the Kappe Arabhatta record of 700 CE. The folk form of literature began earlier than any other literature in Kannada. Gajashtaka (800 CE) by King Shivamara II, Chudamani (650 CE) by Thumbalacharya are examples of early literature now considered extinct. Kavirajamarga by King Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I (850 CE) is the earliest existing literary work in Kannada. It is a writing on literary criticism and poetics meant to standardize various written Kannada dialects used in literature in previous centuries. The book makes reference to Kannada works by early writers such as King Durvinita of the 6th century and Ravikirti, the author of the Aihole record of 636 CE. An early extant prose work, the Vaddaradhane by Shivakotiacharya of 900 CE provides an elaborate description of the life of Bhadrabahu of Shravanabelagola. Since the earliest available Kannada work is one on grammar and a guide of sorts to unify existing variants of Kannada Young Ji international School / College

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grammar and literary styles, it can be safely assumed that literature in Kannada must have started several centuries earlier. Pampa who popularised Champu style which is unique to Kannada wrote the epic "Vikramarjuna Vijaya". He also wrote "Adipurana". Other famous poets like Ponna and Ranna wrote "Shantipurana" and "Ghadayudha" respectively. The jain poet Nagavarma_2 wrote "Kavyavalokana", "Karnatabhashabhushana" and "Vardhamanapurana" . Janna was the author of "Yashodhara Charitha". Rudhrabhatta and Durgashima wrote "Jagannatha Vijaya" and "Panchatantra" respectively. The works of the medieval period are based on Jain and Hindu principles. The Vachana Sahitya tradition of the 12th century is purely native and unique in world literature.[14] It is the sum of contributions by all sections of society. Vachanas were pithy comments on that period's social, religious and economic conditions. More importantly, they held a mirror to the seed of social revolution, which caused a radical re-examination of the ideas of caste, creed and religion.

Some of the important writers of Vachana literature include Basavanna, Allama Prabhu and Akka Mahadevi. Kumara Vyasa, who wrote the Karnata Bharata Katamanjari, has arguably been the most famous and most influential Kannada writer of the 15th century. The Bhakti movement gave rise to Dasa Sahitya around the 15th century which significantly contributed to the evolution of Carnatic music in its present form. This period witnessed great Haridasaslike Purandara Dasa who has been aptly called the Pioneer of Carnatic music, Kanaka Dasa, Vyasathirtha and Vijaya Dasa. Modern Kannada in the 20th century has been influenced by many movements, notably Navodaya, Navya, Navyottara,Dalita and Bandaya. Contemporary Kannada literature has been highly successful in reaching people of all classes in society.

Works of Kannada literature have received Eight Jnanpith awards, which is the highest number awarded for the literature in any Indian language. It has also received forty-seven Sahitya Academy awards. 

Malayalam literature Even up to 500 years since the start of the Malayalam calendar which commenced in 825 AD, Malayalam literature remained in preliminary stage. During this time, Malayalam literature consisted mainly of various genres of songs.Ramacharitham written by Cheeramakavi is a collection of poems written at the end of preliminary stage in Malayalam literature's evolution, and is the oldest Malayalam book available. Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan (17th century) is considered as the Father of the Malayalam language, because of his influence on the acceptance of the Malayalam alphabet and his extremely popular poetic works like Adhyathmaramayanam. Several noted works were written during the 19th century, but it was in the 20th century the Malayalam literary movement came to prominence. Malayalam literature flourished under various genres and today it is a fully developed part of Indian literature. 

Manipuri literature

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Manipuri literature is the literature written in the Manipuri Language (Meiteilon), including literature composed in Manipuri Language by writers from Manipur, Assam, Tripura, Myanmar and Bangladesh .The history of Manipuri literature trace back to thousands of years with flourish of its civilization. The survival of Manipuri literature after passing through the massive devastation, the terror event of history, by burning of Meetei Scriptures, which is known as Puya Meithaba, was a miracle. The resilience that Meeteis could acquire in the event of devastation proved her ability to survive in history. Most of the early literary works found in Manipuri Literature were in Poetry and Prose . Some of the books were written with combination of both the Prose and Poetry. One of the most famous Manipuri Writers of the twentieth century is M. K. Binodini Devi. 

Marathi literature Marathi literature began with saint-poets like Dnyaneshwar, Tukaram, Ramdas, and Eknath. Modern Marathi literature was marked by a theme of social reform. Well-known figures from this phase include Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, Lokhitwadi, and others. Prominent modern literary figures include Jnanpith Award winners Vishnu Sakharam Khandekar, Vishnu Vaman Shirvadakar (Kavi Kusumagraj) and Govind Vinayak Karandikar. Though the earliest known Marathi inscription found at the foot of the statue at Shravanabelgola in Karnataka is dated c. 983 CE, the Marathi literature actually started with the religious writings by the saint-poets belonging to Mahanubhava and Warkari sects.

Mahanubhava saints used prose as their main medium, while Warkari saints preferred poetry as the medium. The early saint-poets were Mukundaraj who wrote Vivekasindhu, Dnyaneshwar (1275–1296) (who wrote Amrutanubhav and Bhawarthadeepika, which is popularly known as Dnyaneshwari, a 9000-couplets long commentary on the Bhagavad Gita) and Namdev. They were followed by the Warkari saint-poet Eknath (1528–1599). Mukteswar translated the great epic Mahabharata into Marathi. Social reformers like saint-poet Tukaram transformed Marathi into an enriched literary language. Ramdas's (1608–1681) Dasbodh and Manache Shlok are well-known products of this tradition.

In the 18th century, some well-known works like Yatharthadeepika (by Vaman Pandit), Naladamayanti Swayamvara (by Raghunath Pandit), Pandava Pratap, Harivijay, Ramvijay (by Shridhar Pandit) and Mahabharata (by Moropant) were produced. However, the most versatile and voluminous writer among the poets was Moropanta (1729–1794) whose Mahabharata was the first epic poem in Marathi. The historical section of the old Marathi literature was unique as it contained both prose and poetry. The prose section contained the Bakhars that were written after the foundation of the Maratha kingdom by Shivaji. The poetry section contained the Povadas and the Katavas composed by the Shahirs. The period from 1794 to 1818 is regarded as the closing period of the Old Marathi literature and the beginning of the Modern Marathi literature.

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Modern Period (after 1800) The period of the late 19th century in Maharashtra is the period of colonial modernity. Like the corresponding periods in the other Indian languages, this was the period dominated by the English educated intellectuals. It was the age of prose and reason. It was the period of reformist diadicticism and a great intellectual ferment.

The first English Book was translated in Marathi in 1817. The first Marathi newspaper started in 1835. Many books on social reforms were written by Baba Padamji (Yamuna Paryatana, 1857), Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, Lokhitwadi, Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade, Hari Narayan Apte (1864–1919) etc. Lokmanya Tilak's newspaper Kesari, set up in 1880, provided a platform for sharing literary views.

Marathi at this time was efficiently aided by Marathi Drama. Here, there also was a different genre called 'Sangit Natya' or Musicals. The first play was V.A. Bhave's Sita Swayamvar in 1843 Later Kirioskar (1843–85) and G.B. Deval (1854-19l6) brought a romantic aroma and social content. But Krishnaji Prabhakar Khadilkar(1872~1948) with his banned play Kichaka-Vadh (1910) set the trend of political playwriting. Later on this "stage" was ably served by stalwarts like Ram Ganesh Gadkari and Prahlad Keshav Atre. The Drama Flourished in 60s and 70s with few of the best Indian actors available to take on a variety of protagonists. Mohan Agashe, Sriram Lagoo, Kashinath Ghanekar, Prabhakar Panshikar playing many immortal characters penned by greats like Vasant Kanetkar, Kusumagraj, vijay Tendulkar to name a few.

This Drama movement was ably supported by Marathi films which did not enjoy a continuous success. Starting with V.Shantaram and before him the pioneer DadaSaheb Phalke, Marathi cinema went on to influence contemporary Hindi cinema. Director Raja Paranjape, Music director Sudhir Phadke, lyricist G.Madgulkar and actor Raja Gosavi came together to give quite a few hits in later period. Marathi Language as spoken by people here was throughout influenced by drama and cinema along with contemporary literature. Modern Marathi poetry began with Mahatma Jyotiba Phule's compositions. The later poets like Keshavsuta, Balakavi, Govindagraj, and the poets of Ravi Kiran Mandal like Madhav Julian wrote poetry which was influenced by the Romantic and Victorian English poetry. It was largely sentimental and lyrical. Prahlad Keshav Atre, the renowned satirist and a politician wrote a parody of this sort of poetry in his collection Jhenduchi Phule. Sane Guruji (1899–1950) contributed to the children's literature in Marathi. His major works are Shyamchi Aai (Shyam's Mother), Astik (Believer), Gode Shevat (The Sweet Ending) etc. He translated and simplified many Western Classics and published them in a book of stories titled Gode Goshti (Sweet Stories). Vishnu Sakharam Khandekar (1889–1976)'s Y 

Mizo literature Mizo literature is the literature written in Mizo ṭawng, the principal language of the Mizo peoples, which has both written and oral traditions. It has undergone a considerable change in the 20th century. The language developed mainly from the Lushai language, with significant influence from Pawi language, Paite language and Hmar language, especially at the literary level. All Mizo Young Ji international School / College

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languages such as Pawi language, Paite language etc. remained unwritten until the beginning of the 20th century. However, there was unwritten secular literature in the form of folktales, war chants etc. passed down from one generation to another. And there was rich religious literature in the form of sacerdotal chants. These are the chants used by the two types of priests, namely Bawlpu and Sadâwt. This article is about the written literature. 

Oriya literature Oriya language literary history started with the charyapadas written in the 8th century AD.Oriya has a rich literary heritage, the medieval period dating back to the 13th century. Sarala Dasa who lived in the 14th century is known as the Vyasa of Orissa. He translated the Mahabharata into Oriya. In fact the language was initially standardised through a process of translation of classical Sanskrit texts like the Mahabharata, the Ramayana and the Srimad Bhagabatam. Jagannatha Das translated the Srimad Bhagabatam into Oriya and his translation standardized the written form of the language. Oriya has had a strong tradition of poetry, especially that of devotional poetry. Some other eminent ancient Oriya Poets include Kabi Samrat Upendra Bhanja and Kavisurya Baladev Rath.

Oriya language is replete in classisicm. various forms of poetry like champu,chanda, bhajan, janan, poi, chautisha etc. were written during the medieval ages.

In the 19th century, Swabhab Kavi Gangadhar Meher 1862-1924, Fakir Mohan Senapati (1843–1918), Gouri Shankar Ray, Gopal Chandra Praharaj, Pandit Nilmani Vidyaratna, Kabibar Radhanath Ray were prominent figure in prose and poetry writinga of Oriya Literature. In the 20th century Godabarish Mohapatra, Kalindi Charana Panigrahi, Kanhu Charan Mohanty (1906–1994), Godabarish Mishra, Gopinath Mohanty (1914–1991), Sachidananda Routray (1916– 2004), Sitakant Mahapatra (born 17 September 1937), Surendra Mohanty, Manoj Das, Kishori Charan Das, Ramakanta Rath (born 13 December 1934), Binapani Mohanty, Jagadish Mohanty, Sarojini Sahoo, Rajendra Kishore Panda, Padmaj Pal, Ramchandra Behera, Pratibha Satpathy, Nandini Sahu, Debaraj Samantray are few names who made the Oriya Literature and Oriya language worthy.Recently the Government of India is considering giving classical status to odia. 

Punjabi literature The history of Punjabi literature starts with advent of Aryan in Punjab. Punjab provided them the perfect environment in which to compose the ancient texts. The Rig-Veda is first example in which references are made to the rivers, flora and fauna of Punjab. The Punjabi literary tradition is generally conceived to commence with Fariduddin Ganjshakar (1173–1266).[2]. Farid's mostly spiritual and devotional verse were compiled after his death in the Adi Granth.

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The Janamsakhis, stories on the life and legend of Guru Nanak (1469–1539), are early examples of Punjabi prose literature. Nanak himself composed Punjabi verse incorporating vocabulary from Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, and other Indic languages as characteristic of the Gurbani tradition. Sufi poetry developed under Shah Hussain (1538–1599), Sultan Bahu (1628–1691), Shah Sharaf (1640–1724), Ali Haider (1690–1785), and Bulleh Shah (1680–1757). In contrast to Persian poets who had preferred the ghazal for poetic expression, Punjabi Sufi poets tended to compose in the Kafi.[3].

Punjabi Sufi poetry also influenced other Punjabi literary traditions particularly the Punjabi Qissa, a genre of romantic tragedy which also derived inspiration from Indic, Persian and Qur'anic sources. The Qissa of Heer Ranjha by Waris Shah (1706–1798) is among the most popular of Punjabi qisse. Other popular stories include Sohni Mahiwal by Fazal Shah, Mirza Sahiba by Hafiz Barkhudar (1658– 1707), Sassi Punnun by Hashim Shah (1735?-1843?), and Qissa Puran Bhagat by Qadaryar (1802–1892).

The Victorian novel, Elizabethan drama, free verse and Modernism entered Punjabi literature through the introduction of British education during colonial rule.

The setting up of a Christian mission at Ludhiana in 1835 (where a printing press was installed for using Gurmukhi fonts, and which also issued the first Punjabi grammar in 1838), the publication of a Punjabi dictionary by Reverend J. Newton in 1854 and the ripple-down effect of the strengthening and modernizing the education system under the patronage of the Singh Sabha Movement in the 1860s, were some of the developments that made it possible for ‗modernism‘ to emerge in Punjabi literary culture. It needs to be pointed out here that ‗modernism‘ is being used here as an umbrella term to cover a whole range of developments in the Punjabi literary culture, starting with the break from tradition or the past to a commitment to progressive ideology, from the experimental nature of the avant-garde to the newness of the forward-looking. 

Tamil literature Tamil literature has a rich and long literary tradition spanning more than 2000 years. Tolkaappiyam has been credited as the oldest work in Tamil available today.

The history of Tamil literature follows the history of Tamil Nadu, closely following the social and political trends of various periods. The secular nature of the early Sangam poetry gave way to works of religious and didactic nature during the Middle Ages. Tirukkural is a fine example of such work on human behaviour and political morals. A wave of religious revival helped generate a great volume of literary output by Saivite and Vaishnavite authors. Jain and Buddhist authors during the medieval period and Muslim and European authors later also contributed to the growth of Tamil literature.

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A revival of Tamil literature took place from the late 19th century when works of religious and philosophical nature were written in a style that made it easier for the common people to enjoy. Nationalist poets began to utilise the power of poetry in influencing the masses. Short stories and novels began to appear. The popularity of Tamil Cinema has also provided opportunities for modern Tamil poets to emerge. 

Telugu literature Telugu, the Indian language with the third largest number of speakers (after Hindi & Bengali), is rich in literary traditions. The earliest written literature dates back to the 7th century. The epic literary tradition started with Nannayya who is acclaimed as Telugu's Aadikavi meaning the first poet. He belongs to the 10th or 11th century.

Vemana was a prince, also called Pedakomati or Vemaa Reddy, who lived in the 14th century and wrote poems in the language of the common man. He questioned the prevailing values and conventions and religious practices in his poems. His philosophy made him a unique poet of the masses.

Viswanadha Satyanarayana (Veyipadagalu) (1895–1976), a doyen of conventional yet creative literature, was the first to receive the Jnanpith Award for Telugu followed by C. Narayana Reddy and Ravuri Bharadwaja. 

Srirangam Srinivasarao or Sri Sri (born 1910) was a popular 20th century poet and lyricist. Srisri took the "Telugu literary band wagon that travelled in roads of kings and queens in to that of muddy roads of common man".

Literary Movements: Old Era: Telugu literature has been enriched by many literary movements like Veera Shaiva movement which gave birth to dwipada kavitvam (couplets). Bhakti movement which gave us immortal compilations by Annamayya,Kshetrayya and Tyagaraja and kancharla Gopanna (Ramadasu). The renaissance movement heralded by Vemana stand for the old Telugu literary movements.

New era: Romantic Movement (led by Krishnasashtri, Rayaprolu, Vedula), Progressive Writers Movement, Digambara Kavitvam (Nagnamuni, Cherabanda Raju, Jwalamukhi, Nikhileswar, Bhairavayya and Mahaswapna Revolutionary Writers' Movement, Streevada Kavitvam and Dalita Kavitvam all flourished in Telugu Literature and in fact, Telugu Literature has been the standard bearer of Indian Literature in these respects. 

Fiction and Prose literature: Kandukuri Veeresalingam, is said to be the father of Modern Telugu fiction.

Kodavatiganti Kutumba Rao laid foundation for the realistic modern Telugu Novel and Short Story, Rachakonda and Kalipatnam carried the flag in to excellency.

Annamaya, Gurajada Appa Rao, Kandukuri, Devulapalli, Jashuva, Unnava Laxminarayana (Malapalli), Bucchi Babu,Tripuraneni Gopichand and many more had a profound impact on Telugu literature.

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

Urdu literature Among other traditions, Urdu poetry is a fine example of linguistic and cultural synthesis. Arab and Persian vocabulary based on the Hindi language resulted in a vast and extremely beloved class of ghazal literature, usually written by Muslims in contexts ranging from romance and society to philosophy and Tassawuf(Sufism).

Urdu soon became the court language of the Mughals and in its higher forms was once called the "Kohinoor" of Indian languages. Its surely most refined, enriched, sophisticated and ripended language and literature, producing world-class renowned poets like, Meer Ghalib, Iqbal and Faiz. The revolutionary poetry of Allama Sir Dr. Mohammed Iqbal, known as the POET of EAST, POET OF ISLAM, POET OF QURAN, invoked a spirit of freedom among the Muslims of India, thus contributing a pivotal role in the making of Pakistan. In Urdu literature fiction has also flourished well. Umrao Jaan Ada of Mirza Hadi Ruswa is first significant Urdu novel.

Premchand is treated as father of modern Urdu fiction with his novel Godan and short stories like Kafan. The art of short story was further taken ahead by Manto, Bedi, Krishn Chander and a host of highly acclaimed writers. Urdu novel reached further heights in the 1960s with novels of Qurratulain Haider and Abdullah Hussain.

Towards the end of the 20th century Urdu novel entered into a new phase with trend setter novel MAKAAN of Paigham Afaqui. Urdu ghazal has also recently changed its colour with more and more penetration in and synchronization with modern and contemporary issues of life. 

Persian literature During the early Muslim period, Persian became the lingua franca of the Northern part of Indian subcontinent, used by most of the educated and the government. Although Persian literature from Persia itself was popular, several Indians became major Persian poets, the most notable being Amir Khusro and in more modern times Allama Iqbal. Much of the older Sanskrit literature was also translated into Persian. For a time, it remained the court language of the Mughals, soon to be replaced by Urdu. Persian still held its status, despite the spread of Urdu, well into the early years of the British rule in India. Most British officials had to learn Persian on coming to India and concluded their conversations in Persian. In 1837, however, the British, in an effort to expand their influence, made a government ruling to discontinue the use of Persian and commence the use of English instead. Thus started the decline of Persian as the subcontinent's lingua franca, a position to be taken up by the new language of the British Raj, English. Many modern Indian languages still show signs of heavy Persian influence, most notably Urdu and Hindi. 

Literature from North East India Literature from North East India refers to literature of Languages of North East India, and also the body of work by English-language writers from this region. NorthEast India is an under-represented region in many ways. The troubled political climate, the beautiful landscape and the confluence of various ethnic groups perhaps have given rise to a body of writing that is completely different from Indian English Young Ji international School / College

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Literature. North-East India was a colonial construct and continues to be one by virtue of having a historically difficult relationship with the Indian nation state. 

Journalism During the Emergency Period During the summer of 1975, as Indira Gandhi became increasingly threatened by the mounting criticisms of her government, she declared a state of emergency.

The declaration of a national emergency lasted for about 19 months. The emergency was declared as a result of mounting political pressure exerted upon the government from opposing political parties which were striving to fight corruption, inflation and economic chaos in the country. Indira Gandhi's government, rather than taking this as a political challenge, resorted to declaring a national emergency and imprisoning the opposition party leaders, including all dissenting voices from the media.

Immediately she took control of the press, prohibiting their reporting of all domestic and international news. The government expelled several foreign correspondents (mainly American and British) and withdrew accreditation from more than 40 Indian reporters who normally covered the capital.

The fundamental rights of the Indian people were suspended, and strict controls were imposed on freedom of speech and press. According to the Right of Freedom-Article 19(1) of the Indian Constitution, Indians have the right (a) to freedom of speech and expression, (b) to assemble peacefully and without arms, (c) to form associations or unions, (d) to move freely across the length and breadth of the country, (e) to reside or settle in any part of India, (f) to own or dispose of property, and (g) to carry on any lawful trade of occupation.'

It is obvious that, unlike the American Constitution or others In which freedom of the press is mentioned as one of the fundamental rights, the Indian Constitution doesn't specifically mention freedom of the press. However, the fundamental Rights Clause of the Indian Constitution treats freedom of the press as an integral part of the larger "freedom of expression."

Indira Gandhi's government used the "security of the state" and "promotion of disaffection" as its defense for imposing strict control on the press. And with the airwaves already under government ownership, Indira Gandhi successfully controlled the mass communication system in India for over a year and a half.

During censorship, most of the nation's domestic dailies gave up the battle for press freedom. Their pages were "filled with fawning accounts of national events, flattering pictures of Gandhi and her ambitious son, and not coincidentally, lucrative government advertising." But two tough, prominent publishers of English language dailies, The Indian Express and The Statesman, fought courageously against Indira Gandhi's opposition of the Indian press. Despite some bold fights and stubborn stands taken up by these publishers, it was quite clear that Indira Gandhi had as Young Ji international School / College

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strong a grip on the Indian press as she had on Indian politics, at least during the government-imposed emergency. 

Methods of Press Control Like other dictators in history, Indira Gandhi's first attempt was to impose "thought control" on the populace. For her, this was to be effectuated not merely by controlling the Indian mass media but also by moulding the media to her own purpose. It has now become a well-known fact that during the emergency Indira Gandhi had a firm grip on the Indian mass media. This was especially true since radio and television in India are government owned and operated; for Indira, there was the simple matter of controlling the newspapers in order to achieve a total control of the mass media. She used at least three methods in manipulating the newspapers: (1) allocation of government advertising; (2) shotgun merger of the news agencies; and (3) use of fear-arousal techniques on newspaper publishers, journalists and individual shareholders.

The Indian newspapers depend a great deal on governmental advertising; without such revenues, it would be difficult for many Indian newspapers to stay in business. Unfortunately, this has kept many of them vulnerable to government manipulation. The large-scale possibility of such manipulation, however, was not fully demonstrated until Indira Gandhi's government decided to take advantage of this unique circumstance. In the beginning of censorship, when a few leading newspapers such as The Indian Express and The Statesman refused to abide the governmental censorship, the government withdrew its advertising support from these newspapers. Later on, this type of financial castigation was used on several other rebellious newspapers.

The second and perhaps more profound way of manipulating the news flow resulted from the governmental decision to bring about a shot-gun merger of the four privately owned Indian news agencies; the main purpose behind this merger was to alter the management and control of the Indian news agencies and thus to control much of the content of the leading newspapers. Since these agencies had been acting as the gatekeepers of information, it was essential for Indira Gandhi and her Information and Broadcasting Minister, Mr. V.C. Shukla, to control the gatekeepers.

To effect such a merger, the government carried through various successful tactics.

First of all, pressure was put on the members of boards of these agencies. Then the financial squeeze was applied to the agencies themselves by withholding governmental subsidy. Thirdly, the government introduced the threat of cutting-off the teleprinter services, the lifelines of a news agency. For example, the government-owned Post and Telegraph Department was ordered to impose a suspension of services to the United News of India if it resisted the merger. The Young Ji international School / College

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manipulation of these four news agencies was so effective that hardly a voice was raised to resist the governmental perfidy. Soon after this, Shukla reported to the Indian parliament that these four news agencies accepted the merger "voluntarily."

A third and an equally effective method applied by Indira Gandhi was to use feararousal techniques on the newspaper publishers, editors, reporters and shareholders. Such techniques were imposed by making false charges with regard to tax arrears, possible reductions in newsprint quotas, imprisonment of publishers 

Culture of Indonesia Indonesian children dressed in various traditional costumes.

The culture of Indonesia has been shaped by long interaction between original indigenous customs and multiple foreign influences. Indonesia is centrallylocated along ancient trading routes between the Far East, South Asia and the Middle East, resulting in many cultural practices being strongly influenced by a multitude of religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Islam and Christianity, all strong in the major trading cities. The result is a complex cultural mixture very different from the original indigenous cultures.

Examples of cultural fusion include the fusion of Islam with Hindu in Javanese Abangan belief, the fusion of Hinduism, Buddhism and animism in Bodha, and the fusion of Hinduism and animism in Kaharingan; others could be cited.

Balinese dances have stories about ancient Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms, while Islamic art forms and architecture are present in Sumatra, especially in the Minangkabau and Aceh regions. Traditional art, music and sport are combined in a martial art form called Pencak Silat.

Western culture has greatly influenced Indonesia in science, technology and modern entertainment such as television shows, film and music, as well as political system and issues. India has notably influenced Indonesian songs and movies. A popular type of song is the Indian-rhythmical dangdut, which is often mixed with Arab and Malay folk music.

Despite the influences of foreign culture, some remote Indonesian regions still preserve uniquely indigenous culture.

Indigenous ethnic groups Mentawai, Asmat, Dani, Dayak, Toraja and many others are still practicing their ethnic rituals, customs and wearing traditional clothes.

Traditional performing arts 

Music of Indonesia

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Indonesia is home to various styles of music, with those from the islands of Java,Sumatra and Bali being frequently recorded. The traditional music of central and East Java and Bali is the gamelan.

On June 29, 1965, Koes Plus, a leading Indonesian pop group in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, was imprisoned in Glodok, West Jakarta, for playing Westernstyle music. After the resignation of President Sukarno, the law was rescinded, and in the 1970s the Glodok prison was dismantled and replaced with a large shopping mall.

Kroncong is a musical genre that uses guitars and ukulele as the main musical instruments. This genre had its roots in Portugal and was introduced

by Portuguese traders in the 15th century. There is a traditional Keroncong Tugu music group inNorth Jakarta and other traditional Keroncong music groups in Maluku, with strong Portuguese influences. This music genre was popular in the first half of the 20th century; a contemporary form of Kroncong is called Pop Kroncong.

Angklung musical orchestra, native of West Java, received international recognition as UNESCO has listed the traditional West Java musical instrument made from bamboo in the list of intangible cultural heritage.

The soft Sasando music from the province of East Nusa Tenggara in West Timor is completely different. Sasando uses an instrument made from a split leaf of the Lontar palm (Borassus flabellifer), which bears some resemblance to a harp.

Indonesian dance reflects the diversity of culture from ethnic groups that composed the nation of Indonesia. Austronesian roots and Melanesian tribal dance forms are visible, and influences ranging from neighboring Asian countries; such as India, China, and Middle East to European western styles through colonization.

Each ethnic group has their own distinct dances; makes total dances in Indonesia are more than 3000 Indonesian original dances. However, the dances of Indonesia can be divided into three eras; the Prehistoric Era, the Hindu/Buddhist Era and the Era of Islam, and into two genres; court dance and folk dance.

There is a continuum in the traditional dances depicting episodes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata from India, ranging through Thailand, all the way to Bali. There is a marked difference, though, between the highly stylized dances of the courts of Yogyakarta and Surakarta and their popular variations. While the court dances are promoted and even performed internationally, the popular forms of dance art and drama must largely be discovered locally.

During the last few years, Saman from Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam has become rather popular and is often portrayed on TV. Reog Ponorogo is also a dance that originated from the district Ponorogo, East Java, which is a visualization of the legendary story Wengker kingdom and the kingdom of Kediri.

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A popular line dance called Poco-poco was originated in Indonesia and also popular in Malaysia, but at early April 2011 Malaysian Islamic clerics banned the poco-poco dance for Muslims due to them believing it is traditionally a Christian dance and that its steps make the sign of the cross.

Wayang, the Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese shadow puppet theatre shows display several mythological legends such as Ramayana and Mahabharata, and many more. Wayang Orang is Javanese traditional dance drama based on wayang stories. Various Balinese dance drama also can be included within traditional form of Indonesian drama. Another form of local drama is Javanese Ludruk and Ketoprak, Sundanese Sandiwara, and BetawiLenong. All of these drama incorporated humor and jest, often involving audiences in their performance.

Randai is a folk theatre tradition of the Minangkabau people of West Sumatra, usually performed for traditional ceremonies and festivals. It incorporates music, singing, dance, drama and the silat martial art, with performances often based on semi-historical Minangkabau legends and love story.

Modern performing art also developed in Indonesia with their distinct style of drama. Notable theatre, dance, and drama troupe such as Teater Koma are gain popularity in Indonesia as their drama often portrays social and political satire of Indonesian society. 

Martial Art The art of silat was created and firstly developed in the islands of Java and Sumatra. It is an art for survival and practiced throughout Indonesian archipelago. Centuries of tribal wars in Indonesian history had shaped silat as it was used by the ancient warriors of Indonesia. Silat was used to determine the rank and position in old Indonesian kingdoms.

Contacts with Indians and Chinese was further enriched silat. Silat reached areas beyond Indonesia mainly through diaspora of Indonesian people. People from various regions like Aceh, Minangkabau, Riau, Bugis, Makassar, Java, Banjar, etc. moved into and settled in Malay Peninsula and other islands. They brought silat and passed it down to their descendants. The Indonesian of half-Dutch descent are also credited as the first to brought the art into Europe.

Silat was used by Indonesian freedom fighters during their struggle against the Dutch colonists. Unfortunately after Indonesia achieving their independence, silat became less popular among Indonesian youth compare to foreign martial arts like Karate and Taekwondo. This probably because silat was not taught openly and only passed down among blood relatives, the other reason is the lack of media portrayal of the art.

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Efforts have been made in recent years to introduce and reintroduce the beauty of silat to Indonesian youth and the world. Exhibitions and promotions by individuals as well as state-sponsored groups helped the growing of silat's popularity, particularly in Europe and United States. Indonesian 2009 Silat movie Merantau is one of Indonesian efforts to introduce silat to international scene.

Another martial art from Indonesia is Tarung Derajat. It is a modern combat system created by Haji Ahmad Drajat based on his experience as a street fighter.

Tarung Drajat has been acknowledge as a national sport by KONI in 1998 and is now used by Indonesian Army as part of their basic training. 

Painting What Indonesian painting before the 19th century are mostly restricted to the decorative arts, considered to be a religious and spiritual activity, comparable to the pre-1400 European art. Artists' names are anonymous, since the individual human creator was seen as far less important than their creation to honor the deities or spirits. Some examples are the Kenyah decorative art, based on endemic natural motifs such as ferns and hornbills, found decorating the walls of Kenyah long houses. Other notable traditional art is the geometric Toraja wood carvings. Balinese painting are initially the narative images to depict scenes of Balinese legends and religious scripts. The classical Balinese paintings are often decorating the lontar manuscripts and also the ceilings of temples pavilion.

Under the influence of the Dutch colonial power, a trend toward Western-style painting emerged in the 19th century. In the Netherlands, the term "Indonesian Painting" is applied to the paintings produced by Dutch or other foreign artists who lived and worked in the former Netherlands-Indies. The most famous indigenous 19th century Indonesian painter is Raden Saleh (1807–1877), the first indigenous artist to study in Europe. His art is heavily influenced byRomanticism.[4] In 1920's Walter Spies began to settle in Bali, he is often credited with attracting the attention of Western cultural figures to Balinese culture and art. His works has somehow influenced Balinese artists and painters. Today Bali has one of the most vivid and richest painting traditions in Indonesia.

The 1920s to 1940s were a time of growing nationalism in Indonesia. The previous period of romanticism movement was not seen as a purely Indonesian movement and did not developed. Painters began to see the natural world for inspiration. Some examples of Indonesian painter during this period are the Balinese Ida Bagus Made and the realist Basuki Abdullah. The Indonesian Painters Association (Persatuan Ahli-Ahli Gambar Indonesia or PERSAGI, 1938–1942) was formed during this period. PERSAGI established a contemporary art philosophy that saw art works as reflections of the artist‘s individual or personal view as well as an expression of national cultural thoughts.

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From the 1940s on, artists started to mix Western techniques with Southeast Asian imagery and content. Painters that rooted in the revolutionary movement of the World War and the post-World War period started to appear during this period, such as Sudjojono, Affandi, and Hendra.

During the 1960s, new elements were added when abstract expressionism and Islamic art began to be absorbed by the art community. Also during this period, group of painters that are more concerned about the reality of Indonesian society began to appear, taking inspiration from the social problem such as division between the rich and the poor, pollution, and deforestation. The national identity of Indonesia was stressed by these painters through the use of a realistic, documentary style. During the Sukarno period this socially-engaged art was officially promoted, but after 1965 it lost popularity due to its presumed communist tendencies.

Three art academies offer extensive formal training in visual art: Bandung Institute of Technology founded in 1947; the Akademi Seni Rupa Indonesia (Indonesian Fine Arts Academy) or ASRI, now known as ISI, in Yogyakarta was inaugurated in 1950; and the Institut Kesenian Jakarta (Jakarta Arts Institute) or IKJ, was opened in 1970. 

Sculpture Indonesia has a long history of stone, bronze and Iron Ages arts. The megalithic sculptures can be found in numerous archaeological sites in Sumatra, Java to Sulawesi. The native Indonesians tribes have their own distinct tribal sculpture styles, usually created to depict ancestors, deities and animals. The preHindu-Budhist and pre-Islamic sculptures can be traced in the artworks of indigenous Indonesian tribes. The most notable sculptures are those of Asmat wooden sculpture of Papua, the Dayak wooden mask and sculpture, the ancestral wooden statue of Toraja, also the totem-like sculpture of Batak and Nias tribe.

The stone sculpture artform particularly flourished in 8th-to-10th-century Java and Bali, which demonstrate the influences of Hindu-Buddhist culture, both as standalone works of art and also incorporated into temples. Most notable sculpture of classical Hindu-Buddhist era of Indonesia are the hundreds of meters of relief and hundreds of stone buddhas at the temple of Borobudur in central Java.

Approximately two miles of exquisite relief sculpture tell the story of the life of Buddha and illustrate his teachings. The temple was originally home to 504 statues of the seated Buddha. This site, as with others in central Java, shows a clear Indian influence. The examples of notable Indonesian Hindu-Buddhist sculptures are; the statues of Hindu deities; Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma, Durga, Ganesha and Agastya enthroned in rooms of Prambanan temples, theVishnu mounting Garuda statue of king Airlangga, the exquisite statue of Eastern Javanese Prajnaparamita and 3.7 meters tall Dvarapala dated Young Ji international School / College

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from Singhasari period, and also the grand statue of Bhairava Adityawarman discovered in Sumatra. Today, the Hindu-Buddhist style stone sculptures are reproduced in villages in Muntilan near Borobudur also in Trowulan the former capital site of Majapahit in East Java, and Bali, and sold as garden or pool ornament statues for homes, offices and hotels.

Today in Indonesia, the richest, most elaborate and vivid wooden sculpture and wood carving traditions can be found in Bali and Jepara, Central Java. Balinese handicrafts such as sculptures, masks, and other carving artworks are popular souvenir for tourists that have visited Indonesia. On the other hand the Jepara wood carvings are famous for its elaborately carved wooden furnitures, folding screens also pelaminan gebyok (wedding throne with carved background). 

Architecture For centuries, the Indonesian vernacular architecture has shaped settlements in Indonesia which commonly took form of timber structures built on stilts dominated by large roof. The most dominant foreign influences on Indonesian architecture were Indian, although European influences have been particularly strong since the 19th century and modern architecture in Indonesia is international in scope.

As in much of South East Asia, traditional vernacular architecture in Indonesia are built on stilts, with the significant exceptions of Java and Bali. Notable stilt housesare those of the Dayak people in Borneo, the Rumah Gadang of the Minangkabaupeople in western Sumatra, the Rumah Bolon of the Batak people in northern Sumatra, and the Tongkonan of the Toraja people in Sulawesi. Oversized saddle roofs with large eaves, such as the homes of the Batak and the tongkonan of Toraja, are often bigger than the house they shelter. The fronts of Torajan houses are frequently decorated with buffalo horns, stacked one above another, as an indication of status. The outside walls also frequently feature decorative reliefs.

The 8th-century Borobudur temple near Yogyakarta is the largest Buddhist temple in the world, and is notable for incorporating about 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues into its structure, telling the story of the life of the Buddha. As the visitor ascends through the eight levels of the temple, the story unfolds, the final three levels simply containing stupasand statues of the Buddha. The building is said to incorporate a map of the Buddhist cosmos and is a masterful fusion of the didactic narrative relief, spiritual symbolism, monumental design and the serene meditative environs. The whole monument itself resembles a giant stupa, but seen from above it forms a mandala.[7] The nearby 9th-century temple complex at Prambanan contains some of the best preserved examples of Hindu temple architecture in Java. The temple complex comprises eight main shrines, surrounded by 224 smaller shrines. The Indian influence on the site is clear, not only in the style of the monument, but also in the Young Ji international School / College

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reliefs featuring scenes from the Ramayana which adorn the outer walls of the main temples, and in the votive statuary found within. 

Crafts Several Indonesian islands are famous for theirbatik, ikat and songket cloth.

Once on the brink of disappearing, batik and later ikat found a new lease of life when former President Suharto promoted wearing batik shirts on official occasions. In addition to the traditional patterns with their special meanings, used for particular occasions, batik designs have become creative and diverse over the last few years.

Other worldwide famous Indonesian crafts are Jepara wood carving and Kris.

In 2005, UNESCO recognized Kris as one of Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity from Indonesia. 

Indonesian literature Pramoedya Ananta Toer was Indonesia's most internationally celebrated author, having won the Magsaysay Award as well as being considered for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Other important figures include the late Chairil Anwar, a poet and member of the "Generation 45" group of authors who were active in the Indonesian independence movement. Tight information controls during Suharto's presidency suppressed new writing, especially because of its ability to agitate for social reform.

Modern Indonesian authors include Seno Gumira Adjidarma, Andrea Hirata, Habiburrahman El Shirazy, Ayu Utami, Gus tf Sakai, Eka Kurniawan, Ratih Kumala, Dee, Oka Rusmini. Some of their works have translated into other languages. 

Poetry There is a long tradition in Indonesia, particularly among ethnically Malay populations, of extemporary, interactive, oral composition of poetry.

These poems are referred to as pantun. Contemporary Indonesian poets include among others,Sutardji Calzoum Bachri, Rendra, Taufiq Ismail, Afrizal Malna, Binhad Nurrohmat, Joko Pinurbo, Sapardi Djoko Damono. 

Sport in Indonesia Many traditional games are still preserved and popular in Indonesia, although western culture has influenced some parts of them. Among three hundred officially recognized Indonesian cultures, there are many kinds of traditional games: cockfighting in Bali, annual bull races in Madura, and stone jumping in Nias. Stone jumping involves leaping over a stone wall about up to 1.5 m high and was originally used to train warriors. Pencak Silat is another popular form of sport, which was influenced by Asian culture as a whole. Another form of national sport is sepak takraw. The rules are similar to volleyball: to keep the rattan ball in the air with the players' feet.

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Popular modern sports in Indonesia played at the international level include football (soccer), badminton and basketball.[12] Badminton is one of Indonesia's most successful sports. Indonesian badminton athletes have played in Indonesia Open Badminton Championship, All England Open Badminton Championships, and many international events, including the Summer Olympics and won Olympic gold medals since badminton was made an Olympic sport in 1992. Rudy Hartono is a legendary Indonesian badminton player, who won All England titles seven times in a row (1968 through 1974). Indonesian teams have won the Thomas Cup (men's world team championship) thirteen of the twenty-two times that it has been contested since they entered the series in 1957. In the hugely internationally popular sport of football (soccer), Indonesian teams have been active in the Asian Football Confederation (AFC).

Sporting events in Indonesia are organized by the Indonesian National Sport Committee (KONI). The Committee, along with the government of Indonesia, have set a National Sports Day on every September 9 with "Sports for All" as the motto.

Indonesia has hosted the Southeast Asian Games four times, in 1979, 1987, 1997 and 2011, and won overall champion title in each of these years. As of 2011, Indonesia has won champion titles 10 times overall out of 18 SEA Games it has attended since debuted in 1977. The country also hosted the 1993 Asian Basketball Championship. 

Indonesian cuisine The cuisine of Indonesia has been influenced by Chinese culture and Indian culture, as well as by Western culture. However in return, Indonesian cuisine has also contributed to the cuisines of neighboring countries, notably Malaysia and Singapore, where Padang or Minangkabau cuisine from West Sumatra is very popular. Also Satay (Sate in Indonesian), which originated from Java, Madura, and Sumatra, has gained popularity as a street vendor food from Singapore to Thailand.

In the 15th century, both the Portuguese and Arab traders arrived in Indonesia with the intention of trading for pepper and other spices. During the colonial era, immigrants from many different countries arrived in Indonesia and brought different cultures as well as cuisines.

Most native Indonesians eat rice as the main dish, with a wide range of vegetables and meat as side dishes. However, in some parts of the country, such as Irian Jaya and Ambon, the majority of the people eat sago (a type of tapioca) and sweet potato.[15] The most important aspect of modern Indonesian cuisine is that food must be halal, conforming to Islamic food laws. Haraam, the opposite of halal, includes pork and alcohol. However, in some regions where there is a significant non-Muslim population, non-halal foods are also commonly served.

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Indonesian dishes are usually spicy, using a wide range of chili peppers and spices. The most popular dishes include nasi goreng (fried rice), Satay, Nasi Padang (a dish of Minangkabau) and soy-based dishes, such as tofu and tempe. A unique characteristic of some Indonesian food is the application of spicy peanut sauce in their dishes, as a dressing for Gado-gadoor Karedok (Indonesian style salad), or for seasoning grilled chicken satay. Another unique aspect of Indonesian cuisine is using terasi or belacan, a pungent shrimp paste in dishes of sambal oelek (hot pungent chili sauce). The sprinkling of friedshallots also gives a unique crisp texture to some Indonesian dishes.

Chinese and Indian cultures have influenced the serving of food and the types of spices used. It is very common to find Chinese in Indonesia such as Dim Sum and noodles, and Indian cuisine such as Tandoori chicken. In addition, Western culture has significantly contributed to the extensive range of dishes. However, the dishes have been transformed to suit Indonesian tastes. For example, steaks are usually served with rice. Popular fast foods such as Kentucky Fried Chicken are served with rice instead of bread and sambal (spicy sauce) instead of ketchup. Some Indonesian foods have been adopted by the Dutch, like Indonesian rice table or 'rijsttafel'. 

Cinema of Indonesia Film Tjoet Nja' Dhien (1988) tell the story about the struggle ofAcehnese female guerilla leaderCut Nyak Dhien, an Indonesian national hero.

The largest chain of cinemas in Indonesia is 21Cineplex, which has cinemas spread throughout twenty-four cities on the major islands of Indonesia. Many smaller independent cinemas also exist.

In the 1980s, the film industry in Indonesia was at its peak, and dominated the cinemas in Indonesia with movies that have retained a high reputation, such as Catatan Si Boyand Blok M and actors like Onky Alexander, Meriam Bellina, Nike Ardilla and Paramitha Rusady. The film Tjoet Nja' Dhien (1988) winning 9 Citra Awards at the 1988Indonesian Film Festival. It was also the first Indonesian movie chosen for screening at the Cannes Film Festival, where it was awarded Best International Film in 1989. However, the film industry failed to continue its successes in the 1990s, when the number of movies produced decreased significantly, from 115 movies in 1990 to just 37 in 1993. As a result, most movies produced in the 1990s contained adult themes. In addition, movies from Hollywood and Hong Kong started to dominate Indonesian cinema. The industry started to recover in the late 1990s, with the rise of independent directors and many new movies produced, such as Garin Nugroho's Cinta dalam Sepotong Roti, Riri Riza and Mira Lesmana's Petualangan Sherina and Arisan! by Nia Dinata. Another form of recovery is the re-establishment of the Indonesian Film Festival (FFI), inactive for twelve years, and the creation of the Jakarta International Film Festival. Daun di Atas Young Ji international School / College

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Bantal (1998) received The Best Movie award in the 1998 Asia Pacific Film Festival in Taipei. 

Radio The state radio network Radio Republic Indonesia (RRI) was founded in 1945.

It consists of a network of regional stations located in all thirty-three provinces of the archipelago. In most cities and large towns there are also many commercial stations.

Since 2006, several digital radio stations have been based in Jakarta and Surabaya, using Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) and Hybrid HD-Radio. 

Religion and philosophy Islam is Indonesia's main religion, with almost 88% of Indonesians declared Muslim according to the 2000 census,[24]making Indonesia the most populous Muslim-majority nation in the world. The remaining population is 9% Christian (of which roughly two-thirds are Protestant with the remainder mainly Catholic, and a large minority Charismatic), 2% Hindu and 1%Buddhist.

The Pancasila, the statement of two principles which encapsulate the ideology of the Indonesian state, affirms that "The state shall be based on the belief in the one and only God".

Culture of the Philippines The culture of the Philippines has both Asian and Western cultures.

been

heavily

influenced

by

The Philippines was first settled by Melanesians; today, although few in numbers, they preserve a very traditional way of life and culture. After them, the Austronesians or more specifically, Malayo-Polynesians arrived on the islands.

Today the Austronesian culture is very evident in the ethnicity, language, food, dance and almost every aspect of the culture. These Austronesians engaged in trading with China, India, Japan, the Ryukyu Islands, the Middle East, Borneo, and other places. As a result, those cultures have also left a mark on Filipino culture.

The Spanish colonized the islands and after more than three centuries of colonization Hispanic influence has heavily impacted the culture. The Philippines being governed from both Mexico and Spain, had received a fair bit of Hispanic influence. Mexican and Spanish influence can be seen in dance and religion as well as many other aspects of the culture. After being colonized by Spain, the Philippines became a U.S. territory for almost 50 years. Influence from the United States is seen in the wide use of the English language, and the modern pop culture. 

Religion Religion in the Philippines and Philippine mythology

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The Philippines is one of two predominantly Roman Catholic nations in AsiaPacific, the other being East Timor. From a census in 2012, Christianity consists about 80% of the population. Islam is the religion for about 11%of the population.

Buddhism shares 1.8% of the population, while 3.8% practice other religions. The remaining 0.6 did not specify a religion while 11% are irreligiousaccording to Dentsu Communication Institute Inc. Before the arrival of the Spaniards and the introduction of Roman Catholicism and Western culture in the 16th century, the indigenous Austronesia people of what is now called the Philippines were adherents of a mixture of shamanistic Animism, Islam, Hinduism and Vajrayana Buddhism. 

Arts of the Philippines Arts of the Philippines cover a variety of forms of entertainment. Folk art and ethnographic art consist of classic and modern features that flourished as a result of European and Indigenous influences. 

Literature of the Philippines The literature of the Philippines illustrates the Prehistory and European colonial legacy of the Philippines, written in both Indigenous and Hispanic writing system. Most of the traditional literatures of the Philippines were written during the Mexican and Spanish period.

Philippine literature is written in Spanish, English, Tagalog, and/or other native Philippine languages.

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Arts (Visual) A Bontoc warrior (c. 1908) showing the characteristic tattoos of some indigenous Filipino cultures.

Early Filipino painting can be found in red slip (clay mixed with water) designs embellished on the ritual pottery of the Philippines such as the acclaimed Manunggul Jar. Evidence of Philippine pottery-making dated as early as 6,000 BC has been found in Sanga-sanga Cave, Sulu and Laurente Cave, Cagayan. It has been proven that by 5,000 BC, the making of pottery was practiced throughout the country. Early Young Ji international School / College

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Filipinos started making pottery before their Cambodian neighbors, and at about the same time as the Thais as part of what appears to be a widespread Ice Age development of pottery technology.

Further evidence of painting is manifest in the tattoo tradition of early Filipinos, whom the Portuguese explorer referred to as Pintados or the 'Painted People' of the Visayas. Various designs referencing flora and fauna with heavenly bodies decorate their bodies in various colored pigmentation. Perhaps, some of the most elaborate painting done by early Filipinos that survive to the present day can be manifested among the arts and architecture of the Maranao who are well known for the Naga Dragons and the Sarimanok carved and painted in the beautiful Panolong of their Torogan or King's House.

Filipinos began creating paintings in the European tradition during 17thcentury Spanish period. The earliest of these paintings were Church frescoes, religious imagery from Biblical sources, as well as engravings, sculptures and lithographs featuring Christian icons and European nobility. Most of the paintings and sculptures between the 19th and 20th centuries produced a mixture of religious, political, and landscape art works, with qualities of sweetness, dark, and light.

Early modernist painters such as Damián Domingo was associated with religious and secular paintings. The art of Juan Luna and Félix Hidalgo showed a trend for political statement. The first Philippine national artist Fernando Amorsolo used post-modernism to produce paintings that illustrated Philippine culture, nature and harmony. While other artist such as Fernando Zóbel used realities and abstract on his work. In the early 1980s, other unique folk artist exist one of these is Elito Circa as amangpintor the famous Filipino folk painter. He uses his own hair to make his paintbrushes, and signs his name with his own blood on the right side of his paintings. He developed his own styles without professional training or guidance from masters. 

Indigenous art The Itneg people are known for their intricate woven fabrics. The binakol is a blanket which features designs that incorporate optical illusions. Woven fabrics of the Ga'dang people usually have bright red tones. Their weaving can also be identified by beaded ornamentation. Other peoples such as the Ilongot make jewelry from pearl, red hornbill beaks, plants, and metals.

The Lumad peoples of Mindanao such as the B'laan, Mandaya, Mansaka and T'boli are skilled in the art of dyeing abaca fiber. Abaca is a plant closely related to bananas, and its leaves are used to make fiber known as Manila hemp. The fiber is dyed by a method called ikat. Ikat fiber are woven into cloth with geometric patterns depicting human, animal and plant themes.

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Kut-kut art A technique combining ancient Oriental and European art process.

Considered lost art and highly collectible art form. Very few known art pieces existed today. The technique was practiced by the indigenous people of Samar Island between early 1600 and late 1800 A.D. Kut-kut is an exotic Philippine art form based on early century techniques—sgraffito, encaustic and layering. The merging of these ancient styles produces a unique artwork characterized by delicate swirling interwoven lines, multi-layered texture and an illusion of three-dimensional space. 

Islamic art Islamic art in the Philippines have two main artistic styles. One is a curvedline woodcarving and metalworking called okir, similar to the Middle Eastern Islamic art. This style is associated with men. The other style is geometric tapestries, and is associated with women. The Tausug and Sama–Bajau exhibit their okir on elaborate markings with boat-like imagery. The Marananaos make similar carvings on housings called torogan. Weapons made by Muslim Filipinos such as the kampilan are skilfully carved. 

Music in the Philippines

The Philippine Palabuniyan Kulintang musicians performing the Kulintang instruments which is the music of the Maguindanao people.

The early music of the Philippines featured a mixture of Indigenous, Islamic and a variety of Asian sounds that flourished before the European and American colonization in the 16th and 20th centuries. Spanish settlers and Filipinos played a variety of musical instruments, including flutes, guitar, ukelele, violin, trumpets and drums. They performed songs and dances to celebrate festive occasions. By the 21st century, many of the folk songs and dances have remained intact throughout the Philippines. Some of the groups that perform these folk songs and dances are the Bayanihan, Filipinescas, Barangay-Barrio, Hariraya, the Karilagan Ensemble, and groups associated with the guilds of Manila, and Fort Santiago theatres. Many Filipino musicians have risen prominence such as the composer and conductor Antonio J. Molina, the composer Felipe P. de Leon, known for his nationalistic themes and the opera singer Jovita Fuentes.

Modern day Philippine music features several styles. Most music genres are contemporary such as Filipino rock, Filipino hip hop and other musical styles. Some are traditional such as Filipino folk music. 

Philippine Dance

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A ZamboangueĂąo dance in Philippine Hispanic tradition.

Philippine folk dances include the Tinikling and Cariùosa. In the southern region of Mindanao, Singkil is a popular dance showcasing the story of a prince and princess in the forest. Bamboo poles are arranged in a tic-tac-toe pattern in which the dancers 

Cinema of the Philippines The advent of the cinema of the Philippines can be traced back to the early days of filmmaking in 1897 when a Spanish theatre owner screened imported moving pictures.

Mila del Sol starred in one of the earliest Filipino movies,Giliw Ko (1939), along with Fernando Poe, Sr..

The formative years of Philippine cinema, starting from the 1930s, were a time of discovery of film as a new medium of expressing artworks. Scripts and characterizations in films came from popular theatre shows and Philippine literature.

In the 1940s, Philippine cinema brought the consciousness of reality in its film industry. Nationalistic films became popular, and movie themes consisting primarily of war and heroism and proved to be successful with Philippine audiences.

The 1950s saw the first golden age of Philippine cinema, with the emergence of more artistic and mature films, and significant improvement in cinematic techniques among filmmakers. The studio system produced frenetic activity in the Philippine film industry as many films were made annually and several local talents Young Ji international School / College

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started to gain recognition abroad. Award-winning filmmakers and actors were first introduced during this period. As the decade drew to a close, the studio system monopoly came under siege as a result of labor-management conflicts. By the 1960s, the artistry established in the previous years was in decline. This era can be characterized by rampant commercialism in films.

The 1970s and 1980s were considered turbulent years for the Philippine film industry, bringing both positive and negative changes. The films in this period dealt with more serious topics following the Martial law era. In addition, action, western, drama, adult and comedy films developed further in picture quality, sound and writing. The 1980s brought the arrival of alternative or independent cinema in the Philippines.

The 1990s saw the emerging popularity of drama, teen-oriented romantic comedy, adult, and comedy and action films.

The Philippines, being one of Asia's earliest film industry producers, remains undisputed in terms of the highest level of theater admission in Asia. Over the years, however, the Philippine film industry has registered a steady decline in movie viewership from 131 million in 1996 to 63 million in 2004. From a high production rate of 350 films a year in the 1950s, and 200 films a year during the 1980s, the Philippine film industry production rate declined in 2006 to 2007.The 21st century saw the rebirth of independent filmmaking through the use of digital technology and a number of films have once again earned nationwide recognition and prestige.

With the high rates of film production in the past, several movie artists have appeared in over 100+ roles in Philippine Cinema and enjoyed great recognition from fans and moviegoers. 

Architecture of the Philippines The Nipa hut (Bahay Kubo) is the mainstream form of housing. It is characterized by use of simple materials such as bamboo and coconut as the main sources of wood. Cogon, Nipa palm leaves and coconut fronds are used as roof thatching. Most primitive homes are built on stilts due to frequent flooding during the rainy season. Regional variations include the use of thicker, and denser roof thatching in mountain areas, or longer stilts on coastal areas particularly if the structure is built over water. The architecture of other indigenous peoples may be characterized by an angular wooden roofs, bamboo in place of leafy thatching and ornate wooden carvings.

The Spaniards introduced stones as housing and building materials. The introduction of Christianity brought European churches, and architecture which subsequently became the center of most towns and cities. Spanish architecture can be found in Intramuros, Vigan, Iloilo, Jaro and other parts of the Philippines. Islamic Young Ji international School / College

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and other Asian architecture can also be seen depicted on buildings such as mosques and temples.

The University of Santo Tomas Main Building (UST Main Building ), designed

by Fr. Roque Ruaño, O.P., is the first earthquake-resistant building in the Philippines.[1] Ruaño was influenced by Frank Lloyd Wright's Imperial Hotel, Tokyo 

The Coconut Palace is an example of Philippine Architecture.

Contemporary architecture has a distinctively Western style although preHispanic housing is still common in rural areas. American style suburban-gated communities are popular in the cities, including Manila, and the surrounding provinces. 

Philippine cuisine Filipinos cook a variety of foods influenced by Western and Asian cuisine. The Philippines is considered a melting pot of Asia.

Eating out is a favorite Filipino pastime. A typical Pinoy diet consists at most of six meals a day; breakfast, snacks, lunch, snacks, dinner, and again a midnight snack before going to sleep. Rice is a staple in the Filipino diet, and is usually eaten together with other dishes. Filipinos regularly use spoons together with forks and knives. Some also eat with their hands, especially in informal settings, and when eating seafood. Rice, corn, and popular dishes such as adobo (a meat stew made from either pork or chicken), lumpia (meat or vegetable rolls), pancit (a noodle dish), and lechón (roasted pig) are served on plates.

A roasted pig known as the Lechón, one of the Philippines most popular dishes.

Other popular dishes brought from Spanish and Southeast Asian influences include afritada, asado, chorizo, empanadas, mani (roasted peanuts), paksiw (fish or pork, cooked in vinegar and water with some spices like garlic and pepper), pan de sal(bread of salt), pescado frito (fried or grilled fish), sisig, torta (omelette), karekare(ox-tail stew), kilawen, pinakbet (vegetable stew), pinapaitan, and sinigang(tamarind soup with a variety of pork, fish, or prawns). Some delicacies eaten by some Filipinos may seem unappetizing to the Western palate

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include balut (boiled egg with a fertilized duckling sausage), and dinuguan(soup made from pork blood).

inside), longanisa (sweet

Popular snacks and desserts such as chicharon (deep fried pork or chicken skin),halo-halo (crushed ice with evaporated milk, flan, and sliced tropical fruit), puto(white rice cakes), bibingka (rice cake with butter or margarine and salted eggs),ensaymada (sweet roll with grated cheese on top), polvoron (powder candy), and tsokolate (chocolate) are usually eaten outside the three main meals. Popular Philippine beverages include San Miguel Beer, Tanduay Rhum, coconut arrack, and tuba.

Every province has its own specialty and tastes vary in each region. In Bicol, for example, foods are generally spicier than elsewhere in the Philippines. Patis, suka, toyo, bagoong, and banana catsup are the most common condiments found in Filipino homes and restaurants.

Western fast food chains such as McDonald's, Wendy's, KFC, and Pizza Hut are a common sight in the country. 

Education in the Philippines and Higher education in the Philippines Education in the Philippines has been influenced by Western and Eastern ideology and philosophy from the United States, Spain, and its neighbouring Asian countries. Philippine students enter public school at about age four, starting from nursery school up to kindergarten. At about seven years of age, students enter elementary school (6 to 7 years). This is followed by high school (5 years). Students then take the college entrance examinations (CEE), after which they enter college or university (3 to 5 years). Other types of schools include private school, preparatory school, international school, laboratory high school, and science high school. Of these schools, private Catholic schools are the most famous. Catholic schools are preferred in the Philippines due to their religious beliefs. Most Catholic schools are unisex. The uniforms of Catholic schools usually have an emblem along with the school colors.

The school year in the Philippines starts in June and ends in March, with a twomonth summer break from April to May, two-week semestral break in October and Christmas and New Year's holidays.

In 2005, the Philippines spent about US$138 per pupil compared to US$1,582 in Singapore, US$3,728 in Japan, and US$852 in Thailand.  Sports in the Philippines

A professional basketball game being played in the country. Basketball is regarded by many Filipinos as the country's most popular sport.

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Arnis, a form of martial arts, is the national sport in the Philippines. Among the most popular sports include basketball, boxing, football, billiards, chess, ten-pin bowling, volleyball, horse racing, and cockfighting. Dodgeball, badminton and Tennis are also popular.

Filipinos have gained international success in sports. These are boxing, football,billiards, ten-pin bowling, and chess. Popular sport stars include Manny Pacquiao,Flash Elorde, and Francisco Guilledo in boxing, Paulino AlcĂĄntara in football, Carlos Loyzaga, Robert Jaworski, and Ramon Fernandez in basketball, Efren Reyes and Francisco Bustamante in billiards, Rafael Nepomuceno in ten-pin bowling, Eugene Torre and Renato Naranja in chess, and Mark Munoz in MMA. The Palarong Pambansa, a national sports festival, has its origin in an annual sporting meet of public schools that started in 1948. Private schools and universities eventually joined the national event, which became known as the "Palarong Pambansa" in 1976. It serves as a national Olympic Games for students, competing at school and national level contests.

The year 2002 event included football, golf, archery, badminton, baseball, chess, gymnastics, tennis, softball, swimming, table, taekwondo, track and field, and volleyball. 

Filipino martial arts There are several forms of Filipino martial arts that originated in the Philippines (similar to how Silat is the martial arts practiced in Asia) including Eskrima (weaponbased fighting, also known as Arnis and in the West sometimes as Kali),Panantukan (empty-handed techniques), and Pananjakman (the boxing component of Filipino martial arts). 

List of traditional Filipino games One Traditional Filipino game is luksong tinik. A very popular game to Filipino children where one has to jump over the tinik and cross to the other side unscathed. Other traditional Filipino games include yo-yo, piko, patintero, bahay kubo, pusoy, and sungka. Tong-its is a popular gambling game. Individuals play the game by trying to get rid of all the cards by choosing poker hands wisely. Sungka is played on a board game using small sea shells in which players try to take all shells.

The winner is determined by who has the most shells at the point when all small pits become empty. Filipinos have created toys using insects such as tying a beetle to string, and sweeping it circular rotation to make an interesting sound. The "Salagubang gong" is a toy described by Charles Brtjes, an American entomologist, who traveled to Negros and discovered a toy using beetles to create a periodic gong effect on kerosene can as the beetle rotates above the contraption.

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Indigenous peoples of the Philippines

A Negrito woman.

The Indigenous peoples of the Philippines consist of a large number of Austronesian ethnic groups.

They are the descendants of the original Austronesian inhabitants of the Philippines that settled in the islands thousands of years ago, and in the process have retained their Indigenous customs and traditions.

In 1990, more than 100 highland peoples constituted approximately 3% of the Philippine population. Over the centuries, the isolated highland peoples have retained their Indigenous cultures. The folk arts of these groups were, in a sense, the last remnants of Indigenous traditions that flourished throughout the Philippines before the Islamic and Spanish contacts.

The highland peoples are a primitive ethnic group like other Filipinos, although they did not, as a group, have as much contact with the outside world. These peoples displayed a variety of native cultural expressions and artistic skills. They showed a high degree of creativity such as the production of bowls, baskets, clothing, weapons and spoons. These peoples ranged from various groups of Igorot people, a group that includes the Bontoc, Ibaloi, Ifugao, Isneg, Kalinga and Kankana-ey, who built the Rice Terraces thousands of years ago. They have also covered a wide spectrum in terms of their integration and acculturation with Christian Filipinos. Other Indigenous peoples include the Lumad peoples of the highlands of Mindanao. These groups have remained isolated from Western and Eastern influences. 

Overseas Filipino An Overseas Filipino is a person of Filipino origin, who lives outside of the Philippines. This term is applied to people of Filipino ancestry, who are citizens or residents of a different country. Often, these Filipinos are referred to as Overseas Filipino Workers.

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There are about 11 million overseas Filipinos living worldwide, equivalent to about 11% of the total population of the Philippines.

Each year, thousands of Filipinos migrate to work abroad through overseas employment agencies and other programs. Other individuals emigrate and become permanent residents of other nations. Overseas Filipinos often work as doctors, nurses, accountants, IT professionals, engineers, architects, entertainers, technicians, teachers, military servicemen, students, caregivers, domestic helpers, and household maids.

International employment includes an increasing number of skilled Filipino workers taking on unskilled work overseas, resulting in what has been referred to as brain drain, particularly in the health and education sectors. Also, the employment can result in underemployment, for example, in cases where doctors undergo retraining to become nurses and other employment programs. 

Korean art Korean arts include traditions in calligraphy, music, painting and pottery, often marked by the use of natural forms, surface decoration and bold colors or sounds.

The earliest examples of Korean art consist of stone age works dating from 3000 BCE. These mainly consist of votive sculptures, although petroglyphs have also been recently rediscovered.

This early period was followed by the art styles of various Korean kingdoms and dynasties. Korean artists sometimes modified Chinese traditions with a native preference for simple elegance, purity of nature and spontaneity.

The Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392) was one of the most prolific periods for artists in many disciplines, especially in pottery.

The Korean art market is concentrated in the Insadong district of Seoul where over 50 small galleries exhibit and there are occasional fine arts auctions. Galleries are co-operatively run, small and often with curated and finely designed exhibits. In every town there are smaller regional galleries, with local artists showing in traditional and contemporary media. Art galleries usually have a mix of media.

Attempts at bringing Western conceptual art into the foreground have usually had their best success outside of Korea in New York, San Francisco, London and Paris. 

Introduction Professionals have begun to acknowledge and sort through Korea‘s own unique art culture and important role in not only transmitting Chinese culture but also Young Ji international School / College

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assimilating it and creating a unique culture of its own. "An art given birth to and developed by a nation is its own art." says one scholar. 

Neolithic era

Comb-patterned pottery.

Humans have occupied the Korean Peninsula from at least c. 50,000 BCE. Pottery dated to approximately 7,000 BCE has been found. This pottery was made from clay and fired over open or semi-open pits at temperatures around 700 degrees Celsius.

The earliest pottery styles, dated to circa 7,000 BCE, were flat-bottomed wares (yunggi-mun) were decorated with relief designs, raised horizontal lines and other impressions.

Jeulmun-type pottery is typically cone-bottomed and incised with a combpattern appearing circa 6,000 BCE in the archaeological record. This type of pottery is similar to Siberian styles.

Mumun-type pottery emerged approximately 2000 BCE and is characterized as large, undecorated pottery, mostly used for cooking and storage. 

Bronze Age Between 2000 BCE and 300 BCE bronze items began to be imported and made in Korea. By the seventh century BCE, an indigenous bronze culture was established in Korea as evidenced by Korean bronze having a unique percentage of zinc.[4].

Items manufactured during this time were weapons such as swords, daggers, and spearheads. Also, ritual items such as mirrors, bells, and rattles were made. These items were buried in dolmens with the cultural elite. Additionally, iron-rich red pots began to be created around circa 6th century. Comma-shaped beads, usually made from nephrite, known as kokkokhave also been found in dolmen burials. Kokkok may be carved to imitate bear claws. Another Siberian influence can be seen in rock drawings of animals that display a ―life line‖ in the X-ray style of Siberian art. 

Iron Age

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The Iron Age began in Korea around 300 BCE. Korean iron was highly valued in the Chinese commanderies and in Japan. Korean pottery advanced with the introduction of the potters‘ wheel and climbing kiln firing. 

Three Kingdoms This period began circa 57 BCE to 668 CE. Three kingdoms, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla vied for control over the peninsula.

Korean

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Goguryeo Buddhism was introduced to Goguryeo first in 372 CE because of its location spanning much of Manchuria and the northern half of Korea, closest to the northern Chinese states like the Northern Wei. Buddhism inspired the Goguryeo kings to begin commission art and architecture dedicated to the Buddha. A notable aspect of Goguryeo art is tomb murals that vividly depict everyday aspects of life in the ancient kingdom as well as its culture. UNESCO designated the Complex of Goguryeo Tombs and as a World Heritage Site because Goguryeo painting was influential in East Asia, including Japan, an example being the wall murals of Horyu-ji which was influenced by Goguryeo. Mural painting also spread to the other two kingdoms. The murals portrayed Buddhist themes and provide valuable clues about kingdom such as architecture and clothing. These murals were also the very beginnings of Korean landscape paintings and portraiture. However, the treasures of the tombs were easily accessible and looted leaving very little physical artifacts of the kingdom. 

Baekje Baekje (or Paekche) is considered the kingdom with the greatest art among the three states. Baekje was a kingdom in southwest Korea and was influenced by southern Chinese dynasties, such as the Liang Dynasty. Baekje was also one of the kingdoms to introduce a significant Korean influence into the art of Japan during this time period.[3] Baekje Buddhist sculpture is characterized by its naturalness, warmness, and harmonious proportions exhibits a unique Korean style.[4] Another example of Korean influence is the use of the distinctive "Baekje smile", a mysterious and unique smile that is characteristic of many Baekje statutes.[5] While there are no surviving examples of wooden architecture, the Mireuksa site holds the foundation stones of a destroyed temple and two surviving granite pagodas that show what Baekje architecture may have looked. An example of Baekje architecture may be gleaned from Horyu-ji temple because Baekje architects and craftsmen helped design and construct the original temple.

The tomb of King Muryeong held a treasure trove of artifacts not looted by grave robbers. Among the items were flame-like gold pins, gilt-bronze shoes, gold girdles (a symbol of royalty), and swords with gold hilts with dragons and phoenixes.[6] Young Ji international School / College

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Silla The Silla Kingdom was the most isolated kingdom from the Korean peninsula because it was situated in the southeast part of the peninsula. The kingdom was the last to adopt Buddhism and foreign cultural influences.

The Silla Kingdom tombs were mostly inaccessible and so many examples of Korean art come from this kingdom. The Silla craftsmen were famed for their goldcrafting ability which have similarities to Etruscan and Greek techniques, as exampled by gold earrings and crowns. Because of Silla gold artifacts bearing similarities to European techniques along with glass and beads depicting blue-eyed people found in royal tombs, many believe that the Silk Road went all the way to Korea. Most notable objects of Silla art are its gold crowns that are made from pure gold and have tree and antler-like adornments that suggest a Scythe-Siberian and Korean shamanistic tradition. 

Gaya The Gaya confederacy was a group of city-states that did not consolidate into a centralized kingdom. It shared many similarities in its art, such as crowns with treelike protrusions which are seen in Baekje and Silla. Many of the artifacts unearthed in Gaya tumuli are artifacts related to horses, such as stirrups, saddles, and horse armor. Ironware was best plentiful in this period than any age. 

North-South States North South States Period (698–926 CE) refers to the period in Korean history when Silla and Balhae coexisted in the southern and northern part of Korea, respectively. 

Unified Silla Unified Silla was a time of great artistic output in Korea, especially in Buddhist art.

Examples include the Seokguram grotto and the Bulguksa temple. Two pagodas on the ground, the Seokgatap and Dabotap are also unique examples of Silla masonry and artistry. Craftsmen also created massive temple bells, reliquaries, and statutes.

The capital city of Unified Silla was nicknamed the ―city of gold‖ because of use of gold in many objects of art.

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Balhae The composite nature of the northern Korean Kingdom of Balhae art can be found in the two tombs of Balhae Princesses. Shown are some aristocrats, warriors, and musicians and maids of the Balhae people, who are depicted in the mural painting in the Tomb of Princess Jeonghyo, a daughter of King Mun (737-793), the third monarch of the kingdom. The murals displayed the image of the Balhae people in its completeness.

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Goryeo Dynasty The Goryeo Dynasty lasted from 918 CE to 1392. The most famous art produced by Goryeo artisans was Korean celadon pottery which was produced from circa 1050 CE to 1250 CE. While celadon originated in China, Korean potters created their own unique style of pottery that was so valued that the Chinese considered it ―first under heaven‖ and one of the ―twelve best things in the world.‖ The Korean celadon had a unique glaze known as ―king-fisher‖ color, an iron based blue-green glaze created by reducing oxygen in the kiln. Korean celadon displayed organic shapes and free-flowing style, such as pieces that were made to look like fish, melons, and other animals. Koreans invented an inlaid technique known assanggam, where potters would engrave semi-dried pottery with designs and place materials within the decorations with black or white clay. 

Joseon Dynasty The influence of Confucianism superseded that of Buddhism in this period, however Buddhist elements remained and it is not true that Buddhist art declined, it continued, and was encouraged but not by the imperial centres of art, or the accepted taste of the Joseon Dynasty publicly; however in private homes, and indeed in the summer palaces of the Joseon Dynasty kings, the simplicity of Buddhist art was given great appreciation - but it was not seen as citified art.

While the Joseon Dynasty began under military auspices, Goreyo styles were let to evolve, and Buddhist iconography (bamboo, orchid, plum and chrysanthemum; and the familiar knotted goodluck symbols) were still a part of genre paintings.

Neither colours nor forms had any real change, and rulers stood aside from edicts on art. Ming ideals and imported techniques continued in early dynasty idealized works.

Mid-dynasty painting styles moved towards increased realism. A national painting style of landscapes called "true view" began - moving from the traditional Chinese style of idealized general landscapes to particular locations exactly rendered. While not photographic, the style was academic enough to become established and supported as a standardized style in Korean painting.

The mid- to late Joseon dynasty is considered the golden age of Korean painting. It coincides with the shock of the collapse of Ming dynasty links with the Manchu emperors accession in China, and the forcing of Korean artists to build new artistic models based on nationalism and an inner search for particular Korean subjects. At this time China ceased to have pre-eminent influence, Korean art took its own course, and became increasingly distinctive.

Korean art is characterized by transitions in the main religions at the time: early Korean shamanist art, then Korean Buddhist art and Korean Confucian art, through the various forms of Western arts in the 20th century.

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Art works in metal, jade, bamboo and textiles have had a limited resurgence.

The South Korean government has tried to encourage the maintenance of cultural continuity by awards, and by scholarships for younger students in rarer Korean art forms. 

Korean calligraphy

Painting in the Era of Cold Weather by Kim Jeong-hui.

Korean calligraphy is seen as an art where brush-strokes reveal the artist's personality enhancing the subject matter that is painted. This art form represents the apogee of Korean Confucian art.

Korean fabric arts have a long history, and includeKorean embroidery used in costumes and screenwork;Korean knots as best represented in the work of Choe Eun-sun, used in costumes and as wall-decorations; and lesser known weaving skills as indicated below in rarer arts. There is no real tradition of Korean carpets or rugs, although saddle blankets and saddle covers were made from naturally dyed wool, and are extremely rare. Imperial dragon carpets, tiger rugs for judges or magistrates or generals, and smaller chair-covers were imported from China and are traditionally in either yellow or red. Few if any imperial carpets remain. Village rug weavers do not exist.

Korean paper art includes all manner of handmade paper (hanji), used for architectural purposes (window screens, floor covering), for printing, artwork, and the Korean folded arts (paper fans, paper figures), and as well Korean paper clothingwhich has an annual fashion show in Jeonju city attracting world attention.

In the 1960s, Korean paper made from mulberry roots was discovered when the Pulguksa (temple) complex in Gyeongjuwas remodelled. The date on the Buddhist documents converts to a western calendar date of 751, and indicated that indeed the oft quoted claim that Korean paper can last a thousand years was proved irrevocably. However after repeated invasions, very little early Korean paper art exists. Contemporary paper artists are very active. 

Korean painting

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Dream Journey to the Peach Blossom Land by An Gyeon.

For much of the 20th century, painting commanded precedence above other artistic media in Korea. Beginning in the 1930s, abstraction was of particular interest.

From the mid-1960s, artists like Kwon Young-woo began to push paint, soak canvas, drag pencils, rip paper, and otherwise manipulate the materials of painting in ways that challenged preconceived notions of what it meant to be an ink painter (tongyanghwaga) or oil painter (soyanghwaga), the two categories within which most artists were categorized. In the 1970s and 80, these challenges eventually became the foundation of Tansaekhwa, or Korean monochrome painting, one of the most successful and controversial artistic movements in twentieth-century Korea. Literally meaning "monochrome painting," the works of artists like Ha Chonghyun, Park Seobo, Lee Ufan, Yun Hyong Keun, Choi Myoung-young, Kim Guiline and Lee Dongyoubwere promoted in Seoul, Tokyo, and Paris. Tansaekhwa grew to be the international face of contemporary Korean art and a cornerstone of contemporary Asian art.

Some contemporary Korean painting demands an understanding of Korean ceramics and Korean pottery as the glazes used in these works and the textures of the glazes make Korean art more in the tradition of ceramic art, than of western painterly traditions, even if the subjects appear to be of western origin. Brush-strokes as well are far more important than they are to the western artist; paintings are judged on brush-strokes more often than pure technique.

The contemporary artist Suh Yongsun, who is highly appreciated and was elected "Korea's artist of the year 2009", makes paintings with heavy brushstrokes and shows topics like both Korean history and urban scenes especially of Western cities like New York and Berlin.[9] His artwork is a good example for the combination of Korean and Western subjects and painting styles.

Other Korean artists combining modern Western and Korean painting traditions are i.e. Junggeun Oh and Tschoon Su Kim. While there have been only rare studies on Korean aesthetics, a useful place to begin for understanding how Korean art developed an aesthetic is in Korean philosophy, and related articles on Korean Buddhism, and Korean Confucianism.

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North Korea In the north, changing political systems from Communism merging with the old yangban class of Korean nationalistic leaders have brought out a different kind of visual arts that again is quite distinctive from the common socialist realism art styles.

This is so particularly in the patriotic films that dominated that culture from 1949 to 1994, and the reawakened architecture, calligraphy, fabric work and neo-traditional painting, that has occurred from 1994 to date.

The impact was greatest on revolutionary posters, lithography and multiples, dramatic and documentary film, realistic painting, grand architecture, and least in areas of domestic pottery, ceramics, exportable needlework, and the visual crafts.

Sports art and politically charged revolutionary posters have been the most sophisticated and internationally collectible by auction houses and specialty collectors. North Korean painters who escaped to the United States in the late 1950s include the Fwhang sisters. Duk Soon Fwhang and Chung Soon Fwhang O'Dwyer avoid overtly political statements in favor of tempestuous landscapes, bridging Western and Far 

Eastern painting techniques.

Ceramics and sculpture

Sam Taegeuk Korean pottery is the most famous and senior art in Korea, it is closely tied toKorean ceramics which represents tile work, large scale ceramic murals, and architectural elements.

Korean bronze art, as represented in the work of Kim Jong-dae, master of yundo or bronze mirror casting; and Yi Bong-ju, who works in hammered bronze metalware.

Korean silver art, as represented in the work of Kim Cheol-ju in circular silver containers.

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Korean jade carving, as represented in the work of Master Jang-Ju won typically in Joseon Dynasty imperial style, with complex jade knotwork, Buddhist motifs, and Korean shamanistic grotesques.

Korean grass weaving as represented in the work of Master Yi Sang-jae, in his legendary wancho weaving containers.

Korean bamboo pyrography, as represented in the work of Kim Gi-chan in this unique artwork involved with burning patterns and art on circular bamboo containers.

Korean bamboo strip work, as represented in the work of Seo Han-gyu (chaesang weaving), and Yi Gi-dong (bamboo fans).

Korean ox-horn inlaying, as represented in the work of Yi Jae-man in his small storage box, and commissioned gift furniture.

Korean blinds weaving, as represented in the work of seventh generation master, Jo Dae-yong, and descended from Jo Rak-sin, who created his first masterworks for King Cheoljong; and through Jo Seong-yun, and Jo Jae-gyu.

Winners of Joseon Craft Contests. The artwork known as Tongyeong blinds has gained more recognition with the appointment of Jo Dae-yong as Master Craftsman of Bamboo Blinds weaving *Yeomjang) by the Korean government, and his artworks as "Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 114", with Jo at age 51 becoming the youngest 'human cultural property' in the republic.

Korean wood sculpture, as represented in the work of Park Chan-soo and is a subdivision of Korean sculpture. 

Architecture and interior design There is a long tradition of Korean gardens, often linked with palaces.

Patterns often have their origins in early ideographs. Geometric patterns and patterns of plant, animal and nature motifs are the four most basic patterns.

Geometric patterns include triangles, squares, diamonds, zigzags, latticework, frets, spirals sawteeth, circles, ovals and concentric circles. Stone Age rock carvings feature animal designs in order to relate to food-gathering activities. These patterns are found doors of temples and shrines, clothes, furniture and daily objects such as fans and spoons. 

Performing arts In the performing arts, Korean storytelling is done in both ritualistic shamanistic ways, in the songs of yangban scholars, and the cross-over‘s between the visual arts and the performing arts which are more intense and fluid than in the West.

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with Korean knots, Korean embroidery, and a dense overlay of art in combination with other arts.

Some specific dances are considered important cultural heritage pieces of art.

The performing arts have always been linked to the fabric arts: not just in costumery, but in woven screens behind the plays, ornaments woven or embroidered or knotted to indicate rank, position, or as shamanistic charms; and in other forms to be indicated.

Historically the division of the performing arts is between arts done almost exclusively by women in costume, danceworks; and those done exclusively by men in costume, storytelling. And those done as a group by both sexes with women's numbers in performances reduced as time goes on as it became reputable for men to function as public entertainers. 

Tea ceremony The Korean tea ceremony is held in a Korean tea house with characteristic architecture, often within Korean gardens and served in a way with ritualized conversation, formal poetry on wall-scrolls, and with Korean pottery and traditional Korean costumes, the environment itself is a series of naturally flowing events that provide a cultural and artistic experience. 

Music of Korea and Korean theatre The skill of contemporary Korean performing artists, who have had great recognition abroad, particularly in stringed instruments and as symphony directors, or operatic sopranos and mezzos, takes part in a long musical history.

Korean music in contemporary times is generally divided into the same audiences as the west: with the same kind of audiences for music based on age, and city (classical, pop, techno, house, hip-hop, jazz; traditional) and provincial divisions (folk, country, traditional, classical, rock). World music influences are very strong provincially, with traditional musical instruments once more gaining ground.

Competition with China for tourists has forced a much larger attention to traditional Korean musical forms in order to differentiate itself from the west, and east.

The new Seoul Opera house, which will be the anchor for Korean opera has just been given the go-ahead, is set for a $300 million home on an island on the Han river. Korean opera and an entirely redeveloped western opera season, and opera school, to compete with the Beijing opera house, and Japan's historical centre for western operas in the far east is the present focus.

Korean court music has a history going back to the Silla where Tang court music was played; later Song dynasty inspired "A-ak" a Korean version played on Chinese instruments within the Joseon era. Recreations of this music are done in Seoul Young Ji international School / College

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primarily under the auspices of the Korea Foundation and The National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts(NCKTPA).

Court musicians appear in traditional costume, maintain a rigid proper formal posture, and play stringed five-stringed instruments. Teaching by this the "yeak sasang" principles of Confucianism, perfection of tone and acoustic space is put ahead of coarse emotionality. Famous works of court music include: jongmyo jeryeak, designated a UNESCO world cultural heritage, Cheoyongmu, Taepyeongmu, and Sujecheon.

Korean folk music or pansori is the base from which most new music originates being strongly simple and rhythmic.

Korean musicals are a recent innovation, encouraged by the success of Broadway revivals, like Showboat, recent productions such as the musical based on Queen Min have toured globally. There are precedents for popular musical dance-dramas in gamuguk popular in Goryeo times, with some 21st-century concert revivals.

Korean stage set design again has a long history and has always drawn inspiration from landscapes, beginning with outdoor theatre, and replicating this by the use of screens within court and temple stagings of rituals and plays. There are few if any books on this potentially interesting area. A rule of thumb has been that the designs have much open space, more two-dimensional space, and subdued tone and colour, and been done by artists to evoke traditional brush painting subjects.

Modern plays have tended towards western scenic flats, or minimalist atonality to force a greater attention on the actors. Stage lighting still has to catch up to western standards, and does not reflect a photographer's approach to painting in colour and light, quite surprisingly.

Korean masks are generally used in shamanistic performances that have increasingly been secularized as folkart dramas. At the same time the masks themselves have become tourist artefacts post 1945, and reproduced in large numbers as souvenirs. 

Storytelling and comedy Narrative storytelling, either in poetic dramatic song by yangban scholars, or in rough-housing by physical comedians, is generally a male performance. There is as yet virtually no stand-up comedy in Korea because of cultural restrictions on insulthumour, personal comments, and respect for seniors, despite globally successful Korean comic films which depend on comedy of error, and situations with no apparent easy resolution under tight social restraints.

Korean oral history includes narrative myths, legends, folk tales; songs, folksongs, shaman songs and p'ansori; proverbs that expand into short historical Young Ji international School / College

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tales, riddles, and suspicious words which have their own stories. They have been studied by Cho Dong-Il; Choi In-hak, and Zong In-sop, and published often in editions in English for foreigners, or for primary school teachers. 

Korean dance, Korean fan dance, Salpurichum dance, Seungmu dance and Talchum dance Dance is a significant element of traditional Korean culture. Special traditional dances are performed as part of many annual festivals and celebrations (harvest, etc.), involving traditional costumes, specific colors, music, songs and special instruments. Some dances are performed by either men only or women only, while others are performed by both. The women usually have their hair pulled back away from the face in a bun, or may be wearing colorful hats. Some variation of the traditional hanbok is typically worn, or a special costume specific to that dance. In some dances, the women's costumes will have very long sleeves, or trail a long length of fabric, to accentuate graceful arm movements. Outdoor festivals are loud and joyous, and cymbals and drums can prominently be heard. Masks may be worn. 

Korean literature Notable examples of historical records are very well documented from early times, and as well Korean books with moveable type, often imperial encyclopedias or historical records, were circulated as early as the 7th century during the Three Kingdoms era from printing wood-blocks; and in the Goryeo era the world's first metal type, and books printed by metal type were produced.

Genres include epics, poetry, religious texts and exegetical commentaries on Buddhist and Confucianism learning; translations of foreign works; plays and court rituals; comedies, tragedies, mixed genres; and various kinds of novels. Korean's weave. 

Korean poetry Korean poetry began to flourish in the Three Kingdoms period. Collections were repeatedly printed. With the rise of Joseon nationalism, poetry developed increasingly so and reached its apex in the late 18th century. There were attempts at introducing imagist and modern poetry methods in the early 20th century, and in the early republic period, patriotic works were very successful. Lyrical poetry dominated from the 1970s onwards.:)  Culture of Malaysia The culture of Malaysia draws on the varied cultures of the different people of Malaysia. The first people to live in the area were indigenous tribes that still remain; they were followed by the Malays, who moved there from mainland Asia in ancient times. Chinese and Indian cultural influences made their mark when trade began with those countries, and increased with immigration to Malaysia. Other cultures that heavily influenced that of Malaysia include Persian, Arabic, and British.

The many different ethnicities that currently exist in Malaysia have their own unique and distinctive cultural identities, with some crossover.

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Arts and music have a long tradition in Malaysia, with Malay art dating back to the Malay sultanates. Traditional art was centered on fields such as carving, silversmithing, and weaving. Islamic taboos restricted artwork depicting humans until the mid-20th century. Performing arts and shadow puppet shows are popular, and often show Indian influences. Various influences can be seen in architecture, from individual cultures in Malaysia and from other countries. Large modern structures have been built, including the tallest twin buildings in the world, the Petronas Twin Towers. Malaysian music has a variety of origins, and is largely based around percussion instruments. Much early Malaysian literature was based on Indian epics, which remained unchanged even as Malays converted to Islam; this has expanded in recent decades. English literature remained restricted to the higher class until the arrival of the printing press. Locally created Chinese and Indian literature appeared in the 19th century.

Cuisine is often divided along ethnic lines, but some dishes exist which have mixed foods from different ethnicities. Each major religious group has its major holy days declared as official holidays. Official holidays differ by state; the most widespread one is Hari Merdeka, which celebrates the independence of Malaya.

Although festivals often stem from a specific ethnic background, they are celebrated by all people in Malaysia. Traditional sports are popular in Malaysia, while it has become a powerhouse in international sports such as badminton. Malaysia hosted the Commonwealth Games in 1998, the first Commonwealth Games where the torch passed through more countries than England and the host.

The Malaysian government has taken the step of defining Malaysian Culture through the "1971 National Culture Policy", which defined what was considered official culture, basing it around Malay culture and integrating Islamic influences. This especially affected language; only Malay texts are considered official cultural texts.

Government control over the media is strong, and most media outlets are related to the government in some way.

Malaysia consists of two distinct geographical regions: Peninsular and East Malaysia. Malaysia was formed when the Federation of Malaya merged with North Borneo (today the province of Sabah), Sarawak, and Singapore (seceded 1965) in 1963, and cultural differences between Peninsular and East Malaysia remain. During the formation of Malaysia, executive power was vested in the Perikatan (later the Barisan Nasional) coalition of three racially-based political parties, namely the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA), and Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC). UMNO has dominated the coalition from its inception.[4] Although Islam is the official state religion, the Constitution of Malaysia guarantees freedom of religion. 

Ethnic groups

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Malaysia is a multi–ethnic, multicultural, and multilingual society, and the many ethnic groups in Malaysia maintain separate cultural identities. The society of Malaysia has been described as "Asia in miniature". The original culture of the area stemmed from its indigenous tribes, along with the Malays who moved there in ancient times. Substantial influence exists from the Chinese and Indian cultures, dating back to when trade with those countries began in the area. Other cultures that heavily influenced that of Malaysia include Persian, Arabic, and British. The structure of the government, along with the racial balance of power caused by the idea of a social contract, has resulted in little incentive for the cultural assimilation of ethnic minorities in Malaya and Malaysia. The government has historically made little distinction between "Malay culture" and "Malaysian culture".

The Malays, who account for over half the Malaysian population, play a dominant role politically and are included in a grouping identified as bumiputra. Their native language, Bahasa Malaysia, is the national language of the country. By definition of the Malaysian constitution, all Malays are Muslims. The Orang Asal, the earliest inhabitants of Malaya, formed only 0.5 percent of the total population in Malaysia in 2000, but represented a majority in East Malaysia. In Sarawak, most of the non-Muslim indigenous groups are classified as Dayaks, and they constitute about 40 percent of the population in the state. Many tribes have converted to Christianity. The 140,000 Orang Asli, or aboriginal peoples, comprise a number of different ethnic communities living in peninsular Malaysia.

The Chinese have been settling in Malaysia for many centuries, and form the second-largest ethnic group. The first Chinese to settle in the Straits Settlements, primarily in and around Malacca, gradually adopted elements of Malaysian culture and intermarried with the Malaysian community and with this, a new ethnic group called emerged, the Peranakan("Straits Chinese"). These Chinese have adopted Malay traditions while maintaining elements of Chinese culture such as their largely Buddhist and Taoist religion. The more common dialects of Chinese spoken in Peninsular Malaysia are Cantonese, Mandarin, Hokkien, Hakka, Hainanese, and Foochow.

The Indian community in Malaysia is the smallest of the three main ethnic groups, accounting for about 10 percent of the country's population. They speak a variety of South Asian languages. Tamils, Malayalees, and Telugu people make up over 85 percent of the people of Indian origin in the country. Indian immigrants to Malaysia brought with them the Hindu and Sikh cultures. This included temples and Gurdwaras, cuisine, and clothing. Hindu tradition remains strong in the Indian community of Malaysia. A community of Indians who have adopted Malay cultural practices also exists in Malacca. Though they remain Hindu, the Chitties speak Bahasa Malaysia and dress and act as Malays.

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Some Eurasians of mixed European and Malay descent live in Malaysia. A small community in Malacca are descendants of former Portuguese colonists who married Malay women. While they have adopted Malay culture, they speak their own language and are Catholics.

Each ethnic group has its own underlying culture that separates it from the others, and they have achieved different levels of integration. The Chinese have integrated with Malay culture in a number of areas, including parts of Terengganu, and they form Malayanised groups such as the Baba Chinese in Malacca and the Sino-Kadazan of Sabah. Their years under combined British rule brought some joint sense of identity to all the ethnic groups, with English ideas and ideals providing some unifying features. A joint Malaysian culture can be seen in the symbiosis of the cultures of the people within it. 

Policies and controversies The Malaysian government defined Malaysian culture through the issuance of the "1971 National Culture Policy". It defines three principles as guidelines for Malaysian culture: that it is based on the cultures of indigenous people; that if elements from other cultures are judged suitable and reasonable they may be considered Malaysian culture; and that Islam will be an important part of national culture.

Some cultural disputes exist between Malaysia and neighbouring Indonesia.

The two countries share a similar cultural heritage, sharing many traditions and items. However, disputes have arisen over things ranging from culinary dishes to Malaysia's national anthem. Strong feelings exist in Indonesia about protecting that nation's national heritage. The rivalry between the two countries began during Konfrontasi just after Malaysian independence, when Indonesia and Malaysia were almost at war. Building resentment since then coupled with the economic success of Malaysia mean these feelings are still strong in Indonesia today. The Malaysian government and the Indonesian government have met to defuse some of the tensions resulting from the overlaps in culture. Feelings are not as strong in Malaysia, where most recognise that many cultural values are shared.

One dispute, known as the Pendet controversy, began when Indonesians claimed the Pendet Dance was used in an official Malaysian tourism ad campaign, causing official protests. This dance, from Bali in Indonesia, was used only in a Discovery Channel ad, not an ad sponsored by the Malaysian government. Songs, such as the Rasa Sayange song, have caused similar controversies. The Malaysian national anthem, Negaraku, was claimed to be based on a similar Indonesian song written a year earlier. Both tunes are derived from a 19th century French song, which caused the similarity. 

Arts

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Traditional Malaysian art is mainly centred on the crafts of carving, weaving, and silversmithing. Traditional art ranges from handwoven baskets from rural areas to the silverwork of the Malay courts. Common artworks included ornamental kris and beetle nut sets. Luxurious textiles known as Songket are made, as well as traditional patterned batik fabrics. Indigenous East Malaysians are known for their wooden masks. Malaysian art has expanded only recently, as before the 1950s Islamic taboos about drawing people and animals were strong. Textiles such as the batik, songket, pua kumbu, and tekat are used for decorations, often embroidered with a painting or pattern. Traditional Jewelry was made from gold and silver adorned with gems, and in the east leather of beads were used to the same effect.

Earthenware has been developed in many areas. The Labu Sayong is a gourd-shaped clay jar that holds water. Perak is famous for these. Also used to store water is the angular Terenang. The belanga is a clay bowl used to cook, with a wide base that allows heat to spread easily. Carved wood is used as ornamentation for many items, such as doors and window panels. Woodcarving was never an industry, but an art. Traditional woodcarvers spent years simply preparing the wood, due to a belief that woodcarvers need to be a perfect match with their wood. The wood also had to match the buyer, so woodcarving was a very ritualised task.

Each ethnic group has distinct performing arts, with little overlap between them. Malay art shows some North Indian influence. A form of art called mak yong, incorporating dance and drama, remains strong in the Kelantan state. However, older Malayan-Thai performing arts such as mak yong have declined in popularity throughout the country due to their Hindu-Buddhist origin. Since the Islamisation period, the arts and tourism ministry have focused on newer dances of Portuguese, Middle Eastern, or Mughal origin. Malay traditional dances include joget melayu and zapin. In recent years, dikir barat has grown in popularity, and it is actively promoted by state governments as a cultural icon. Silat is another popular Malay martial art and dance form, believed to increase a person's spiritual strength. Wayang kulit (shadow puppet theatre) has been popular in Malaysia for centuries. The puppets are usually made with cow and buffalo skin, and are carved and painted by hand. Plays done with shadow puppets are often based on traditional stories, especially tales from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Traditionally, theatrical music is performed only by men. Javanese immigrants brought Kuda Kepang to Johor, and is a form of dance where dancers sit on mock horses and tells the tales of Islamic wars. The Chinese communities brought traditional lion dances and dragon dances with them, while Indians brought art forms such as Bharata Natyam and Bhangra. Colonialism also brought other art forms, such as the Portuguese Farapeira and Branyo. There are a variety of traditional dances, which often have very strong spiritual significance. Different tribes from west and east Malaysia have different dances.

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

Music of Malaysia Traditional Malay music and performing arts appear to have originated in the Kelantan-Pattani region with influences from India, China, Thailand, and Indonesia. The music is based around percussion instruments, the most important of which is the gendang (drum). There are at least 14 types of traditional drums. Drums and other traditional percussion instruments are often made from natural materials such as shells. Other instruments include the rebab (a bowed string instrument), the serunai (a double-reed oboe-like instrument), the seruling (flute), and trumpets.

Music is traditionally used for storytelling, celebrating life-cycle events, and at annual events such as the harvest. Music was once used as a form of long-distance communication. Traditional orchestra can be divided between two forms, the gamelan which plays melodies using gongs and string instruments, and the nobat which uses wind instruments to create more solemn music.

In East Malaysia, ensembles based around gongs such as agung and kulintang are commonly used in ceremonies such as funerals and weddings.

These ensembles are also common in the southern Philippines, Kalimantan in Indonesia, and in Brunei. Chinese and Indian Malaysians have their own forms of music, and the indigenous tribes of Peninsula and East Malaysia have unique traditional instruments.

Within Malaysia, the largest performing arts venue is the Petronas Philharmonic Hall. The resident orchestra is the Malaysian Philharmonic Orchestra. Malay popular music is a combination of styles from all ethnicities in the country. The Malaysian government has taken steps to control what music is available in Malaysia; rap music has been criticised, heavy metal has been limited, and foreign bands must submit a recording of a recent concert before playing in Malaysia. It is believed that this music is a bad influence on youth. 

Malaysian literature The strong oral tradition that has existed since before the arrival of writing to what is now Malaysia continues today. These early works were heavily influenced by Indian epics. Oral literature such as folktales flourished even after printed works appeared. The Arabic Jawi script arrived with the coming of Islam to the peninsula in the late 15th century. At this point, stories which previously had given lessons in Hinduism and Buddhism were taken to have more universal meanings, with their main story lines remaining intact. Each of the Malay Sultanates created their own literary tradition influenced by preexisting oral stories and by the stories that came with Islam. The arrival of the printing press in Malaysia was key in allowing literature to be accessed by more than those rich enough to afford handwritten manuscripts.

There was a division between the royal Malays, who knew English, and the lower classes, who only read Malay. In the early years of the 20th century, literature began to change to reflect the changing norms of Malaysians. In 1971 the government took the step of defining the literature of different languages. Literature written in Malay Young Ji international School / College

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was called "The National Literature of Malaysia"; literature in other bumiputra languages was called "regional literature"; literature in other languages was called "sectional literature".

Malay poetry is highly developed, and uses many forms. A Hikayat is a traditional narrative, and stories written in that fashion are named using Hikayat followed by the name(s) of the protagonist(s). The pantun is a form of poetry used in many aspects of Malay culture. The Syair is another form of narrative, once very popular. The Hikayat form remains popular, and the pantun has spread from Malay to other languages. Until the 19th century, literature produced in Malaysia focused mainly on tales of royalty, as it was produced just for royalty. It was after this point that it expanded to other areas. The race riots of 1969 strongly influenced literature; the improvements of the economy in the 1980s brought about social changes and new forms of literature.

The first Malay literature was in Arabic script. The earliest known Malay writing is on the Terengganu Inscription Stone, made in 1303. One of the more famous Malay works is the Sulalatus al-Salatin, also known as the Sejarah Melayu (meaning "The Malay Annals"). It was originally recorded in the 15th century, although it has since been edited; the known version is from the 16th century.

The Hikaya Rajit Pasai, written in the 15th century, is another significant literary work. The Hikayat Hang Tuah, or story of Hang Tuah, tells the story of Hang Tuah and his devotion to his Sultan. This is the most famous Hikayat; it drew from the Sejarah Melayu. Both have been nominated as world heritage items under the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 'Memory of the World' programme. Folktales such as the Hikayat Sang Kancil, about a clever mouse deer, are popular, as are adventures such as Ramayana, adapted from Indian epics. Munshi Abdullah (Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir), who lived from 1797– 1854, is regarded as the father of Malay literature. Hikayat Abdullah, his autobiography, is about everyday life at the time when British influence was spreading. Female Malay writers began becoming popular in the 1950s.

Different ethnic and linguistic groups have produced works in their own languages. Chinese and Indian literature became common as the numbers of speakers increased in Malaysia, and locally produced works based in languages from those areas began to be produced in the 19th century. Beginning in the 1950s, Chinese literature expanded; homemade literature in Indian languages has failed to emerge. English has become a common literary language. 

Malaysian cuisine Malaysia's cuisine reflects the multiethnic makeup of its population, and is defined by its diversity. Many cultures from Malaysia and the surrounding areas have greatly influenced Malaysian cuisine, with strong influence from Malay, Chinese, Indian, Thai, Javanese, and Sumatran cuisines. Much of this is due to Malaysia Young Ji international School / College

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being a part of the ancient spice route. The cuisine is very similar to that of Singapore and Brunei, and also bears resemblance to Filipino cuisine. The different states of Malaysia have varied dishes, and often the food in Malaysia is different from the original dishes.

Sometimes food not found in its original culture is assimilated into another; for example, Chinese restaurants in Malaysia often serve Malaysian dishes. Food from one culture is sometimes cooked using styles taken from another. This means that although many Malaysian dishes originate from another culture, they have their own identities. Often the food in Malaysia is different from the original dishes; for example, Chinese food is often sweeter in Malaysian versions than the original. The Peranakans, Chinese who moved to Malaysia centuries ago, have their own unique cuisine that Chinese cooking techniques with Malay ingredients.

During a dinner food is not served in courses, but all at once Rice is popular in many Malaysian dishes. Chilli is commonly found in Malaysian dishes, although this does not make them spicy. Noodles are common. Pork is rarely used in Malaysia, because of the large Muslim population. Some celebrations have food associated with them, and mooncakes are often eaten during Mooncake Festival.

Malaysians observe a number of holidays and festivities throughout the year, on both the federal and state level. Other festivals are observed by particular ethnic or religion groups, but are not public holidays. The main holy days of each major religion are public holidays. The most widespread holiday is the "Hari Merdeka" (Independence Day), otherwise known as "Merdeka" (Freedom), on 31 August? It commemorates the independence of the Federation of Malaya. This, as well as Labour Day (1 May), the King's birthday (first Saturday of June), and some other festivals are major national public holidays. Federal Territory day is celebrated in the three Federal territories. Malaysia Day, held on 16 September, commemorates the formation of Malaysia through the union of Malaya, Singapore, Sabah, and Sarawak, although it is celebrated mainly in East Malaysia.

New Year's Day, Chinese New Year, and the start of the Islamic calendar are all public holidays. Muslim holidays are highly prominent in Malaysia. The most important of these is Hari Raya Puasa (also called Hari Raya Aidilfitri), which is the Malay translation of Eid al-Fitr. It is a festival honoured by Muslims worldwide marking the end of Ramadan, the fasting month. They also celebrate Hari Raya Haji(also called Hari Raya Aidiladha, the translation of Eid ul-Adha), Awal Muharram (Islamic New Year) and Maulidur Rasul (Birthday of the Prophet).

Malaysian Chinese typically hold the same festivals observed by Chinese around the world. Chinese New Year is the most prominent, lasting for 15 days.

Hindus in Malaysia celebrate Deepavali, the festival of light, while Thaipusam is a celebration in which pilgrims from all over the country meet at the Batu Caves.

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Wesak (Malay for Vesak), the day of Buddha's birth, is a public holiday. Malaysia's Christian community observes most of the holidays observed by Christians elsewhere, most notably Christmasand Easter. Good Friday, however, is only a public holiday in the two Bornean states. The harvest festivals of Gawai in Sarawak and Kaamatan in Sabah are also important for East Malaysians.

Despite most of the festivals being identified with a particular ethnic or religious group, festivities are often participated in by all Malaysians. One example of this is the celebration of Kongsi Raya, which is celebrated when Hari Raya Puasa and Chinese New Year coincide. The term Kongsi Raya (which means "sharing the celebration" in Malay) was coined because of the similarity between the word kongsi and the Chinese New Year greeting of Gong xi fa cai. Similarly, the portmanteauDeepa Raya was coined when Hari Raya Puasa and Deepavali coincided.

A practice known as "open house" (rumah terbuka) is common during the festivities, especially during Hari Raya Aidilfitri, Deepavali, Chinese New Year, and Christmas. Open house means that all well-wishers are received and that everyone, regardless of background, is invited to attend. Open houses are normally held at the home of the host and foods are prepared by the host. There are also open houses held at larger public venues, especially when hosted by government agencies or corporations. Most Malaysians take the time off work or school to return to their hometowns to celebrate the festivities with their extended relatives. This practice is commonly known as balik kampung and usually causes traffic jams on most highways in the country. 

Sport in Malaysia Popular sports in Malaysia include badminton, bowling, football, squash, and field hockey. Malaysia has small-scale traditional sports. Wau is a traditional form of kite-flying involving kites created with intricate designs. These kites can reach heights of nearly 500 metres (1,640 ft), and due to bamboo attachments create a humming sound when flown. Sepak takraw is a game in which a rattan ball is kept in the air without using hands. A traditional game played during the rice harvest season was throwing gasing, which are large tops weighing around 5 kilograms (11 lb), which are thrown by unfurling a rope and scooped off the ground while spinning. They are known to be able to spin for over an hour. Other sports are dragon dancing and dragon-boat racing. Malaysia's coastline is popular for scuba diving, sailing, and other water sports and activities. Whitewater rafting and trekking are also often done.

Many international sports are highly popular in Malaysia. Badminton matches in Malaysia attract thousands of spectators, and Malaysia, along with Indonesia and China, has consistently held the Thomas Cup since 1949. The Malaysian Lawn Bowls Federation (PLBM) was registered in 1997, and already fields a strong Young Ji international School / College

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international team and has made progress on the international stage. Squash was brought to Malaysia by members of the British army, with the first competition being held in 1939. The Squash Racquets Association of Malaysia (SRAM) was created on 25 June 1972, and has had great success in Asian squash competitions. Football is popular in Malaysia, and Malaysia has proposed a Southeast Asian football league.

Hockey is popular in Malaysia, with the Malaysian team ranked 14th in the world as of 2010. Malaysia hosted the third Hockey World Cup at the Merdeka Stadium in Kuala Lumpur, before also hosting the 10th cup. Malaysia has its own Formula One track, the Sepang International Circuit. It runs for 310.408 kilometres (193 mi), and held its first Grand Prix in 2000. Golf is growing in popularity, with many courses being built around the country.

The Federation of Malaya Olympic Council was formed in 1953, and received recognition by the International Olympic Committee in 1954. It first participated in the 1956 Melbourne Olympic Games. The council was renamed the Olympic Council of Malaysia in 1964, and has participated in all but one Olympic games since the council was formed. The largest number of athletes sent to the Olympics was 57, to the 1972 Munich Olympic Games. Malaysian athletes have won a total of four Olympic medals, all of which are in badminton. Malaysia has competed at the Commonwealth Games since 1950 as Malaya, and 1966 as Malaysia. It has been dominant in badminton, and hosted the games in Kuala Lumpur in 1998. The 1998 Commonwealth Games were the first time the torch relay went through more nations than just England and the host country. 

Media of Malaysia Much of the Malaysian media is tied to the ruling UMNO party, with the county's main newspaper owned by the government and political parties in the ruling coalition. Major opposition parties also have their own newspapers. Besides Malay newspapers, there is large circulation of English, Chinese, and Tamil dailies. The media has been blamed for increasing tension between Indonesia and Malaysia, and giving Malaysians a bad image of Indonesians. There is a divide between the media in the two halves of Malaysia. Peninsular-based media gives low priority to news from East Malaysia, and often treats it as a colony of the Peninsular. Internet access is rare outside the main urban centers, and those of the lower classes have less access to non-government news sources.

The regulated freedom of the press has been criticized, and it has been claimed that the government threatens journalists with reduced employment opportunities and denial of family admittance to universities. The Malaysian government has previously tried to crack down on opposition papers before elections when the ruling party was unsure of its political situation. In 2007, a government agency issued a directive to all private television and radio stations to refrain from broadcasting speeches made by opposition leaders, a move condemned by politicians from the opposition Democratic Action Party. Sabah, where only one Young Ji international School / College

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tabloid is not independent of government control, has the freest press in Malaysia.

Legislation such as the Printing Presses and Publications Act has been cited as curtailing freedom of expression. The Malaysian government has large control over the media due to this Act, which stipulates that a media organization must have the government's permission to operate. However, the "Bill of Guarantee of No Internet Censorship" passed in the 1990s means that internet news is uncensored. 

Cinema Malaysian filming has gone through five stages. The first stage occurred when narrative filmmaking began in 1933, with the production of Laila Majnun by a company operating out of Singapore. For the first couple of decades following World War II, most films were directed by directors from India and the Philippines, which produced a second stage of movies. The first locally directed film, Permata diPerlembahan, was produced in 1952. It however failed in the cinemas. A third stage appeared as Singapore-based studios began to produce films in the 1950s, but the industry was subsequently damaged due to independence of Singapore and the loss of studios there. Indonesian films gained popularity at this time, although a small group of filmmakers continued to produce in Malaysia, forming the fourth stage. In the 1980s the local industry began to recover, bringing about the fifth and most eloquent stage, which covered more themes than any previous stage. This was also the first time non-Malay films began to have a significant presence.

The government began to sponsor films in 1975, creating the National Film Development Corporation in 1981. Through this the government offers loans to filmmaker's who want to develop films, however the criteria for obtaining funds has been criticized as promoting only commercial films. Due to this lack of government funding for smaller projects, a strong independent film movement has developed.

There has been a large increase in short films, which in the past two decades have begun to gain status in international film festivals. Independent documentaries often cover areas which would normally be censored by the government, such as sex and sexuality, as well as racial inequality and tension. Although the government has criticized some films for not showing multiculturalism, its actions have been inconsistent in that respect, and often favor the Malay culture over others.

Follow up Questions 1. Name the country‘s leading in fishing industry. Give the kinds of fish they produce.

2. Explain the role of Zaibatsu in the economy of Japan.

3. How did these discoveries affect the countries not producing oil?

Activity 1. Make an economic map of Asia showing their products.

2. Make a research on the economic status of some Asian countries, their export and import products.

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Evaluation _______1. _______2. _______3. _______4. _______5.

Staple food of the Asians Leading in shipbuilding industry in Asia The most industrialized country in Asia.

The major industrial and financial center in Asia Major exporter of timber in Asia

TERMS TO IDENTIFY 1. Civilization 2. Herb 3. Vedas 4. Kabuki 5. Music 6. Culture 7. Puppet show 8. Ceramics 9. Kaaba 10. Sculptor Follow up Questions 1. How important is literature in the history of the country? Give the important achievements of some Asian countries in the field of literature.

2. Asians are known to be music lovers. What important musical instruments did they contribute to world civilization?

3. Give some words of the Asians in the field of architecture and sculpture.

4. Name the contributions of the Asian s in the field of arts and sports.

5. What were the achievements of the Asian countries in the field of science and mathematics?

Activity 1. Make a scrapbook on the contributions of the Asian countries to world civilization.

2. Prepare a cultural program to be presented in class. Select the members of your group whose talents can be enhanced.

3. Visit the national Museum and observe the antique items, the painting and the sculpture workd of the Filipino as part of their achievement. Report your reactions in class.

4. Discuss the literature of the following countries: a. Malaysia b. Japan c. Philippines d. Korea

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Evaluation Identify the country which contributed the following: 1. Epic of Gilgamesh _____________________________________________.

2. Taj Mahal ____________________________________________________.

3. Stupa _______________________________________________________.

4. Acupuncture _________________________________________________.

5. Kundiman ____________________________________________________.

6. Veda_________________________________________________________.

7. Arabian Nights ________________________________________________.

8. Sumo _______________________________________________________.

9. Great Buddha __________________________________________________.

10. Mosque _____________________________________________________.

References: Asian History; Erlinda G. Dejarme, Ed.Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_culture http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_literature http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Malaysia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_art http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Indonesia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_the_Philippines

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