For students of American Studies, History and War Studies
YOUR MHRA REFERENCING GUIDE ils
INFORMATION LEARNING SERVICES
CONTENTS About this guide
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What is referencing?
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Why do it?
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Citing in the body of the text
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Quoting in the text
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Footnotes
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Secondary referencing
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Bibliographies
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Layouts for your footnotes and bibliography
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A–Z referencing examples
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Frequently asked questions
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About this guide This guide is designed to help you understand how to cite and reference your information appropriately using the Modern Humanities Research Association (MHRA) system of referencing.
Our guide is intended to give you help with some of the common types of information you may need to cite and reference. It is not possible to include every single type of information but once you are familiar with our guidance, you should be able to use it to create references for types of information which are not included.
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What is referencing?
Referencing is a way of acknowledging that you have used the ideas and written material belonging to another author. It tells everyone who reads your work where those ideas came from. It also demonstrates that you have undertaken an appropriate literature search and carried out appropriate reading. Include all the necessary information you can about each source that you reference. It is essential to maintain consistency in how you reference throughout your essay.
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The following are examples of sources you might access and need to reference: zz books and e-books zz journal and e-journal articles zz web pages zz video, film and audio recordings/clips zz newspapers zz radio/TV broadcasts zz primary sources
Why do it? zz Anyone reading your assignments should be able to trace the sources you have used in the development of your work. zz Referencing gives you the opportunity to demonstrate the work you have put into creating your assignment. If you’ve done a lot of hard work, why keep quiet about it? zz Referencing allows you to show which parts of the assignment are your own thoughts, ideas and evaluation.
zz Good quality references give you a good basis for your argument zz Accurate referencing is good academic practice and enhances the presentation of your work. If you have referenced fully and accurately you can be sure that you won’t be accused of plagiarism. zz Accurate referencing can improve your marks!
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Citing in the body of the text When you have used an idea from a book, journal article or other source, you must acknowledge this in your text. We refer to this as ‘citing’. When you cite a piece of work you use a number which will correspond with the full details of the book, journal article etc, which will be listed in a footnote at the bottom of the page. This ‘note reference number’ should be written in superscript. Whenever possible, this number should come at the end of the quote or idea that is being referenced, following any punctuation, so as not to interrupt the flow of your writing.
The report emphasises that the research was inconclusive.1
There should only be one footnote per sentence. If the information you refer to in a sentence has come from several sources you should cite all of the sources in a single footnote. Separate the sources by using a semi-colon.
Citing an author or editor If the source has up to three authors/editors you must cite them all in full:
Simpson declared that it would be difficult to exaggerate the importance of these improvements at a time when industrial developments were changing the structure of society.12
Simpson, Boden and May declared that it would be difficult to exaggerate the importance of these improvements at a time when industrial developments were changing the structure of society.12
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 Citing in the body of the text
Citing more than three authors If the source has more than three authors/editors, cite the first author in full followed by the words ‘and others’:
Simpson and others declared that it would be difficult to exaggerate the importance of these improvements at a time when industrial developments were changing the structure of society.12
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Quoting in the text Often it is better to paraphrase than to use direct quotes. Paraphrasing is putting text from source material into your own words. This demonstrates that you have understood the meaning and context of what you have read. You must always reference paraphrased material. However, if a direct quote from a publication is used, you should: zz use single quotation marks zz place the note reference number at the end of the passage you are quoting zz where relevant, use an ellipsis (three dots, or full stops: …) in square brackets to indicate that part of the original text has been omitted from the quotation: ‘In 1664 the most common female crime […] was that of battering men.’7
zz where relevant, have a separate, indented paragraph for quotes that take up more than two lines of text, and increase space between your writing and the text you are quoting, such as in the example below (there is no need to use italics or quotation marks): On the place of women in society, Boden states: In 1664, the most common female crime prosecuted at the Quarter Sessions was that of battering men. This would suggest that women were not the passive and obedient members of society that men would have liked to believe they were.22
Duplication of charts, diagrams, pictures etc should be treated as direct quotes. Provide a title for the image and give the full reference in the footnote: Fig 3. Civil rights march on Washington, DC, USA. 28 August 1968.5
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Footnotes The footnote corresponds to the ‘note reference number’ and should be placed at the bottom of the page. If you use the ‘insert footnote’ function in your word processor, footnote numbering and placement will happen automatically. In Microsoft Word, for example, position your mouse’s cursor where you want your superscript number to be then select References g Insert Footnote. Alternatively, if you’re manually managing your references, you can achieve superscript by highlighting the desired text, right-clicking on it, and selecting Font g Superscript.
First footnote The first time you refer to a source, cite it fully including a page range and/or specific page reference where relevant.
Subsequent footnotes Each successive reference to that same source should include only the author’s name, the title when necessary, and the page reference.
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Footnotes
Use of ‘Ibid.’ When you reference the same source in consecutive footnotes use the abbreviation ‘Ibid.’ in the second footnote, to indicate that you are citing the same source as the preceding reference. The term ‘Ibid.’ must only be used in relation to a reference immediately before it, as in the example below:
1. Moshe Lewin, The Soviet Century (London: Verso, 2005), pp. 271-378. 2. Ibid., p. 277. 3. John Keep, A History of the Soviet Union 1945-1991: Last of the Empires (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 9. 4. Lewin, pp. 371-372.
It will save a lot of time and frustration if you create your reference list as you go along. A specific format for each source type is required. Layout guidelines for several types of publication can be found further on in this booklet.
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Secondary referencing
Secondary referencing occurs when you are reading an author who refers to another author’s work and you want to use this information to support an argument in your assignment. Ideally, you should try to locate the original work so that you can cite directly from it. However, it may not be possible to access the original work or it may not be appropriate (eg when referring to well-established theories). When citing a secondary reference we recommend that both the author of the original source and the author of the work it was cited in should be used:
Ellis, cited by Cox, discusses [...].13
The footnote and bibliography entries will then provide details of the book you actually read – for the example above, this would be Cox, not Ellis. In your footnotes and bibliography you should only reference the work you have actually read and cited in your assignment. Therefore, if you haven’t read and cited from the original work, you shouldn’t reference it.
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Bibliographies You will need to create a bibliography at the end of your assignment. The bibliography will list all of the sources that you have cited in your work. There may be items which you have consulted for your work, but not cited anywhere within your assignment’s text. These can nevertheless be listed in a bibliography. For students of American Studies, History and War Studies, you may be advised to arrange your bibliography in a particular way. For example, separate lists for primary and secondary sources may be required, or printed sources may be listed separately from electronic sources. For specific advice on this, please speak to your module tutors. There are some general principles to follow when creating your bibliography: zz the list should be in alphabetical order by author/editor/organisation zz if there is no author use the title of the source zz do not use bullet points (unlike this list!) zz do not include a full stop at the end of each bibliography entry
Name format In a footnote the author/editor’s name is arranged by first name then surname of the first and subsequent authors/editors. In the bibliography the first author/ editor’s name is arranged with the surname first, followed by the first name, and subsequent authors/editors retain the footnote style – first name followed by surname. See the example below:
Footnote entry:
Sarah Davies and James Harris
Bibliography entry: Davies, Sarah, and James Harris
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Bibliographies
Page numbers Footnotes must include page ranges and specific page number references followed by a full stop at the end. There is no need in a bibliography to include specific page number references at the end of the entry, unless this is a section of a source (ie a book chapter/section or journal article).
Four or more authors If there are four or more authors/editors then the words ‘and others’ should be used after the first named author/editor, for both footnotes and bibliography.
Example bibliography Culloden, dir. by Peter Watkins (BFI, 1964) [on DVD] Thompson, John M., Russia and the Soviet Union: an Historical Introduction from the Kievan State to the Present, 5th edn (Oxford: Westview, 2003) Young, Mitchell ed., The War on Terrorism (London: Greenhaven Press, 2003)
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Layouts for your footnotes and bibliography When finding information for any of your essays, dissertations or other pieces of work, always remember to collect information on your source that you can use later to properly reference it. Once you have done this, you should then reference this source using the correct format.
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Over the next few pages are some layout guidelines for you to use if you’re ever unsure of how to correctly reference a source. Remember, it isn’t possible to include every type of information source, but you can use these guidelines to help decide how to reference anything which isn’t listed.
A–Z referencing examples Audio: broadcast
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Blog
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Book
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Film
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Journal article
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Newspaper article
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Primary sources
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Report
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Television
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Thesis
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Video
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Web page
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A A–Z referencing examples
Audio: broadcast Format in footnote: 1
‘Title of programme’,
2
Title of series – in italics,
3
Name of broadcasting channel,
4 Date of broadcast.
Example
Footnote (first reference) ‘The Korean War’, Cold War: Stories from the Big Freeze, BBC Radio 4, 11 July 2016. Footnote (later references) ‘The Korean War’. Bibliography ‘The Korean War’, Cold War: Stories from the Big Freeze, BBC Radio 4, 11 July 2016
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A–Z referencing examples
Blog Format in footnote: 1
Author first name
2
Author surname,
3
‘Title of article’,
4 <Full URL> 5
[accessed date of access]
Example
Footnote (first reference) Alexandra Medcalf, ‘The York Lunatic Asylum Scandal’, <http:// borthwickinstitute.blogspot.co.uk/2014/10/the-york-lunatic-asylumscandal.html> [accessed 19 June 2017] Footnote (later references) Medcalf. Bibliography Medcalf, Alexandra, ‘The York Lunatic Asylum Scandal’, <http:// borthwickinstitute.blogspot.co.uk/2014/10/the-york-lunatic-asylumscandal.html> [accessed 19 June 2017]
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B
B
A–Z referencing examples
Book: authored Format in footnote: 1
Author first name/Corporate author
2
Author surname,
3
Title: subtitle – in italics,
4 Edition, if not first edition, followed with ‘edn’ 5
(Place of publication: Name of publisher, Year of publication),
6
Page number(s) – use p. before a single page number and pp. where there are multiple pages.
Example
Footnote (first reference) John M. Thompson, Russia and the Soviet Union: an Historical Introduction from the Kievan State to the Present, 5th edn (Oxford: Westview, 2003), p. 257. Footnote (later references) Thompson, p. 263. Bibliography Thompson, John M., Russia and the Soviet Union: an Historical Introduction from the Kievan State to the Present, 5th edn (Oxford: Westview, 2003)
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A–Z referencing examples
Book: edited Format in footnote: 1
Title: subtitle – in italics,
2
ed. by Editor first name
3
Editor surname
4 (Place of publication: Name of publisher, Year of publication), 5
Page number(s) – use p. before a single page number and pp. where there are multiple pages.
Example
Footnote (first reference) The War on Terrorism, ed. by Mitchell Young (London: Greenhaven Press, 2003), pp. 10-22. Footnote (later references) Young, p. 17. Bibliography Young, Mitchell ed., The War on Terrorism (London: Greenhaven Press, 2003)
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B
B
A–Z referencing examples
Book: chapter/section Format in footnote: 1
Chapter/article author first name
2
Chapter/article author surname,
3
‘Title of chapter/section’,
4 in Title of book – in italics, ed. by 5
Editor of book first name
6
Editor of book surname
7
(Place of publication: Name of publisher, Year of publication),
8 Page number(s) of chapter/article – use p. before a single page number and pp. where there are multiple pages. 9
(Exact page reference which you have quoted/cited from).
Example
Footnote (first reference) Patrick Joyce, ‘The End of Social History’ in The Postmodern History Reader, ed. by Keith Jenkins (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 341–65 (p. 357). Footnote (later references) Joyce, p. 343. Bibliography Joyce, Patrick, ‘The End of Social History’ in The Postmodern History Reader, ed. by Keith Jenkins (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 341–65
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A–Z referencing examples
Book: e-book Format in footnote: 1
Author first name
2
Author surname,
3
Title: subtitle – in italics,
4 (Place of publication: Name of publisher, Year of publication), 5
Page number(s) – use p. before a single page number and pp. where there are multiple pages.
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<Full URL>
7
[accessed date of access]
Example
Footnote (first reference) Aidan Day, Romanticism (London: Routledge, 2011), p. 75. <https:// www.dawsonera.com/readonline/9780203148259> [accessed 22 May 2017] Footnote (later references) Day, p. 75. Bibliography Day, Aidan, Romanticism (London: Routledge, 2011) <https://www. dawsonera.com/readonline/9780203148259> [accessed 22 May 2017]
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B
A–Z referencing examples
Film (viewed on DVD) Format in footnote:
F
1
Title of film – in italics,
2
dir. by Director name,
3
(Name of production company, Year of release)
4 [on DVD].
Example
Footnote (first reference) Culloden, dir. by Peter Watkins (BFI, 1964) [on DVD]. Footnote (later references) Culloden. Bibliography Culloden, dir. by Peter Watkins (BFI, 1964) [on DVD]
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A–Z referencing examples
Film (viewed online) Format in footnote: 1
Title of film – in italics,
2
dir. by Director name,
3
(Name of production company, Year of release)
F
4 Name of broadcasting channel, 5
Date of broadcast.
6
<Full URL>
7
[accessed date of access]
Example
Footnote (first reference) Rebel Without a Cause, dir. by Nicholas Ray (Warner Brothers, 1955), Channel 5, 16 May 2010. <https://learningonscreen.ac.uk/ondemand/ index.php/prog/000C8F9C> [accessed 14 June 2017] Footnote (later references) Rebel Without a Cause. Bibliography Rebel Without a Cause, dir. by Nicholas Ray (Warner Brothers, 1955), Channel 5, 16 May 2010. <https://learningonscreen.ac.uk/ondemand/ index.php/prog/000C8F9C> [accessed 14 June 2017]
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A–Z referencing examples
Journal article (print) Format in footnote: 1
Author first name
2
Author surname,
3
‘Title of journal article’,
4 Title of journal – in italics,
J
5
Volume number
6
(Year of publication),
7
Page range of the article – do not include ‘p.’ or ‘pp.’ here
8 Page number(s) of reference – here, use ‘p.’ before a single page number and ‘pp.’ where there are multiple pages.
Example
Footnote (first reference) Joyce A. Youings, ‘The Terms of the Disposal of the Devon Monastic Lands, 1536–58’, English Historical Review, 69 (1954), 18–38 (p. 25). Footnote (later references) Youings, p. 34. Bibliography Youings, Joyce A., ‘The Terms of the Disposal of the Devon Monastic Lands, 1536–58’, English Historical Review, 69 (1954), 18–38
Tip:
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The volume number should always be given in standard Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc), not Roman (I, II, III) or other numeral systems.
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A–Z referencing examples
Journal article (online only) Format in footnote: 1
Author first name
2
Author surname,
3
‘Title of journal article’,
4 Title of journal – in italics, 5
Volume number
6
(Year of publication),
7
Page range of the article – do not include ‘p.’ or ‘pp.’ here
J
8 Page number(s) of reference – here, use ‘p.’ before a single page number and ‘pp.’ where there are multiple pages. 9
<Full URL>
10 [accessed date of access]
Example
Footnote (first reference) Eugene H. Berwanger, ‘Western Prejudice and the Extension of Slavery’, Civil War History, 12 (1966), 197–212 (p. 202). <http://yorksj.idm.oclc.org/ login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=31h& AN=45893495&site=eds-live&scope=site> [accessed 13 June 2017] Footnote (later references) Berwanger, p. 207. Bibliography Berwanger, Eugene H., ‘Western Prejudice and the Extension of Slavery’, Civil War History, 12 (1966), 197-212 <http://yorksj.idm.oclc.org/ login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=31h& AN=45893495&site=eds-live&scope=site> [accessed 13 June 2017]
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A–Z referencing examples
Newspaper article (print) Format in footnote: 1
Author first name
2
Author surname,
3
‘Title of article’,
4 Title of newspaper – in italics, 5
Date of publication,
6
Page number(s) of article – use ‘p.’ before a single page number and ‘pp.’ where there are multiple pages.
Example
Footnote (first reference) Gareth Parry, ‘Bobby Sands Joins Long Line of Hunger Strikers’, Guardian, 6 May 1981, p. 5.
N
Footnote (later references) Parry, p. 5. Bibliography Parry, Gareth, ‘Bobby Sands Joins Long Line of Hunger Strikers’, Guardian, 6 May 1981, p. 5
Tips: If there is no apparent author of the article, start the reference with the title of the article. Omit The or A at the start of English-language newspaper titles, with the exception of The Times.
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A–Z referencing examples
Newspaper article (online) Format in footnote: 1
Author first name
2
Author surname,
3
‘Title of article’,
4 Title of newspaper – in italics, 5
Date of publication,
6
Page number(s) of article – use ‘p.’ before a single page number and ‘pp.’ where there are multiple pages.
7
<Full URL>
8 [accessed date of access]
Example
N
Footnote (first reference) Anne McElvoy, ‘The Iron Curtain Torn Open’, The Times, 10 November 1989, p. 1. <http://find.galegroup.com.yorksj.idm.oclc.org/ttda/start.do ?prodId=TTDA&userGroupName=urjy> [accessed 30 November 2016] Footnote (later references) McElvoy, p. 1. Bibliography McElvoy, Anne, ‘The Iron Curtain Torn Open’, The Times, 10 November 1989, p. 1 <http://find.galegroup.com.yorksj.idm.oclc.org/ttda/start.do ?prodId=TTDA&userGroupName=urjy> [accessed 30 November 2016]
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A–Z referencing examples
Primary sources Primary sources cover a whole range of materials. These include, for example, letters, diaries, speeches and interviews, government records and documents, census information, parliamentary debates and historical texts. It isn’t possible to provide a single template to cover all source types but some examples are provided here to offer some guidance.
Document in an archive – example
Footnote (when making the first reference) Kew, The National Archives of the UK (TNA), FO Memorandum on the Foreign Policy of His Majesty’s Government in the United Kingdom, 19 May 1933, CID1112-B, CAB 4/24. Footnote (later references) TNA, CID1112-B, CAB 4/24. Bibliography The National Archives of the UK, FO Memorandum on the Foreign Policy of His Majesty’s Government in the United Kingdom, 19 May 1933, CID1112-B, CAB 4/24
P
Document in an online collection – example
Footnote (when making the first reference) Abbo of Fleury, ‘The Martyrdom of St. Edmund, King of East Anglia, 870’ from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook reprinted from Sweet’s Anglo-Saxon Primer, trans. by K. Cutler, 9th edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961), pp. 81–87. <http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ source/870abbo-edmund.asp> [accessed 29 July 2014] Footnote (later references) Abbo of Fleury.
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A–Z referencing examples
Bibliography Abbo of Fleury, ‘The Martyrdom of St. Edmund, King of East Anglia, 870’ from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook reprinted from Sweet’s Anglo-Saxon Primer, trans. by K. Cutler, 9th edn (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1961), pp. 81–87. <http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ source/870abbo-edmund.asp> [accessed 29 July 2014] Document in printed collections – example (1 of 2)
Footnote (when making the first reference) ‘The Secretary of Defense (Lovett) to the Secretary of State, 1 May 1952’, in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952–54, Indochina, vol. 13, pt. 1 ed. by Neil H. Petersen, (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1982), pp. 113–24. (p. 120). Footnote (later references) Secretary of Defense to the Secretary of State, 1 May 1952, p. 121. Bibliography Petersen, Neil H., ed., Foreign Relations of the United States, 195254, Indochina, vol. 13, pt. 1 (Washington D.C., US Government Printing Office, 1982), pp. 113–24
P
Document in printed collections – example (2 of 2)
Footnote (when making the first reference) ‘The Niagara Movement Declaration of Principles, 1905’, in Afro-American History: Primary Sources, ed. by Thomas Frazier, 2nd edn (Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1988), pp. 209-212. Footnote (later references) ‘The Niagara Movement Declaration of Principles, 1905’. Bibliography ‘The Niagara Movement Declaration of Principles, 1905’, in Afro-American History: Primary Sources, ed. by Thomas Frazier, 2nd edn (Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1988), pp. 209-212
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A–Z referencing examples
Report There is no official MHRA guide format for reports; instead, you may wish to follow the book/e-book format where possible, including a report number if applicable. Format in footnote: 1
Author/Editor first name/Corporate author
2
Author/Editor surname,
3
Title: subtitle – in italics,
4 Report number, if applicable, 5
(Place of publication: Name of publisher, Year or Full Date of publication),
6
Page number(s) – use p. before a single page number and pp. where there are multiple pages.
7
If accessed online, add <Full URL>
8 If accessed online, add [accessed date of access]
Example
Footnote (first reference) UN War Crimes Commission, Information Concerning Human Rights Arising from Trials of War Criminals, E/CN.4/W.19 ([Geneva]: UN, 15 May 1948), pp. 8-9. <https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/669294?ln=en> [accessed 17 December 2016]
R
Footnote (later references) UN War Crimes Commission, p. 45. Bibliography UN War Crimes Commission, Information Concerning Human Rights Arising from Trials of War Criminals, E/CN.4/W.19 ([Geneva]: UN, 15 May 1948), pp. 8-9. <https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/669294?ln=en> [accessed 17 December 2016]
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A–Z referencing examples
Television Format in footnote: 1
‘Title of programme/episode’,
2
Title of series – in italics,
3
Name of broadcasting channel,
4 Date of broadcast. 5
If accessed online, add <Full URL>
6
If accessed online, add [accessed date of access]
Examples
Footnote (first reference) ‘Victory and Defeat’, The Crusades, BBC2, 1 February 2012. Footnote (later references) ‘Victory and Defeat’. Bibliography ‘Victory and Defeat’, The Crusades, BBC2, 1 February 2012 Footnote (first reference) ‘The Search for Alfred the Great’, BBC iPlayer, 21 January 2014. <http:// www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b03sbp73/the-search-for-alfred-thegreat> [accessed 3 March 2015]
Footnote (later references) ‘The Search for Alfred the Great’.
T
Bibliography ‘The Search for Alfred the Great’, BBC iPlayer, 21 January 2014. <http:// www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b03sbp73/the-search-for-alfred-thegreat> [accessed 3 March 2015]
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A–Z referencing examples
Thesis Format in footnote: 1
Author first name
2
Author surname,
3
‘Title: subtitle’
4 (Type of thesis, Academic Institution, Year of publication) 5
Page number(s) of reference – use ‘p.’ before a single page number and ‘pp.’ where there are multiple pages.
Example
Footnote (first reference) Colin Roy Anderson, ‘Local government in transition: LCC to GLC 19621967’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Luton, 1996), pp. 10-21. Footnote (later references) Anderson, p. 16. Bibliography Anderson, Colin R., ‘Local government in transition: LCC to GLC 19621967’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Luton, 1996)
T
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A–Z referencing examples
Video (online) Format in footnote: 1
Author/Username,
2
Title of video – in italics,
3
Type of source,
4 Title of the website, 5
Date of publication.
6
<Full URL>
7
[accessed date of access]
Example
Footnote (first reference) Federalist Society, What Don’t You Know About Alexander Hamilton?, online video recording, YouTube, 27 August 2015. <https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=1mEWnQ3vmSs> [accessed 14 June 2016] Footnote (later references) Federalist Society. Bibliography Federalist Society, What Don’t You Know About Alexander Hamilton?, online video recording, YouTube, 27 August 2015. <https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=1mEWnQ3vmSs> [accessed 14 June 2016]
V
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A–Z referencing examples
Web page Format in footnote: 1
Author first name
2
Author surname,
3
‘Title of article’,
4 in Title of website – in italics, 5
(Place of publication: Name of publisher, Date of publication)
6
<Full URL>
7
[accessed date of access]
Example
Footnote (first reference) Dave Renton, ‘Marxists and Historical Writing in Britain’, in Making History (London: Institute of Historical Research, [n.d.]) <http://www. history.ac.uk/makinghistory/resources/articles/marxist_history.html> [accessed 29 July 2014] Footnote (later references) Renton. Bibliography Renton, D., ‘Marxists and Historical Writing in Britain’, in Making History (London: Institute of Historical Research, [n.d.]) <http://www.history. ac.uk/makinghistory/resources/articles/marxist_history.html> [accessed 29 July 2014]
Tip:
If there is no author, use the website title.
W
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Frequently asked questions What do I do if the publication has no date? Write [n.d.], which stands for ‘no date’, where the date should be. If no date of publication is provided but it can be established, put the year in square brackets, eg [1990]. What if there is no obvious author for an item on the web? You can use an organisation whose website it is (such as the BBC) as the corporate author. However, if there is no author and it is not a site belonging to an organisation, you need to question whether or not this is a reliable source of information. You may start the footnote/bibliography entry with the title of the source if there is no obvious author. There is no obvious publisher or place of publication, what should I do? This would be fairly unusual. Usually you would have at least one of these pieces of information. If you can’t determine the publisher, then you can use the name of the organisation responsible. If you don’t have this information either, you can use [n.pub.] to indicate that there is no publisher information.
If you don’t have the publisher’s name then it will probably be very difficult to find out the place of publication. In the unlikely event of this happening you can use [n.p.] to indicate that there is no place of publication. If the place of publication is not provided in the source itself but can be ascertained, use square brackets around the place name eg [Geneva]. These abbreviations should only be used if you really cannot find the information. Can I mix referencing styles? No. You must only use one referencing style. Be consistent! I can’t find guidance on how to reference an item, what should I do? You can use the principles outlined in our guidance to create a reference for an item which isn’t listed. Think carefully about the item and what information you need to include about it. Have a go at creating a reference and you can ask your tutor or Information Learning Services for advice if you are unsure.
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