THEDEBATEONSUSTAI NABI LI TY:Hi st or y,Theor i esand Cont empor ar yAppr oac hes Pr of .Car l osGar c í aVáz quez
NOTEBOOK ENKELEJDAZEKAJ
Oc t ober ,2020-Januar y,2021
Ani nt r oduc t i ont oMETROPOLI S,MEGAL OPOLI S andMETAPOLI S.
A1 .METROPOLI S 1 8321 939
C1 .METAPOLI S 1 9792007
A2 METROPOLI TANLANDSCAPE
C2 METAL OPOLI TANLANDSCAPE
A3 BERLI N1 920 B1MEGAL OPOLI S1 9391 979
B2 MEGAL OPOLI TAN LANDSCAPES
B3 L OSANGELES
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A1 .METROPOLI S 1 8321 939 Met r opol i s,t heendoft he1 9t hc ent ur yunt i lt hebeggi ni ngoft hesec ondwor l dwar .
Fr om t heLAI SSEZ-FAI REt i mest omonopol i stc api t al i sm I nt er di c i pl i nar y,Ec onomy Pol i t i c s Soc i ool ogy
Thebi r t hofCi t ypl anni ng ur bani sm,sc i ent i ďŹ cdi c i pl i ne
Moder nUr banModel s:Thec har tofAt hens Moder m movement ,adaptur bani sm t ot hei rpoi ntofvi ew
Ar c hi t ec t ur e:Fr om Hi st or i c i sm t oRat i onal i sm Evol ut i on
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Fr om t heLAI SSEZ-FAI REt i mest omonopol i stc api t al i sm Capi t al i sm i sanec onomi candpol i t i c als yst em i nwhi c ha Monol i stc api t al i sm c ount r y' st r adeandi ndust r yar ec ont r ol l ed bypr i vat eowner sf orpr ofit ,r at hert hanbyt hest at e. Lat ec api t al i sm, Att heendoft he1 8t hc ent ur y, t hemaj orshi f toft ec hnol ogi c al , soc i oec onomi c ,andc ul t ur alc ondi t i onsi mpac t edt hel i vi ngc ondi t i ons aswel l .Thefir stpar tofc api t al i sm i s Lai ssez Fai r e. Posti ndust r i alc api t al i sm Meani ngt hatt hepr i vat eowner sofc ompani eswi l ldowhat ever t heywantwi t ht heempl oyees.Thewor ki nghour swer el ong, usual l y,c hi l dr enhadt owor kt oo.I twasaver ydar kper i odf ort he wor ki ngc l ass. Dur i ngt hi sper i odoft i me,st ar t i ngf r om t hefir stt ec hnol ogi c alr evol ut i on (t hest eam mac hi ne,Wat t s1 77 4) i ndust r ybec amet hemai nec onomi csec t or .Si nc et hei ndust r y wasmai nl yc onc ent r at edi nt hec i t y,t hi sshi f ti mpac t edaswel las t hemi gr at i onf r om t hec ount r ys i det oc i t i es. Pr i vat eowner s Agr i c ul t ur all andwasnol ongerneeded. Lai ssez Fai r e-Lett hem dowhat evert heywant !
Di st r i but i onoft heI ndust r y
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c asest udy:Rouen1 8001 900
Wec anseehow t hel ayoutoft hedi st r i but i onoft hei ndust r yc hangedwi t ht i meduet o t het ec hnol ogi c alr evol ut i on.Whatwasonc emor edi st r i but ednow i smor ec onc ent r at ed. Wi t ht hegr owt hoft hec onc ent r at edi ndust r i alc i t i es,i tal sogr ew t hepopul at i ondens i t y, s i deef f ec t soft hi ss i t uat i onwer epover t y,s i c knesses,et c . Thel i vi ngc ondi t i onsdec r easedenor mousl y,t hewor ki ngc l asswer ewor ki ngmor et han1 2hper day,t hesal ar i eswer el ow.Mostoft heEur opeanCi t i eswer ef ul lofFavel as[ex.PARI S]
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Thel i vi ngc ondi t i onsandal sot hel i f est yl eaf f ec t ed t hemor t al i t yr at e.Thebour geoi s i e[weal t hypeopl e oft hesoc i et y]l i ved5660year si nt hemeanwhi l e t hewor ki ngc l asshadanaver ageof3940year sol d.
Asst at edear l i er ,t het ec hnol ogi c alr evol ut i onaf f ec t t edt hemi gr at i onf r om r ur alar east our banar eas. Event hought hebui l tenvi r onmentc hanged,t he l i vi nghabi t sdi dnot .Fori nst anc ei nt he[ Thebi t t erc r y ofout c astLondon( A. Mear ns, 1 883) ,i ti sc l ear l yst at ed how t hewor ki ngc l asspeopl et hatc amef r om t he c ount r ys i dec ont i nuedt oper f or mt hesamel i vi ng habi t si nt hec i t yaswel l .
1 948,Gl asgl ow Wor ki ngCl assApar t ment
L i vi ngwi t hani mal shabi ti soneoft hemanys i des ef f ec t st hatt hi st r ans i t i onofl i f ef r om onebui l t envi r onmentt oac ompl et el ydi f f er entonei sr eec t ed i nwaysofl i vi ng.
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Thi ssent enc ei sanot herexampl eoft hel i vi ngc ondi t i onst hewor ki ngc l assusedt ol i veat1 9t h c ent ur yi nt hegr eat estEur opeanc i t i es.L i vi ngi nsmal lhous i nguni t s,wi t hmi ni mall i vi ng c ondi t i ons,nol andnort heoppor t uni t yt obepar tofaheal t hs yst em whi c hsec ur edt hei rl i f eor deat h.Evenbur yi ngt hec hi l dwasexpens i ve,sot hef ami l ywaswai t i ngf oranymoneyout c ome t hatwoul dpr ovi det hem t hebur yi ngser vi c es.Thi sf ami l ywasar eec t i onofhow manyf ami l i es wer el i vi ngi n1 883i nEur opeandNor t hAmer i c a.
Gl obal i z at i onst ar t edwi t ht hei nvent i onof el ec t r i c i t yandmot orvehi c l es. Thet ec hnol ogi c alr evol ut i onsdi dnot af f ec tonl yt hesoc i als yst em andec onomy butal soi tc hangedt hei rment al i t y,t he soc i et y’ spoi ntofvi ew.Thi snew wayof t het hi nki ngwasRATI ONALI SM. Peopl est ar t edt obec omemor er at i onal . !
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Rat i onal i sm st ar t edi ni ndust r y,soc i et y,andt heni nAr c hi t ec t ur e.Rat i onal i z at i oni nt hef ac t or i es st ar t edfir st l ywi t hFor dCompany.T aki ngi nt oc ons i der at i ont hewor ki ngc ondi t i ons,t i mei nt er msof wor ki nghour s,humanr ec our ses,andpr oduc t i on.For di nvent edt heassembl edc ar .Thi swayof wor ki ngr educ edt hewor ki nghour sandi nc r easedpr oduc t i oni nquant i t y.Thi sr at i onal i sm i nt he i ndust r yl edt or at i onal i sm i nsoc i et y. I n1 91 1 ,Fr eder i kWi nsl ow T ayl orasanAmer i c anmec hani c alengi neerwhosoughtt oi mpr ovei ndust r i al ef fic i enc yi nvent ed“Thepr i nc i pl esofSc i ent i ficManagement ”:
Bef or er at i onal i sm menandwomenwor kedt oget her[agr i c ul t ur e] .Af t err at i onal i z at i on,wec ansee t hegendersegr egat i onhappeni ngi ns i def ac t or i es.Af t err at i onal i sm,menar egoi ngt ohavel eadi ng r ol esandi nt hemeanwhi l e,womenar egoi ngt owor konnotver yi mpor t antt asks.Dr awi ngapar al l el l i neoft hi nki ngi not herpr oc essesaswel lsuc hast her i ghtt ovot e.Bef or er at i onal i sm i n1 868t heUS vot er swer espec i fic al l yi dent i fiedasmal e.t her ewasawaveoff r i ght nesst hatwomenwi l lr uni nt o exc esses,t hathomeswi l lbedeser t ed,t hatmenwi l ll ac kwi ves.Mal ewasseenast hest r ongersex. est r ongenought odi gt hefiel dswi t hmenbutnotst r ongenought owi t hst andt her ough Womenwer andt umbl ewor kpl ac essuc hasanypos i t i onwher et hedec i s i onswer ebei ngmade, dur i ngt hi sper i od oft i me.Thi swasknownast ayl or i stgendersegr egat i on.
TheT ayl or i sm gendersegr egat i onwasr eec t ed notonl yi nt her ol esbuti nt hewagesaddi t i onal l y. Woment endedt or ec ei vebet weenonet hi r dt ohal f oft heman’ saver agesal ar y.
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Womenwer eseenas :
Womenwor ki ngamongstmeni nagr i c ul t ur e 1 8t hc ent ur y
Thebi r t hofCi t ypl anni ng
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I nt he1 9t hc ent ur yCi t yPl anni ng,asat er m di dnotexi st ,anot hert er mi nol ogywasusedf ort hatt ype ofpl anni ng,URBANART . Fort heweal t hyc l assofsoc i et y,t hec l asst hatwasr espons i bl ef orURBANART ,t hemosti mpor t ant par twast hec ent eroft hec i t y.Asl ongast hec ent erofbi gc i t i essuc hasPar i s,New Yor k,London,et c , wasc l ean,r egul at ed,f unc t i onal ,t heyt houghtt hatt heywer edoi ngagoodj ob. Butwhataboutt heper i pher y? Theper i pher yofeac honeoft hese“beaut i f ul”c i t i es,wasc har ac t er i z edbydar kness,unr egul at ed pl ac es,mi ni mall i vi ngc ondi t i ons,f ul lofgar bage,pover t y,s i c knesses,butasl ongast heywer eoutof t hes i ghtoft hec r eat i veweal t hyc l assofsoc i et y,t heydi dnotexi st .
Ont hesec ondhal foft he1 9t hc ent ur y,wemar kt he begi nni ngoft heCi t yPl anni ng. ,addi ngt he r at i onal i sm managementst r at egyi nt ot heUr banAr t ,i t s t hest ar t i ngpoi ntt oCi t ypl anni ngasoneoft he mosti mpor t antfiel dst obeusedasat oolf ort he des i gni ngoff ut ur ec i t i es.
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Oneoft heďŹ r stc i t i est oembr ac er at i onal i sm wasVi enna.Addi ngf unc t i onalsc hemesabovet he t henat ur all ayoutoft hec i t y. 1 stT oolofCi t yPl anni ng[ Or di nanc es]
Or di nanc eswer esc hemesandwr i t t ent exti n whi c hwer esett hehei ghtoft hebui l di ng, mi ni mum wi dt hoft hest r eet set c . L i mi t at i onssetbyt her egul at i onpl answer e par toft heor di nanc es. Thesewer ec ompul sor yr ul es.Butst i l l ,t he l i vi ngst andar dssetbyt heseor di nanc esi nt he 1 9t hc ent ur ydowngr adedt hel i vi ngst andar ds. 40m2wer er eser vedf or20peopl e. Whi c hmeans2m2perper son.
Twomai nt ool swer eusedf ort he Ci t yPl anni ng:
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2ndT oolofCi t yPl anni ng[Regul at i onPl an] Regul at i onPl anwasdi vi dedi nt ot hr eemai ndi vi s i ons : 1 .Thebui dl i ngspac e 2.St r eetNet wor k 3.Zoni ng.
Wher eyouc anbui l d? and Wher eyouc annotbui l d? Pr ovi di ngbet t erc onnec t i ons
Func t i onalZoni ng
Theset hr eesubdi vi s i onsoft heCi t ypl anni ng,sec ur edfir stt hebui l di ngl and,pl ac eswher eyouc oul d bui l dr egar di ngt her at i onalsc heme,st r eetnet wor kt opr ovi debet t erc onnec t i onst ot hebui l di ngl ot s andl astbutnotl eastt hef unc t i onalz oni ng.Zoni ngser vedasasegr egat i ont oolaswel l .Wi t ht he r egul at i onpl ans,now i ti seas i ert osetbet t erl i vi ngst andar dsr egar di ngspac ei nonepar t i c ul arpl ac e maki ngi tnonr eac habl ebyt hel ower“sec ondc l assoft hesoc i et y” . Ther ewer et woki ndsofz oni ng:Func t i onalz oni ng[i ndust r y,r et ai l ,hous i ng]andTypol ogi es[ Hous i ng Tyopogi es] .Notever yhousewasaf f or dabl ef ort hewor ki ngc l ass.Anot herver yi nt er est i ngappr oac hi s segr egat i onbyc ar di nalor i ent at i on.Bi ggerhous i ngt ypol ogi eswer epl ac edi nt heWest er nSi de,i nt he meanwhi l e,t hesmal l erhous i ngt ypol ogi eswer epl ac edi nt heEast er nSi de.I nEur opet hewi nddi r ec t i on st ar t sf r om westt oeast ,headi ngal lt hepol l ut i onf r om westt oeast . Ther egul at i onpl anwoul dhavet woper i pher i es,onec l osert ot hec i t y[i ndust r y,wor ki ngc l asshouses] , andanot heronef arawayf r om t hec i t y[weal t hyc l assofsoc i et y] .I nt hec ent erwoul dhappenal lt he t er t i ar yac t i vi t i es[c ommer c i al ,r ec r eat i on,r est aur ant s,hot el s,et c ] .
Moder nUr banModel s:Thec har tofAt hens
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Met r opol i si sac ent r alc i t y,mai nl yt er t i ar y,i nt heeast er npar tar edi st r i but edi ndust r yand wor ki ngc l assar ea,ont he2ndper i pher y[ west er ns i de] ,i sdi st r i but edmai nl yonef ami l yhouses hous i ngt ypol ogy[ gar denc i t y] .
Appl yi ngr at i onal i sm i nCi t ypl anni ngandl at eroni nar c hi t ec t ur e,pl anner shadt oc omeoutwi t hi deas, how t odes i gnamoder nr at i onalc i t y.What ?Wher e?Forwho?Why? Ther ewer et womai nandver ydi f f er entappr oac hesusedbyLeCor bus i eronones i deandt heGer man Ar c hi t ec t sonanot hers i de.TheďŹ r stpr oposaloft hemoder nr at i onalc i t ywasbyL Candt hesec ondone wasdes i gnedbyLudwi gHi l ber sei mer .
LeCor bus i er ’ s ver s i onofr at i onal i sm Gr een Theeduc at i onofL Cwasc l ass i c al ,t r adi t i onal . Ar eas Thi swi l lbever yvi s i bl ei nhi spr oposal . Themai nc onc eptbehi ndt hi spr oposalf ort he r at i onalmoder nc i t yi st hehumanbody. Pr opor t i onsoft hehumanbodywoul dsett he st andar dsofpl anni ngt hec i t i esoft hef ut ur e. Rat i onalf unc t i onalz oni ngwi l lbemor e c onc ent r at edt handi st r i but ed. Hous i ng Onepar tofz oni ngwoul dber eser vedonl yf or onef unc t i on. L Cusedt heshapeoft hehumanbodyt o pr ovi deanddi st r i but et hef unc t i onsr egar di ng t hes ymbol i cpoi ntofvi ew. Fori nst anc e,hepl ac edt heskysc r aper s[ of fic es] att heheadar ea,gr eenar easi nl ungs,r es i dent i al ar easathandsandwor ki ngar eassuc has i ndust r yatl egs.
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Of fic es
Hous i ng
I ndust r y
Moder nMovement ’ sver s i onofr at i onal s i m Ludwi gHi l ber sei mer-Hoc hhausst adt[ 1 927]( VERTI CALCI TY) Moder nmovementar c hi t ec t sai m wast oc r eat ea mor eef fic i entc i t y,wher epeopl ewoul dl i vec l ose t ot hei rof fic es,sot heydi dnothavet omovef r om onepar toft hec i t yt oanot her .TheL Cpr oposal , i tdi dnotseem t ayl or i stt oHi l ber sei mer ,hest at ed t hati ti snotef fic i entc ommut i ngf r om wor kt ot he eyoul i ve. pl ac Hi l ber sei merdes i gnedapr oposalofver t i c al z oni ngwi t hl i nearbl oc ks,hepl ac edt hehous i ng uni t si nt hefloor sabovet hegr ound,andof fic es i nt hebasement .Youwoul dt aket heel evat orand gost r ai ghtt oyourof fic eandvi sever sa. Thi sr eflec t edt hehi l ber sei merobsess i onwi t h sor t i ngout ,c l ass i fic at i on,pr oduc i ngasc ar y asc hemewher eever yt hi ngi sfigur edout . I ti snotbad,norgoods i mpl yi si t Ar c hi t ec t ur e? ! Thesoc i alandc ul t ur alaspec tofar c hi t ec t ur ewas di sappear i ngbec auseofRat i onal i sm.
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I nt he40st hemoder nar c hi t ec t sagr eedupononemodelofr at i onalc i t i est hatmaybec oul dwor kf or t hemoder nr at i onalsoc i et y.Theyc r eat ed t heChar tofAt hensi n1 943wi t h4mai nel ement st hat shoul dbec ons i der edwhi l edes i gni ngf ut ur er at i onalc i t i es.
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Ar c hi t ec t ur e:Fr om Hi st or i c i sm t oRat i onal i sm Thesoc i et yof1 9t hc ent ur ywasal r eadymoder n.20year saf t ert her at i onal i z at i on. T aki ngas i mpl eexampl eofyounggi r ll i vi ngi nBer l i ni nt heendoft he1 9t hc ent ur y.
i nt er i orspac es
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Hel en,23year sol d Ar c hi t ec t L i vi ngi nGar denCi t y
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7 : 00A. M Thei nt er i orspac eswer eat r uer eec t i onoft hel i f est yl eoft henew moder nsoc i et y,unf or t unat el y wec annotst at et hesameaboutt heext er i oroft hesear c hi t ec t ur alspac es
Tr avel i ngf r om WestBer l i nt oEastBer l i n,youc oul d seet hepr obl emst hatt heeast er npar tof t hi sc i t ywasf ac i ng.Si nc et hemai ni ssuewast he hous i ng,t hatwoul dbet hest ar t i ngpoi ntt owar dsa new mor er at i onalar c hi t ec t ur e. Appl yi ngt het ayl or i stpr i nc i pl esand assembl el i ne[ asFor ddi di nt hei ndust r y] ,t heyhoped t heyc oul di nc r easet hest andar dsofl i vi ngc ondi t i ons. Wi t ht heExi st enz mi nmum t heyupl i f t edt hest andar ds ofl i vi ngf r om 2m2perper sont o1 2m2perper son
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RATI ONALI SM I NARCHI TECTURE
Al exander Kl ei n:Rei c hsf or sc hungsgesel l sc haf t( 1 928)
A2.METROPOLI TANLANDSCAPES Thi sper i odmar kst hebegi nni ngoft hedebat eonsust ai nabi l i t y.
Ther oot soft hesust ai nabi l i t ydebat e: geogr apher sandsoc i ol ogi st s. Fr om t hegar denc i t yt obr oadac r e: howar d,geddesandmumf or d. Ther egi onalpl anni ngassoc i at i onofAmer i c a( RPAA) andt he“ New Deal ”Exper i enc e.
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Ther oot soft hesust ai nabi l i t ydebat e: geogr apher sandsoc i ol ogi st s.
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Thet r ans i t i ont heEur opeanCi t i esexper i enc edf r om t he1 stt ec hnol ogi c alr evol ut i onwasnoteas y. Thei ndust r i alc i t i esst ar t edpr oduc i nganunc ont r ol l abl eamountofpol l ut i ont hataf f ec t edt heheal t hof t hepopul at i onatt hatt i me.Thus,t hepr ogr ess i vepeopl eoft hesoc i et yc amet ot hec onc l us i ont hat t hec i t yshoul di mi t at enat ur e. Aver ygr eati ssuewasal soment alheal t h.Asac onsequenc eoft hemi gr at i onf r om t hec ount r ys i det o c i t y,f r om l ar gerspac esofl i vi ngt ot i nyones,l edpeopl ei nt odepr ess i onandot herser i ousment al heal t hi ssues. Cons i der i ngt heabovement i onedi ssuesr el at i ngt hepol l ut i on,t hei nt el l ec t ualc l assoft hesoc i et y c amei nt oanagr eementt hatt hef oundat i onoft heec oc i t i esoft hef ut ur eshoul dbet hec onc eptof ec os yst em,ever yt hi ngl i vi ngi nper f ec tbal anc ewi t heac hot her .Thi spr ogr ess i vec l asst hatst ar t edt hi s new c onc eptwer e:soc i ol ogi st s,geogr apher s,phi l osopher s,engi neer s,et c .Thel eadi ngdi sc i pl i nest hat st ar t edembr ac i ngec ol ogyi nt ot hei rďŹ el dswer eGeogr apher sandSoc i ol ogi st s.Asf ort heAr c hi t ec t s, t heywer emor ef oc usedi nt hear tpoi ntofvi ew ofar c hi t ec t ur e,f r om t he1 880t o1 920i saver ydar k per i odofAr c hi t ec t ur ei nover al l .
I nt hemeant i me,wec annotsayt hesame aboutt hegeogr apher sandsoc i ol ogi st s. TheGer mangeogr apherWal l t erChr i st al l es wasamongstďŹ r stt ot r ansl at et hec onc eptof ec os yst em i nt ohi swor k,hi sbr i l l i antwor kont he c ompl ement ar yr egi onsandt hedi st r i but i onof eronbyar c hi t ec t sand set t l ement swi l lbeusedl at ur banpl anner sast hever ymai nf oundat i onoft he f ut ur ec i t ypl anni ng
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Cent r alpl ac et heor y[ 1 933]
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Anot herfiel dt hatc onver t edt heec os yst em c onc epti nt ot hei rwor kwasSoc i ol ogy. TheSc hoolofChi c agodevel opedaz oni ngdi agr am.Zoneswer ear r angedr egar di ngt hesoc i alc l asses, t aki ngt heec os yst em el ement si nt oc ons i der at i onssuc hasl andsc ape,humanbehavi ort heyc l ass i fied peopl er egar di ngt hei rr ac e,soc i alc l ass,nat i onal i t y,et cBur gessr et ur nst ot heexpl i c i tor gani sm met aphor:" Mobi l i t yast hePul seoft heCommuni t y. "I fi nst eadofat i dalwaveof l akewat er ,wei magi net hemovementofbl ood,t heabove" i nvas i on"ofi mmi gr at i onc anbe r ei nt er pr et edasbl oodvi gor ousl ypumpi ngt hr ought hevei nsoft hec i t y,f or c i ngoutol dbl ood. T omaket hi sar gument ,Bur gessdefinest wot ypesofmovement :unc hangi ngmot i oni nwhi c hone c ont i nuest omovei nas i mi l ar ,habi t ualmanner ,andmobi l i t yasac hangei nmovement-anew r out i nec byanew st i mul us.Ther ef or e,i naddi t i ont opopul at i onc hange,asec ondmeasur eof t hest at eoft hemet abol i sm oft hec i t yi smobi l i t y.
Fr om t hegar denc i t yt obr oadac r e: howar d,geddesandmumf or d.
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Themet r opol i t anEur opeanc i t i esdur i ngt hi sper i odwer egr owi ngenor mousl y.Thepl anner soft he1 9t h c ent ur ypr edi c t edt hatever ymet r opol i t anc i t ywoul dgr ow endl essl y.I nst eadoft r yi ngt o st opt he“ i nevi t abl e”t heyst ar t edt hi nki ngaboutwayshow t heyc oul dc ont r olt hi sgr owt h. Event houghl at eroni thasbeenpr ovedt hatnotonl yt hesec i t i eswi l lst opgr owi ngbutc i t i eswi l lal so st ar tt oshr i nk,notonl yi npopul at i onbutgeogr aphi c al l yt oo.Dur i ngt hi sper i odoft i me,t her ewer e t hr eemai npr oposal ssetby:Howar d,GeddesandMumf or d. Thefir stonei s“ T o-mor r ow:apeac ef ulpat ht or ealr ef or m( 1 898)byEbenez erHowar d.
Howar d’ sc onc eptpr oposalwast ur ni ngbac ki nt i me,bef or et he i ndust r i alr evol ut i on,wher ec i t i eswer esmal l .Hi sc onc eptof gr owt hwasnotal l owi nggr owt h.Thus,hec r eat eda gar denc i t ymodelwi t happr oxi mat el y32. 000i nhabi t ant s. GARDENCI TYi sal i mi t edc i t ynotonl yi npopul at i onbuton t hesur f ac easwel l .I fi nt r adi t i onalc i t i esi nt hec ent erwas pl ac edt her el i gi ousspac es[ c at hedr al ] ,i nt hegar denc i t yi ti s nat ur e[par k] .
oc t ober , 2020
Geddespr esent edt he2ndpr oposal .Hei nvent edt het er m URBANECOL OGY
Ac c or di ngt ot heGeddes,c i t i esdur i ngt hi sper i od oft het i mewer el i vi ngi nanEc ol ogi c alCr i s i s. Thi ss i t uat i onhadt oc hangepr of oundl y. Geddest heor yi sver ywel lexpl ai nedwi t ht he sec t i onbel ow.Thec or eoft hi st heor yar et he nat ur alr ec our sest hatt hel andsc apei ti sof f er i ng t ot hec i t y.Emphas i z i ngt hesenat ur alr ec our ses byf unc t i onal i z i ngt hem wi t hpar t i c ul arac t i vi t i es notonl ywoul dsavet hec i t yi npol l ut i onaspec t s butwoul dal sobeamor eef ďŹ c i entwayf orac i t y t obemor epr oduc t i ve. Themai ni deaoft hi spr oposalwast ogi veeac h c i t yf unc t i onsr egar di ngt hei rnat ur alr ec our ses andi nt hatwayc r eat i ngc onur bat i ons. Conur bat i onswer eext endedur banar eas, t ypi c al l yc ons i st i ngofsever alt ownsmer gi ng wi t ht heper i pher yofc i t i es.
Geddes;ur banec ol ogy
oc t ober , 2020
Lastbutnotl easti ni mpor t anc ewast heMumf or dpr oposal .Mumf or dwasahi st or i an,hepr edi c t ed t he4t hmi gr at i on,mi gr at i onf r om c i t i esbac kt ot hec ount r ys i de.Wi t ht hei nvent i onofel ec t r i c i t y, t el ephones,c ar s,whyshoul dwel i vei napol l ut edanddenseenvi r onmentsuc hasac i t y? I ft hi smi gr at i oni shappeni ng,wemi ghtaswel lor gani z ei t .Sohepr oposedac ombi nedmodel bet weenc onur bat i ons[ Geddes]andGar denCi t y[ Howar d] I nc ol l abor at i onwi t hFr ankLl oydWr i ght ,t heyt r ansl at edt hel ogi coft hi sc ombi neds yst em i nt oa t hepr oposal ,whi c hi sBr oadac r eCi t y.Thi sr egi onalpl anni ngi nc l udedsmal lc i t i es[ gar denc i t i es]wi t h appr oxi mat el y1 500i nhabi t ant sf or1 km2spr eadi nt oagr i dl ayout . . t
I ft hemai nai m wast oc r eat easust ai nabl eef ďŹ c i entc i t y, t hi spr oposalwasaf ai l ur e.Ci t i eswi t hl ow dens i t y suc hasDal l as,wi t hbr oadspac et omovewoul donl y i nc r easepol l ut i onandnotdec r easei t .
Ther egi onalpl anni ngassoc i at i onofAmer i c a( RPAA) andt he“ New Deal ”Exper i enc e.
oc t ober , 2020
Cons i der i ngt hepr evi ouspr oposal sandi deasaboutc i t ypl anni ng,i nt he1 920sagr oupof ar c hi t ec t s,geogr apher s,soc i ol ogi st s,hi st or i ansc r eat edt heRegi onalPl anni ngAssoc i at i onofAmer i c a [ RPAA] .Cont empl at i ngt heGeddesi deasaboutr egi onalpl anni ngandal sot hepr evi ouspr oposal s, t heyc amet ot hec onc l us i ont hatt hef ut ur eofsust ai nabl ec i t i esl aysi nt er r i t or i alpl anni ng. So,t he[ RPAA]devel opedvoc abul ar yandc r eat i vec onc ept st hatshoul dbec omeabasef orr egi onal pl anni ngandsust ai nabl ec i t ypl anni ng. 920si nt heUni t edSt at es,oneoft hemai ni ssueswast hei mmi gr ant s,r egi onalpl anni ngwoul d I nt he1 subser veasat oolf ort hei nt egr at i onoft hesemi nor i t i esi nt ot heAmer i c anc ul t ur e. Thefir stc onc eptwasSuper bl oc k,whi c hwaspr oj ec t edi nsuc hawayt hathous i nguni t swoul dhave ver ygoodac c esst ot hest r eetnet wor k,i nt hemi ddl epar twoul dt akepl ac et hef ac i l i t i es,put t i ng f ac i l i t i esi nt hemi ddl ewoul dhel ppeopl et osoc i al i z eandi nt er ac twi t heac hot herandfinal l y,t hei nt egr at i ngpur posewoul dbesuc c essf ul .
oc t ober , 2020
Anot heri nnovat i vec onc eptwast heNei ghbour hoodUni t ,t hi sc onc ept ' s ai mwasef ďŹ c i enc y,i nar adi usof1 / 2mi l ewoul dhappenal lt hef unc t i onsneededf ort hef unc t i oni ngof ac i t y,youc oul doper at eal ldai l yt asksandac t i vi t i esi nwal ki ngdi st anc eandt hef ar t hestdi st anc e woul dbe1 / 2mi l e.TheGr eenBel tc onc ept ,sec ur edt hel i mi toft hegar denc i t y,i nt hatwayt hey st oppedt hegr owt handt heexpans i onoft hec i t y.Par kway,sur r oundi ngt hehi ghwaywi t hl i near f or est s.I ti swor t hment i oni ngt hatevennowadayspl anner sar eus i ngt hec onc ept sofr egi onal pl anni ngf orc i t ypl anni ng,Super bl oc ki nBar c el ona,1 5mi nut ec i t yi nPar i s,Gr eenbel ti nMi l an,et c .
A3.BERLI N
Hous i ngandpl anni ngc r i s i sbef or et heďŹ r stwor l dwar . TheWei marRepubl i c( 1 91 91 933) : Hous i ngs i edl ungenandt her at i onal i z at i onoft heur ban c ent er Thenaz it i mesandt hedest r uc t i onofBer l i n.
oc t ober , 2020
Hous i ngandpl anni ngc r i s i sbef or et heďŹ r stwor l dwar .
oc t ober , 2020
Themi gr at i onaf f ec t edt hec i t yofBer l i nal ongwi t hot herEur opeanCi t i es.Bei ngani ndust r i alpower , wi t hsomeoft hemostpr omi s i ngc ompani essuc hasSi emens,AEG,ThyssenKr upp,Ber l i nbec amet he ďŹ r sti ndust r i alc i t yi nEur ope.Wi t ht heupc omi ngr egul at i onpl ans [ Hobr ec htPl an( Ber l i n,1 862) ] , pl anner st r i edt oc hooset hei ssueofhous i ng,t hec i t ywasver ydensei nc ompar i sonwi t hot her met r opol i t anc i t i esatt hatper i od.Mi et skaser nei sanot herhous i ngc onc eptt aki ngpl ac ei n Ber l i noft hemi d1 9t hc ent ur y. Mi et skaser net r ansl at esr oughl yt o" r ent albar r ac ks, "andi sBer l i n' sequi val entoft het enement . Thei deawasc onc ei vedbyBer l i nc i t ypl annerJamesHobr ec hti nt hemi d1 9t hc ent ur y
T
Mi et skaser neappar t ment ( Ber l i n,1 91 9)
TheWei marRepubl i c( 1 91 91 933) : Hous i ngs i edl ungenandt her at i onal i z at i onoft heur ban c ent er
oc t ober , 2020
Dur i ngt her at i onal i z at i onpr oc essc i t yofBer l i nl ostanyc onnec t i oni thadwi t ht hepast .TheUr banAr t el ementwasl ostdur i ngt hepr oc essandwasr epl ac edbyf unc t i onall i f el essc i t ypl anni ngsc hemes, event hought heypr ovi dedbet t erc onnec t i ons,bet t erur banc ondi t i ons,i nessenc e,i tst i l lmi ssedt he spi r i tofBer l i n.Ther at i onal i sm i nAr c hi t ec t ur e,however ,wasamor epr oduc t i vepr oc ess.Rat i onal i sm i n Ar c hi t ec t ur est ar t edfir st l yi nBer l i n,wi t ht he3mai nt ayl or i stpr i nc i pl est hatwer et r ansl at edi nt ot he met hodsandc onc ept sofar c hi t ec t ur er at i onal i z at i onpr oc ess.Mar t i nWagner ,Br unoT aut ,Wal t er Gr opi uset cwer eamongstt hefir star c hi t ec t st ouser at i onal i z at i oni nt hei rdes i gns.
I ti si mpor t antt o hi ghl i ghtt heAl exander pl at z c ompet i t i on,i nwhi c h par t i c i pat edt hemost pr omi nentmoder nar c hi t ec t s oft hatper i od: Mi esVanDerRohe,Mendel Sohn,Wagner ,et c .
us’ opi erGr t Wal : 929) 1 ks( oc ngbl i honhous c esear r se i r gh,orhi um,medi owl
Al exander pl at zc ompet i t i on ( M.Wagner ’ spr oposal ,1 928)
Thenaz it i mesandt hedest r uc t i onofBer l i n. However ,af t ert hest oc kmar ketc r i s i s,wi t ht her i seoft he r at esofunempl oyment ,t hepopul at i onwas i nadesper at es i t uat i on.Wi t ht heel ec t i onsappr oac hi ng, Hi t l err oset oapl ac eofpr omi nenc ei n Vol kshal e t heear l yyear soft hepar t y.Bei ngoneofi t sbest speaker s,hewasmadel eaderaf t erhet hr eat enedt o l eaveot her wi se.Sei z i ngt heoppor t uni t y,hewon t heel ec t i ons.Onc ei npower ,t heNaz i sc r eat eda t hemyt hol ogysur r oundi ngt hei rr i set opower ,and Tr i umphAr c t heydesc r i bedt heper i odasei t hert heKampf z ei t ( t het i meofst r uggl e)ort heKampf j ahr e( year sof st r uggl e) . I n1 933Hi t l erc l osedBauhausandpur sued moder nar c hi t ec t s. spl ansf orBer l i nwer ehuge.Hi t l erwasver ykeenon Hi monument alar c hi t ec t ur eandsomehow l i nked c l ass i c i sm wi t hGer many,hi sper c ept i onofc l ass i c al ar c hi t ec t ur eseemedt ohi m anat i onalone.Hewasobsessedwi t hmonument al i t y, hi sobsess i onwasembodi edbynoneot hert han Al ber tSpeer . Wasi tt hef eart hatc oer c edSpeert odes i gni nsuc haway? Washej ust" f ol l owi ng"t heor der sofFuhr er . ? !
oc t ober , 2020
axi s
oc t ober , 2020
Noor derf orabui l di ngwast ooi mposs i bl ef orHi t l ert ogi ve,andnoc hal l engewast oogr eatf or Speert oac c ept . Thepr oj ec tofGr ossBer l i nwasac i t ypl anni ng pr oj ec ti nwhi c hHi t l erwi shedf oramai n nor t hsout haxi s,whi c hwoul dbepopul at ed mai nl ybyt er t i ar yac t i vi t i es.Fanc yi ngPar i s, hewant edaTr i umphAr ct hesameast heonei n Par i sbutl ar geri ndi mens i ons.Thatst r ai ghtr oad f r om t hatTr i umphAr cwoul dl eadst r ai ghti nt ot he t henew bui l di ngofPar l i ament . Ut opi ans i c k dr eamsHi t l erwasbec omi ngr eal i t y. Wi t hc l everuseofst eelandl i ght wei ghtc onc r et e behi ndt hest onec l addi ng,t heVol kshal l ewoul d havebeen290met er shi gh.TheVol kshal l ewas pl ac edneart he“ol dpar l i amentbui l di ng,wi t hi t s gi gant i cdi mens i onsVol kshal l et r i edt ohumi l i at ei t , r eflec t i ngt hehugepowerHi t l erhadaboveal l . I gnor i ngt hehumansc al eandt r yi ngt odomi nat e t hepopul at i onwi t ht hehugebui l di ngst r uc t ur e wasi nawayar eflec t i onoft hes yst em t hat Ger manyhadj ustent er ed,adi c t at or shi p.
oc t ober , 2020
Kuppel hal l e
Nor t hSout hAxi s : Kuppel hal l e( Al ber tSpeer ,1 940) Ol dpar l i ament bui l di ng
Cur i ousl y,whenyoust andbac kandst udySpeer ’ smodelofGer mani a,whati tr esembl es l eastofal li sac i t yoft hef ut ur e.I ti snotsur pr i s i ngt hatal eaderwhowi shedt obeanew, i fdec i dedl yunhol y,RomanEmper orshoul dhavebeenobsessedwi t hNeoc l ass i c aldes i gn, nori si toddt hatHi t l ershoul dhavewant edt oout dohi spr edec essor si nt er msofhei ght ,sc al e andc er emony.
oc t ober , 2020
Thebombi ngofBer l i nwasknownast he“ mostt r emendousai rbat t l eof1 945. �Wi t hangl oAmer i c an j et sbombi ngf r om sout ht ot henor t h,t hec i t yofBer l i nwasl ef tdest r oyed.
bef or ebombi ng
af t erbombi ng
november , 2020
B1 .MEGAL OPOLI S1 9391 979
EXI STENCI ALI SM ANDTHEETHI CREORGANI ZATI ONOFMEGAL OPOLI S
FUL,SAD BEAUTI
MEGAL OPOLI TANDYNAMI CS:GROWI NGPERI PHERI ESAND SHRI NKI NGCENTERS. 1 960sCRI TI CI SM:NEW CONDI TI ONS,NEW PARADI GMS.
EXI STENCI ALI SM ANDTHEETHI CREORGANI ZATI ONOFMEGAL OPOLI S
november , 2020
Af t erWor l dWarI I ,c i t i eswer edevast at ed,t hepopul at i onwast r aumat i z ed.I twasac r i s i s. Notonl yec onomi c alc r i s i s,s i nc emi l l i onsofpeopl ewer el ef thomel essbutal soi twasanexi st ent i al c r i s i s.Peopl est ar t edquest i oni ngt hei rbel i ef s. Maybeever yt hi ngt heybel i evedi nunt i lt henwasapur el i e.
Muni c h,1 946 Thi sper i oddi dnothaveanyt ec hnol ogi c al r evol ut i on,buti naway,al lt hatt r aumat hatt hey exper i enc eddur i ngWor l dWarI I ,l edi nt oac hangeofment al i t y,c hangei nwaysoft hi nki ng. I nspi t eoft hef ac tt hatt hi sper i oddi dnotexper i enc eanyr evol ut i on,st i l lt het r aumat heywer e exposedt o,l edt oac ompl et el ydi f f er entappr oac ht ot he f ut ur edevel opment s,qui t et heoppos i t eoft heonesi nt heMet r opol i sper i od. WW I It ookpl ac emai nl yi nc i t i es.Met r opol i sc i t i essuc hasBer l i n,T okyo,Londonwer edest r oyedand whatonc ewasl ostwi l lneverber est or ed.
november , 2020
Fur i ous,sad aboutt hes i t uat i ont hewor l dpopul at i onf ound t hemsel vest obei natt hatt i me,phi l osopher soft he20t h c ent ur yc amet ot hec onc l us i ont hatappl yi ngt het ayl or i st pr i nc i pl esi nt hemi l i t ar yi ndust r yl edt oeas i erwaysof c r eat i ngpower f ulandmor edanger ousweaponst hatef f ec t uat ed t het r agedyoft he20t hc ent ur y,whi c hwasWor l dWarI I .
I mmi gr ant s
( Bar c el ona, 1 956) Themor alc r i s i si nc i t edanew wayoft hi nki ng,Exi st ent i al i sm. Thec onc eptofExi st ent i al i sm l aysi nt heessenc e.Ther ei snoessenc e,not hi ngi sessent i al ,t heonl y t het hi ngwehavei sExi st enc e. Thi swayoft hi nki ngwasanAnt i Rel i gi ous[at hei st ]wayoft hi nki ng.Thever ymai nf oundat i onoft hat wayoft hi nki ngwast henonheal i ngwoundofWor l dWarI I .I fGodexi st ed,al lt hatdest r uc t i onwoul d nothavehappened.Thi swasoneoft hemai naskedquest i onsi nt hephi l osopher ' sc i r c l es. L i f ei saper i odoft i mel i mi t edi nbot hendsbynot hi ng.Ther ei snot hi ngbef or ewewer ebor nand not hi ngaf t erwedi e.Al lwehavei spur eExi st enc e.Andt hi si sExi st ent i al i sm. Event houghi ti saver yr adi c alandst r ongpoi ntofvi ew ,i nt hesamet i mei sver yhumani st ,movi ng. Theybr oughtt he“ hur tc l assofsoc i et y’ i nt ot heat t ent i onoft hepol i t i c s,st at i ngt hatt heyshoul dbe c ar edf or .
november , 2020
Al t houghMegal opol i sdi dnothappenanyi ndust r i alr evol ut i on,i twasac ont i nuous waveof i nvent i onsf r om t hesec ondi ndust r i alr evol ut i ont hatc ont i nuedwi t ht heEl ec t r i c alEngi neand Gasol i neEngi ne.The1 stst epofmovi ngf or war df r om WW I Iwast hec hangei nment al i t y,t he2nd t hest epwi l lbet hec hangei nt heEc onomy.Changei nt heEc onomyst ar t edwi t ht womai nl eader s : Wi l l yBr andt( Ger manChanc el l or )andHar ol dWi l son( Uni t edKi ngdom Pr i meMi ni st er ) . Theyf or mul at edt heec onomi cs yst em c al l edt heWel f ar eSt at e. Themai nc onc eptoft hi ss yst em wasdi st r i but i on.I nc r eas i ngt het axesoft hec ompani esand t her i c hc l assofsoc i et y,anddi st r i but i ngt hesei nc omesequal l yi nsoc i et y.Thi ss yst em i smor ehuman t hanef fic i ent .LaChar t edeAt hensmodelpr omot espedest r i anspac es.t hest udi eswer ebei ngf oc used mai nl yonhumanbehavi orandt hec i r c ul at i ons.[Resear c hofst r eet s,peopl ehel di nSanFr anc i sc o] Gi vi ngpr i or i t yt opeopl ei nst eadofmac hi nes[ c ar s] .
1 stMEgal opol i s Cedr i cPr i c e JeanGot t man( geogr apher )wast hefir stt oment i ont het er m Megal opol i s. Met r opol i si sexpl ai nedasamot herc i t ysur r oundedbya“ gal axy”ofsmal l erc i t i est hatar ec ompl et el y gCi t ynear by.Megal opol i sont heot herhandi st heuni onoft woormor e dependentont hebi Met r opol i sc i t i es,whent heper i pher yofonei smer gi ngwi t ht heper i pher yoft heot her .
I ft heWel f ar eSyst em wasar esul tofexi st ent i al i sm,i st hesoc i alhous i ngexi st ent i al i st ? ! .
november , 2020
I ti snot .Exi st ent i al i sm st andsagai nstever yt hi ngt hesoc i alhous i ngi sr epr esent i ng,t hemai ngoalof t hi spr oj ec twast hemai npr i nc i pl eofExi st ent i al i sm t heHumani sm,butt het ool susedt oc r eat et hi s goalwer epur el yr at i onal i st .Suc hasmasspr oduc t i onandef ďŹ c i enc y. Despi t et hat ,t hemai ngoalwasac hi eved.TheWel f ar eSt at es yst em t r ansf or medt hewor ki ngc l assof t hesoc i et yi nt ot hemi ddl ec l assi naboutadec ade.Wi t ht her i seoft hel i vi ngst andar d,r oset he aspi r at i onsaswel l .TheWel f ar es yst em c r eat edgoodc ondi t i onsf orsavi ngs.Now t het r ansf or med t hemi ddl ec l asswasai mi ngt heonef ami l yhousest ypol ogi es. Cons i der i ngt hatt hesehouseswer ever yexpens i ve,us i ngt het ayl or i stmanagementst r at egywer e i nvent edt heaf f or dabl ehouses. Fori nst anc e,t heLevi t t ownpr oj ec ti sagr eatexampl eofmasspr oduc t i onandef ďŹ c i enc y. Appr oxi mat el y80. 000peopl emi gr at edi nt hi snei ghbor hoodi nabout20. 000houses. Someoft hemai nr easonswer e:Theaf f or dabl epr i c esandf astpr oduc t i on.Thesehousesc oul dbe bui l t i nhour swi t ht hepr ef abr i c at eds yst em.
Nant uc ket model Levi t t own ( LongI sl and,1 946)
Nant uc ket model Levi t t own ( LongI sl and,1 946)
MEGAL OPOLI TANDYNAMI CS:GROWI NGPERI PHERI ESAND SHRI NKI NGCENTERS. Met r opol i t anc i t i est hatwer epar toft hemegal opol i s ar ec har ac t er i z edbysmal lc ent er sandhuge per i pher i es.Fori nst anc e,LosAngel es,i nt hemi d20t h c ent ur y,hadanendl essper i pher yandt he t hec ent erwassmal landshr i nki ngmor eandmor e eac hday. Thes i t uat i on,espec i al l yi nEur ope,wasdr eadf ul , manyoft hegr eatEur opeanc i t i esbec amepooraf t er t hewar40% oft hepopul at i onwasl i vi ngi next r emel y awf ulc ondi t i ons.Asasol ut i ont ot hi ss i t uat i on, t heWel f ar eSyst em c r eat edas yst em ofSoc i alHous i ng .Thi smodelwasďŹ r stappl i edi nLosAngel es. Theper i pher ywoul dbedi vi dedi nt ot wosoc i al segment s :TheďŹ r stonewoul dbet heSoc i alHous i ng Bl oc ksandt heot heronet hec onc eptofGar denCi t y, onef ami l yhouses.I nspi t eoft hef ac tt hatt he i nt ent i onwasgood,t hi si sanot hersegr egat i ont hat woul dhappenasac onsequenc eoft hi sdi vi s i on. Bef or e,t hec ent erwaspopul at edbyt hemi ddl ec l ass, t hedens i t ywashi gh,now anot herst r ange phenomenonwoul dbehappeni ng,t heUr banMi gr at i on. Themi ddl ec l assofsoc i et ywoul dmi gr at ef r om c ent ert ot heper i pher y,expandi ngt heper i pher yand shr i nki ngt hec ent er .
november , 2020
LaVent i l l asl um ( Madr i d,1 948)
LosAngel es( 1 957)
november , 2020
Asac onsequenc eoft heUr banmi gr at i on,wasf or mul at edt heUr banRenewalPr ogr am. Theol dc i t yc ent erbui l di ngsshoul dbedemol i shedt oc r eat espac ef ornew soc i alhous i ngbl oc ks. Al t hought hi sr ar el yhappened,t heol dbui l di ngst r uc t ur eswer edemol i shedbuti nst eadofbui l di ng soc i alhous i ngbl oc ksmostoft hec i t i esbui l tshoppi ngc ent er s,of ďŹ c es.Thedamaget heyc r eat ed dur i ngt hepr oc essi nt hec ul t ur alher i t ageaspec twasi r r ever s i bl e.
Chi c agour banr enewalpr ogr am
Penns yl vani aSt at i on demol i t i on,1 963
1 960sCRI TI CI SM:NEW CONDI TI ONS,NEW PARADI GMS.
november , 2020
Thec ul t ur aldec adeoft he60smar kst hepr oduc toft hei nt el l ec t ualmi ddl ec l assoft hesoc i et ysetby t heWel f ar eSt at es yst em.Thec hi l dr enoft het r ansf or medmi ddl ec l assnow wer et hegr ownupsoft hi s soc i et y.Thepopul at i onoft he60swasnotonl yt hemostf or t unat egener at i onoft he20sc ent ur ybuti t wasal sot hemosteduc at edoneunt i lt hatt i me.Themor eyouknow t hemor eyour equi r et oknow. I ti sanongoi ngpr oc ess.Thi sdec ademar kst hever ybegi nni ngoft her equi r ementofsoc i alr i ght s, t hedi sc r i mi nat i onbasedongender ,r ac e,sexualor i ent at i onwasnol ongerj ust i ďŹ ed.Dur i ngt hi sper i od et heSt udentDemonst r at i on,Thehi ppi emovement ,GayMovement , oft i mewec anseeal sot aki ngpl ac Femi ni stMovementet cThesemar gi nal i z edgr oupswer esuppor t edwi del y,most l ybyt hemi ddl ec l ass soc i et y.
Herc onc er nwasnott hehi st or i cc i t y,butt henei ghbor hoods asLevi t t own.How c oul dt hesamehousewi f e,mot her ,and empl oyerasJanef ul ďŹ l lt heever ydayt asks,bei ngatsuc ha gr eatdi st anc eonef r om t heot her ? Shec oul dnot . ! Thi sbest sel l erbookmar kedt heendoft heur banr enewal ogr ams. pr Thehi st or i cc i t yc ent erwentf r om bei ngonest epawayf r om t hedemol i shpr oc esst ot hemostval uabl epar toft hec i t y. Themi xedusedf unc t i onalhi st or i c alc i t yr enewedi t sval ues.
november , 2020
The60shadi t si mpac tonCi t yPl anni ngaswel l . Att hatt i me,advoc ac ypl anni ngt heor ysought t or epr esentt hei nt er est sofvar i ousgr oupsof soc i et y.Now t heur banpl anner s,ar c hi t ec t s, des i gner swoul dt r yt owor kwi t ht hec ommuni t y, bei ngc l ose t ot hec ommuni t y,wor ki ngt oget her wi t ht hem,i twoul di mpac tt hebui l tenvi r onment assur edl y.
Thedef enseoft hehi st or i cc i t yst ar t edwi t h JaneJac obswasaj our nal i st .Shest ar t ed i nvest i gat i ngt hel ayout soft hec i r c ul at i ons amongstf unc t i onalbehavi or s. Shest at edt hatbyl i vi ngi nt hehi st or i cc ent er , shewasc l oset oever ydayf unc t i onst hat al l owedhert of ul ďŹ l lal lt heever ydaydut i esas housewi f e,mot her ,andempl oyer . Sheexpr essedt hepr i or i t i esofl i vi ngi nt he t hehi st or i c alpar toft hec i t y i nherbook. JaneJac obs :Thedeat handl i f eofgr eat Amer i c anc i t i es( 1 961 ) .
november , 2020
Thi sc ompar i son i sver yabst r ac tbut att hesamet i me ver yr el at abl e. Unt i lt he60st he c ommuni t yi twas noti nvol ved i nt hepl anni ng pr oc ess. Thear c hi t ec t ,ur ban pl annerwast he onewhoput bor der s,andset l i vi ngl ayout ,peopl e hadt ol i veamongst t hatsc hemesetby t hear c hi t ec t .
november , 2020
B2 MEGAL OPOLI TAN LANDSCAPES
THEGARDENCI TYCRI TI CI SM:DOXI ADI S,Mc HARG ADI FFERENTAPPROACH,THEVERNACULAR: RUDOFSKY, TURNER,ALEXANDER.
THEGARDENCI TYCRI TI CI SM:DOXI ADI S,Mc HARG
november , 2020
Thec ont i nuousdebat eonsust ai nabi l i t y,now wi t ht hei nvent i onofMegal opol i s,i s bec omi ngpr ogr ess i vel yc r i t i c aloft he1 stphaseoft hedebat eonsust ai nabi l i t y. Thepl anner sst aer t edt oquest i ont hei rownbel i ef sbyt her esul toft hei rwor k. Mumf or d,t hei nvent orofr egi onalpl anni ngnot i c i ngt heout c omesoft hegar denc i t yc onc eptatt he Levi t t ownpr oj ec thest ar t edc r i t i c i z i ngwhatonc edef ended. Theshapel ess,homogenousnei ghbor hoodwi t h pr edomi nant l y45t ypol ogi es,al i vi ngc i t ywi t hout publ i cspac e.
november , 2020
Thest ar t i ngpoi ntofsust ai nabi l i t yi nar c hi t ec t ur ei s i nac c ur at e.Thei dealofnat ur e,t hever bat i mf or m of i mi t at i oni twaser r oneous. Sowhatonc ewasbel i evedt obet heessenc eof sust ai nabl ec i t i es,i sbec omi ngqui t et heoppos i t e. TheSubur banCi t ymodel ,wi t hl owdens i t y,t akesa muc hbr oaderl andsc ape,i tsegr egat espeopl e,i t doesnothavepubl i cspac esnormi xedused ac t i vi t i esandl astbutnotl easti tenc our agespeopl e t ousec ar s,t her ef or et hi smodelwhatonc ewas t houghtt obet hef ut ur eofsust ai nabi l i t yi tmi ghtbe t heendofnat ur easweknow i t . Ont heot herhand,t hec ompac tc i t y,wi t hhi gh dens i t y,br i ngspeopl et oget herbyt heuseofpubl i c spac eort er t i ar yac t i vi t i es,r egar dl essoft hei rsoc i al st at us,gender ,r ac e,sexualor i ent at i on,et c ,i t enc our agest heuseofpubl i ct r anspor t at i onand di sc our agest heusageofc ar s. Sot hesust ai nabl ec i t ymodeloft hef ut ur e i snotGar denCi t y-Lowdens i t ymodel ,but Compac tCi t y-Hi ghdens i t ymodel .
november , 2020
ENTROPI CLANDSCAPES
Anot herpr opos i t i onr egar di ngt hesust ai nabl emodelwast hec onc eptofent r opi cpr oc ess. Thesc i ent i ďŹ cappr oac hesbasedonec ol ogywer eusedasani nspi r at i onbasef ort hemegal opol i t an l andsc apes. Ent r opyi saphenomenon,t het endenc yofmat t ert odegr ade,pass i ngf r om onest at eofor dert oa st at eofdi sor deri sc al l edEnt r opy.
SEVI LLE
MI AMI
Di sor deri nasenseofsameness.Andt heor deri nasenseofdi f f er ent i at i on.I fwemakeabr oad c ompar i sonofSevi l l e[ ahi st or i cc i t y]whi c hst oppedt heent r opi cpr oc ess,and Mi ami[ al owdens i t yc i t y]whi c hi si nanent r opi cst at e.Theor derofSevi l l epr ovi desabet t er appr oac ht ot hepast ,pr esent ,andf ut ur easasust ai nabl ehi st or i cc i t y.Whi l epr eser vi ngt hehi st or i c par toft hec i t y,andaddi ngnew f unc t i onsi nor derwi t ht hepr eser vat i onpl an,t hec i t yofSevi l l ewoul d havemuc hmor et oof f ert hanMi ami ,whi c hi si nac ur r entent r opi cst at e,ac ompl et est at eofdi sor der .
november , 2020
ECUMENOPOLI S Doxi adi s,agr eekar c hi t ec t ,t r i edt opr edi c tt hef ut ur eoft hemegal opol i s.Bei ngf asc i nat edbyt he di st r i but i onoft hec i t i es,het r i edt ounder st andt hec i t yasauxofener gy.Assomet hi ngt hati s c onst ant l yc hangi ngf r om onepl ac et oanot herandt r ansf or mi ng,f r om onef or mt oanot her . Hei nvent edt heEc umenopol i s,whi c hi sac ont i nuousMegal opol i s.LongMegal opol i t anar eas c onnec t i ngt hepl anet .
NEGENTROPY
november , 2020
Anot hersc i ent i ďŹ cappr oac ht osust ai nabl ear c hi t ec t ur ei st heNegent r opybyMc Har g. Bot hMc Har gandDoxi di adi swer emor ef oc usedont hepr oc ess,whati sgoi ngt ohappen. Themovi ngpr oc ess.Negent r opyi st heoppos i t eofent r opy,negent r opyi sadi sor derc omi ngbac kt o or der . Mc Har gpr oposedal i stofac t i onst heur banpl anner sandar c hi t ec t sshoul dt akei nt oc ons i der at i on i nt hedes i gni ngpr oc essofac i t y.Hi spr oposali nc l udedec ol ogi c alanal ys i s. Whi l eMc Har g' spr oposalhasamor esc i ent i ďŹ cappr oac ht heDoxi adi shasamor esuggest i veone.
I anMc Har g negent hr opy Des i gnwi t hnat ur e ( 1 969)
ADI FFERENTAPPROACH,THEVERNACULAR:
november , 2020
Bui l di ngc i t i eswi t houtar c hi t ec t s! Si nc et hedebat eoft hesus i anabl ear c hi t ec t ur ewasmost l yf oc usedi nt heNor t hAmer i c aanWest er n Eur ope.Theur banpl anner sandar c hi t ec t swer ec ompl et el ysear c hi ngt her i ghtwaysi nt hewr ong pl ac es. WhenRudof kyt r avel edt oI ndi a,Paki st am,Mal i ,Andal us i a,hewaspr esent edt ot hever nac ul ar sust ai nabl ear c hi t ec t ur e.Thepopul at i onadapt edt ot heexi st i ngc ondi t i onsoft hel andsc ape,suc has : T opogr aphy,Cl i mat eandt r i edt oďŹ ghtt heweat herc ondi t i onswi t hmi ni munr ec our ses,us i ngt he ec yc l edmat er i al s. r .
Wi ndt ower si nHyder abadPaki st an
Cl i f f dwel l er soft heDogon
november , 2020
Ther ear et womai nappr oac hesoft hever nac ul arsust ai nabl ear c hi t ec t ur e.Cons i der i ngt hatt hi st ype ofar c hi t ec t ur ei sunc ont r ol l edbutmost l yadapt i ve.Maybet het r ue f oundat i onoft hesust ai nabl e ar c hi t ec t ur el aysi nt hesel f madebui l tenvi r oment s.
B2 L OSANGELES
THEROOTSOFTHESUBURBANMODEL : FROM TRAMSTOCARS. THEPOSTWARPERI OD: THECONSTRUCTI ONOFTHE“ FI RSTAMERI CANCI TY” . THEARCHI TECTUREOFSUBURBI A: FROM “ MAI L ORDERBUI LDI NGS”TO“ CASESTUDYHOUSES” .
november , 2020
THEROOTSOFTHESUBURBANMODEL : FROM TRAMSTOCARS.
november , 2020
Whendi sc uss i ngt heMegal opol i s, LosAngel esshoul dbepr eemi nent . Thedevel opmentofLosAngel eshappened unc anni l y.unt i lt hel at e1 9t hc ent ur yt hec i t yof LosAngel eswasamedi ums i z ec i t y,sur r ounded byagal axyofsmal lc i t i esandvi l l agest hatwer e gr owi ngatt hesamet i measLosAngel es.
LosAngel es,1 781
LosAngel eswasf oundedbySpani shc ol oni es. Themagni fic entl andsc apec ompoundedbyc oast l i ne, flatl and,mount ai nswoul dgr ow t obet he2ndmegal opol i s whenmer gi ngwi t hPasadena,t hefir stonei twas Bost on-New Yor k-Phi l adephi a-Bal t i mor e-Washi ngt on. Loc at edi nsout her nCal i f or ni a,LosAngel esamedi ums i z e 9t hc ent ur ywoul dt r ansf or m c i t yoft he1 i nt ot he2ndbi ggestc i t yi nt heUSnowadays.
Thegr eatMedi t er r aneanc l i mat eandt hebestnat ur al r ec our sesr egar di ngt hel andsc apewoul dbet het wo mai nc omponent st hatwoul dat t r ac tpeopl et ol i vei nLA, andmosti mpor t ant l ypr i vat ec ompani essuc hasTr am Syst em. Thedevel opmentofLosAngel esassubur bi a[subur banc i t y] woul dbedi r ec t l yc onnec t edt ot heTr am Syst em. Pr ovi di ngac onnec t i ont ot hesubur banar eassur r oundi ngt he c ent erwoul dbeoneoft hemai nkeypoi nt sont hef ut ur e devel opmentoft hec i t yofLosAngel es,ast hefir stsubur ban c i t yi nt hewor l d.
november , 2020
LosAngel esdownt own,1 930
“ RedCar s”Pac i ficEl ec t r i cl i ghtr ai ls yst em
PasadenaLosAngel esFr eeway( 1 940)
Fr om t he1 920st ot he1 930sLosAngel espopul at i ongr ew enor mousl y,i tdoubl edi ns i z e. Thef undament alc auseoft hi sgr owt hwast hemovi ei ndust r yt hatmovedi nt oLAi nt he1 920s. Thi shugemi gr at i onofpeopl ehadi t ss i deef f ec t s.Oneoft hem wast hedi sappear anc eofTr am Syst em.Wi t ht hegr owt hofpopul at i on,r oset henumberofpr i vat ec ar s,l eavi ngnopl ac ef orbot h t r anspor t at i ons[pr i vat eandpubl i c ] .Thi sr adi c alc hangest ar t edwi t ht hedi sappear anc eoft he Tr anSyst em net wor kc ont i nuedwi t ht heboul evar dnet wor kandl at eronwi t ht hef r eeway. Thedownt ownofLAwasi nt er r upt edi nt hever ybegi nni ngbyt hef r eewaynet wor k,whi c hc aused t hec ent ert oshr i nk
THEPOSTWARPERI OD: THECONSTRUCTI ONOFTHE“ FI RSTAMERI CANCI TY” .
november , 2020
Whi l et heEur opeanshavebeendevast at edbyt he Wor l dWarI I ,i nt hemeant i met heUSwasabet t er s i t uat i on.TheUni t edSt at esc i t i eshave notbeen bombed,t her ef or et her ewasnotanur ban dest r uc t i onaswesaw i nEur ope. Af t ert hewar ,sol di er sc amebac khome,l ooki ng t oset t l edown.
Pr esl eyHousemodul arpar t sdi agr am, Thi ss i t uat i onsol ut i onwast hr eemai n House&Gar den st r at egi es :Loans,Af f or dabl emodelhouses andLand.Thebankst ar t edanew s yst em ofl oansf ort hosewhowant edt obui l d homes,att hatt i mewec anbeabl et osee t hepr ef abr i c at edmodul arhomesmodel whi c hwer emor et hanaf f or dabl e,andl ast butnotl eastt heHi ghways yst em whi c h pr ovi dedt heac c esst ol andt hatl at eronwi l l bet r ansf or medi nt obui l tl and.
november , 2020
Wi t hmenbei ngatwarf r ont s,womenwer et he wor ki ngpoweroft hesoc i et y.Theywor kedi n ever ypos i t i oni sneeded.However ,af t ert hewar t hewomenpos i t i onc hanged,wi t ht heman c omi ngbac khomet hewomenwentbac ki nt he samepos i t i onast heywer ebef or e. hergender Thus,att hi sper i odwehaveanot segr egat i onhappeni ng,aspat i algender segr egat i on. Cons i der i ngt hatt hedownt own wasmor edynami c , denser ,mor epol l ut ed, t her ef or ei twasnotaapl ac ef ora“ l ady� [ st at i ngt heopi ni onsoft hatt i me] i tc or r esponded mor ewi t hmen. Andt hesubur banar eas,bei ng mor ec al m,c l ean,l essdensewer ec or r el at edwi t h women.
THEARCHI TECTUREOFSUBURBI A: FROM “ MAI L ORDERBUI LDI NGS”TO“ CASESTUDYHOUSES” .
november , 2020
LosAngel esi sdi vi dedi nt ot hr eemai nr egi onsdi c t at edpr edomi nant l ybyt hel andsc ape:Coast l i ne, Fl at l and,andMount ai ns( Hi l l s) .Thi spr ovi dedt heoppor t uni t yt osegr egat et hec l assesofsoc i et y. Pl ac i ngt hewor ki ngc l assoft hesoc i et yi nt heFl atLand,andt heWeal t hyc l assoft hesoc i et yi nt he Hi l l s&CoastL i ne. Themodelt hatwasusedf ort heFl atLandwasSt r eet c arsubur b,agr i dl ayoutwi t ht hemai nr oad s yst em,popul at edbyt hesubur bsbungal ows.
St r eet c arsubur b( LosAngel es, 1 906)
Thes yst em ofaf f or dabl ehous i ngbl oomeddur i ngt hi s per i odatLA.Ther ewer edi f f er entt ypol ogi esof af f or dabl ehomessuc hasMai l or dersubur banhouses andThepac i ficr eadyc uthomes.
“ mai lor der”subur banhouses
ThePac i ficReadyCutHomesofLosAngel es
I nt hemeant i me,anot herl ayoutoft hegr i dwasusedi n t hehi l l s,di c t at edbyt hel andsc apet hegr i dwasmor eor gani c . Thefir sthi l l snei ghbor hoodt hatst ar t edasanexper i mentwas Bever l yHi l l s,t oc ont i nuewi t hBelAi r ,andunt i lMal i buBeac h. Al lt hesenei ghbor hoodswer ec onnec t edbyt heSunset Boul evar dt hatendedatMal i buBeac h.
november , 2020
C1METAPOLI S
LATECAPI TALI SM ANDPOSTMODERNI TY ECONOMI CANDPHYSI CALFEATURESOFTHEMETAPOLI S. METAPOLI TANTHEORI ESANDMODELS: FROM THE“ GENERI CCI TY”TOTHE“ NEW URBANI SM” URBANI SM” .
dec ember , 2020
LATECAPI TALI SM ANDPOSTMODERNI TY
dec ember , 2020
Lat ec api t al i sm wasbor nasar esul toft heec onomi c alc hangei nt he1 970s.Thatec onomi c alc hange happenedasac onsequenc eoft hewarbet weenI sr aelandAr abCount r i es.Thepr i c eofoi lmul t i pl i ed 4t i mes.Unt i lt hent hemaj or i t yoft heec onomydependedonoi l .Thi sl edt obankr upt c y,unempl oyment , andnat i onaldebt .Wi t ht hi ss i t uat i ont hewel f ar es yst em nol ongerseemedt okeepwor ki ng, t hegover nment c oul dnol ongersuppor tt hepopul at i on.Thus,t heydi smount edt heWel f ar eSyst em, mostoft hepubl i c sec t orf unc t i onswer epr i vat i z edandt hegener alappr oac hc hanged. Thi st akesusbac kt ot hegr owt hoft hepoorandr i c hc l assoft hesoc i et yandt heshr i nki ngpr oc ess oft hemi ddl ec l ass.Asac onsequenc e,manyc i t i esf oundt hemsel vesi nt hemi ddl eofac haot i c s i t uat i on,c aus i ngr i ot si nLondon,Par i s,St oc khol m,LosAngel es,et c .
SĂŁoPaul o: Par ai sopol i sandMor umbi
dec ember , 2020
Henc e dur i ngt hi st i mebes i de t heoi lc r i s i shappenedt het hi r dt ec hnol ogi c alr evol ut i onaswel l ,t hi si s j ustt hest ar t i ngpoi ntofanew gener at i on,at ec hnol ogi c algener at i on. Asar esul toft heEc onomi cChange,Pol i t i c alChange,andT ec hnol ogi c alChangei sGl obal i z at i on. Consequent l y,anew wayoft hi nki ngt ookpl ac e,andi twasc al l edRel at i vi sm.Ever yt hi ngi sal l owed, ac c ept ed,i sunder st ood,i ti snotj udgeds i nc ei t ' saper sonali nt er pr et at i onandi tc annotbedoubt ed. Ther ei snot r ut hnorl i e,t her ear eonl yper sonalt r ut hs,notgener alt r ut hs. Ever yt hi ngi sani ndi vi dual alexpr ess i on. Gl obal i z at i onandi t swayoft hi nki ngi sf r eedom,f r eedom t obewhoyouwantt obe, c ul t ur t obeal l owedt oexpr essyour sel fi nwaysyouwantt obeexpr essed.Butwi l lt hi sl eadust oasoc i et y wi t houti dent i t y,i fever yt hi ngi sdi ver se,how c anwesavet hec ul t ur alval ueswehavei nher i t edwi t h t i me? ! Thi sc onc eptwasr eec t edi nar c hi t ec t ur alspac esaswel l ,wi t houtbei ngawar eofapr oduc toft hi st i me ar et henonpl ac es.Thepl ac eswi t houtar c hi t ec t ur ali dent i t y.I nt er msofar c hi t ec t ur e,wec ansayt hat t hesespac esar ewr ong,buti nsoc i alt er ms,t heywor k.Bec auseoft hegl obal i z at i onoft hesespac es,we c anďŹ ndour sel vesathomei never ypl ac ei nt hewor l d.Theybel ongt onoonet her ef or et heyar ei n possess i onofever yone.
ECONOMI CANDPHYSI CALFEATURESOFTHEMETAPOLI S.
dec ember , 2020
Met apol i si sat er r i t or i alphenomenon,wher eac ol l ec t i onofc i t i est hatar enotphys i c al l yl i nkedt oget her wor kt oget herasawhol e.Eac hc i t ydevel opsadi f f er entf unc t i on,t heydonotc ompet ewi t heac hot her . However ,whent oget hert heyc ompet ewi t hot herc i t i est hatar enotpar toft hei rc i r c l e. Thebi ggestMet apol i si sRandst adi nt heNet her l ands.Thesec i t i esar enotl i nkedphys i c al l yt oget heri n t er msofdi st r i but i onofbui l tl and,butec onomi c al l yt heywor kt oget herasanor gani sm. Gl obal i z at i onr enewedt hec i t yc ent er st hatwer eshr i nki ngi nt heMegal opol i s.Thepl ac ementofgl obal c ompani esi nc i t yc ent er st hatwer eshr i nki ng,c ausedt her epopul at i onoft hesec ent er s. Asac onsequenc e,weappeart ohavet womor ephenomenons :Gent r i ďŹ c at i onandHyper gent r i ďŹ c at i on.
METAPOLI TANTHEORI ESANDMODELS: FROM THE“ GENERI CCI TY”TOTHE“ NEW URBANI SM” URBANI SM” .
dec ember , 2020
Anot hert wodi f f er entappr oac hest ot hef ut ur eofsust ai nabl e ar c hi t ec t ur ear e:I nnerGr owt handNew Ur bani sm. Whi l et hefir stonet akespl ac ei nt hec ompac tEur opeanc i t i es, t heot heronei si nvent ed espec i al l yf ort hesubur banc i t i esof t heUni t edSt at es.Bot hoft heseappr oac heshavet hesamegoal , sust ai nabi l i t y. Thef ut ur eoft heEur opeanCi t i esi snotanymor ei nt hegr owt h ar oundt heper i pher i esbuti nt hei nnergr owt h. I nnergr owt hi nt er msofqual i t yofl i f e,notspat i algr owt h. Themai ngoalshoul dbet hepr eser vat i onoft heval ueswe haveac hi evedunt i lnow andaddi ngmor eval uest oour bui l tenvi r onment .
TOD( Tr ans i tOr i ent edDevel opment Pet erCal t hor pe
“ Ni nePar ks”Pr oj ec tMi l an
I nf or mal hous i ngar easr enewal
Ber l i n:ur banvoi ds
C2 METAPOLI TANLANDSCAPES
dec ember , 2020
URBANSUSTAI NABLE ECOCI TI ESANDLANDSCAPEURBANI SM. THEDEGROWTHMOVEMENT :LATOUCHE,MAGNAGHI
URBANSUSTAI NABLE ECOCI TI ESANDLANDSCAPEURBANI SM.
dec ember , 2020
Event hought hedebat eonsust ai nabi l i t yst ar t edmuc hear l i er ,t het er m sust ai nabi l i t ywasnotused unt i lt he20t hc ent ur y. I nt heBr unt l andRepor tof1 987wec anseet hatt er mi nol ogybei ngusedfir st . Thedefini t i onofsust ai nabi l i t yi smor eanemot i onalst at mentr at hert hanasc i ent i ficone. Sust ai nabl eDevel opment: : " devel opment t hatmeet st heneedsoft hepr esent wi t houtc ompr omi s i ngt heabi l i t yof f ut ur egener at i onst omeett hei rown needs“
Hammar bySj öst ad ( St oc khol m)
THEDEGROWTHMOVEMENT :LATOUCHE,MAGNAGHI
j anuar y, 2021
DeGr owt hwasoneoft heappr oac hes,t hatc ausedaqui t ebi gdebat eonsust ai nabi l i t y.Themai n c onc eptbehi ndt heDeGr owt happr oac hwassel f sust ai nabi l i t y,how des i gni t sel fc oul dr eac ht he goalofsust ai nabi l i t y?Thi sappr oac hwasagai nstEc oT ec hnol ogi es.DeGr owt hst ar t edi nFr anc eand wasfir stment i onedbySer geLat ouc he,hewasanant i c api t al i st .Ac c or di ngt oLat ouc he,c i t i esei t her shoul dst opgr owi ngorst ar tdegr owi ng. DeGr owt hnotonl yi nspat i alt er msbutal soi nc ul t ur alt er ms.Lat ouc hest at edt hat ,peopl eoft her i c h c ount r i esshoul dr et ur nt ot hel i vi ngst andar dsoft he1 960s,f ort hesakeoft heenvi r onmentsome sac r i fic esshoul dbemade. Ec onomi c al l ygr owt hdoesnotal waysmeanabet t erqual i t yofl i f e.Ther at i obet weent heec onomi c al gr owt handt hel i vi ngst andar dsar enotatal ldependentononeort heot her .
j anuar y, 2021
DeGr owt hi sanat ur alpr oc ess.Manybi gc i t i esst ar t edt ost opgr owi ngi nt hemi ddl eoft he 20t hc ent ur y.Demogr aphi cdegr owt hc ausedc i t i est ol osenotonl yt hepopul at i onbutmat t eraswel l . Thosespac est hatwer eonc ebui l tnow wer edemol i shedandc onver t edi nt oagr i c ul t ur all and.
Det r oi t ,1 950 1 91 6
1 950
Det r oi t ,2005
1 960
1 994
Oneoft het ool susedf ort heDeGr owt h t hepr oc esswoul dbeUr banAgr i c ul t ur e. Rur alBel t sofMi l an,Communi t ygar dens ofBer l i nhaveat t est edt hatt hedegr owt h t hepr oc essi sposs i bl e,andi ti snat ur al .
j anuar y2021
Ther ealquest i onsoft he21 stc ent ur yont hedebat eofsust ai nabl ear c hi t ec t ur eshoul dbe:
Januar y, 2020
Theongoi ngdebat eonsust ai nabi l i t ydur i ngt hel astc ent ur i eshasr eec t edt hec ul t ur aleduc at i onand soc i alaspec tofeac hper i odoft i mewedi sc ussed.Fr om t heLai ssez Fl ai r e andunt i lt he degr owt happr oac ht hemai ngoalofeac hpl anner ,ar c hi t ec t ,geogr apher ,soc i ol ogi st ,et cwast hesame. Maki ngt hewor l dabet t er ,c l eanerpl ac et ol i vei n. Dr awi ngpar al l ell i nesf r om oneper i odt ot heot her ,f r om oneappr oac ht ot heot her ,f r om oneway oft hi nki ngt ot heot herhasbr oadenedmyper spec t i veont hec onsequent i aloper at i ons. I tmi ghtf eelpar adoxi c al ,under st andi ngdi f f er entwaysoft hi nki ng,agr eei ngwi t ht hem butatt he samet i medi sappr ovi ngt heac t i ons.I t ’ sf asc i nat i nghow t hepar al l elevol ut i onoft heseper i ods wor ksper f ec t l y.