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PARADIGM SHIFT INTO FOURTH DIMENSION
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INTRO viewing time as the fourth dimension is appealing for a number of reasons. The first is that we naturally have experience with time coordinates. When we tell someone we will meet them for coffee at 3 P.M., we are specifying a point in time. However, to increase the odds that the meeting actually occurs, we also need to specify a place. So, establishing the meeting uniquely requires three spatial coordinates and one time coordinate. You might say, “Meet me at 3 P.M. on the fifth-floor terrace of the building on the northwest corner of 3rd Street and 4th Avenue,” for example. Of course, it’s possible for time to change independently of the spatial coordinates—all you have to do is sit relatively still and your time coordinate will change while your position will not So, if your friend is late, you can maximize your chances still meeting the person by waiting at the correct spatial coordinates as the time coordinate continues to change. I also describe the progress that has been made recently in finding “dualities” or correspondences between apparently different theories of physics. These correspondences are a strong indication that there is a complete unified theory of physics, but they also suggest that it may not be possible to express this theory in a singlefundamental formulation. Instead, we may have to use different reflections of the underlying theory in differnt situations. It might be like our being unable to represent the surface of the earth on a single map and having to use different maps in different regions. This would be a revolution in our view of the unification of the laws of science but it would not change the most important point: that the universe is governed by a
On the observational side, by far the most important development has been the measurement of fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background radiation by the Cosmic Background Explorer Satellite and other collaborations. these fluctuations are the fingerprints of creation, tiny initial irregularities in the otherwise smooth and uniform early univers that later grew into galaxies, stars, and all the structures we see around us. their form agrees with the predictions of the proposal that the universe has no boundaries or edges in the imaginary time direction; but further observations will be necessary to distinguish this proposal from other posible explanations for the fluctuations in the background. However, within a few years we should know whether we can believe that we live in a universe that is completely self-contained and without beginning or end.
TABLE OF
CONTENTS
00
Openning
Schedule at a Glance
01
00 01
Space and Time
03
00 02
The Uncertainty Principle
06
00 03
Inflation Model Evolution
08
00 04
The Arrow of Time
12
00 05
Wormholes and Time Travel
16
00 06
Future, Present and Beyond
22
Conference Map
25
Colophon
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DAY
01
09 30
Registration Opens Opening & Committee Assignments
11 30
Speach: Beyond the Unviverse ( ft. Swandovski )
12 3 0
LUNCH BREAK
13 3 0
Gaziing to the model
16 0 0
Speach: Form and Transmission ( ft. Howard Thomas ) END OF THE DAY
DAY
02
09 30 10 30
Opening Gazing session
12 3 0
LUNCH BREAK
13 3 0 16 0 0
Demo Launch
Speach: Launching Mechanics ( ft. Johnson Movado )
Exclusive personal experience session Begins END OF THE DAY
DAY
03
09 30 10 30
Opening Gazing session
12 3 0
LUNCH BREAK
13 3 0 16 0 0 17 00
Opening Gazing session ( Open to public )
Speach: Future Development & Consumption ( ft. Johnson Movado / Dr. Shen / Mino Koscenich )
Exclusive personal experience session Begins Conclusion Speach END OF THE CONFERENCE
0
SPACE AND TIME The Aristotelian tradition also held that one could work out all the laws that govern the universe by pure thought: it was not necessary to check by observation. So no one until Galileo bothered to see wether bodies Of different weight did in fact fall at different speeds. It is said that Galileo demonstrated that Aristotle’s belief was false by dropping weights from the leaning tower of Pisa. Galileo’s measurements were used by Newton as the basis of his laws of motion. In Galileo’s experiments, as a body rolled down the slope it was always acted on by the same force, and the effect was to make it constantly speed up. This showed that the real effect of a force is always to change the speed of a body, rather than just to set it moving.
The 0 0 1 lack 0 1 0 1 0 of0 1an 0 1 absolute 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0standard 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 of 1 0 1rest 0 1 0 meant 1 1 1 0 1 0 that 0 1 0 1 one 0 1 0 could 0 0 1 1 0 not 1 0 1 determine 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0broforce 0 1 0 1 0 commit 1 0 1 0 0 ah1 1 0 0 0 dores 0 1 0 1 0 unit 1 0 1 0 0 undo 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
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0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1whethere 0 1 1 1 two 0 1 0 0 1 events 0 1 0 that 1 1 took 0 1 0 place 1 0 at1 different 0 1 0 1 times 0 1 1 occurred 0 1 0 1 in 0 the 1 0 same 1 1 0 1 1 position 0 1 1 0 in0 space. 0 1 0 For 1 0example, 1 1 0 1 suppose 0 1 1 0 our 1 0 Ping-Pong 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 ball 1 0on 1 the 1 0 train 1 0 bouncs 1 0 1 1 straight 0 1 0 1up0 and 1 0 down, 1 0 1 hitting 0 1 1 1the 0 1 0 0 1 table 0 1 0 twice 1 1 on 0 1the 0 same 1 0 1 spot 0 1 one 0 1 second 0 1 1 0apart. 1 0 1To0someone 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 on 0 the 1 1 track, 0 0 0the 1 0 two 1 bounces 0 1 1 0 1would 0 1 1seem 0 1 to 0 1take 0 1place 0 1 1 0 1 0 0about 1 0 1thirteem 1 0 1 0meters 1 0 1 apart, 1 0 1 because 0 1 0 1 the 0 1tram 0 1 would 0 1 1 have 1 0 1 0 0 1 traveled 0 1 0 1that 1 0far 1 down 0 1 0 the 1 0track 1 0 between 1 0 1 1 0the1 bounces. 0 1 0 1 0The 1 1 0 1 1 nonexistence 0 1 1 0 0 0 of 1 0 absolute 1 0 1 1rest 0 therefore 1 0 1 1 0meant 1 0 1 that 0 1 one 0 1 could 1 0 1 0 0not 1 0give 1 1 an 0 event 1 0 1 an 0 absolute 1 1 0 1 0position 1 0 1 0in 1space, 0 1 0as1 Aristotle 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 had 0 1 believed. 0 1 1 0 The 1 0 acceleration 1 0 1 0 1 0 is1 also 0 1 smaller 1 0 1 0the 1 greater 0 1 0 1the 1 0 1 1 mass 0 1 1of0the 0 body. 0 1 0 Newton’s 1 0 1 1 0law 1 of 0 1gravity 1 0 1 also 0 1 tells 0 1 us 0 that 1 1 the 0 1 0 0farther 1 0 1 apart 1 0 1the 0 1bodies, 0 1 1 the 0 1smaller 0 1 0 the 1 0 force. 1 0 1Newton’s 0 1 1 1 0law 1 of 0 0 1 gravity 0 1 0 says 1 1 0that 1 0of1 a 0similar 1 0 1 star 0 1 at0 half 1 1 the 0 1distance. 0 1 0 1 This 0 1 1law 0 1 1 predicts 0 1 1 0 the 0 0orbits 1 0 of 1 0the 1 earth, 1 0 1 the 0 1 moon, 1 0 1 and 0 1 the 0 1 planets 0 1 1 0 1 0 0with 1 0 great 1 1 0accuracy. 1 0 1 0 1Another 1 0 1 0prediction 1 0 1 0 1of0general 1 0 1 1relativity 1 0 1 0 0 1 is0 that 1 0 time 1 1 0should 1 0 1appear 0 1 0 to 1 0 run 1 slower 0 1 1 0near 1 0a 1massive 0 1 0 1body 1 0 1 1 like 0 1 the 1 0earth. 0 0 This 1 0 1is 0because 1 1 0 1there 0 1 is 1 0 a relation 1 0 1 0 between 1 0 1 1 the 0 1 0 0energy 1 0 1 of 1 0light 1 0and 1 0its 1 frequency: 1 0 1 0 1 0the 1 greater 0 1 0 1the 0 energy, 1 1 1 0 the 1 0 0 1 higher 0 1 0 the 1 1 frequency. 0 1 0 1 0 1As0light 1 0 travels 1 0 1 1upward 0 1 0 in 1 0 the1 earth’s 0 1 1 0 1 1 gravitational 0 1 1 0 0 0field, 1 0 it 1 loses 0 1 1 energy 0 1 0 and 1 1 so 0 1its0 frequency 1 0 1 0 1 goes 1 0 1 0 0down. 1 0 1 To 1 0someone 1 0 1 0 high 1 1 0up, 1 it0 would 1 0 1 appear 0 1 0 1that 0 1everything 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 down 0 1 0below 1 1 0was 1 0 taking 1 0 1 longer 0 1 0 to 1 0happen. 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
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00
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
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1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
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0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0The 1 0beginning 1 1 0 1 0of1 the universe had, of course, been discussed long 1 before 0 1 0 this. 1 1 According 0 1 0 to a number of early cosmologies 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0a n d t h e 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 Jewish / Christian / Muslim tradition, the universe started at a finite,
3nd
and not very distant, time in the past. One argument for such a beginning was the feeling that it was necessary to have “First Cause� to explain the existence of the universe.
00 00
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Newton’s 0 0 1 0 1 law 0 1of0 motion 0 1 0 1put 0 1an1 end 0 1 to 0 the 1 0 idea 1 1 0 of 1absolute 0 1 0 1 POSITION 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 in 0 1space. 0 1 0The 1 0theory 0 0 1 of 1 relativity 0 1 0 1 1 gets 0 1 rid 0 1of0absolute 1 0 1 0 time. 1 0 1Consider 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 a0 pair 1 1 of 0 twins. 0 0 1 Suppose 0 1 0 1 that 0 1 twin 1 0 0goes 0 1 to0 live 1 0on 1 the 1 0 top 1 0of1 a1 mountain 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 while 0 0 1 the 0 1other 0 1 stays 0 0 1at0sea 1 0level. 1 1 The 0 1 first 0 1 twin 0 1 1would 0 1 0age 1 0faster 1 0 than 1 0 1the 0 1 1 1 0 second. 0 1 0 1 Thus, 0 1 0if0they 0 1 met 1 0 again, 1 0 1 one 1 0 would 1 0 1 be 0 1older 0 1 than 0 1 the 0 1 other 1 0 1In0 1 0 1 0 1 this 0 1 case, 1 0 0the 0 difference 1 0 1 0 1 in 0 ages 1 1 0would 0 0 1be0very 1 0 small, 1 1 0 but 1 0it1would 1 0 1 be 0 much 1 0 1 0 1 1 larger 0 0 1 if0 one 1 0 of1 the 0 0twins 1 0 went 1 0 1 for 1 0a long 1 0 1trip 0 in 1 1a spaceship 0 1 0 1 0 at1 nearly 0 1 0 The 1 0 1 1 1 0 speed 0 1 0 of 1 0light. 1 0 When 0 0 1 he 1 returned, 0 1 0 1 1he 0 would 1 0 1 be 0 1much 0 1 0younger 1 0 1 1than 0 1 the 0 1 0 1 0 1 one 0 1 who 1 0 0stayed 0 1 0on1 earth. 0 1 0This 1 1 is0 known 0 0 1 as 0 1the 0 twins 1 1 0 paradox, 1 0 1 1 but 0 1 it0is 1a 0 1 0 1 1 paradox 0 0 1 0 only 1 0 if 1 one 0 0 has 1 0 the 1 0idea 1 1of0 absolutetime 1 0 1 0 1 1 at 0 the 1 0back 1 0 of 1 0 one’s 1 0 mind. 1 0 1 1 1 0 In 0 1the 0 theory 1 0 1 of 0 0relativity 0 1 1 0there 1 0 is 1 no 1 0unique 1 0 1 absolute 0 1 0 1 time, 0 1 0but 1 1instead 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 each 0 1 1individual 0 0 0 1 has 0 1 his 0 1own 0 1 personal 1 0 0 0 measure 1 0 1 0 of 1 1time 0 1that 0 1depends 1 0 1 0 on 1 0 1 0 1 1 where 0 0 1 0 he1is0and 1 0how 0 1 he 0 is 1 moving. 0 1 1 0 In 1 0the 1 following 0 1 1 0 1decades 0 1 0 1this 0 1new 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 understanding 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 universe. 0 0 1 1 0Of1space 0 1 1and 0 1time 0 1 was 0 1 to 0 revolutionize 1 0 1 0 1 1 our 0 1 view 0 1 0 1 0 1 of 0 the 1 1 The 0 0 old 0 1idea 0 1of0 an 1 0 essentially 1 1 0 0 unchanging 0 1 0 1 0 1 universe 1 0 1 0 that 1 1 could 0 1 0 have 1 0 1 0 1 1 existed, 0 0 1 0 1and 0 1could 0 0 continue 1 0 1 0 1to1exist, 0 1 forever 0 1 0 1was 1 0replaced 1 0 1 0by 1 the 0 1 notion 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 of 0 a 1 dynamic, 0 1 0 1 0expanding 0 0 1 1 0universe 1 0 1 1that 0 1seemed 0 1 0 1to0have 1 0 begun 1 0 1 a1 finite 0 1 0time 1 0 1 0 1 ago. 0 1 1Each 0 0observer 0 1 0 1 could 0 1 0use 1 1radar 0 0 to 0 say 1 0where 1 0 1 and 1 0 when 1 0 1an 1 event 0 1 0 took 1 0 1 0 1 1 place 0 0 1 by 0 sending 1 0 1 0 out 0 1a 0pulse 1 0 of 1 light 1 0 1or0radio 1 0 1waves. 1 0 1Part 0 1of0 the 1 0pulse 1 0 is 1 0 1 1 1 0 reflected 0 1 0 1 0back 1 0at0the 0 event 1 1 0 and 1 0 the 1 1 observer 0 1 0 1 measures 0 1 0 1 0the 1 time 0 1 1at0which 1 0 1he 0 1 0 1 receives 0 1 1 0 the 0 0echo. 1 0 1 0The 1 0 1time 1 0 0 0of 1 0the 1 0 1event 1 0 1 0 1is 1 0then 1 0 1 0said 1 0 1 1 to 0 0 be 1 0 1the 0 1 0time 0 1 0 1halfway 0 1 1 0 1 0 1between 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 when 1 0 0the 0 1pulse 0 1 was 0 1 sent 1 0 1and 0 1the 1 0time 1 0when 1 0 1 0 1 1 the 0 0 reflection 1 0 1 0 1was 0 0received 1 0 1 0 back: 1 1 0the 1 0distance 1 0 1 1of0the 1 0event 1 0 is 1 half 0 1 the 0 1time 0 1 1 1 0 taken 0 1 0 for 1 0round 1 0 0trip, 0 multiplied 1 1 0 1 0 by 1 1the 0 speed 1 0 1 of 0 1light. 0 1 Using 0 1 0this 1 1procedure, 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 observers 0 1 1 0 0who 0 1 are 0 1moving 0 1 0 relative 1 1 0 0to0 each 1 0 other 1 0 1 will 1 0 assign 1 0 1 different 1 0 1 0 times 1 0 1 0 1 1 and 0 0 positions 1 0 1 0 1to0the 0 same 1 0 1 event. 0 1 1 No 0 1particular 0 1 0 1 observer’s 1 0 1 0 1 measurements 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 are 0 1 more 0 1 0correct 1 0 0than 0 1 any 1 0 other 1 0 1observer’s, 1 0 1 0 1and 0 1are 0 related. 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 Opera 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 medium 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 calcu 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 oculous 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 Tri 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 force 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 future 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 incoming 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 omni 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 wrap 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
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UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE The doctrine of scientific determinism was strongly resisted by many people, who felt that it infringed God’s freedom to intervene in the world, but it remained the standard assumption of science until the early abandoned came when calculations by the all the laws that govern the universe by pure thought: it was not necessary to check by observation. So no one until Sir. Galileo bothered to see wether bodies abandoned came when calculations by the all the laws that govern the universe by pure thought: it was not necessary to check by observation. So no one until Galileo bothered to see wether bodies. British scientists Lord Rayleigh and Sir James Jeans suggested that a hot object, or body, such as a star, must radiate energy at an infinite rate. Accroding to the laws we believed at the time, a hot body ought to give off electromagnetic waves equally at all frequencies. The quantum hypothesis explained the observed rate of emission of rediation from hot bodies very well, but its implications for determinism were not realized until 1926, when another German scientist, The uncertainty principle had profound implications for the way in which we view the world. Even after more than fifty years they have not been fully appreciated by many philosophers. The uncertainty principle had profound implications for the way in which we view the world. Even after more than fifty years they have not been fully appreciated by many philosophers.
In general, quantum mechanics does not predict a single definite result for an observation.
Instead, it predicts a different0 0 possible outcomes and tells us how likely each of there 0 0 is. That is to say, if one made the same measurement on 0 0 a large number of similar systems, each of which started 0 0 off in the same way, one would find that the result of the 0 0 measurement would be A in a certain number of cases, B0 0 in a different number, and so on. One could predict the 0 0 approximate number of times that the result would be A or 0 0 B, but one could not predict specific. 0 0
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01 10 1 0 01 10 1 0 01 10 1 0 01 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
10 01 00 10 01 00 10 01 00 10 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
11 10 11 11 10 11 11 10 11 11 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
00 00 10 00 00 10 00 00 10 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 01 10 01 01 10 10 01 10 01 01 10 10 01 10 01 01 10 10 01 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
10 01 11 00 01 10 10 01 11 00 01 10 10 01 11 00 01 10 10 01 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
10 01 11 11 10 01 11 01 10 10 01 11 11 10 01 11 01 10 10 01 11 11 10 01 11 01 10 10 01 11 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
00 11 00 11 10 11 01 10 01 00 11 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 10 01 10 01 00 10 01 10 01 10 11 01 10 01 10 00 11 00 11 10 11 01 10 01 00 11 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 10 01 10 01 00 10 01 10 01 10 11 01 10 01 10 00 11 00 11 10 11 01 10 01 00 11 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 10 01 10 01 00 10 01 10 01 10 11 01 10 01 10 00 11 00 11 10 11 01 10 01 00 11 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
00 00 01 00 00 01 00 00 01 00 00 01 00 00 01 00 00 01 00 00 01 00 00 01 00 00 01 00 00 01 0 0
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01 0 01 01 0 01 01 0 01 01 0 01 01 0 01 01 0 01 01 0 01 01 0 01 01 0 01 01 0 01 0 0
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1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
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00 00 QUANTUM
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each of which started off in the same way,
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INSTITUTE AND ADVANCED STUDY
1924 BERLIN GERMANY SPRING
OF
BY THE TIME there were already suspicions that these atoms were not, after all, indivisible. Several years previously a fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, J.J. Thomson, had demonstrated the existence of a particle of matter, called the electron, that had a mass less than one thousandth of that of the lightest atom. At first it was thought that the nucleus of the atom was made up of electrons and different numbers of a positively charged particle called the proton, from the Greek word meaning “first,” because it was believed to be the fundamental unit from which matter was made. However, in 1932 a colleague of Rutherford’s at Cambridge, James Chadwick, discovered that the nucleus contained another particle, called the neutron, which had almost the same mass as a proton but no electrical charge. Chadwick received the Nobel prize for his discovery, and was elected Master of Gonville and Caius College. He later resigned as Master because of disagreements with the Followers. Up to about thirty years ago, it was thought that protons and neutrons Neutrons were “e l e m e n t a r y ” particles, but experiments in which protons were collided with others.
Q
Russell–Einstein Manifesto
These particles
were named quarks by the Caltech physicist Gell-Mann, who won the Nobel prize. There is a mathematical theorem that says that any theory that obeys quantum mechanics and relativity must always obey the combined symmetry CPT. In other words, the universe would have to behave the same if one replaced particles by anti particles, took the mirror image, and also reversed the direction of time. But Cronin and Fitch showed that if one replaces particles by antiparticles and takes the mirror image, but does not reverse the direction of time, then the universe does not behave the same. The Motion of Molecules laws of physics, therefore, must change if one reverses the direction of time, they do not obey the symmetry T.
E = MC
17
17 25
1993 Manhatten nuclear Jersey papers genius 46 fission intellectual Einstein Institute Later
Certainly the early universe does not obey the symmetry T: as time runs forward the universe expands — if it ran backward, the universe would be contracting. And since there are forces that do not obey the symmetry T, it follows that as the universe expands, these forces could cause more antielectrons to turn into quarks than electrons into antiquarks. Then, as the universe expanded and cooled, the antiquarks would annihilate with the quarks, but since there would be more quarks than antiquarks, a small excess of quarks would remain.
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INFLATION MODEL EVOLUTION
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One would feel happier about the anthropic principle, at least in its weak version, if one could show quite a number of different initial configurations for the universe would have evolved to produce a universe like the one we observe. If this is the case, a universe that developed from some sort of random initial conditions should contain a number of regions that are smooth and uniform and are suitable for the evolution of intelligent life. On the other hand, if the initial state of the universe had to be choosen extremely carefully to lead to something like what we see around us, the universe would be unlikely to contain any region in which life would appear. In the hot big bang model described above, there was not enough time in the early universe for heat to have flowed from one region to another. This means that the initial state
of the universe would have to have had exactly
the same temperature everywhere in order to account for the fact that the microwave background has the same temperature in every direction we look. The initial rate of expansion also would have had to be chosen very precisely for the rate of expansion still to be so close to the critical rate needed to avoid recollapse. It might be that one could warp-space timeso that there was a shortcut. This means that the initial state of the universe must have been very carefully chosen indeed if the hot big bang model was correct right back to the begining of time. It would be very difficult to explain why the universe should have begun in just this way, except as the act of a God who intended to create beings like us.
In an attempt to find a model of the universe in which different initial configurations could have been evolved to something like the present universe, one scientist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Alan Guth, suggested that the early universe might have gone through a period of very rapid expansion. This expansion is said to be “inflationary,� meaning that the universe at one time expanded at an increasing rate rather than the decreasing rate that does today. According to Guth, the radius of the universe increased by a million million times in only a tiny fraction of a second. The universe is not expanding in an inflationary way today. More overthere has to be some mechanism that would eliminate the very large effective cosmological constant and so change the rate of expansion from an accelerated one to one that is slowed down by gravity, as we have today. The new inflationary model was a good to explain why the universe is the way it is. However, I and several other people showed that, at least in its original form, it predicted much greater variations in the temperature of the microwave background radiation that are observed. Later work has also cast doubt on whether there could be a phase transition in the very early universe of the kind required. The reason to believe that chronology protection operates is that when space time is warped enough to make travel
into the past.
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0 000 0 0 When one tried to unify gravity with quantum mechanics, one had to introduce the idea of imaginary “imaginary” time. Imaginary time is indistinguishable from directions in space. If one can go north, one can turn around and head south; equally, if one can go forward One ought to be able to turn round and go backward directions. The laws of science do not distinguish between the past and the future. more precisely, as explained earlier, the laws of science are unchanged under the combination of operations known as C, P, and T. The laws of science that govern the behavior of matter under all normal situations are unchanged under the combination of the two operations C and P on their own. In other words, life would be just the same for the inhabitants of another planet who were both mirrorimages of us and who were made of antimatter rather than matter. The increase of disorder or entropy with time is one example of what is called an arrow of time, that distinguishes the past from the future, giving a direction to time. There are at least three different arrows of time. In this section we shall argue that the on boundary condition for the universe, together with the weak anthropic principle, can explain why all three arrows point in the same direction 0 0and 1 0moreover, 1 0 1 0 0why 1 0a 1well-defined 0 1 1 0 1 0arrow 1 0 1of1 time should exist at all. Our subjective sense of the direction 0 1 of 0 time, 1 0 1 the 0 0psychological 0 1 1 0 1 0 arrow 1 1 0 of 1 time, 0 1 0is1 therefore determined within our brain by the thermodynamic 0 arrow 1 1 0 of 0 0 time. 1 0 Just 1 0 like 1 0 a1computer, 1 0 0 0 1we 0 must 1 0 1 remember things in the order in which entropy increases. This 0 0 makes 1 0 1 0the1 second 0 0 1 0law 1 0of 1thermodynamics 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 almost travial. disorder increases with time because we measure 0 1 0 1 time 0 1 in 0 0the 0 direction 1 1 0 1 0in1which 1 0 1 disorder 0 1 0 1 increases. You can’t have a safer bet than that! But why should 0 0 1the 0 thermodynamic 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 arrow 0 1 1 of0 time 1 0 exist 1 0 1at1 all? Or, in other words, 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 why should the 0 0 universe 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1be 0 1in 0 1a1 state 0 1 0 1 0 of 1 1 high order 0at 1 0one 1 0 1 end 0 0 0 of 1 1 time, 0 1 0 1 1the 0 1 0end 1 0 1 0 0 1 0that 1 0 1 0we 0 1 call 0 1 0 1 the 1 0 1 past? 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
THE ARROW OF TIME
1993 Manhatten nuclear Jersey papers genius 46 fission intellectual Einstein 0 1 0 Institute 0 1 0 Later 1 0 1 Restore 0 1 0 Screen 0 1 0 Title 0 1 0 Relativity 0 1 0 Energy 1 0 1 Motion 0 1 0 193 0 1 0 Force 0 1 0 Statistics 0 1 0 Wormhole 1 0 1 Popular 0 1 0 72 0 1 0 % 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
WORMHOLES AND TIME TRAVEL
Bor mo ium idis es estoresequis quaspel idundis eos si qui omnihitatis nat landam, tem volore dolora suntist oribusae et latusamet quam que estibea nonsequid et ini tem. Evelesti as aliquat entio. Nihilitatum erspella sequi commodi picimet eserum nis aut audaeria veliquunt reped que aut lam, assum is modiasi omnimusdaes di ium que natiosam, utem. Itatem qui debisitintia doloriam volorepelit poratus vellictori cones et magnam andende lendissendia doles des siminctur, sequi nitias et et quia ad quat lamus aped et esto consenim faciiscim as ius quam ium voluptatur, tempore rspernat. To explab invendio ea dis a ium, torrum rerecus nusae. Nequi dolorempor sa vendam quia veria quat officatio. Ma qui ulpa con et etus, quia doluptaque Einstein’s general theory of relativity, on its own, predicted that space-time began at the big bang singularity and would come to an end eitherat the big crunch singularty or at a singularity inside a black hole. Any matter that fell into the hole would be destroyed at the SINGULARTY and only the gravitational effect of its mass would continue to be felt outside. On the other hand, when quantum effects were taken into account, it seemed that the mass or energy of the matter would eventually be returned tothe rest of the universe, and that the black hole, along with any singularity inside it, would evaporate away and finally disappear. Could quantum mechanics have an equally dramatic effect on the big bang and big crunch singularities? Thoughout the 1970s I had been mainly studying black holes, but in 1981 my interest in questions about the origin and fate of the universe was reawakened when I attended a conference on cosmology organized by the Jesuits in the Vatican. The Catholic Church had made a bad mistake with Galileo when it tried to lay down the law on a question of science, declaring that the sun went round the earth. Now, centuries later, it had decided to invite a number of the conference the participants were granted an audience with the Pope. He told us that it was all right to study the evolution of the universe after the big bang, but we should not inquire into the big bang itself because that was the moment of Creation and threrefore the work of God. In order to explain the ideas that I and other people have had about how quantum mechanics may affect the origin and fate of the universe, it is necessary firstto understand the generally accepted history of the universe, according to what is known as the “hot big bang model.” This assumes that the universe is described by a Friedmann model, right back to the big bang. In such model one finds that as the universe expands, any matter or radiation in it gets cooler. Since temperature is simply a measure of the average energy — or speed of the particles, this cooling of theuniverse would have a major effect on the matter within the object the matter in it. At very hight temperatures, particles would be moving around so fast that they could escape any attraction toward each other due to nuclear or electromagnetic forces, but as they cooled off one would expect particles that attract each other to start to clump together. Moreover, even the types of particles that exist in the universe would depend on the temperature. At high enough temperatures, particles have so much energy that whenever they collide many different 01 55
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particle / antiparticle pairs would be produced and although some of these particles would annihilate on hitting antiparticles, they would be produced more rapidly than they could annihilate. At lower temperatures, however, when colliding particles have less energy, particle / antiparticle pairs would be produced less quickly and annihilation would 0 become 1 1 0 1 faster 0 1 0than 1 1 production. 0 1 0 1 0 1In0 the 1 0classical 1 0 1 1 theory 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 of 0 gravity, 1 1 0 1 which 0 1 0 is 1 based 0 1 0 on 1 0real 1 1space-time, 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 there 1 0 0 are 0 1only 0 1 two 0 1 possible 1 0 1 0 ways 1 1 0the 1 0 universe 1 0 1 0can 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 behave: 1 1 0 1 either 0 1 0 it1 has 1 0 existed 1 0 1 0for1 an 0 infinite 1 0 1 0 time, 1 1 1or0 else 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 it0had 1 1 a0beginning 1 0 1 0 1at0a 1singularity 0 1 0 1 1at0some 1 0 1finite 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 time 1 0 in 0 0the 1 past. 0 1 0In1the 1 0quantum 1 0 1 1 theory 0 1 0 of 1 0gravity, 1 0 1 on 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 the 1 1other 0 1 0hand, 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0a 1third 1 0 possibility 1 0 1 0 1 arises. 1 0 1 Because 0 1 0 1 one 0 1 0is using 1 0 1 Euclidean 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 space-time, 0 1 1 0 1 0in1 which 0 1 0 the 1 0timedirection 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 is on 1 0the 1 0same 1 1 0 footing 1 0 0 as0 directions in space, it is possible for space-time to be 1 and 1 0 yet 0 0to1have 0 1 no 0 1singularities 1 0 1 0 1 1that 0 1formed 0 1 0 a1 boundary 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0or1 edge. 1 0 1 Space-time 0 1 0 1 1 0would 1 0 1be0 like 1 0the 1 0surface 1 0 1 of 1 1the 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 earth, 0 1 1 only 0 1 with 0 1 0two 1 0more 1 0 dimensions. 1 0 1 1 0 1 The 0 1 surface 0 1 0 1of1 the 0 1 0 0 0 1 earth 1 0 0 is 0 finite 1 0 1in0 extent 1 1 0 but 1 0 it1doesn’t 1 0 1 0have 1 0a1boundary 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0or1 edge: 1 0 1 if0you 1 0sail 1 1off 0 into 1 0 the 1 0 sunset, 1 0 1 0you 1 0don’t 1 1 fall 1 0 off 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 the 1 1edge 0 1 or 0 1run 0 into 1 1 0a singularity. 1 0 1 0 1 0Each 1 0 history 1 0 1 1in1 the 0 1sum 0 0 1 0 0 1 over 0 1 histories 1 0 1 0 1will 0 describe 1 0 1 0 1not 0 only 1 1 0the 1 space-time 0 1 0 1 0 1 but 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 everything 1 0 0 0 1 0in1 it0 as1 well, 1 0 1including 0 1 1 0 any 1 0 complicated 1 0 1 0 1 1 organisms 0 1 0 0 0 like 1 human beings who 0 can 1 1 observe 0 1 0 1 the 0 1history 1 0 1 of 0 the 1 0 universe. 1 0 1 0 1This 0 1may 1 1 provide 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 another 0 1 1 0justification 1 0 1 0 1 0for1 the 0 1 anthropic 0 1 1 0 1principle, 0 1 0 1 for 0 1if1 0 1 0 0 0 1 all 1 the 0 0 histories 0 1 0 1 are 0 1possible, 1 0 1 0 then 1 1 0so1long 0 1 as 0 we 1 0 exist 1 1 0 in 1 0 1 0 1 0 one 1 1 of 0 the 1 0 histories, 1 0 1 1 0we1 may 0 1 use 0 1 the 0 1 anthropic 0 1 0 1 1 principle 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 to1 explain 1 0 1 0why 1 0 the 1 1universe 0 1 0 1 is0 found 1 0 1 to 0 be 1 0the 1 way 1 1 0it is. 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 Exactly 0 1 1 0that 1 0 meaning 1 0 1 0 1can 0 be 1 0attached 1 1 0 1 to 0 the 1 0 other 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 histories, 1 0 0 0 in 1 0which 1 0 1we 1 do 0 1not 0 1exist, 1 0 is 1 not 0 1 clear. 0 1 0This 1 1 view 0 1 0of0a 0 quantum 1 theory of gravity would be much 0 more 1 1 0satisfactory, 1 0 1 0 1 1however, 0 1 0 1 if0one 1 0could 1 0 1show 0 1 1that, 1 0using 1 0 0the 0 sum 0 1 over histories, 1 our 0 1universe 1 0 1 0 is1 not 0 1 just 0 1one 0 1of0 the 1 1possible 0 1 0 1histories 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 but 1 0one 0 0of1 the 0 1most 0 1 probable 1 0 1 0 1ones. 1 0 To 1 0do1 this, 0 1 we 0 1 must 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 perform 1 1 0 1 0the 1 0 sum 1 1over 0 1 histories 0 1 0 1 for 0 1all0 possible 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 Euclidean 1 1 0 1 0space-times 1 0 1 1 0 1that 0 1have 0 1 no 0 1boundary. 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 Under 0 1 1 the 0 1 “no 0 1boundary” 0 1 0 1 0proposal 1 0 1 1 one 0 1 learns 0 1 0 that 1 0 the 1 1 chance 0 1 0 0of0the univers being 1 found 1 0 0 to0 be 1 0following 1 0 1 1 most 0 1 0of1 the 1 0possible 1 0 1 0histories 1 0 1 1 is0 negligible, 1 0 0 0 1but there is a particular family of histories that are 0 much 1 1 0more 1 0 1probable 0 1 1 0than 1 0 the 1 0 others. 1 0 1 0 These 1 0 histories 1 1 1 0 1may 0 0be 0 pictured 0 1 as being 1 like 0 1 1the 0 surface 1 0 1 0of1 the 0 1earth, 0 1 0which 1 1 0the 1 0distance 1 0 1 0from 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 the 1 0 North 0 0 1Pole 0 1 representing 0 1 1 0 1 0 imaginary 1 1 0 1 0 time 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 and 1 1 the 0 1 size 0 1 of0 a1 circle 1 0 1of0constant 1 0 1 0 distance 1 0 1 0 from 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0the 1 1 North 0 1 0Pole 1 0 1 unpredictable 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 measurements 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 representing 0 1 1 0 1 0 the 1 0spatial 1 0 1 sizeof 0 1 0 the 1 1universe. 0 1 0 1 The 0 1 universe 0 1 1 0 1starts 0 0 at 0 the North Pole 1 as 1 a0 single 0 0 1 point.As 0 1 0 1 one 1 0 moves 1 0 1 south, 1 0 1 0the 1 circles 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0of1 latitude 1 0 1 0at1 constant 0 1 1 0 distance 1 0 1 0 from 1 0 1 the 0 1North 0 1 1Pole 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 get 0 1 bigger, 1 0 1 0 corresponding 1 0 1 0 1 0 to 1 0the 1 universe 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 expanding 1 0 0 0 1 with 0 1 imaginary 0 1 1 0 1 time. 0 1 1 The 0 1 universe 0 1 0 1 would 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 reach 1 1 0a 1maximum 0 1 0 1 1size 0 1at0the 1 0equator 1 0 1 and 0 1 would 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 contract with increasing imaginary time to a single point et at ut thequiae South Pole.ad qui res pa que ni Endit quatis
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07 30
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This has been well tested by experiment and is likely to remain a feature even if we find a more advanced theory to replace relativity. Thus the moving observer would say that if faster-than-light travel is possible, it should be possible to get from event B, the opending of the Congress, to event A, the 100-meter race. If one went slightly faster, one wcould even get back before the race and place a bet on it in the same knowledge that one would win. There is a problem with breaking the speed-of-light barrier. The says that the THEORY OF RELATIVITY rocket power needed to accelerate a spaceship gets greater the nearer it gets to the speed of light. We have experimental evidence for this, not with spaceships but with elementary particles in particle accelerations like those at Fermilab or CERN. We can accelerate particles to 99.99 percent of the speed of light, but however much power we feed in, we can’t get them beyond the speed-of-light-barrier.
There need be no relation between the distance through the wormhole and the separation of its ends in the nearly flat background. Thus one could imagine that one could 00 08 create or find a wormhole that would lead from the vicinity of the solar system of Alpha Centauri. The distance through the wormhold might be only a few million miles even though Earth and Alpha Centauri are twenty million million miles apart in ordinary space. This would allow news of the 100-meter race to reach the opening of the Congress. But then an observer
moving toward
the earth should also be able to find another wormhole that would enable him to get from the opening of the congress on Alpha centauri back to earth before the start of the race. so wormholes, like any other possible form. The idea of wormholes between different regions of space-time was not invention.
07 33
A possible way to explain the absence of visitors from the future would be to say that the past is fixed because we have observed it and seen that it does not have the kind of warping needed to allow travel back from the future. On the other hand, the future is unknown and open, so it might well have the curvature required. This would mean that anytime travel would be confined to the future. 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01 0 10 01 0 10 01 01 0 10 01 0 10 01 01 0 10 01 0 10 01 01 0 10 01 0
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01 0 10 01 0 10 01 01 0 10 01 0 10 01 01 0 10 01 0 10 01 01 0 10 01 0
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00
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00
The value of the grand unification energy is not very well known, but it would probably have to be at least a thousand million million GeV. The present generation of particle accelerators can collide particles at energies of about one hundred GeV, and machines are planned that would raise this to a few thousand GeV. But a machine that was powerful enough to accelerate particles to the grand unification energy would have to be as big as the Solar System — and would be unlikely to be funded in the present economic climate. Thus it is impossible to test grand unified theories directly in the laboratory. However, just as in the case of the electromagnetic and weak unified theory, there are low-energy consequences of the theory that can be tested.
the most interesting of these is the prediction that prediction that protons which make up much of the mass of ordinary matter, can spontaneously decay into lighter particles such as antielectrons. The reason this is possible is that at the grand unification energy there is no essencial difference between a quark and an antielectron. The three quarks inside a proton normally do not have enough energy to change into antielectrons, but very occasionally one of them may acquire sufficient energy to make the transition because the uncertainty principle means that the energy of the quarks inside the proton cannot be fixed exactly. The proton would then decay. The probability of a quark gaining sufficient energy is so low that one is likely to have to wait at least a million million million million million years longer than the time since the big bang, which is a mere ten thousand million years or so. Thus one might think that the possibility of sontaneous proton decay could not be tested experimentally. However, one can increase one’s chances of detecting a decay by observing a large amount of matter containing a large number of protons.
that
The nondecreasing behavior of a black hole’s area was very reminiscent of the behavior of a physical quantity called entropy, which measures the degree of disorder of a system. It is a matter of common experience disorder will tend to increase if things are left to themselves. One can create order out of disorder, but that requires expenditure of effort or energy and so decreases the amount of ordered energy available. A precise statement of this idea is known as the second law of thermodynamics. It states that the entropy of an isolated system always increases, and that when two systems are joined together, the entropy of the combined system is greater than the sum of the entropies of the individual systems.
0
0
0
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26
00
Gradually, however, it must have been noticed that there were certain regularities: the sun always rose in the east and set in the west.
00
FUTURE, PRESENT AND BEYOND
Up to now, most scientists have been too occupied with the development of new theories that describe what the universe is to ask the question why. On the other hand, the people whose business it is to ask why, the philosophers, have not been able to keep up with the advance of scientfic theories. If we find the answer to that, it would be the ultimate triumph of human reason — for then we would know the mind of GOD.
from homogeneity, like galaxies, stars, and even human beings. Einstein once asked the question: “How much choice did God have in constructing the universe?� Even if there is only one possible unified theory, it is just a set of rules and equations. The usual approach of science of constructing a mathematical model connot answer the questions of why there should be a universe for the model to describe. However, if we do discover a complete theory, it should in time be understandable in broad principle by everyone, not just a few scientists. But if the universe is completely self-contained, with no singularities or boundaries, and completely described by a unified theory, that has profound implications for the role of God as Creator. 15 42 22 54 00
that space and time together might form a finite, four-dimensional space without singularities or boundaries, like the surface of the earth but with more dimensions. It seems that this idea could explain many of the observed features of the universe, such as its large-scale uniformity and also the smaller-scale departures
14 05
The sun and the moon might still be gods, but they were gods who obeyed strict laws, apparently without any exceptions, if one discounts stories like that of the sun stopping for Joshua. Ast first, these regularities and laws were obvious only in astronomy and a few other situations. However, as civilization developed, and particularly in the past 300 years, more and more regularities and laws were discovered. The success of these laws led Laplace at the beginning of the nineteenth century to postulate scientific determinism; that is, he suggested that there would be a set of laws that would determine the evolution of the universe precisely, given its configuration at one time. In effect, we have redefined the task of science to be the discovery of laws that will enable us to predict events up to the limits set by the principles.
The sun always rose in the east and set in the west,
13 25
The question remains, however: how or why were the laws and the initial state of the UNIVERSE chosen? The book has given special prominence to the laws that govern gravity, because it is gravity that shapes the large-scale structure of the universe, even though it is the weakest of the four categories of forces. The laws of gravity were incompatible with the view held until quite recently that the universe is unchanging in time: the fact that gravity is always attractive implies that the universe must be either expanding or contracting. According to the general theory of relativity, there must have been a state of infinite density in the past, the big bang, which would have been an effective beginning of time. Similarly, if the whole universe recollapsed, there must be another state of infinite desity in the future, the big crunch, which would be an end of time. When we combine quantum mechanics with general relativity, there seems to be a new possibility that did not arise before:
00
seasons.
The earliest theoretical attempts to describe and explain the universe involved the idea that events and natural phenomena were controlled by spirits with human emotions who acted in a very humanlike and unpredictable manner. These spirits inhabited natural objects, like rivers and mountains, including celestial bodies, like the sun and moon. They had to be placated and their favors sought in order to ensure the fertility of the soil and the rotation of the Gradually, however, it must have been noticed that there were certain regularities:
Our goal is a complete understanding of the events around us, and of our own experience.
The word “quantum” comes from the Latin “quantus”, meaning “how much”. “Quanta”, short for “quanta of electricity” (electrons) was used in a 1902 article on the photoelectric effect by Philipp Lenard.
THE MINIMUM AMOUNT OF
QUANTUM
Many people do not like the idea that time has a beginning, probably because it smacks of divine intervention. There were therefore a number of attempts to avoid the conclusion that there had been a big bang. The proposal that gained widest support was called the steady state theory. It was suggested in 1948 by two refugees from Nazi-occupied Austria, Hermann Bondi and Thomas Gold, together with a Briton, Fred Hoyle, who had worked with them on the development of radar during the war. The idea was that as the galaxies moved away from each other, the new galaxies were continually forming in the gaps in between, from new matter that was being continually created. The universe would therefore look roughly the same at all times as well as at all points of space.
the big bang.
Correspondingly, as if is the case, we know only what has happened since the big bang, we could not determine what happened beforehand. As far as we are concerned, events before the big bang can have no consequences, so they should not form part of a scientific model of the universe. We should therefore cut them out of the model and say that time had a beginning at
of the Friedmann solutions have the feature that at some time in the past the distance between neighboring galaxies must have been zero. At that time, which we call the big bang, the density of the universe and the curvature of spacetime would have been infinite. Because mathematics cannot really handle infinite numbers, this means that the general theory of relativity predicts that there is a point in the universe where the theory itself breaks down. Such a point is an example of what mathematicians call a singularity. Infact, all our theories of science are formulated on the assumption that spacetime is smooth and nearly flat, so they break down at the big bang singularity, where the curvature of space-time is infinite. This means that even if there were events before the big bang, one could not use them to determine what would happen afterward, because predictability would break down at the big bang.
ALL
in the temperature of the
microwave background that agrees with observation.
As they expanded, the energy of the field in them would slowly decrease until the inflationary expansion changed to an expansion like that in the hot big bang model. One of these regions would become what we now see as the observable universe. This model has all the advantages of the earlier inflationary models, but it does not depend on a dubious phase transition, and it can moreover give a reasonable size for the fluctuations
In my personal opinion, the new inflationary model is now dead as a scientific theory, although a lot of people do not seem to have heard of its demise and are still writing papers as if it were viable. a better model, called the chaotic inflationary model, was put forward by Linde in 1983. In this there is no phase transition or supercooling. Instead, there is a spin 0 field, which, because of quantum fluctuations, would have large values in some regions of the early universe. The energy of the field in those regions would behave like a cosmological constant. It would have a repulsive gravitational effect, and thus make those regions expand in an inflationary manner.
Later work has also cast doubt on whether there could be a phase transition in the very early universe of the kind required.
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Bell, E.T. (1937). Men of Mathematics, Simon and Schuster, p. 154. Coxeter, H. S. M. (1973). Regular Polytopes, Dover Publications, Inc., p. 141. Coxeter, H. S. M. (1973). Regular Polytopes, Dover Publications, Inc., pp. 142–143. Rudolf v.B. Rucker, editor Speculations on the Fourth Dimension: Selected Writings of Charles H. Hinton, p. vii, Dover Publications Inc., 1980 Hinton, Charles Howard (1904). Fourth Dimension Minkowski, Hermann (1909), “Raum und Zeit”, Physikalische Zeitschrift 10: 75–88 C Møller (1952). The Theory of Relativity. Oxford UK: Clarendon Press. p. 93. J. Scott Carter, Masahico Saito Knotted Surfaces and Their Diagrams Ray d’Inverno (1992), Introducing Einstein’s Relativity, Clarendon Press, chp.8 Geometry of spaces of constant curvature, p.319 Aflalo TN, Graziano MS (2008). Four-Dimensional Spatial Reasoning in Humans. Journal of Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 34(5):1066-1077. Michio Kaku (1994). Hyperspace: A Scientific Odyssey Through Parallel Universes, Time Warps, and the Tenth Dimension, Part I, chapter 3, The Man Who “Saw” the Fourth Dimension (about tesseracts in years 1870–1910). Rucker, Rudy (1984), The Fourth Dimension /A Guided Tour of the Higher Universes, Houghton Mifflin, p. 18 James Jeans (1947) The Growth of Physical Science, “Space-time”, pp. 205–301, Petkov, Vesselin (2010). Minkowski Spacetime: A Hundred Years Later. Springer. p. 70. ISBN 90481-3474-9., Section 3.4, p. 70 Shirley Ardener, University of Oxford, Women and space: ground rules and social maps, p. 36 Hawking, Stephen. A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes. Toronto: Bantam, 1988. Print. R.C. Archibald (1914) Time as a fourth dimension Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 2:409.
INSTITUTION Academy of Art University, San Francisco CLASS Typography 04, Fall 2015 INSTRUCTOR Ariel Grey ACCOMPLISHED SOFTWARE Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator, Adobe InDesign PAPER Epson Matte Premium PRINTING Epson Stylus Photo R2880 BINDER Imagink Prints JOB DESCRIPTION A Typographic book represents the future conference. The conference will demostrate how mankind has achieve the ability to control time. MESSAGE Opening the door to fourth dimension means getting access to a paradigm shift. STUDENT PROJECT
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BEYOND PRESENT
PARADIGM SHIFT INTO FOURTH DIMENSION
The first is that we naturally have experience with time coordinates. When we tell someone we will meet them for coffee at 3 P.M., we are specifying a point in time. However, to increase the odds that the meeting actually occurs, we also need to specify a place. So, establishing the meeting uniquely requires three spatial coordinates and one time coordinate. You might say, “Meet me at 3 P.M. on the fifth-floor terrace of the building on the northwest corner of 3rd Street and 4th Avenue,” for example. Of course, it is possible for time to change independently of the spatial coordinates—all you have to do is sit relatively still and your time coordinate will change while your position will not. So, if your friend is late, you can maximize your chances of still meeting the person by waiting at the correct spatial coordinates as the time coordinate continues to change. There are a couple of problems with considering time the fourth dimension, however. The first is that you aren’t entirely free to “move around” in the time dimension. In fact, you are pretty much stuck moving forward at a rate that you cannot control (but that, according to Einstein, is not necessarily the same for everybody). So, time allows only a partial degree of freedom. The second problem is that, while you can change your time coordinate without changing your spatial coordinates, the reverse is not true: how could you move from point A to point B without a passage (i.e., change in “position”) of time?
viewing time as the fourth dimension is appealing for a number of reasons.