Technologies used in the cultivation of mechanized Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) by abarriguda

TECHNOLOGIES USED IN THE CULTIVATION OF MECHANIZED SESAME (Sesamum indicum L.)

Vicente de Paula Queiroga D. Ray Langham Josivanda Palmeira Gomes Bruno Adelino de Melo Yvana Maria Gomes dos Santos Esther Maria Barros de Albuquerque

TECHNOLOGIES USED IN THE CULTIVATION OF MECHANIZED SESAME (Sesamum indicum L.)

1st edition

CENTRO INTERDISCIPLINAR DE PESQUISA EM EDUCAÇÃO E DIREITO LARYSSA MAYARA ALVES DE ALMEIDA Diretor Presidente da Associação do Centro Interdisciplinar de Pesquisa em Educação e Direito VINÍCIUS LEÃO DE CASTRO Diretor - Adjunto da Associação do Centro Interdisciplinar de Pesquisa em Educação e Direito ESTHER MARIA BARROS DE ALBUQUERQUE Editor-chefe da Associação da Revista Eletrônica a Barriguda - AREPB

ASSOCIAÇÃO DA REVISTA ELETRÔNICA A BARRIGUDA – AREPB CNPJ 12.955.187/0001-66 Acesse: www.abarriguda.org.br

CONSELHO EDITORIAL Adilson Rodrigues Pires André Karam Trindade Alessandra Correia Lima Macedo Franca Alexandre Coutinho Pagliarini Arali da Silva Oliveira Bartira Macedo de Miranda Santos Belinda Pereira da Cunha Carina Barbosa Gouvêa Carlos Aranguéz Sanchéz Dyego da Costa Santos Elionora Nazaré Cardoso Fabiana Faxina Gisela Bester Glauber Salomão Leite Gustavo Rabay Guerra Ignacio Berdugo Gómes de la Torre Jaime José da Silveira Barros Neto Javier Valls Prieto, Universidad de Granada José Ernesto Pimentel Filho Juliana Gomes de Brito Ludmila Albuquerque Douettes Araújo Lusia Pereira Ribeiro Marcelo Alves Pereira Eufrasio Marcelo Weick Pogliese Marcílio Toscano Franca Filho Olard Hasani Paulo Jorge Fonseca Ferreira da Cunha Raymundo Juliano Rego Feitosa Ricardo Maurício Freire Soares Talden Queiroz Farias Valfredo de Andrade Aguiar Vincenzo Carbone

VICENTE DE PAULA QUEIROGA D. RAY LANGHAM JOSIVANDA PALMEIRA GOMES BRUNO ADELINO DE MELO YVANA MARIA GOMES DOS SANTOS ESTHER MARIA BARROS DE ALBUQUERQUE TECHNICAL EDITORS

TECHNOLOGIES USED IN THE CULTIVATION OF MECHANIZED SESAME (Sesamum indicum L.)

1st EDITION

ASSOCIAÇÃO DA REVISTA ELETRÔNICA A BARRIGUDA - AREPB

2019

Organização do Livro VICENTE DE PAULA QUEIROGA, D. RAY LANGHAM, JOSIVANDA PALMEIRA GOMES, BRUNO ADELINO DE MELO, YVANA MARIA GOMES DOS SANTOS, ESTHER MARIA BARROS DE ALBUQUERQUE Capa FLÁVIO TORRÊS DE MOURA (Fotos: Forest and Kim Starr e Albini Group) Editoração ESTHER MARIA BARROS DE ALBUQUERQUE Diagramação ESTHER MARIA BARROS DE ALBUQUERQUE

O conteúdo dos artigos é de inteira responsabilidade dos autores. Data de fechamento da edição: 27-05-2019 Dados internacionais de catalogação na publicação (CIP)

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Queiroga, Vicente de Paula. Technologies used in the cultivation of mechanized sesame (Sesamum indicum L.). 1ed. / Technical Editors, Vicente de Paula Queiroga, Josivanda Palmeira Gomes, Bruno Adelino de Melo, Yvana Maria Gomes dos Santos, Esther Maria Barros de Albuquerque. – Campina Grande: AREPB, 2019. 143 f. : il. color. ISBN 978-85-67494-34-0 1. Sesame. 2. Production System. 3. Mechanical cultivation. 4. Mechanized Harvesting. 5. Extraction of Oil. I. Queiroga, Vicente de Paula. II. Gomes, Josivanda Palmeira. III. Melo, Bruno Adelino. IV. Santos, Yvana Maria Gomes dos. V. Albuquerque, Esther Maria Barros de. VI. Title. CDU 633.8

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Cover photo (authors) Langham, D. R.; J. Riney; G. Smith; T. Wiemers; D. Peeper (2009)

O Centro Interdisciplinar de Pesquisa em Educação e Direito – CIPED, responsável pela Revista Jurídica e Cultural “A Barriguda”, foi criado na cidade de Campina Grande-PB, com o objetivo de ser um locus de propagação de uma nova maneira de se enxergar a Pesquisa, o Ensino e a Extensão na área do Direito.

A ideia de criar uma revista eletrônica surgiu a partir de intensos debates em torno da Ciência Jurídica, com o objetivo de resgatar o estudo do Direito enquanto Ciência, de maneira inter e transdisciplinar unido sempre à cultura. Resgatando, dessa maneira, posturas metodológicas que se voltem a postura ética dos futuros profissionais.

Os idealizadores deste projeto, revestidos de ousadia, espírito acadêmico e nutridos do objetivo de criar um novo paradigma de estudo do Direito se motivaram para construir um projeto que ultrapassou as fronteiras de um informativo e se estabeleceu como uma revista eletrônica, para incentivar o resgate do ensino jurídico como interdisciplinar e transversal, sem esquecer a nossa riqueza cultural.

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TECHNICAL EDITORS

Vicente de Paula Queiroga (Dr.) Researcher at the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation National Center for Cotton Research-CNPA Campina Grande, PB (Brazil)

D. Ray Langham Sesame Researcher. Director of Sesame Research LLC San Antonio, Texas (USA) Josivanda Palmeira Gomes (Dra.) Teacher at the Academic Unit of Agricultural Engineering Federal University of Campina Grande Campina Grande, PB (Brazil)

Bruno Adelino de Melo (Dr.) Researcher of the CNPQ/UFCG Federal University of Campina Grande Campina Grande, PB (Brazil)

Yvana Maria Gomes dos Santos (MSc.) PhD Student in the Postgraduate Course in Agricultural Engineering Federal University of Campina Grande Campina Grande, PB (Brazil) Esther Maria Barros de Albuquerque (Dra.) PhD in Process Engineering Federal University of Campina Grande Campina Grande, PB (Brazil)

PREFACE Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is one of the first species domesticated by man. It is now one of the ten main oilseeds in the world, occupying a planted area of over eight million hectares and producing one of the best oils for human consumption. It contains antioxidants such as sesamin and sesamolin and about 40% of its fatty acids is the monounsaturated oleic acid. It is an oil recommended for human nutrition, in addition to being medicinal. Sesame cake has an excellent composition of important amino acids such as methionine, cystine, arginine, and leucine, and is an excellent source of protein. The sesame is a plant easy to cultivate, and in the case of Brazil with a fast cycle, between 90 to 130 days. The information presented in this document demonstrates that there is already knowledge and technology on sesame agribusiness, which will enable its promotion as a culture of great economic prospects, especially for the semi-arid Northeast region of Brazil and as a culture of â&#x20AC;&#x153;second cropâ&#x20AC;? in conditions of Cerrado. The simple introduction of the reaper-binder in Brazil to cut the dehiscent plants at the harvest maturity (capacity 2 hours/ha) could significantly increase the planted area of this crop, without the need to change the cultivars in use. If there is a significant expansion of its planted area in Brazil, the vertical integration of sesame production will depend on changes in the cultural and social customs of the population, since the national market is limited and therefore does not value sesame quality as much as the international market. Currently, more than 60% of the sesame consumption in Brazil is imported. A higher average yield in the field would contribute to lower prices, making the product more accessible to the working classes. Presently, the consumption of sesame is restricted to the most favored classes in the country. In addition, Brazil should improve marketing on the benefits to human health provided by the natural chemical properties of this species. This publication is basically a translation and update of QUEIROGA, V. P.; SILVA, O. R. R. F. Tecnologias utilizadas no cultivo do gergelim mecanizado. EMBRAPA, Documentos 203, p.142, 2008. (in Portuguese) [Technologies used in the cultivation of mechanized sesame]. Authors

SUMMARY

CHAPTER 1. PRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF SESAME â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Vicente de Paula Queiroga, D. Ray Langham, Josivanda Palmeira Gomes, Bruno Adelino de Melo, Yvana Maria Gomes dos Santos, Esther Maria Barros de Albuquerque ........................................................................................10

CHAPTER 2. SESAME HARVESTING AND STORAGE - Vicente de Paula Queiroga, D. Ray Langham, Josivanda Palmeira Gomes, Bruno Adelino de Melo, Yvana Maria Gomes dos Santos, Esther Maria Barros de Albuquerque ............................................................................82

BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCE .......................................................................................128

C h a p t e r I | 10

Chapter 1

PRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF SESAME

(Authors) Vicente de Paula Queiroga D. Ray Langham Josivanda Palmeira Gomes Bruno Adelino de Melo Yvana Maria Gomes dos Santos Esther Maria Barros de Albuquerque

C h a p t e r I | 11 1. INTRODUCTION

The sesame (Sesamum indicum L.), from the Pedaliaceae family, is the oldest known oilseed. This species, of tropical and subtropical distribution, is tolerant to the drought, and its production in Brazil comes from small and medium producers, therefore exercising an appreciable social function in the rural environment.

The sesame seeds are the source of excellent edible oil, of great stability and resistance to rancidity; they are also used in the manufacture of pasta, sweets, pies, paints, soaps, cosmetics and medicines (GODOY et al., 1985; SAVY FILHO et al., 1988; RAM et al., 1990; SAVY FILHO et al., 1998). The whole seeds, only peeled (uncoated, decorticated, dehulled) are now widely used as confectionary, in hamburger buns and other bakery products. The diversification of the use and the increase in consumption resulted in a significant demand for better information about its cultivation, aiming at the increase of the production and reduction of the imports.

Sesame is a traditional crop and is cultivated in 75 countries of the world. About 70% of the regions for sesame production are located in the latitudes from 25ยบS to 30ยบN. All these countries are primarily located in Africa, Asia, Central America, and Latin America.

In 2016, the total area of sesame harvested in the world is 10.58 million hectares, and annual production is 6.11 million MT. Currently all the ten top production countries for sesame are developing countries in Asia and Africa continents (Table 1). Table 2 shows the major exporters of sesame in the world. Twenty years ago, China was an exporter of sesame and now it is a net importer as shown in Table 3. Some have predicted that India will become a net importer also.

C h a p t e r I | 12 Table 1. Sesame production statistics of the world and main production countries in 2016. Country

Area harvested (haďź&#x2030;

Production (MT)

Yield (kg/haďź&#x2030;

World (total)

10,578,550

6,113,242

578

Sudan

2,134,860

525,000

246

India

1,900,000

797,700

420

Myanmar

1,495,250

812,952

544

Tanzania

900,000

940,221

1,044

South Sudan

611,644

202,027

330

Nigeria

436,173

460,988

1,057

China

417,563

649,589

1,558

Burkina Faso

390,000

230,000

590

Ethiopia

337,927

267,867

793

Chad

330,000

170,000

515

1,056,898

650

Others 1,625,133 * Data cited from FAO dataset.

Table 2. Global exports of sesame products from 2011-2016. Country

Annual export amount (1,000 MT) 2011-2012

2012-2013

2013-2014

2014-2015

2015-2016

India

360

250

300

330

300

Ethiopia

320

245

290

285

424

Sudan

145

110

190

170

Nigeria

180

175

180

200

210

Uganda

Tanzania

115

145

140

Mozambique

* Data supplied by Olam International Company. 75% trade is crude sesame products, and 25% is processed sesame products.

C h a p t e r I | 13 Table 3. The world imports of the sesame products from 2008-2017 (1,000 MT). Year Country

20082009

20092010

20102011

20112012

20122013

20132014

20142015

20152016

20162017

China

311

391

389

396

443

487

815

929

820

Japan

129

161

164

173

152

141

192

164

162

Turkey

102

101

117

103

107

128

134

140

South Korea

Vietnam

Israel

USA

Syria

Saudi Arabia

Others

361

385

468

529

564

502

511

551

1,462

1,492

1,572

1,936

2,058

1,962

Total 1,133 1,292 1,353 * Data collected from Oil World database.

Currently, the sesame market is on the rise, due to the increase in the quantity of products which can be industrialized for consumption, which has grown around 15% per year. This has generated a demand for the product “in natura” and potential market capable of absorbing quantities above the current offer. According to a statistical survey conducted by the IICA (2004), 88% of the world trade on sesame is sesame seeds, followed by 8% sesame cake and 4% oil. The main demand for sesame comes from the food industry, with 70% of the production in most importing countries being used for the preparation of oil and flour. In Brazil, the price of the harvested product without processing is around US $600.00/MT of seeds, while the price of the industrialized product (peeled and sorted) is about US $1,500.00/MT (COORDINATOR OF TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE, 1998).

In the industrial sector, there are some companies that are traditional buyers of sesame seeds - such as Istambul and the Sésamo Real, both located in São Paulo - and other small companies that perform the industrial processing of sesame for the production of protein concentrates and the crushing process to obtain the vegetable oil. In Brazil’s Midwest, the State of Goiás has been establishing itself as one of the highest producers, with a significant advance of 85% in relation to the planted area in 2004 and excellent prospects for the development of the culture. There are already companies such as Granol and

C h a p t e r I | 14 Hedesa that market several oilseeds from producers in that Region (QUEIROGA et al., 2007).

The greatest advances in modern agriculture have been obtained with crops that allow mechanized practices from sowing to harvesting with minimal labor. The mechanization of the sesame crop is a fundamental component for the producers, aiming to reduce the production costs and the time of execution of the corresponding activities in a commercial scale operation. In the early 1940s in Venezuela, D.G. Langham mechanized planting, cultivating, reaping-binding, and combining sesame; however, manual labor was still needed for thinning, weeding (what was not removed by the cultivator), hand cutting for the binder to enter the field, and for stacking the shocks. Full mechanization was attained in the United States by swathing and combining in 1982 and by direct combining of nondehiscent sesame in 1988 as shown in Figure 1 (LANGHAM, 2019).

Traditional

Venezuela 1940s

United States 80s

Current United States

Figure 1. Evolution of harvest methodology (LANGHAM 2019). In the last 80 years, sesame harvest has evolved from complete manual harvest to harvesting standing dry sesame. - The traditional manual harvest is still done in probably 90% of the world by cutting the mature sesame (Paraguay), shocking the sesame to dry (Turkey), and then manually threshing the plants (India).

C h a p t e r I | 15 - In Venezuela in the 1940s, sesame was cut with a reaper-binder, manually shocked to dry, and then manually thrown into a combine. In the 1990s a producer improvement allowed a hydraulic door to push the shock into augers that fed the combine. - In the United States in the 1980s, sesame was swathed and left in the field to dry and then picked up with a combine. There was no manual labor, but two machines were needed. The swather was not a common piece of machinery, and there were problems when growing sesame on beds and then swathing. - Currently in the United States, direct harvest shatter resistance allowed the sesame standing in the field to dry and then combining. The same machine that harvested corn, wheat, other grains, and soybeans was used. There had been previous attempts to combine direct, but the trials were not commercially feasible because either the losses from shattering were too great or extracting the seed from closed capsules damaged the seed too much. Since 1988, shatter resistance has been improved resulting in less seed loss. - Since the early 2010s, the drydown has been accelerated by the use of harvest aids. - The direct harvest sesame satisfied the two goals: hold the seed until the combine cuts the plant and release the seed in the combine with minimal damage. In Brazil, the sesame is still widely cultivated by family producers, in small “backyard crop” areas, when ideally its cultivation would be on commercial scale, in areas of at least 2 ha per producer, organized in association or cooperative (QUEIROGA et al., 2007).

Recently, Embrapa Algodão (Portuguese for cotton) has been sought by several companies in the Midwest and Southeast interested in the technologies demanded by mechanized sesame, in order to increase its area of production. In the last years the same happened to the sunflower crop, when the installation of a large industry in Mato GrossoMT favored the increase of its cultivation area in the country which quickly passed from 30,000 ha to over 120,000 ha.

The greatest differential of the sesame crop in Brazil will happen with the launch of sesame cultivars with indehiscent capsules and white color seeds, predicted for the year 2022, by Embrapa Algodão. According to Mazzani and Layrisse (1998), the intrinsic

C h a p t e r I | 16 characteristics of these new cultivars will have to meet the minimum standards of international market, which is 50-52% of oil in the seeds and 21% of protein in the peeled seeds, in order to have greater acceptance in the national and international markets.

It is important to mention that the consolidation of the production chain of a certain species always has a direct impact on the technological level used by the producers. That is, when the producer of sesame requires advanced technologies (coated seeds, precision sowing, indehiscent or non-dehiscent white cultivars, herbicide and desiccant applications, point of harvest, mechanized harvesting, etc.), similar to those adopted by the of the USA (Texas) and Venezuela, it will be possible for all the links in the production chain of sesame to be structured and organized in the country, because agribusiness producers will focus on supplying larger national and international markets. In a way, these technological packages will benefit the medium and small producers of the country, because they will use seeds of the cultivars with chemical characteristics of the seeds with greater acceptance by the industries in general (QUEIROGA et al., 2007).

The introduction of the old reaper-binder in Venezuela to replace the hard work of manual cutting of plants in the maturation period of the dehiscent cultivars gave a significant boost to sowing in the traditional areas of sesame cultivation. Combine harvesters, used by the producer on rice harvesting and threshing, also began to be adapted to the sesame threshing operations. This technological leap led the sesame crop to become a major oilseeds crop in Venezuela, reaching the maximum cultivated area of 178,000 ha in 1970. It is worth noting that the mechanization of sesame in the most demanding labor operations, related to the agricultural practices of sowing and harvesting, has substantially changed the average size of the cultivated areas. Prior to the mechanization of the sesame, the Venezuelan producer could not plant in extensive production areas, due to the limitations imposed by manual operations; but by adopting the semi-mechanized system, mainly in the harvest, there was an increase of 68% in sesame production on a commercial scale, with cultivated areas varying from 50 to 200 ha (SUAREZ, 1995).

C h a p t e r I | 17 2. IMPORTANCE OF SESAME The cultivation of sesame, produced on commercial scale by small, medium and large producers, therefore depends on changes in the cultural and social customs of the population. In recent years, the consumption of sesame by the Brazilian population has considerably increased, and this is due to the importation of high quality seeds (more than 60% of the seeds consumed in Brazil are imported), mainly the white ones (BELTRĂ&#x192;O; VIEIRA, 2001).

In view of the good prospects of the national and international markets, sesame seeds (which contain on average 50% of high-quality oil with various applications) are on the rise due to the increase in the quantity of products that be industrialized for consumption, which has grown around 15% per year, generating demand for the product "in natura" and potential market capable of absorbing quantities higher than the ones currently offered (BELTRĂ&#x192;O; VIEIRA, 2001).

Sesame seeds are consumed "in natura" or in confectionary products such as the bakery ones. When the seeds are whole, they present bitter taste due to the oxalic acid present in the integument (seed coat), which can be removed by manual, mechanical, physical and chemical processes (QUEIROGA et al., 2007). There are cultivars from countries such as China where the seed is not bitter even with the seed coat, and some cultivars have a nutty flavor.

More than 70% of the sesame production is used for the preparation of edible oil. The oil content is between 40 and 60%, and the protein content varies between 17 and 29% (MAZZANI; LAYRISSE, 1998). The oil produced in the first cold pressing is among the most expensive edible oils. With a yield of almost 30%, the extra-virgin sesame oil has a light yellow color, is non-drying and can tolerate high temperatures.

The good quality of sesame oil is essentially due to the high content of unsaturated linoleic and oleic acids. The percentage of each of the fatty acids varies with growing conditions. They have an inverse relationship (when one rises, the other falls), and thus, the total varies between within a short range of 83.5 and 86.2%. Because of its antioxidants like sesamin and sesamolin, the sesame oil is more resistant to oxidation or low rancidity

C h a p t e r I | 18 (BUDOWSKI; MARKLEY, 1951), a characteristic that has not been found in any other vegetable oil. The pressed sesame cake contains between 40 and 70% of protein and 12% of oil, making it an excellent food for humans (white seeds) and for animals (seeds of other colors).

Sesame was already well known and appreciated by the people in ancient Greece (MOLLER, 2006), so much so that Hippocrates, considered the father of medicine, recommended sesame in his curative prescriptions. It is probable that this species has inspired the following phrase: “Let your food be your medicine and your medicine be your food”.

It is worth highlighting that several sesame-based products are present in the diet of the Japanese population, with the toasted sesame oil being one of the most important products in their daily consumption (Figure 2). It is widely used in oriental cuisine as seasoning or condiment, to fry, to bake bread in the oven, or to make sauces and olive oil salads. This toasted sesame oil is highly unsaturated and free of cholesterol (BELTRÃO; VIEIRA, 2001).

Figure 2. Toasted sesame oil used in Japanese, Chinese and Korean cuisine. Photo: Nair Helena de Castro Arriel.

C h a p t e r I | 19 According to the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare of Japan, it is in the archipelago of the rising sun that has the largest number of people over 100 years old. The number of elderly people over one hundred years old in Japan is over 32 thousand (MINISTĂ&#x2030;RIO DA SAĂ&#x161;DE, 2007). The secret to such longevity has not yet been clearly revealed by the Japanese and remains a mystery. However, in most cases this longevity is associated to the well-being of the population, mainly, to their eating habits.

The earlier arguments reinforce the notion of the nobility of sesame oil for human consumption and at the same time raise the suspicion that the answer to the secret of the life longevity of the Japanese has been to discover the wisdom contained in the phrase of Hippocrates: MAKE THE FOOD YOUR MEDICINE.

Thomas Jefferson, president of the USA in the period of 1801-1809, wrote the following sentence: "Sesame is among the most valuable acquisitions our country has ever made and I do not believe that there is other oil so perfect that can replace it" (LANGHAM; WIEMERS, 2002).

The most important components of sesame, among them sesamin, sesamolin, sesamol and pinoresinol, are natural antioxidants, belonging to the group of lignans. These phenolic compounds grant greater stability to the fatty acids present in the seed, which is the reason why sesame oil, even though unsaturated, is widely used in oriental cooking. Also, they have been shown to produce the following effects: delay of cellular aging, extending cell life; action against fungi and bacteria; inhibition of the development of cancerous cells; antiparasitic action and elimination of free radicals, interrupting processes of cellular oxidation. These effects are enhanced by the vitamin E (gammatocopherol) present in the seed, improving its absorption in the body and consequently its antioxidant action (BELTRĂ&#x192;O; VIEIRA, 2001). Moller (2006) adds that they also act like aphrodisiac, laxative and in mental activity. The presence of these natural antioxidants has not yet been found in other vegetable oils.

Currently, research shows that the habit of eating sesame daily can bring benefits to human health, helping to prevent various diseases like depression, osteoporosis (sesame is rich in calcium), cholesterol (lecithin) and arteriosclerosis.

C h a p t e r I | 20 The composition of the natural antioxidants of the sesame seed in white, black or brown was compared by Yoshida et al. (1997) with that of the roasted seed and the one that is not. The sesamin content was higher for the white seed, while the sesamolin content was higher for the brown seed. With roasting, the content of these antioxidants decreased with the heating time, while the one of sesamol increased. These results show that the compositions of natural antioxidants present insignificant variations among seeds of different colors, which brings down the myth: "black seeds are the most suitable for medicinal treatments".

In order for Brazilian consumption of sesame to grow, it is necessary to increase agricultural production and the dissemination of its employment and its derivatives, as well as improving the marketing of the benefits to human health, provided by the natural chemical properties of this species. The increase in the average yield would contribute to the price decrease, making the product more accessible to the working classes, since currently the sesame consumption in Brazil is restricted to the most favored classes in the country (BELTRĂ&#x192;O; VIEIRA, 2001).

In the United States alone, at the beginning of the 1990s, approximately 300 types of products were launched, in which the sesame is used (BELTRĂ&#x192;O; VIEIRA, 2001). Today, the most commercialized sesame products in Brazil are natural clean sesame (13% of the market), peeled sesame for breads and biscuits (62% of the market), sesame paste, which is also called tahini (22% of the market) and sesame oil (3% of the market).

In Brazil, the sale of sesame oil in retail has been limited to the trade of natural products, since most of the seeds are destined to the international market for the extraction of oil. This link of the chain can be considered one of the aggravating factors in the production system of sesame in the country, due to the low value added to the product, if it continues to depend only on the export of the product in the form of seeds (QUEIROGA et al., 2007).

C h a p t e r I | 21 3. TECHNOLOGIES OF PRODUCTION AND MECHANIZATION OF SESAME

Most plant breeders working on improving yield consider the following yield component traits: plant height, number of branches, height of the first capsule, capsule zone length, number of node pairs on main stem, internode length, capsules per plant, capsules per square meter, non-leaf harvest index, days to 50% flowering, days to maturity, days in reproductive phase, capsule length, seeds per capsule, seed weight per capsule, plants per square meter, 1000-seed weight, oil content, and leaf area index. Most studies of yield components have been done in thinned populations. However, one to the goals is complete mechanization, which precludes thinning (LANGHAM 2019). Beech (1985) stated, “a review of the literature shows a large number of research papers in which the plant components were correlated with seed yield and usually on a per plant basis. It is felt that this approach has done little to improve sesame yields and is more likely to have acted as a hindrance. It is considered that a better approach would be to maximize yield accumulation per unit area and minimize yield losses. This means that greater attention should be given to relating yield to environmental factors.”

There are 5 traits that are generally used to define the phenotype: capsules per leaf axil, branching, days to harvest, and seed color/size.

3.1. CAPSULES PER LEAF AXIL Capsules form in the leaf axils of the plant, starting from the 3 rd to 6th node pair from the ground. The number of capsules that form is controlled by a recessive allele whereby the recessive form is more than 1 capsule (known as a triple capsule line). In triple capsule lines, the first and last node pairs with capsules normally have a single capsule. In many cases in the middle of the plant, one or two axillary flowers may not result in a capsule, and thus often the triple capsule is expressed as ‘>1’ (Figure 3). Yermanos (1980) found that cultivars with two or three capsules per leaf axil sometimes lose such structures when the plant is subjected to stress, such as hydrological or nutritional. Single capsule lines are better for rainfed areas where the amount of rain in any phase is unpredictable and where there is less fertility. Triple capsule lines are better for irrigated areas or in rainfed areas where there is plenty of moisture and fertility.

C h a p t e r I | 22

Figure 3. Sesame plant with one capsule per leaf axil and three capsules per leaf axil. Photos: Ray Langham

3.2. BRANCHING

Below the node pair with the first capsules, if there is light into the leaf axil, a branch will form (Figure 4). Given more light, additional branches will form in the node pairs below. Most genotypes have the ability to branch given space and light into the leaf axils with the number of branches depending on the amount of light. There are genotypes that have the potential for secondary and tertiary branches given enough light. There are genotypes that do not branch (unbranched, non-branched, uniculm). Even genotypes that are considered unbranched can branch in wide spaces, usually from the lower node pair up. High planting densities are used to obtain high yields. The non-branched cultivars use populations between 250,000 and 350,000 plants/ha (30-40 cm between rows and 7.5 cm between plants); in the branching cultivars, the population can be between 150,000 and 200,000 plants/ha (50-60 cm between rows and 10 - 15 cm between plants) (MAZZANI, 1999). Branching is important in fields where the planting conditions resulted in a thin stand with gaps in the seed line. Branches help fill in gaps.

C h a p t e r I | 23

Figure 4. Plant with no branches and plant with branches. Photos: Ray Langham.

According to Davila (1978), mechanical harvest has given better results with cultivars that are less branched and whose height is approximately 30 cm from the soil to the first capsule or lowest branch. The height of the first branch and the growth of the plant, which also have influence on the mechanized harvest, are directly affected by the environment and the crop management, which involves rainfall (quantity and distribution), length of day (photoperiod), density of seeds and planting (stand), among others (BELTRĂ&#x192;O; VIEIRA, 2001).

3.3 DAYS TO HARVEST

There is a wide range of days to harvest (49 to 209 days; LANGHAM 2018). Within reason, the longer the crop flowers, the greater the number of capsules and thus, yield. However, the appropriate cycle is dependent on the planting environment. In Venezuela, sesame is planted in the dry season and harvested before the rainy season begins. The cycle needs to be short enough to account for a late dry season or an early rainy season. In the US and China, the optimum planting temperature (21Â°C at 7:00 AM at planting depth) is later and the first frosts are earlier the further north the crop is planted. Again, the further north, the shorter the cycle needs to be. In the tropics there is a longer temperature window, but some producers double crop, again, requiring a shorter cycle.

C h a p t e r I | 24 One of the most important environmental factors is the time of planting. Sesame will have the most daylight and heat units when planted around 1 May in the Northern Hemisphere and around 1 November in the Southern Hemisphere (LANGHAM, 2019). In some areas such as in Gujarat, India, they cannot plant until the monsoon starts instead of the optimum daylight/heat unit time. On time planting also has an effect on insect cycles. Rohilla et al. (1985) evaluated the effect of planting date versus the damage caused by Antigastra catalaunalis. They planted at 4 dates a week apart starting in July 24 in India, and the infestation rate increased with every later week of planting. Zenawi et al. (1916) surveyed 48 farms in 3 areas of Ethiopia planted in mid-June, early-July and mid-July. All surveyed farm plots were infested with Antigastra catalaunalis at all stages of the crop, but the later the crop was planted the higher the infestation.

3.4 SEED COLOR AND SIZE

There is considerable variation in the color and size of sesame seeds (Figure 5). The ideal color and size depend on the market. There are edible markets for white (light), gold, and black. In some markets dark seed cannot be used for extracting oil because they color the oil. However, in India, red-brown sesame is used for oil. Large seeds are preferred for the confectionary market, while seed size is not as important in the oil market.

Figure 5. Range of seed colors and sizes. Photo: Ray Langham

C h a p t e r I | 25 Seed color is extremely subjective because there is a continuum of colors. What one person would call dark grey, another would call light black. It also makes a difference on the background on which the seed is placed; incandescent or fluorescent light; the intensity of the light; sunshine or shade; the direction of the light source – in front, overhead, to the side, or behind. Although some buyers say they want ‘gold’ seed, most do not agree as to what is gold. One obvious solution is to use an international color chart, but there are many of those, and many are very expensive. Googling for an answer is confusing because ‘cream’, ‘beige’, and ‘light brown’ shades overlap (LANGHAM, 2018b).

Seed size ranges from 0.7 to 5.2 g per 1,000 seeds. Most commercial cultivars range from 2.7 to 3.3 g/1000. Seed size in a single cultivar varies from year to year with the environment. Higher moisture and fertility result in larger seed. The seed also varies within the plant. The largest seeds are generally in the middle third of the main stem, followed by the lower third, the upper third, lower part of the branches, and the upper part of the branches. Within a single plant the middle third can have seed 3.01 g/1000 and the upper branches 2.65 g/1000. The seeds at the tip of the capsule are smaller than those in the lower part of the capsule. The seed in the axillary capsules is smaller than the central capsule in triple capsule lines (LANGHAM, 2018b).

3.5. CULTIVARS

The sesame cultivars are usually divided in three types: dehiscent, indehiscent and nondehiscent.

3.5.1 Dehiscent cultivars (also known as shattering):

Sesame is an annual oleaginous species with abundant formation of flowers, each of which originates a capsule with an average of 70 seeds. The domestication of the sesame plant is still partial, because its capsules open once they are dry. The openings of the capsules facilitate the dispersion of the seeds, as in the wild species. If the harvesting is performed when the fruit is dry, losses of seeds in the field can lead to a reduction of 15 to 25% in yield (MONTILLA; MAZZANI, 1966), especially when using the harvesting

C h a p t e r I | 26 system of two stages (cutting-shocking and combining), which predominates in Venezuela. Almost all sesame cultivars in the world are dehiscent â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the tips of the capsules open and release their seed when inverted (Figure 6). Dehiscence is critical in a manual harvest methodology. The plants are normally cut before the capsules begin opening and stacked in shocks to dry down. The dry plants are then inverted over a cloth or plastic, and the seeds fall out. In many cases, the bundles of plants are struck with a stick to shake out reluctant seeds. Each capsule contains a nominal average of 70 seeds (the known range is 10 to 148 seeds); each plant has a nominal average of 100 capsules per plant (the known range is 0 to 540); and there is a nominal average of 50 plants in a square meter. If the seed did not fall out upon inversion, a producer would have to open 5,000 capsules per square meter. In indehiscent and non-dehiscent capsules, it takes about 30 to 60 seconds per capsule to manually get all the seed out. Without dehiscence, a non-mechanized producer could not possibly open all of the capsules in a field one at a time. Over the 5,500 years that sesame has been grown, any mutation that prevented the seed from flowing out would be discarded by the producer or the seed would remain the capsules and not be harvested. (LANGHAM, 2017).

Figure 6. Dehiscent sesame capsules. Photo: Ray Langham .

In many international meetings, researchers have reported improving shatter resistance. These cultivars are used by manual harvest producers and so the seed still falls out of the capsules when inverted. The improvement comes in the form of retaining more seed while

C h a p t e r I | 27 the capsules are drying in the shock. As can be seen in Figure 6 some of the seed has already been lost. In the United States in the 1950s and 1960s, most of the sesame grown was dehiscent. The progenitor for most cultivars was the non-branched K-10 cultivar; its seeds had a high oil content (above 50%), but its value was limited on the market because of its bitter taste (OPLINGER, 1990). M. L. Kinman released Margo (which was a nickname for ‘amargo’, which means ‘bitter’ in Spanish). He remedied this by breeding Dulce (which means ‘sweet’ in Spanish). After harvest, he would taste all of his selections by placing a small handful in his mouth, chewing it to release any flavors and then spitting it out, followed by a swig a drink of milk to neutralize the flavor. Other dehiscent cultivars developed by Kinman in the United States were: Llano, Oro, Blanco, and Ambia (Table 4). E. Collister released Renner 1 and 2. D. M. Yermanos in California released UCR-3, UCR-4, Calinda, and Eva (the latter 2 cultivars were grown across the border in Mexico). The harvest methodology used was similar to Venezuela with cutting, binding, shocking, and then throwing the bundles into a combine. However, efforts were abandoned because producers could not get the manual labor to do the shocking and throwing the bundles into the combine for a profit (LANGHAM, 2002).

Table 4. Seed yield (kg/ha) and cultivar traits of the dehiscent sesame cultivars tested in the Lubbock, Texas, USA (OPLINGER, 1990). No longer grown in the USA. Cultivar

Yield (kg/ha)

Seed Color

Height

Maturity

Margo

1,900

Cream

Medium

Oro

1,973

White

Medium

Blanco

1,430

Cream

Medium

Dulce

826

White

Medium

Early

Ambia

1,355

White

High

Medium

Paloma

1,320

Cream

Medium

UCR-3

970

Cream

Low

Early

Plant Height: Low: <90 cm; Medium = 90- 150 cm.; High >150cm. Maturity: Early = 90-105; Medium = 106-120; Late = >120 days

Since the 1950s, several sesame cultivars developed in Venezuela have been introduced in Brazil. These cultivars were earlier (90 days) than the local types (120 days) and in dry

C h a p t e r I | 28 conditions were 40% more productive. Based on these studies, the cultivars Venezuela 51, Venezuela 52, Morada, Inamar and Aceitera were recommended for cultivation in the Northeast region of Brazil. However, these exotic cultivars, despite precocity and uniformity, did not show the adaptability and drought tolerance of the local types, which the producers preferred (ARRIEL et al., 2001). In Table 5 are the main traits of the sesame cultivars developed in Venezuela (MAZZANI, 1999).

Table 5. Brazilian traits of some dehiscent sesame cultivars developed in Venezuela. Cultivar Inamar Acarigua Aceitera Arawaca Venezuela 51 Glauca Venezuela 44 Venezuela 52 Píritu Caripucha Maporal Morada

Yield (kg/ha) 996 991 867 812 807 796 710 676 647 583

Harvest Maturity (days) 99 99 98 89 93 106 107 105 116 116 117 99

Capsules per Plant 42 49 43 37 48 51 52 49 41 43 44 42

Seed Color

1,000 Seed Weight (g)

Branching

Bc Bc Bc M Bc Bc Bc Bc O Bc B Bc

2.75 2.76 2.80 3.18 2.25 2.66 2.66 2.66 3.17 3.09 2.58 2.45

P A A P A P A P P A P P

Capsules per Leaf Axil >1 >1 >1 1 >1 >1 >1 >1 >1 >1 1 >1

Seed color: B = white, c = cream, M =mottled, O= dark. Branching: P = present, A = absent

Most of the dehiscent cultivars of sesame cultivated by Embrapa Algodão were developed for the Northeast region of Brazil, to micro-regions like Sertão and Seridó, with the exception of the cultivar BRS Seda, which is also adapted the Midwest and Southeast regions, in the States of Goiás, Distrito Federal, Mato Grosso and São Paulo (EMBRAPA, 2007). This cultivar can be planted in the Cerrado in January or February (as a second crop), after the harvest of the early soybeans, rice, or corn. In Table 6 are the main traits of the dehiscent cultivars produced by Embrapa (EMBRAPA, 2007).

C h a p t e r I | 29 Table 6. Traits of the dehiscent cultivars of sesame developed by Embrapa Algodão, Campina Grande, PB. Traits

CULTIVARS Seridó 1

CNPA G2

CNPA G3

CNPA G4

BRS Seda

High

Cream and grey

Cream

Light grey

Cream

White

Yield (kg/ha)

610

712

760

804

1,000

Flowering Start (days)

Crop Cycle (days)

130-140 (late)

100 (medium)

90-100 (medium)

90 (medium)

85-90 (early)

Plant Height (cm)

180 (high)

160 (medium)

155 (medium)

Oil Content (%)

50-53

48-50

50-52

1,000 Seed Weight (g)

3.0

2.0

2.2

3.1

3.22

Branching Type Capsules per Leaf Axil Seed Color

Table 7 shows the main traits of the three sesame cultivars developed by IAC. Savy Filho (2008) reported when cultivar IAC-Guatemala was grown in the Southeast region, its capsules were semi-dehiscent, providing a longer harvest period with lower losses. In experiments carried out in the Northeast region by Embrapa Algodão, in a high temperature environment, it was verified that the capsules had dehiscent behavior.

C h a p t e r I | 30 Table 7. Traits of the dehiscent cultivars of sesame developed by the Instituto AgronĂ´mico de Campinas (IAC), Campinas-SP. IAC-OURO (IAC-Gold)

IAC-CHINA

IAC-GUATEMALA

Release Year

1983

1993

1995

Average Growth Cycle (days)

110

125

120

Average Productivity (kg/ha)

1,000

Potential Productivity (kg/ha)

1,500

Flowering (days) Beginning Ending

30 80

35 90

Harvest Period (days) Start End

95 115

115 130

Dehiscent

Seed Color

Cream

Seed Shape

Obovoid

3.3

4.3

3.4

Single

Branched

Average Plant Height (cm)

150

175

165

Height of First Capsule (cm)

Green

Traits

Capsules

1000 Seed Weight (g) Harvest Branching Habit

Stem Color Average Oil Content (%)

Bennett (2004) recommended only the use of four sesame cultivars for Australian producers (Aussie Gold, Beech's Choice, Yori 77, and Edith, developed by Beech and Imrie); their traits are presented in Table 8. In Australia, the harvest method was combining direct while the sesame was standing dry in the field, with considerable seed loss. In order to accelerate dry down, they applied a desiccant (Reglone). However, there was still too much seed loss for an economic return. As a result, there is no longer any sesame grown in Australia (BENNETT, pers. commun, 2018).

C h a p t e r I | 31 Table 8. Some traits of dehiscent sesame cultivars from Australia. State of Queensland Traits

Northern Territory

Magwe Brown

Aussie Gold

Beech’s Choice

Yori 77

Edith

Yield (kg/ha)

800

1,000

1,100

1,500

Seed Size (g/1,000)

2.6

3.3

2.9

3.0

3.2

Oil Content (%)

Plant Height (cm)

116

119

Branches per Plant

4.2

3.8

4.2

1.5

0.1

Capsules per Leaf Axil

Days to Flowering

3.5.2 Indehiscent cultivars:

In Venezuela, D. G. Langham (1946) discovered a plant where the capsules did not open when they dried down (Figure 7). He reported the trait was governed by a recessive allele (id) and termed the trait ‘indehiscence’. There were other pleiotropic traits associated with the homozygous alleles: cupped leaves, cupped cotyledons, lack of fertility, enations on the ventral side of the leaves, enations on the flowers, and a twisted stem.

Figure 7. Indehiscent sesame capsules of Sesaco 01. Photo: Ray Langham.

C h a p t e r I | 32 The difference between dehiscent and indehiscent capsules is related to the number of cells of the mesocarp in the dehiscence zone. The indehiscent sesame cultivar has more layers of cells, an average of 11.6 layers in the dehiscence zone versus 1.3 layers in the dehiscent. The dehiscence of the fruit begins at the apex toward the base. The higher or lower speed of dehiscence of the capsules must be observed in the sesame plant, because there are cultivars whose capsules open quickly and lose the seeds, which fall to the ground, reducing the productivity of the crop (BELTRĂ&#x192;O et al., 2001, ASHRI; LADIZINSKI, 1964, DAY, 2000, MAZZANI; HOROVITZ, 1952).

In sesame, the anthers are below the stigma. The morning that the flower opens, the filaments push the anthers past the stigma as the anthers burst releasing their pollen (YERMANOS, 1980). D. G. Langham (1946) showed that the styles in the indehiscent plants were bent so that there was no natural rubbing of the anthers against the stigma. In studying the differences from Morada dehiscent and Morada indehiscent, Berlingeri (2000) reported the low fertility is mainly due to the reduced load of pollen on the stigma and smaller number of pollen tubes in the style, as well as the inability of the female organ to promote the growth of the pollen tubes. In addition, the indehiscent cultivar has a low reproductive efficiency, expressed by the smaller number of seeds per capsule and flowers per axil.

Mazzani; Horovitz (1952) reported the id allele was affected by modifier alleles and managed to develop genetic materials with high levels of indehiscence and good fertility. They hypothesized the modifiers are of simple effects, each one of them affecting a particular trait, but not all together, and as a consequence the effects related to fertility could be improved without losing the indehiscence of the capsules. The modifiers can substantially alter the fertility of the indehiscent cultivars, in some cases to the extent of observing an absence of correlation between the capsule opening and the seed yield (DELGADO et al., 1994). Over the years, there have been indehiscent lines with no twisted stems, no enations on the flowers, reduced enations on the ventral side of the leaf, and reduced cupping of the leaves and cotyledons. Where it used to be easy to find segregating indehiscent plants among the normal plants, it now often requires either turning over several leaves looking for enations or waiting until the capsules dry (LANGHAM, 2017). On waiting for the capsule to open, there are indehiscent cultivars

C h a p t e r I | 33 where the tip of the capsule will open, but the extra layers of cells prevent the capsules from splitting the full length of the capsules (YERMANOS, 1984).

Since the discovery of the first indehiscent mutant, breeders have emphasized the development of cultivars that adapt to mechanical harvesting. The development of new cultivars that retain the seeds after maturation could be achieved through the management of the following trait: capsule indehiscence and/or seeds strongly adhered to the placenta or paper shell capsules (ARRIEL et al., 2001).

Although the id alleles have been used in breeding programs all over the world since the 1940s, few indehiscent cultivars have been grown commercially. In Venezuela, since the discovery of the indehiscent mutant of sesame, backcrossing as a breeding method has been used in this cultivation with great success in Venezuela (MAZZANI et al., 1975). According to Montilla et al. (1990) through the crossbreeding between commercial cultivars and indehiscent types, using the latter as donor, the indehiscent Morada and indehiscent Inamar cultivars (Table 9) were obtained.

Table 9. Main traits of indehiscent Morada and indehiscent Inamar sesame cultivars planted in the State of Portuguesa, Venezuela (MAZZANI, 1999). Yield (kg/ha)

Harvest Maturity (days)

Seed Color

1,000 Seed Weight (g)

Branching

Capsules per Leaf Axil

Ind. Inamar

<600

112

2.55

Ind. Morada

<600

2.45

Cultivar

Seed color: B = white, c = cream. Branching: P = present.

In the United States, indehiscent cultivars have been developed for mechanical harvesting. M.L. Kinman developed Rio, Baco and Delco, all of which were grown commercially in Texas. E. Whitely, O. Smith, and G. McBee developed Ë&#x2014; Improved Baco, SW-16, and SW-17, which were later called Eli and Roy, but were never grown commercially (Table 10). D.M. Yermanos developed R234, which was grown on limited acres in California. Sesaco released Sesaco 1, which was planted for one year in Arizona (LANGHAM, 2001).

C h a p t e r I | 34 Table 10. Seed yield (kg/ha) and cultivar traits of the indehiscent sesame plants planted in Lubbock, Texas (OPLINGER, 1990). Cultivar

Yield (kg/ha)

Seed Color

Height

Maturity

Baco

1,760

Brown

Medium

SW-16

2,080

Cream

Medium

SW-17

1,260

Cream

Medium

Plant Height: Low: <90 cm; Medium = 90- 150 cm.; High >150cm. Maturity: Early = 90-105; Medium = 106-120; Late = >120 days

There are 2 primary reasons why indehiscent cultivars have not been used extensively in commercial plantings: (1) Although the fertility issues have been resolved and the potential yield is comparable to dehiscent cultivars, it is very difficult to get all of the seed out of the capsules, resulting in poor actual yields. (2) In setting combines to get more seed out by increasing rotor speed and closing the concaves, there is more damage to the seed. The seed normally has >50% oil and the damages lead to cracks in the seed coat and increases of free fatty acids over time, which leads to rancidity. The germination is also reduced over time (LANGHAM, 2019).

In order to solve the problem of the mechanized harvesting of sesame, the breeding sector of Embrapa AlgodĂŁo will be launching in Brazil its first indehiscent cultivar (white seed) in 2022. In addition, this sector is evaluating another 4 progenies with this same trait.

There are two other closed capsule traits: seamless (Figure 8) and C+1 (Figure 9).

C h a p t e r I | 35

Figure 8. Seamless capsule. Note no suture line for the capsule to open. Photo: Ray Langham.

Figure 9. C+1 capsule will open slightly if left to dry on the plant, but will stay closed if cut green. Photo: Wasana Wongyai.

In 1986, the Langhams discovered a different type of closed mutant. Work over the next two years showed the condition to be a recessive, and the allele was termed GS/gs. The capsule was termed ‘seamless’ because there was no suture. Although this capsule was even more ‘papershell’ than the indehiscent capsules, it still was difficult to open in the combine. Hundreds of crosses were made and evaluated. There also were fertility issues that were resolved through breeding, but there was not enough yield to compete with the dehiscent lines. Work was continued to 1990 but has since been abandoned (LANGHAM, 2019).

W. Wongyai in Thailand discovered the C+1 non-shattering allele (WONGYAI; CHOWCHONG, 2003). C+1 is a stabilized cultivar from a cross between a shattering line (KUds6111) and a direct harvest sesame line (Sesaco 20). Upon drydown, the capsules do not open, and yet they release the seed easily when threshed with a soybean thresher. The hold is different from the S20 hold where the capsules open at the tip when they dry down, and they hold the seed through placenta attachment. When the C+1 capsules open, there is no placenta attachment, and the seed easily flows out of the capsule. In the US where the plants are left standing in the field until they dry down enough to result in 6% moisture seed in the combine, the C+1 capsules will eventually open before the crop is dry enough for harvest and release the seed. In a wind, with no placenta attachment, most of the seed comes out of the capsules and is lost. However, if the plants are cut and shocked at physiological maturity, as in Thailand, the capsules do

C h a p t e r I | 36 not open even when the plants are fully dry until they are threshed. Crossing proved that the C+1 non-shattering allele is different from the indehiscent allele even though morphologically they resemble each other in terms of extra layers of cells along the suture. Kotcha et al. (2012a) reported C+1 shatter resistance is controlled by two pairs of alleles with duplicate dominant epistasis and duplicate recessive epistasis, respectively. Kotcha et al. (2012b) reported as with the indehiscent allele, there were additional parenchyma cells in the mesocarp (LANGHAM, 2019).

3.5.3 Non-dehiscent cultivars:

The non-dehiscent and improved non-dehiscent cultivars of sesame (Figure 10) from Sesaco Corporation were patented in the USA (LANGHAM, 2000; LANGHAM, 2011). In many areas, the crop stops flowering, matures, and dries down in the field naturally. In the northern range, a frost or freeze can accelerate the process. In the southern range, the use of a desiccant is recommended to accelerate the harvesting at harvest maturity, (LANGHAM et al., 2008). Although the plants remain in the field to dry until reaching the maximum moisture of 6% of the seeds (equivalent to 12% of corn), they will still keep most of the seeds inside the capsule (seeds retained by the placenta of the capsule and 5 other traits). The main traits of the non-dehiscent cultivars are presented in Table 11.

Figure 10. Non-dehiscent sesame capsules with higher retention of seeds in the capsule. Photos: Ray Langham and Jay S. Simon.

C h a p t e r I | 37 Table 11. Main agronomic traits of sesame cultivars with non-dehiscent capsules (seed retention in the capsule) produced by Sesaco Corporation. Texas, USA (LANGHAM, 2015). Trait

Year/nursery

S28

S32

S35

S36

S37

S38

S39

Branching Style

All

Capsules per Leaf Axil

All

Adjusted PM

100

101

103

2008-2013 UV

All

B1M

Height of Plant (cm)

2013 UV

126

120

129

141

126

135

Height of First Capsule (cm)

2013 UV

Capsule Zone Length (cm)

2013 UV

Number of Capsule Node pairs

2013 UV

Average Internode Length within Capsule Zone (cm)

2013 UV

2.8

2.4

2.8

3.3

3.0

1.7

3.0

2013 UV

1,504

1,485

1,647

1,570

1,664

1,487

1,347

2013 RH

1,265

1,109

1,261

1,416

1,490

1,388

1,539

5th – 2008 UV

23.0

25.5

10th – 2008 UV

18.0

18.3

15th – 2008 UV

13.7

14.1

5th – 2008 UV

13.8

14.8

10th – 2008 UV

14.4

14.7

15th – 2008 UV

11.5

12.2

5th – 2008 UV

18.0

13.8

10th – 2008 UV

3.6

3.0

15th – 2008 UV

2.0

1.6

5th – 2008 UV

9.2

10.7

Maturity Class

Plant Phenotype

Yield at Drydown (kg/ha)

Tolerance to Drought

Leaf Length (cm)

Leaf Blade Length (cm)

Leaf Blade Width (cm)

Petiole Length (cm)

C h a p t e r I | 38 Trait

Year/nursery

S28

S32

S35

S36

S37

S38

S39

10th – 2008 UV

3.6

15th – 2008 UV

2.3

2.0

All

Capsule Length (cm)

1997-2011 All

2.27

2.14

2.20

2.19

2.10

2.31

1.96

Seed Weight per Capsule (g)

1997-2011 All

0.228

0.219

0.197

0.228

0.225

0.244

0.209

Capsule Weight per Capsule (g)

1997-2011 All

0.163

0.148

0.128

0.153

0.156

0.167

0.143

Capsule Weight per cm of Capsule (g)

1997-2011 All

0.072

0.069

0.058

0.070

0.074

0.072

0.073

Visual Shatter Resistance

All

1997-2011 All

75.2

74.8

71.1

77.6

71.1

81.6

65.7

Capsule Shattering Type

All

Non-dehiscent Test

All

7.08

7.44

7.37

7.29

7.33

Number of Carpels per Capsule

Shaker Shatter Resistance (%)

Improved Non-dehiscent Visual Rating

2011 UV 2011 LO

6.67

7.00

7.48

7.25

7.22

7.00

All

IND

Days to Flowering

2011 UV

Days to Flower Termination

2011 UV

Days to Physiological Maturity

2011 UV

102

100

101

103

101

107

2007 UV

7.0

6.2

2007 LO

5.3

7.1

All

Seed Weight – 100 Seeds from the entire plant

1997-2012 All

0.293

0.284

0.302

0.315

0.284

0.305

0.297

Composite Kill Tolerance

2011-2013 All

7.0

6.5

6.8

6.6

6.3

6.9

6.7

Tolerance to Fusarium Wilt (F. oxysporum)

Tolerance to Phytophtora Stem Rot (P. parasitica)

Improved Non-dehiscent Test

Days to Direct Harvest

Lodging Tolerance

Seed Color

C h a p t e r I | 39 Trait

Year/nursery

Tolerance to Charcoal Rot (Macrophomina phaseoli)

S28

S32

S35

S36

S37

S38

S39

Tolerance to Bacterial Black Rot (Pseudomonas sesami)

2010 LO

7.0

5.0

6.3

5.3

7.0

Tolerance to Silverleaf Whitefly (Bemisia argentifolii)

2011 PR

5.0

5.7

4.0

6.0

Tolerance to Green Peach Aphid (Myzus persicae)

2004 UV

7.9

5.5

Tolerance to Pod Borer (Heliothis spp.)

2001 UV

NEC

PY/

2010 UV

52.9

52.4

51.7

53.5

53.2

53.1

53.5

2011 UV

52.0

53.7

54.1

53.5

51.9

52.5

50.5

Tolerance to Army Worms (Spodoptera spp.) Tolerance to Cabbage Loopers (Pieris rapae)

2007 LO

Presence of pygmy alleles All

Oil content (%) - Locations of testing: UV = Uvalde, Texas, LO = Lorenzo, Texas, RH = Rio Hondo, Texas, PR = Puerto Rico - B = true branches; U = uniculm (no true branches); UV = Uvalde nursery; M = medium maturity class of 95-104 days; B1M = phenotype of true branches, single capsules per leaf axil, and medium maturity class of 95-104 days; U1M = phenotype of uniculm, single capsules per leaf axil, and medium maturity class of 95-104 days; LO = Lorenzo nursery; NT = not tested; W = weather visual seed retention >75%; SR = shatter resistant; ND = non-dehiscent; ZZ = not improved non-dehiscent; IND = improved nondehiscent; BF = buff color; and NEC = no economic damage - not enough disease or insects to do ratings; PY/PY = absence of pygmy alleles. The different yields of the crop were influenced by planting seasons, meteorological conditions, crop management, soil moisture, and fertility. - The different yields of the crop were influenced by planting seasons, meteorological conditions, crop management, soil moisture, and fertility.

C h a p t e r I | 40 3.6. CLIMATE AND SOILS

Sesame is a plant with a high level of adaptability, being currently cultivated in many locations between 25ยบS and 30ยบN, in areas with elevation up to 1,250 m, average air temperatures between 23ยบC to 40ยบC, and annual rainfall between 0 and 850 mm. The majority of sesame is grown without irrigation.

The ideal soils for its cultivation are deep, with sandy loam texture, well-drained, and with good natural fertility. The plant prefers soils with neutral pH close to 7. It does not perform well at high acidity (pH < 5.5), or high alkalinity, (pH > 8.0). The soils should have 50% of solid volume, being 45% mineral matter, 5% organic matter and 50% porosity, of which 33.5% are microspores (water storage) and the remaining 16.5% are macrospores (air storage), including oxygen, vital element for the respiration of the plants (KIEHL, 1979). The sesame is extremely sensitive to deficiency or temporary lack of oxygen in the soil (BELTRร O et al., 1994), caused by the compaction of the edaphic environment. This substantially reduces the macroporosity (pores with diameter above 50 microns) due to the destruction of soil aggregates (PRIMAVESI, 1985). The excess of water also leads to the absence of oxygen in the edaphic environment, technically denominated anoxia. Even when it is temporary, the anoxia has harmful consequences for the plant metabolism, especially concerning nutrient absorption and carbohydrate metabolism in the roots, with the onset of fermentation (MENGEL; KIRKBY, 1979). Most sesame is not tolerant of waterlogging.

With a taproot, the sesame plant is resistant to hydrological stress; however, if there is a good distribution of rainfall (500 mm) during its growth period, the yield can be greater than 1,000 kg/ha. The optimal distribution would be: a full moisture profile at planting, 35% from germination to flowering, 45% during flowering, 20% during the period of capsule formation and maturation and no rain (0%) in the harvest period (QUEIROGA et al. 2007).

The topography of the soil can vary from flat to undulating, as long as in flat areas there is no problem of waterlogging and in the undulating or uneven, conservation practices are observed and adopted to avoid soil erosion. That is, the soil preparation must be in level curve (Figure 11).

C h a p t e r I | 41

Figure 11. Soil preparation on level curve in undulating terrain. Photo 1: Diego Antonio Nóbrega and photo 2: Vicente de Paula Queiroga.

3.7. SOIL PREPARATION

The correct preparation of the soil for sesame cultivation plays an important role in seed germination, due to its small size, and in the subsequent slow initial growth and development, especially in the first 25 days after seedling emergence (MAZZANI, 1983; BELTRÃO et al., 1994).

Sesame needs well-prepared soil, conventionally, either with the use of plowing and harrowing, or with minimum preparation techniques. The important thing to prepare the soil is the proper use of agricultural machinery and implements for each type of soil and the operation done in appropriated time. Sandy or sandy loam soils, which have already been worked on many times, only require one or two harrowing operations in the preparation (Figure 12).

Figure 12. Preparation of the soil for the planting of sesame only with harrow. Photo: José da Cunha Medeiros.

C h a p t e r I | 42

In relation to depth, relief, degree of structure and textural class, two basic procedures can be adopted for soil preparation, with the goal of keeping the soil more productive, increasing weed control, and storing moisture (BELTRĂ&#x192;O et al., 2001). For dry soil, it is necessary initially to incorporate the crop residues and late weeds with the use of harrow that is neither too heavy nor a plow. Then, the plow is used at a depth of 20-30 cm, depending on the soil. The sesame is then planted at the beginning of the rains. For moist soil, a similar technique is used: the crop residues and weeds are incorporated using a chain harrow (Figure 13) or a light harrow. Between seven and fifteen days after the incorporation, a deep plowing is done. Depending on the type of soil, moldboard plow is used, avoiding the use of a heavy plow (Figure 14).

Figure 13. Incorporation of crop Figure 14. The use of the plow in soil residues in moist soil with the harrow. preparation should be avoided. Photo: Odilon Photo: Odilon Reny Ribeiro Ferreira Reny Ribeiro Ferreira da Silva. da Silva.

The soil should not be compacted and weed control should be strict in the first 45 days after the sowing. The use of heavy plow and soils with lots of clods should be avoided as they hamper sowing and germination uniformity. In second crops after rice or corn, light harrows are recommended to incorporate crop residues to a depth between 10 and 20 cm.

The depth of soil preparation should be modified in each cultivation period. If the compacted layer is less than 30 cm deep, it can be broken with moldboard or chisel plow (Figure 15), (CASTRO; LOMBARDI NETO, 1992). When mold boarding is well done, there is total burial of the crop and weed residues. The moldboard plow produces a soil inversion better than the disc plow (Figure 16), but it does not work well in soils with

C h a p t e r I | 43 obstacles, such as stones and stumps, if there are no safety mechanisms, such as automatic disarming. The disc plow is less vulnerable to these obstructions, because the rotating movement of the discs causes them to rotate over the soil and vegetation, cutting them off (GADANHA JĂ&#x161;NIOR et al., 1991).

Figure 15. Soil preparation with a moldboard or a chisel plow. Photos: Odilon Reny Ribeiro Ferreira da Silva.

Figure 16. Soil preparation with disc plow. Photo: Odilon Reny Ribeiro Ferreira.

Subsoiling is used to loosen compacted layers of the soil, without causing inversion of these layers but should only be recommended when there is a very hardened layer at depths not reached by other implements (Figure 17). To optimize penetration into the soil, some subsoilers allow the tilt adjustment of the rods, at the lower end of which there is a tip that can have several shapes, according to the manufacturer's design and the degree of soil compaction (GADANHA JĂ&#x161;NIOR et al., 1991; ALOISI et al., 1992). The chisel plow is similar to a subsoiler, but it works at shallower depths, demanding less effort from the tractor to perform agricultural operations.

C h a p t e r I | 44

Figure 17. The difference between a chisel (left) and subsoiler (right) is the depth of the operation. The number per tool bar is determined by the soil type and the power of the tractor pulling the implement. Photos: Odilon Reny Ribeiro Ferreira da Silva and from sweettractors.com.

In the Northeast region of Brazil there are frequent failures in establishing the proper population between sowing and seedling emergence due to rains. In Venezuela, due to the small seed size furrows and ridges with rectangular surface are recommended for mechanized sowing (Figure 18). This is important in regions subject to extended drought or in the case of soil with very hardened crust (FONAIAP, 1988).

Figure 18. Preparation of furrow and ridge with rectangular surface by means of an adapted furrower and the sesame crop in seedling stage (left) and in plant stage (right) in advanced vegetative growth. Photos: Ray Langham.

C h a p t e r I | 45 This adopted technology of furrow and ridge with a rectangular surface is prepared with an adapted furrower (blade on the furrowing wings), which has allowed to reach the establishment of adequate populations of seedlings in a short period of time (Figure 19). Beds have two advantages: (1) In heavy rains, the water runs in the furrow reducing the danger of waterlogging. (2) In rainfed areas, the moisture is accumulated in the bed in rains allowing the planter to pull off the dry soil and plant into the moisture when there is no planting rain. (FONAIAP, 1988).

Figure 19. Preparation of furrow and ridge with convex surface through furrower. Photos: Ricardo Cardias and Tiago Oliveira Silva; Vicente de Paula Queiroga.

In addition to the spacing of 0.60 m between furrows, the planter used in Figure 20 will have to be adjusted so that the sowing discs (seed discharge) match the center of the ridge, not forgetting their graduation at the desired depth of 3 cm.

Figure 20. The mechanized sowing of sesame on the beds in Venezuela. Photo: Diego Antonio Nรณbrega.

C h a p t e r I | 46 3.8. SEED COATING PROCESS

The seeds of sesame are characterized by their small size, low weight and irregular shape, which hinders their individualization and distribution, both in the manual and mechanical process of sowing (BELTRĂ&#x192;O et al., 2001). Direct precision sowing is extremely important for producers to achieve a homogeneous population of plants. This operation is facilitated when the small sesame seeds are coated (one seed per unit), to increase their weight and size so they can flow easily in the planter (Figure 21).

Figure 21. Angle of inclination of 30Âş of the drum for the covering of sesame seeds (rotation 40 rpm). Regular (right) and coated (left) sesame seeds used for precision sowing. Photos: 1.Vicente de Paula Queiroga; 2. Joao Henrique Zonta.

The mechanized system for distribution of coated seeds (Figure 22) is a precision method widely used for sowing small seeds in high technology crops, allowing the tractor to work at great speed (MAZZANI, 1999).

Figure 22. Mechanized sowing with coated sesame seeds. Photo 1: Bruno Mazzani and photo 2: Joao Henrique Zonta.

C h a p t e r I | 47 It was with this technology that Spain managed to expand the production area of beet for sugar extraction, aiming to meet the entire demand of the product consumed by its population (Figure 23).

Figure 23. Regular and coated beet seeds used by producers in Spain. Photo: Vicente de Paula Queiroga.

With the use of coated sesame seeds, the production costs are reduced because it reduces the seed consumption by reducing the number of seeds planted, and it eliminates the practice of thinning. In the majority of the world, the sesame is thinned between 7 and 30 days after planting, nominally 14 days. Some base the thinning time on the number of leaves or the seedling height. If there is no thinning, the plants will have thin, weak stems and may lean over. Once they bend down, they may eventually turn up, but the twist in the stem is not good. Two to three plants should be left in a group because with one, an insect may destroy it. If there are insects, the thinning should be delayed until insecticides have cleared the problem. There are some weed seedlings that look like the sesame seedlings leading to confusion and pulling sesame seedlings while leaving some weed seedlings. A second thinning may be necessary (LANGHAM, 2018c).

In addition to this, the possibility of incorporation of nutrients and other agrochemicals (fungicides and insecticides) during the coating process can cause improvements in seed health and seedling establishment (SUAREZ, 1995). Chung; Choi (1992) reported the incidence of sesame damping off caused by Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. sesami in Korea was reduced by coating seed with 3 isolates of Trichoderma viride or Benlate [benomyl]. V. Paramasivam et al. (2003) reported pelletizing sesame the seed with micronutrients (gypsum + Ammonium molybdate + ZnSO4 + MnSO4 + Borax, 300 mg each per kg of seed - with adhesive 10 % maida), had comparable germinations as the control and increased yield substantially.

C h a p t e r I | 48 Although the seed coating technique was developed several years ago, there is little information regarding the composition of the materials used and the coating process of the seeds. Seed companies (e.g., the company of Pelotas-RS: rigran@rigran.com) keep this information confidential. According to Mazzani (1999), plantings of sesame seeds with and without coating were compared, and he concluded that field results showed the uncoated seeds had slightly better germination (Table 12). Although the germination of the coated seed was lower, it was an acceptable rate.

Table 12. Germination results of regular and coated sesame seeds in field conditions. Germination Percentage (%) Seed Type

3 days

6 days

Regular Seeds

Coated Seeds

79.5

93.5

Basically, in the process of seed coating, successive layers of dry and inert material (powder) are applied inside a kind of cement mixer in constant movement, giving the seeds rounded shape, larger mass and smooth finish. This facilitates their distribution and handling, especially of the very small, rough or deformed ones. Several adhesive products have already been tested on the coating of small seeds. The following have had no adverse effects on germination and seedling growth: compound of water-soluble cellulosic material, water-soluble starch, methylcellulose (Methocel), gum arabic plus sucrose, and cellulose plus wood pulp hemi-cellulose (QUEIROGA et al., 2007).

According to Suarez (1995), the coating of sesame seeds has been shown to be an efficient method to achieve better management of the material by common planting equipment (hand-jab planter, animal and motor traction planters; Figure 24). With the launch of the first indehiscent cultivar of sesame developed by Embrapa AlgodĂŁo, planned for the end of 2022, it is possible that the seed coating technology may become a part of the production system.

C h a p t e r I | 49

Figure 24. Planting of coated sesame seeds in the following methods: manual, animal and with tractor. Photo: Odilon Reny Ribeiro Ferreira da Silva.

Suarez (1995) studied a polished spherical encapsulation of Aceitera seed, with size between 3.25and 4 mm in diameter, with humidity of 8.2% and weight increase from 1 kg of regular seeds to 16 kg of coated seeds. After 4 years of storage in hermetic packaging, the initial germination of 93% was re-evaluated on germitest paper and the result dropped to 78%. In a study carried out with cotton seeds, in the laboratory, Queiroga et al. (2007) observed that there were no losses in the physiological quality of the coated seeds, even though they presented a distinct layer of powder enveloping the seeds, because the coating layer broke off easily in a short amount of time when the seeds came into contact with the humidity of the filter paper during the germination process (Figure 25).

6 hours

12 hours

C h a p t e r I | 50

24 hours

48 hours

Figure 25. Coated cottonseeds (with and without coloring) at 6 to 48 hours after contact with the moisture of the filter paper. Photos: Vicente de Paula Queiroga.

3.9. SPACING, CULTIVAR SELECTION, AND SOWING PERIOD

The most common spacings used for sesame cultivation are between 0.7 and 1.0 m between rows, with 10 to 12 plants per linear meter, but for the mechanized cultivation some producers have used spacing from 0.3 m up to 0.73 m between rows. Branched cultivars do better in wider spacing and unbranched cultivars do better in narrower spacing (MAZZANI, 1999).

Depending on the spacing and the depth, the seeding rate ranges from 2 to 6 kg/ha according to the stand to be achieved, the planting equipment, the environment, and herbicides. Because the seeds are small, the maximum depth should be 3 cm to not prevent the emergence of seedlings and maintain an ideal stand. In manual planting with the handjab planter, the planting lines should be sparse, leaving 8 to 10 plants per meter (BELTRĂ&#x192;O et al., 1989).

In the other regions of Brazil, especially in the Midwest and Southeast, where the rainy season is well defined, the sesame can be used as the first or second crop, depending on the producer's rotations. There needs to be a synchrony between the cycle of the cultivar and the rainy season, so that the harvest is done in the dry season, to produce the best quality. For the mentioned regions, the Instituto AgronĂ´mico de Campinas (IAC) recommends planting the IAC-Ouro, IAC-China and IAC-Guatemala cultivars in the

C h a p t e r I | 51 period from October to November and from January to February. These cultivars are recommended as a second crop because they have good drought tolerance (SAVY FILHO, 2008).

In the semi-arid region of the Brazilian Northeast, especially in the city of São Francisco de Assis from Piauí, PI, the sesame was cultivated on January 28 and 29 of 2008, in areas where rainfall ranged between 300 and 500 mm. The delay of 30 days in the planting season (late February) between the Units of Test and Demonstration (UTDs) significantly reduced crop productivity from 680 kg/ha to 200 kg/ha, according to the results obtained in UTDs by Queiroga et al. (2008).

3.10. FERTILIZATION AND LIMING

Sesame does not tolerate acid soils, so the correction of the acidity is necessary. The species is demanding in macro and micro nutrients, and as second crop, one should take maximum advantage of cultivation residues to minimize the costs with chemical fertilizers.

Fertilization and liming for sesame should be done according to the chemical analysis of the soil. The limestone should be applied to raise the base saturation to 70% and the magnesium content to a minimum of 5 mmolc/dm³. Savy Filho (2008), recommended the following fertilization levels (Table 13) in accordance with soil analysis.

Table 13. Fertilizer recommendation for sesame according to the chemical analysis of the soil.

Element

Result of Chemical Analysis

Nitrogen, N

Quantity, N kg/ha

Quantity, Quantity, P2O5 K2 O kg/ha kg/ha

Phosphorus, P resin (mg/dm3)

0-6 7-15 16-40 >40

Potassium, K+ exchangeable (mmolc/dm3)

0-0.7 0.8-1.5 1.6-3.0 >3.0

80 60 40 20 60 40 20 20

C h a p t e r I | 52 Once the acidity of the soil is verified by the determination of pH and the dosage of exchangeable aluminum, the limestone should be applied. The preference is dolomitic, which has 25 to 30% of CaO and more than 12% of MgO, or the magnesia limestone, which has 31% to 39% CaO and 6% to 12% MgO. The limestone should be uniformly applied and then incorporated to the depth of 20 cm. This operation should be performed at least 2 months before planting (SANTOS; HERNANDEZ, 1997).

In the case of gypsum, which is used to correct sodium soils and saline-sodium soils with high pH, the sulfate radical released from the hydrolysis favors the lowering of the pH, forming hydrated sodium sulfate, which is leached, thus reducing the problem of sodium in the soil (SANTOS; HERNANDEZ, 1997).

3.11. PLANTING SYSTEMS

To make this operation easier and cheaper, in order to serve the family producers, a technician from Vรกrzea-PB developed a manual seeder (or by animal traction as shown in Figure 26), based on carrot planting equipment. For better performance of the seeder, the soil should be well prepared and free of clods, rocks and vegetation. In these conditions, the two-row or three-row seeder (Figure 27) has the capacity to plant 4 to 5 ha in one working day, and eliminates the need to thin (QUEIROGA et al., 2008).

Figure 26. Simple seeder based on carrot planter is able to produce an even stand. When drawn by horse, more area can be covered in a day. Photos by Luiz Leme and Vicente de Paula Queiroga.

C h a p t e r I | 53

Figure 27. Thick sesame field (45 cm between rows) irrigated by spraying in the municipality of Bom Sucesso, PB. It was planted by a three line seeder pulled by the animal, with capacity to sow 4 to 5 ha per day. Photos: Vicente de Paula Queiroga.

With mechanized planting, well-prepared soil, and the use of high quatlity seeds (98% purity and germination >95%) the Embrapa Algodão successfully installed a sesame field at the Experimental Station of Embrapa Algodão in Missão Velha, CE. Only a small adaptation was made in the planter of the brand Semeato (Figure 28), for planting 90 cm spacing between rows, and 12 to 15 plants per linear meter, without thinning. For the planting of small sesame seeds, the plates recommended by the manufacturer for delinted cotton seeds were used. This adaptation consisted of closing the holes of the plates with epoxy resin and then opening all of them again with drill and 0.6-inch drill bit, for the sesame planting. Another option would be to order manufacture of a new set of plates with smaller holes.

Figure 28. Planting of sesame seeds in an adapted planter in the field test of the Experimental Station of Embrapa Algodão from Missão Velha, CE. Photo: Tarcísio Marcos de Souza Gondim.

C h a p t e r I | 54 The pneumatic system of seed distribution is a high-tech precision method, and it is widely used for the sowing of sesame seeds, allowing the work to be done at high speed (Figure 29). It is a much more expensive technology than the ones of traditional methods, since it requires the power take-off of the tractor for its activation, besides requiring permanent care of the air tightness and adjustments in the seed selection. There are several constructive forms; the most common consists of a vertical plate with lateral suction, in which the internal surface is in contact with a seed container and the external one is covered by a layer where the suction is created through a turbine, unique for all the seeding elements. The suction is responsible for the adhesion of the seeds to the holes of the plate, dragging them to a discharge zone, when the suction disappears, and the seeds fall by gravity into the furrow. To prevent suction from carrying several seeds into the hole, there is a toothed claw of adjustable position that limits the number of seeds to be selected to one. The holes in the plate are smaller than the seed; for horticultural seeds there are holes whose diameter varies between 0.4 and 2 mm. The number of seeds per linear meter is regulated by the number of holes in the plate and the distance crossed by the drive wheel for each turn of the plate (SILVA et al., 2001).

Figure 29. Sesame planting with tractor by the pneumatic system of seed distribution. Photo: Jerry Riney.

In addition, rotation on an annual basis with cotton, sorghum, beans, soybeans, and corn crops, USA producers use no-till planting of sesame in rotation with wheat, using a planter with as many as 24 seed lines (Figure 30). This machine has a special flat disc on the front to cut the weeds and to open a very thin furrow to place the fertilizer. It also has another conjugated disc of smooth edge to open the sowing furrow and a double disc inclined system to deposit the seeds. And, in the final part, there is a system to cover and

C h a p t e r I | 55 press the furrow formed by the two inclined wheels (JOHN DEERE HARVESTER WORKS, 1992)

Figure 30. Direct sowing of sesame by the pneumatic system of seed distribution in rotation with wheat. Photo: Jimmy Meeks

China has developed a planting technology that involves vinyl strips (Figure 31). The seed is planted into the strip, and in areas with irrigation a drip line is laid down as the material is planted. The vinyl keeps weeds from germinating in and close to the seed line. Korea is also planting under vinyl not only for weed control, but also to raise the soil temperature to allow for earlier planting (LANGHAM, 2019).

Figure 31. In China, plastic technology is increasing. The plastic and drip line are laid down by the tractors while the seed is being planted. Areas are left open for rainfall to penetrate the soil, and these areas can be cultivated. These furrows also provide space for tractor tires while spraying herbicides or insecticides. Photos: Q. Wang.

C h a p t e r I | 56

3.12. HERBICIDES

Sesame is considered a broadleaf plant (dicotyledon), similar to other species like sunflower, cotton, beans and soybeans. Therefore, most of the herbicides used in the same areas of the respective cultures prior to the planting of sesame as second crop, will not cause problem to this subsequent planting. If there have been failures with the harvesting of the previous crop, potential problems may occur with later field of sesame (LANGHAM et al., 2008).

The chemical control of weeds through herbicides must consider several factors, among them the textural composition of the soil and organic matter content. Soils with low clay content (less than 15%) and low content of organic matter (less than 2%) should receive lower doses than soils with high clay content (above 35%) and with high content of organic matter (above 4%). It is also important to know the predominant types of weeds (BELTRĂ&#x192;O; VIEIRA, 2001).

The herbicides (diuron, pendimethalin, and alachlor) tested on sesame are mostly preemergent. The producer should prepare the area, plant in moist soil and then apply the herbicide. The herbicides diuron and pendimethalin were tested in pre-emergence, on non-calcified Bruno soil with sandy loam texture. Under these conditions, the dosages of 0.50 a.i.kg/ha of diuron + 0.75 a.i. kg/ha of pendimethalin provided a good level of weed control. In Vertisol soil type with a clayey texture, besides the herbicides mentioned above, the alachlor has been used. The following dosages were sufficient for an excellent level of weed control: 0.75 a.i. kg/ha of diuron + 1.25 a.i. kg of pendimethalin or 0.75 a.i.

C h a p t e r I | 57 kg/ha diuron) + 1.44 a.i. kg/ha alachlor). Under these conditions, the cost of chemical weeding provided an average reduction of 73% in relation to the cost of manual weeding done with a hoe (BELTRĂ&#x192;O; VIEIRA, 2001).

When the herbicide is used on sesame, care must be taken to cover the sesame seeds with dirt, so they donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t get too close to the surface (1 to 1.5 cm). Depending on the chemical and physical characteristics of the herbicide, leaching may happen; consequently, the product may come into contact with the seeds and damage them. According to Weiss (1983), the ideal is to place the seeds from 3 cm deep and this adjustment will depend on the soil type.

According to Saad (1972), the important thing is to use the right herbicide for each different situation, which involves dosages, time of application and mixture flow, with the sprayer in full operating state and calibrated, with the type of nozzle recommended for the product formulation as well as the best filter to be used.

Based on the size of the planted area, the herbicide can be applied by different types of mechanical sprayers (SAAD, 1972; Figure 32). The choice of this equipment by the producer is mostly financial. Its use is restricted to the herbicide products only, because many producers do not know how to wash it properly, in order to use it correctly in pest control with insecticides.

Figure 32. Pre-emergence herbicide applications on the sesame crop with the following equipment: A) manual sprayer with pumping system driven by wheels, B) animal traction sprayer with pumping system driven by wheels, and C) tractor with spray bar applying the pre-emergence herbicide after sowing in the sesame field. C Photo: Ray Langham.

C h a p t e r I | 58 Langham et al. (2018c) reviewed the international herbicide research and the herbicide recommendations in grower manuals. Weeds have been a problem for sesame producers for the 5,500 years that the crop has been grown. Traditionally, sesame has been grown on small farms with enough manual labor available to hand weed. In the last century, farms are increasing in size, and labor is moving to the cities. Without labor, weeds are the number 1 problem for sesame producers across the world. Since the 1950s, 132 herbicides and 58 herbicide combinations have been tested in 36 countries. Except for some postemergence grass herbicides, all current and potential commercial herbicides do some damage to sesame, even though in many cases the plants recover. To date, there have been no efforts to add GMO genes to make sesame resistant to a specific mode of action. The major sesame markets are health-conscious, and that population rejects GMOs. To compound the labor shortage, the cost of labor is increasing to the point that using herbicides that reduce yield is more cost effective since weeds can reduce yield even more than herbicides. Table 14 summarizes the weed research. Some of the commercial uses may not be current. The potential uses are from research and may be commercial at this point in some country.

Table 14. The herbicides that are used or have the potential to be used in some country of the world. Commercial use

Potential use

BURN - burndown Applied before planting to kill existing weeds. Some may be applied with the PRE.

2,4-D or 2,4-DB Glyphosate Paraquat Pyraflufen

Carfentrazone Fluroxypyr Glufosinate

PPxx â&#x20AC;&#x201C; preplant xx days Applied xx days before planting to suppress weeds from emerging to keep a field free of weeds. Some may kill existing weeds.

Ethalfluralin

Diuron Linuron Pendimethalin Trifluralin Thifensulfuron + tribenuron

PRE - preemergence Applied within 36 hours of planting to suppress weeds from emerging. Preplant incorporation (PPI) is included in this group since they are normally applied within days of planting.

Acetochlor Alachlor Alachlor + diuron Alachlor + linuron Diphenamid Diuron Diuron + linuron Diuron + pendimethalin

Bensulide Pyroxasulfone S-metolachlor + diuron S-metolachlor + linuron

C h a p t e r I | 59 Commercial use EPTC Ethalfluralin Fluchloralin Fluometuron Imazaquin Linuron Metobromuron + Metolachlor Norea Pendimethalin Prometryn S-metolachlor Thiobencarb Trifluralin POPR – postemergence with PREs PRE herbicides applied over the top after emergence to add an additional barrier for emergence of weeds. Some may kill existing weeds.

Potential use

Acetochlor Diuron Ethalfluralin Pendimethalin S-metolachlor Trifluralin

POST - postemergence for broadleaves Applied over the top after emergence to kill broadleaves. As can be seen by the number of herbicides, the biggest goal is to find new herbicides. The existing herbicides harm the sesame.

Diuron Flumioxazin a

POST – postemergence for grasses Applied over the top after emergence to kill grasses.

Clethodim Fluazifop Haloxyfop Propaquizafop Quizalofop Sethoxydim

PDIR – postemergence directed Applied directed (at just furrows or on the sesame) to kill broadleaves and grasses.

Carfentrazone Cinnamon and clove oil Glyphosate Paraquat Prometryn

HAID – harvest aids Applied at harvest maturity or later to accelerate desiccation for harvest.

Diquat Glyphosate

Fluometuron

Acetochlor Diuron Linuron

Carfentrazone Glufosinate Paraquat Saflufenacil a Severe injury with lower sesame yield, but better yield than without the use of any herbicide to control weeds.

C h a p t e r I | 60 Commercial use Potential use This table should be used as a guide to the herbicides to be studied in a location. This document should not be used by a producer in one country to apply an herbicide used in another country before local research.

In the municipality of S達o Jo達o of Sabugi-RN, the producers are weeding the sesame crop (spacing of 90 cm between rows) with the mini-tractors, of the type Tobatta with a gauge of 80 cm, rented from an association of small producers of that municipality (Figure 33). The producer pays US $7.00/hour for the service provided by this association, which includes the operator of the machine; the mini-tractor can cover 1 hectare in about 6 hours (US $42.00).

Figure 33. Mini-tractor used by the producers of S達o Jo達o of Sabugi-RN to weed out the sesame fields. Photo: Odilon Reny Ribeiro.

3.13. IRRIGATION

Sesame is extremely sensitive to waterlogging and according to Weiss (1983), the excess of moisture at any stage of crop development increases the incidence of fungal diseases, reducing its productivity. Usually, the sesame offers more return to the producer at lower cost (lower risk) than most other options of cultivation (LANGHAM et al., 2008).

Langham et al. (2008) have affirmed that sesame is one of the most drought tolerant crops in the world, but its highest yields, of 2.5 kg/ha or more, are obtained when the crop develops under irrigated conditions, mainly in arid regions (Figure 34).; The warm and dry climate is more favorable to the crop, since the low humidity reduces the incidence of fungal diseases (BEECH, 1981).

C h a p t e r I | 61

Figure 34. Sesame field irrigated by a pivot system at the property Bebida Velha, Touros, RN. Photo: Nair Helena de Castro Arriel.

Regarding the sesame cultivation, Langham et al. (2008) mentions two types. The first sesame type refers to cultivars adapted to arid and dry regions, which can be susceptible to many diseases if planted in humid zones. The second type refers to the cultivars developed for rainy regions; if they are cultivated in a dry environment, they will have low productive performance.

Regarding irrigation systems, Langham et al. (2008) reports three for the cultivation of this oilseed: furrow, drip and pivot irrigations. For the furrow system, the recommendation is that irrigations on sesame are quick and light, and watering intervals are frequent. The land should have a slope from source to the end of the field to avoid waterlogging a portion of the field (Figure 35). If there is no planting rain, there should be a pre-plant irrigation. Subsequent irrigations should start about 5 weeks later with a 10-16 day interval depending on soil type. The excess water should be drained off the end of the field to avoid waterlogging. If there is 50 mm or more rainfall within this established interval, it can be considered as a substitute for an irrigation.

C h a p t e r I | 62

Figure 35. Sesame field irrigated by furrow in Texas, USA. Photo: Ray Langham.

When there is need for pumping and the water is not saline, the drip irrigation is the irrigation method with most chances to be used by small sesame producers in the Northeast region of Brazil.

Using the irrigation method by pivot, a water line of 50 to 100 mm can be applied, depending on the amount of moisture present in the soil profile. Langham et al. (2008), if there is no planting rain, there should be a pre-plant irrigation. Subsequent irrigations should start about 5 weeks later with a 7-12 day interval depending on soil type. If there is 40 mm or more rainfall within this established interval, it can be considered as a substitute for an irrigation. This number of irrigations and their interval depend on the soil and cultivar. In light soils, the sesame plant needs watering more often. Langham et al. (2008) also recommends that irrigation be terminated when 50% of the plants have stopped flowering, which depending on cultivar occurs between 70 and 80 days. The same author suggested that underirrigating is better for the development of the sesame plant than over-irrigating. In the beginning it is better to impose a certain hydrological stress to the plants, so the roots penetrate deeper.

3.14. DISEASE CONTROL The sesame crop is susceptible to various diseases (FRANCO, 1970), and some of them have great economic importance. In Brazil, the main diseases are leaf spot - Cercospora sesami, angular leaf spot â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Cylindrosporium sesami, black rot stem â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Macrophomina

C h a p t e r I | 63 phaseolina, and wilt â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Fusarium oxysporum. The degree of severity of the disease attack is determined mainly by the susceptibility of the cultivars, environmental conditions, and plant age at the time of infection.

(a) Leaf spot - Cercospora sesami Zimm (Deuteromycetes:Moniliales:Dematiaceae)

The fungus is transmitted through the seed, both externally and internally (CARDONA, 1943; MALAGUTI, 1973). The pathogen penetrates into the capsule and blackens the seeds. The lesions found in the cotyledons of the seedlings have sufficient pathogen inoculum to lead to secondary infections. High relative air humidity and heavy rainfall contribute to the further development of the disease. (MALAGUTI, 1973).

Symptoms: In the leaves and capsules, the symptoms are characterized by the presence of more or less regular round spots, with a light grey to whitish color center and brown edges. In the stems and petioles, the lesions are broad and elliptical, eventually forming cancers with necrotic and depressed areas. When the disease strikes severely, the plants are almost completely defoliated (LIMA; BATISTA, 1997) (Figure 36).

Figure 36. Leaf spots (left) and spots on the capsules (right) caused by Cercospora sesami. Photos: Fernando AntĂ´nio Souto Batista.

C h a p t e r I | 64 To avoid the spreading of the fungus to areas where the disease does not occur, it is recommended the use of seeds free from the pathogen. The treatment of the seeds with fungicides based on carbendazim and thiophanate-methyl can be used for the control (KUROZAWA et al., 1985). When the plants reach the height of 25-30 cm, preventive sprayings with fungicides that have as active ingredient copper sulfate, have provided efficient control of this disease (CARDONA, 1943; MALAGUTI, 1973).

The use of tolerant cultivars is the more efficient and economic method of control. Initially in Venezuela, Malaguti (1973) studied the behavior of different commercial cultivars and other germplasm selections and found all to be susceptible. Arias (1987) observed that the Maporal, indehiscent Morada, Acarigua and Inamar cultivars were less susceptible. In Brazil, Kurozawa et al. (1985) verified that all the tested cultivars existing in the country were susceptible to the disease. Morada and the indehiscent Morada were the most tolerant in field conditions.

(b) Angular leaf spot - Cylindrosporium sesami Hansford (Deuteromycetes: Melanconiales: Melanconiaceae)

Besides sesame, this pathogen can also affect soybeans (COOK, 1981). The C. sesami is transmitted through the seed (ORELLANA, 1961; MALAGUTI, 1973), which is responsible for the dissemination of the inoculum from one place to another. The spreading of the disease in the planted area occurs through the dissemination of the spores by the wind, rain and man. High humidity (85%) and temperatures above 22Â°C are ideal conditions for the disease proliferation (MALAGUTI, 1973). The fungus penetrates the leaves through natural openings and, once colonized, the tissues form light-colored subepidermal acervuli from which short, simple conidiophores grow, giving place to filiform hyaline conidia, straight or curved and multiseptate.

Symptoms: The disease occurs in adult plants, usually affecting the leaves and is characterized by the presence of angular, polygonal and irregular lesions, almost always limited on one or more sides by the veins. These lesions are brown or dark brown and are uniform, with a lighter shade on the underside of the leaf. Structures of the pathogen can be found on both surfaces of the leaf, being more abundant on the adaxial face. The

C h a p t e r I | 65 angular leaf spot affects older lower leaves more intensely, located in the lower third of the plants, inducing the defoliation in this region (LIMA; BATISTA, 1997) (Figure 37).

Figure 37. Leaf symptoms of angular leaf spot in sesame. Photos: Fernando Antônio Souto Batista. For the control of this disease, it is recommended to disinfect the seeds (MALAGUTI; CICCARONE, 1967); however, the most efficient and economical control is the use of tolerant cultivars (FERRER, 1960; ORELLANA, 1961). The crops in areas of low relative humidity (<60%) and high temperatures (>28°) present minimal leaf damages. Studies of 16 cultivars by Lima; Soares (1992) showed significant differences in the level of tolerance to this disease, in which the cultivars Seridó 1 SM2 and CNPA G2 were the most tolerant. However, for the cultivar CNPA G2, a continuous increase of the damages caused by the disease was observed. (c) Black rot stem – Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid (Deuteromycetes: Sphaeropsidales: Sphaeropsidaceae)

The sclerotial stage corresponds to Sclerotium batatícola Taub. Macrophomina phaseolina, affects more than 500 cultivated and uncultivated species in different parts of the world (WEISS, 1983), among them the castor bean, cotton, bean, soybean, sunflower, corn and several other species of plants of economic importance.

C h a p t e r I | 66 The development of the disease and the growth of the pathogen are favored under conditions of high temperatures (20 to 35°C) and low soil moisture. The level of infection is aggravated in sandy soils where the capacity of water retention is lower; low potassium availability in the soil is also related to a high incidence of this disease (WEISS, 1983; PINEDA; AVILA, 1990). To prevent the introduction of this pathogen in areas where the disease does not occur, one should use healthy seeds from fields free of the disease.

Symptoms: The symptoms are characterized by the presence of light brown lesions on the stems and branches of the plant. These can surround the mentioned organs or extend longitudinally, reaching the terminal bud of the plant (Figure 38). As the damage advances, branches, capsules, and leaves dry. The affected plants wither and die (LIMA et al., 1997).

Figure 38. Lesions of light brown color on the stems (left) and branches (right) of the plant. Photos of Fernando Antônio Souto Batista.

Pineda; Ávila (1990) reported Propineb fungicide used in the treatment of the seeds at a dose of 1% in combination with the soil treatment with the herbicide alachlor can reduce the population of M. phaseolina in the soil. Consequently, the percentage of plants affected by black rot is reduced. Fertilizations rich in nitrogen also favor the reduction of the inoculum density. Al-Beldawi et al., cited by Cook (1981), were able to substantially reduce the incidence of the disease under experimental conditions by adding Benomyl to the infested soil in a ratio of 0.3-2.4g to 5kg of soil. Laboratory experiments carried out by Lima et al. (1997) confirmed the efficiency of Benomyl and the herbicide alachlor in the control of this pathogen.

C h a p t e r I | 67 Although the use of tolerant cultivars seems to be the most efficient control method, sesame genotypes that present a high level of tolerance to this disease have not been identified. Researches carried out by Al-Ani et al. (1970) concluded that all the cultivars evaluated were susceptible to this disease; among them the Gheza 10 and Gheza 23 were the least susceptible. According to Mazzani (1999) the species S. radiatum and several African cultivars constitute an important source of tolerance to sesame diseases.

Studies done by Urdaneta; Bauer (1981) in different regions of Mexico, found the cultivars Calinda, Eva, Oro, Verde Nacional, Rubio de la Huacana, and Instituto 71 were the most tolerant ones.

Correa (1990) reported the Colombian cultivars ICA Pacande, ICA Ambalรก, ICA Matoso and SESICA M. 11 were tolerant to black rot stem. In Venezuela, the cultivars Maporal, Arawaca and Aceitera were tolerant (MAZZANI et al., 1981; MONTILLA et al., 1990).

In Brazil, research done by Arriel et al. (1997) showed that most genotypes evaluated were susceptible. The genotypes Ahnsan, Morada 6717, Tasso 8, CNPA Joro 11, CNPA 86-101, CNPA 86-77, CNPA 86-131, Zirra FAO and Seridรณ 1 SM had lower levels of infection, while the Inamar and the SB-S-5-LP-85 were tolerant.

(d) Wilt - Fusarium oxysporum f. sesami Cast. (Deuteromycetes:Moniliales: Tuberculariaceae)

When the fungus establishes itself in the xylem vessels, it secretes peptolytic enzymes that act on pectic substances of the vascular vessels. This leads to the production of brownish-colored melanins, which are absorbed by the lignified walls of the xylem vessels. This leads to the brown coloration that is characteristic of the presence of the disease (TOVAR et al., 1999).

Symptoms: The symptoms are characterized by wilting of the plants which subsequently die and dry. A transversal cut of the stem of a sick plant, shows the blackening of the tissues of the vascular system. The disease affects the plant at any stage of development, from seedling stage to maturity (MALAGUTI, 1959) (Figure 39).

C h a p t e r I | 68

Figure 39. Plant affected by Fusarium wilt. Photo: Fernando AntĂ´nio Souto Batista.

Fusarium is a soil fungus, and it lives saprophytically in crop residues, able to survive for long periods in the form of resistance spores: the chlamydospores. Its dissemination occurs mainly through particles of contaminated soil and water from rain or irrigation; the dissemination over long distances is facilitated because the pathogen infects the seeds both internally and externally (ABD EL CHANY et al., 1970).

The use of tolerant cultivars, crop rotation, elimination of crop residues, application of dolomitic limestone, and fertilization rich in nitrogen and phosphorus are measures that can help to reduce the density of the pathogen inoculum in the soil. The cultivar Aceitera is tolerant to the disease (MAZZANI et al., 1981), while the Glauca, Acarigua, Morada and Venezuela 51, are moderately tolerant (FRANCO, 1970).

3.15. PEST CONTROL

Sesame is affected by numerous insects, mostly polyphagous that affect other plants, especially oleaginous ones. The major pests of sesame identified in Brazilian crops are: leaf roller caterpillar - Antigastra catalaunalis; green leafhopper - Empoasca sp.; aphids - Aphis sp. and Myzus persicae; silverleaf whitefly - Bemisia argentifolii; tobacco whitefly - Bemisia tabaci; and leaf-cutter ants -Atta spp.

C h a p t e r I | 69 (a) Leaf roller caterpillar - Antigastra catalaunalis (Duponchel) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Damage characterization. The caterpillars roll up the terminal leaves and within them weave webs, feeding on buds, flowers, immature capsules and seeds. They attack the crop from 15 days of growth until capsule maturity. In the initial stage, the major damages occur in the leaves and in the terminal branches, causing stunted growth (Figure 40). High infestations make the plant look sick and with dirty appearance. One caterpillar can destroy 2 to 3 young plants. At flowering stage, the caterpillars feed on the flowers, causing their infertility and greatly reducing the production (TOVAR et al., 2000).

Figure 40. Damages caused by the leaf roller caterpillar at the apex of the plant (right) and in the capsule (left). Photos: LĂşcia Helena Avelino AraĂşjo. Control: Early planting in regions with defined rainy seasons; elimination of the weeds next to the crop, since these serve as hosts for the pest (APONTE, 1990); the use of the insecticides Deltamethrin or Carbaryl, applied during the growth stages of the crop capsule set (CHUDHARY, 1986; VIEIRA et al., 1986). Choudhary (1986) observed that the daily increase of one degree to the maximum temperature induced a considerable decline in the A. catalaunalis infestation. (b) Green leafhopper - Empoasca sp. (Homoptera:Cicadellidae)

Damage characterization. The damages are characterized by the suction of the sap and inoculation of the toxins, which compromise the development of the plant and its production. The attacked plants have the leaves with a yellowish-green coloration, with rolled up edges and weakening of the tender branches. The sooner this insect is controlled,

C h a p t e r I | 70 lower will be the damages in production (Figure 41). The leafhoppers are agents that transmit viruses and the sesame phyllody, especially when there are black-eyed bean crops (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) and mallow plants (fanpetals and sidas) infected with viruses in areas close to the planting (BELTRÃO; FREIRE, 1986).

Figure 41. Damage caused by the green leafhopper. Photos: Lúcia Helena Avelino Araújo.

Control: the chemical control should be performed with systemic insecticides, such as demeton-methyl, thiometon or pirimicarb (BELTRÃO; FREIRE, 1986).

This is an important pest, particularly in crops under irrigation and/or intercropped with cotton; however, its attack is more connected to climatic conditions: cloudy, hot, and relatively humid days favor its appearance.

Damage characterization. Initially, its attack is concentrated in one area and then reaches the whole field. They are preferably found on the underside of the leaves and when the attack is severe the plant growth stops. When sucking the sap, the aphids remove the sugar from the plant, excreting it in the form of molasses. This covers the leaves and later will serve as a substrate for the development of the fungus commonly called "sooty mold", which prevents photosynthesis. They are efficient transmitters of viruses (GONDIM et al., 1993) (Figure 42).

C h a p t e r I | 71

Figure 42. Colony of Aphids on sesame leaves. Photo 1: Sérgio Cobel and photo 2 Tarcísio Marcos de Souza Gondim.

Control: application of systemic insecticides when necessary to avoid eliminating the populations of natural enemies such as parasitoids (Lysiphlebus testaceipes (A), Aphidius spp.) and predators (Cycloneda sanguinea (B), Chrysoperla externa (C), and Orius sp.) (Figure 43). Heavy rains decrease the populations of aphids.

Figure 43. A) Nymphs of aphids parasitized by the wasp Lysiphlebus testaceipes; B) Ladybug larva Cycloneda sanguinea; C) Adult Crysoperla externa. Photos: Lúcia H. Araújo and Sérgio Cobel.

C h a p t e r I | 72 (d) Silverleaf whitefly - Bemisia argentifolii (BELLOWS & PERRING, 1994); sweet potato whitefly - Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius, 1889) (Homoptera:Aleyrodidae). Initially, it was believed that believed that Bemisia argentifolii was a variant of Bemisia tabaci; however, it has been given species status. Bemisia tabaci has been a pest in sesame for many years producing some damage, and thus it was surprising when “whiteflies” were suddenly destroying not only the sesame crops, but also other crops such as cotton and melons. It takes an entomologist to know the difference in the species, but a breeder can guess by the amount of damage.

Damage characterization. The damage is similar to aphids with the difference that aphids usually attack the growing part of the plants and whiteflies settle on the lower leaves. The direct damage to the crop is caused both by the adult insect and the nymphs, which settle in colonies on the underside of the leaves, where they suck the plant sap (Figure 44). High infestations of the pest deplete the plants, producing "mela", a complex of sugars, which falls on the lower parts of the plants – leaves, capsules, and branches. The “mela” promotes the growth of saprophytic fungi, usually of the genus Capnodium, causing the appearance of "sooty mold" and reduces the photosynthetic capacity of the plant (VILLAS BOAS et al., 1997).

Figure 44. Adults (left) and nymphs of the whitefly (right). Photo 1: Tarcísio Marcos de Souza Gondim and Photo 2: Lúcia H. A. Araújo.

C h a p t e r I | 73 Control: Eliminate the weeds close to the cultivation; avoid planting sesame near crops infested with the pest; make barriers with corn or fodder sorghum, serving as windbreak; use insecticides for adults and nymphs; use neutral detergents (160 ml/20 liters of water) or oils (0.5 to 0.8%) or soaps, for reducing the number of nymphs in sprays directed to the lower part of the leaf (this spraying should be done early in the morning or after 4:00 p.m. to avoid phytotoxicity); do not repeat the same active principle or use mix of products, since this practice facilitates the appearance of resistance to insecticides (ARAUJO et al., 1998).

(e) Leaf-cutter ants -Atta spp. (Hymenoptera:Formicidae)

Damage characterization. The damages caused by leaf-cutting ants are considerable, because they cut the leaves and tender branches, being able to completely destroy the plants at their initial stage of development (Figure 45).

Figure 45. Attack of leaf-cutter ants (Atta spp) on sesame cultivation, and this is the path from the plants to the nest. Photos: TarcĂsio Marcos de Souza Gondim.

C h a p t e r I | 74 Control: Chemical control through toxic granular baits is widely used but should be avoided on rainy days and wet soils. The baits must be distributed in portions or inside bait holders, next to the active paths (MARICONI, 1990). In newly deforested areas, the control of these ants must be done to avoid failures in the crop (BELTRĂ&#x192;O et al., 1994). It is important for the producer to perform periodic inspections in the area, because once out of control, hardly any method, even the chemical one will bring satisfactory results in the pest control (BELTRĂ&#x192;O; VIEIRA, 2001).

Available insecticides. Table 15 lists some chemical products suggested for the control of the main pests of sesame. Table 15. Chemicals suggested for the control of sesame pests.

Commercial Product

Active Ingredient

Dosagea.i./ha

Toxicology1

Pest target

Orthene 750 BR

Acephate

7.5/kgseed

Aphis sp., Bemisia sp.

Marshal 350 TS

Carbosulfan

7.0/kgseed

Aphis sp, Empoasca sp

Temik 150

Aldicarb

750

Aphis sp, Empoasca sp

Lannate 215 BR

Methomyl

258

Aphis sp, Antigastra catalaunalis

Nuvacron 400

Monocrotophos

120

Aphis sp., Bemisia sp

Dimetoato 400

Dimethoate

250

Aphis sp., Bemisia sp

Ekatin 250

Thiometon

65,5

Aphis sp, Empoasca sp

Pi-rimor

Pirimicarb

37.5 - 50.0

Aphis sp, Empoasca sp

Thiodan 350

Endosulfan

525

Bemisia sp, Antigastra catalaunalis, Aphis sp

Hostathion 400 BR

Triazophos

280

Antigastra catalaunalis, Aphis sp, Empoasca sp

Tamaron 600 BR

Metamidophos

300

Aphis sp, Empoasca sp

Sevin 850 PM

Carbaryl

1,200

Antigastra catalaunalis, yellow beetle

Dipel 32 PM

B. thuringiensis

PNT

Antigastra catalaunalis

Dimilin 250 PM

Diflubenzuron

12.5

Antigastra catalaunalis

Match 50 CE

Lufenuron

Antigastra catalaunalis

Decis 25 CE

Deltamethrin

10.0

Aphis sp., Bemisia sp, Antigastra catalaunalis

Toxicology: HT - Highly toxic; MT - moderately toxic; LT - little toxic; PNT - Practically non-toxic.

C h a p t e r I | 75 Depending on the size of the sesame field, the sprayings against pests can be carried out with the following types of equipment (Figure 46): backpack sprayer (up to 3 ha), electrostatic spraying with Electrodyn (up to 5 ha), animal traction sprayer (up to 10 ha), tractor sprayer with bar (between 50 and 100 ha) and spraying by plane (above 100 ha).

Figure 46. Different sprayers used in the pest control of sesame: A) backpack sprayer, B) Electrodyn (can be refilled with 50% crude cotton oil or sunflower oil with 50% endosulfan), C) animal traction sprayer, D) tractor sprayer with bar and E) spray by airplane. Photos: Odilon Reny RibeirĂŁo Ferreira da Silva.

3.16. THE EFFECTS OF WIND LANGHAM (2008) described the effects of wind on sesame. The major negative effect of the wind is lodging. To understand lodging, it is important to realize that the stage and plant architecture can create different amounts of wind resistance. The following characters present more resistance: tall plants, large leaves, branches, wide angle branches, and three capsules per leaf axil. The weight of the plant also makes a difference once the winds start bending the plants. Wet plants from rain tend to lodge more than dry plants.

C h a p t e r I | 76 There are three types of lodging: plants breaking at the stem, plants bending over but not breaking (Figure 47), and plants uprooting and bending over. When a plant breaks over, it will rarely produce any new seed, and the existing seed may or may not mature. If there is a total break, there is no hope, but if there is still some active stem translocation through the break, there can be some yield recovery. Depending on the inter-row and intra-row distances and the direction of the wind, plants that bend but not break do not get full sun to the lower parts of the plant. The result is loss of photosynthesis. When the lodging is early, the tips of the plants may turn up and grow erect. There have been cases where a field does not appear lodged until the leaves fall off. The main causes for uprooting of plants are shallow root systems and fields that have just been irrigated, creating a soft layer of soil.

Figure 47. Sesame bent over from the wind. Photo: S.U. Kim.

There are other effects of wind on the different stages of growth. - During the germination stage, wind can evaporate the moisture around the seed and prevent germination. However, planting deeper to prevent this problem will take the seedling longer to emerge. - In the seedling stage, the wind can cover the seedlings with blowing dirt and sand. - In the vegetative phase in many areas where the soils are sandy, a rain followed by a wind can be a problem. The rains create a crust with a slick surface. Winds can then carry sand that blasts the tender seedlings and depending on the intensity, can just shred the leaves and set the seedlings back or can â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;sandpaperâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; the plants to just stems. - During the reproductive phase, although it is rare, wind can blow flowers off the plant. - Generally, the leaves act as shock absorbers and branches and plants rubbing against each other in the wind do not lose their capsules; but in the ripening phase as the

C h a p t e r I | 77 plants lose their leaves, the capsules from different plants come into contact, and the capsules can rub off. Triple capsules rub off more easily than single capsules. In other cases, the capsules may stay on the plant but be broken down. - In the drying phase, the capsules will open, and winds can cause the seed to shake out of the capsules.

MORENO (1985) studied the effect of windbreak barriers on the production of dehiscent sesame plants in Venezuela. He reported when the field was protected by high windbreaks, the seed yield was 47% higher than when the plants grew without protection. He also reported a 39% increase when the protection of the field was made with medium size barriers (Table 16). This medium protection against winds used a planting system of neem in the spacing of 2.5 to 3.0 m between trees (Figure 48). Alternately planting neem and eucalyptus, in the spacing of 3 meters between holes provided high protection.

Table 16. Heights of the windbreaks used in the dehiscent sesame fields of Venezuela and their influence on the yield of the seeds. Protection

Kg/ha

Productivity increase (%)

High

1.236

147

Medium

1.165

139

Null

839

100

Figure 48. Windbreak with neem plants for medium protection of the sesame crop: A) Thick barrier with spacing of 2.5 m between plants and B) Thin barrier with spacing of 4 m. Photos: Vicente de Paula Queiroga.

C h a p t e r I | 78 3.17. THE USE OF NEEM AS A BIO-INSETICIDE

Neem (Azadirachtina indica) is considered the plant of one thousand and one uses. It can be used as a barrier, bio-insecticide, or medicinal uses. The active compounds (azadirachtin, nimbin, picrin, and sialin) repel and control many insects, preventing their metamorphosis in the larval phase. The insects that are the most sensitive to the neem were caterpillars, aphids, leafhoppers and chewing beetles. Research results have already proven their effect on the larvae and pupae of the corn armyworm, cotton leafworm, mites, coffee leaf miner and cochineals. Besides insecticide, the neem plant acts as repellent, inhibitor of pest growth, fungicide and nematicide. The neem leaves are also used for leprosy, eye disorders, bloody nose, intestinal worms, stomach upset, loss of appetite, skin ulcers, diseases of the heart and blood vessels (cardiovascular disease), fever, diabetes, gum disease (gingivitis), and liver problems. The leaf is also used for birth control and to cause abortions (WEBMD.COM). Neem oil has a wide history of use as a folk remedy around the world and has been used to treat many conditions. Although it has a harsh odor, it's high in fatty acids and other nutrients, and it's used in a variety of beauty products like skin creams, body lotions, hair products, and cosmetics (HEALTHLINE.COM). The stem is used as a toothbrush.

The use of neem can control sesame pests and reduce its production costs. For this reason, Embrapa AlgodĂŁo recommends the acquisition of neem seedlings to be planted by producers in the Northeast, Midwest, and Southeast regions of Brazil. To achieve selfsufficiency in the production of neem-based bio-insecticides, it is only necessary to maintain one or two rows of neem plants around the sesame field, aiming also to reduce capsule loss of the plants and/or seeds of the capsules by the wind action.

Prior to the sesame planting, the producers themselves should preventively prepare the neem macerate to control the pests in the initial stage of infestation (small caterpillars, aphids, cochineals in the larval phase, leafhoppers, whiteflies in nymph stage, etc.). At the early stage, they are more vulnerable to the action of bio-insecticides. It is recommended to keep the neem solution in a sealed plastic container (Figure 49) to prevent the loss of its active ingredients, and to store a sufficient amount of the solution for one or two sprayings in the sesame field.

C h a p t e r I | 79

Figure 49. Preventive storage of the neem solution in a plastic container as a strategy to control the sesame pests. Photo: Vicente de Paula Queiroga.

The yield of the neem fruits varies between 25 and 50 kg per tree, according to temperature, humidity, soil type and genotype of the plant. Usually, 50 kg of mature fruits have around 30 kg of seeds, which produce an average of 6 kg of oil and 21 kg of paste. Each kilogram of dry seeds contains approximately 3,000 seeds (SOARES et al., 2003).

After the pulping of fruits, the neem seeds should be exposed to the sun in thin layers on cemented terraces. The contact of the seeds with moisture should be avoided to prevent mold. This operation requires a single day in the sun. Later the seeds must be transported to shadowed places, where they will stay around eight days.

The neem extracts can be prepared by simply crushing the seeds or dry fruits in water; leaving the mixture to rest for 24 hours; then filtering the liquid; and spraying it on the infested areas. The same procedure can be used for fresh or dry leaves (Figure 50), although in this case the neem produces a lower concentration of the active ingredients (SOARES et al., 2003).

C h a p t e r I | 80

Figure 50. Worker putting the neem foliage (cut) inside the drum to prepare the solution. Photo: Vicente de Paula Queiroga.

Another very important step after the drying process is the gathering and packaging of the neem seeds in burlap sacks, to allow good aeration and prevent the emergence of pathogenic fungi, which may cause deterioration. With these basic conditions satisfied, the neem seeds can be stored for over a year.

The recommendations of the preparations of neem macerates for pulped seeds and foliage with tender stems are indicated respectively in the works of DANTAS (2001) and SOARES et al. (2003).

Preparation of macerate for caterpillars, aphids, green leafhopper and whitefly: a) Pulped seeds - The fruits are collected and pulped; - The seeds are dried, grated, and immersed in water in the proportion of 30 to 40 g of seeds per liter of water; - It is left to rest for two days to cure; - Strain, add 10 mL of a neutral detergent and complete the volume of sprayer with water; - For the 20 liter sprayer, 700 g of seed are needed; - The oil and the aqueous extract may result from the seed pressing. This extract can be transformed into powder or pressed cake for the use as bio-insecticide.

C h a p t e r I | 81 b) Foliage and tender stems - The ratio is 1 kg of chopped leaves and tender stems to 20 liters of water (equivalent to 40 to 50 g of leaves per liter of water); - Put the leaves and stems in a blender with 2 liters of water (or macerated in the pestle); - Add the rest of the water and let the 20 liters of the mixture rest for 2 days to cure; - Strain and add 10 mL of neutral detergent; - Add the content in the 20 liters backpack sprayer. The amounts to be used vary for each species of insect. In general, it is recommended per liter of water from 30 to 40 g of seeds or from 40 to 50 g of dry leaves (SOARES et al., 2003).

Another ecological strategy of the use of neem to control ants is to feed the anthills every three days with neem leaves. By adding leaves regularly, the ants stop visiting the sesame field.

C h a p t e r I I | 82

Chapter 2

SESAME HARVESTING AND STORAGE

(Authors) Vicente de Paula Queiroga D. Ray Langham Josivanda Palmeira Gomes Bruno Adelino de Melo Yvana Maria Gomes dos Santos Esther Maria Barros de Albuquerque

C h a p t e r I I | 83 No matter what method of harvest is used, after harvest maturity, there is no weather event that increases yield, and yet there are many weather events that can reduce yield. Time in the field, rain, dews, fogs, and wind are the enemies of shatter resistance and seed quality.

HARVEST MATURITY

The determination of the harvest maturity is fundamental for the economic success of all crops. It corresponds to the moment when the seeds reach their full physiological maturity and is characterized as the period in which the seed stops receiving nutrients from the plant (there is no more gain of dry matter). Sounds simple, but sesame is indeterminate, which means that sesame will continue flowering and setting capsules as long as it has sufficient moisture, fertility, and temperature. Thus, there is an overlap between reproductive, ripening, and drying phases. Capsules at the base of the plant can be mature (or even dry) while there is flowering at the top of the plant. In some areas of the world, sesame is harvested when the lower capsules turn brown and open even if the plants are still flowering (Figure 51). In many areas of the world, the harvest maturity is determined by color â&#x20AC;&#x201C; often a shade of yellow (Figure 52). However, the color can be green or any shade of yellow-green (Figures 53 and 54). There are genotypes that are a bright yellow and are still not mature (LANGHAM, 2018a).

Figure 51. In some lines, the capsules dry down and begin to lose seed while the plants are still flowering and retain their leaves. These plants would be cut when the first capsule dries. Photo: Ray Langham.

Figure 52. In Paraguay, the plants are cut when the lower stem and leaves turns yellow and the leaves begin to fall. The seed at the top is still immature. All the plants are hand harvested, and one person can cut about 0.2 ha per day. When there is a large field, it is necessary to start cutting a bit early so that the cutting is complete before the first capsules start drying. Photo: Ray Langham.

C h a p t e r I I | 84

Figure 53. In China, this specific line is still green with immature seed at the top 1/5 of the plant, but it is being cut because some of the plants have dry capsules. Photo: Ray Langham.

Figure 54. In the US, although these plants are greener than those in the China picture to the left, this is a cultivar that stays green when 90% of the seed is mature. It has a large harvest window. Photo: Derald Langham.

A characteristic of most cultivars, especially the dehiscent ones, is the accelerated process of natural dehiscence of the capsules, releasing the seeds soon after the optimum harvest maturity. Delayed harvest can lead to serious losses in production. Weiss (1971) estimated these losses can vary from 20% to 50%. On the other hand, the exact moment of cutting of dehiscent sesame plants is when the capsules of the base of the stems begin to open, even with visible seed losses in the field, but these losses are considered insignificant (FONSECA, 1994; LAGO et al., 2001). There are genotypes that will stop flowering and have mature seeds to the top capsules before the lower capsules dry down. Wongyai termed this as “delayed shattering”, and all of her Thai cultivars have this trait (personal communication, 1996). All of the recent US cultivars have the same trait which it terms “harvest window”.

Early harvesting may cause reductions in yield due to immaturity and incomplete seed development, which are considered as invisible losses (MAZZANI; ALLIEVI, 1966, LAGO et al., 1994). These harvest losses can be large, even if the anticipation or delay is just of a few days (Figure 55). In Venezuela, plantations with the cultivar Glauca harvested three days before or four days after the optimum harvest maturity (97 days) caused losses of respectively 38.6% and 32.7% (MAZZANI; ALLIEVI, 1966). Similarly,

C h a p t e r I I | 85 Lago et al. (1994) studied the cultivar IAC Ouro in the year 1988/1989 and observed that anticipated or delayed harvests for five days in relation to the optimum range (100-105 days after emergence in the field) reflected decreases in the production of 33.2% and 24.6%, respectively.

Figure 55. Harvest maturity: the opening of the first capsule in the main stem (visible losses) begins. The loss of immature seeds (invisible) are higher when the plants are cut too early. The arrow in red represents the part that still has immature seed. Photos: TarcĂsio Marcos de Souza Gondim.

The following sections report different harvest methodologies: Brazil manual harvest, Brazil semi-mechanized harvest, three harvest methods used in Venezuela, one method used in Australia, and four methods used in the United States.

MANUAL HARVEST The following covers manual harvest in Brazil but is similar to most countries in the rest of the world.

Cutting the plants: The manual harvest used by most producers of the city SĂŁo Francisco de Assis do PiauĂ, consists of cutting the plant base with the grass saw or machete (Figure 56). In this case, the cutting the stem of the plants should be done just below the lowest capsules (15 to 30 cm) to avoid large sesame bundles which may cause difficulties during its shocking. The capsules of the base, in the dehiscent cultivars, open earlier which indicates the exact moment to start the harvesting (QUEIROGA et al., 2008).

C h a p t e r I I | 86

Figure 56. A) Manual cutting of the sesame plants (dehiscent capsules) at harvest maturity. Note these plants are still green, and there are occasional flowers on some of the plants. B) The plants are cut about 30 cm from the ground - just below the lowest capsules or the lowest branches with capsules. Photos: Vicente de Paula Queiroga.

Gathering the bundles. At the time of the manual harvesting of sesame, the producer carries out the following steps in each hectare: cut the plants; group them in bundles; tie the bundles with string (Figure 57); and finally place them in the fences of wire for drying. All these tasks take at least six people in an 8-hour day. The data of 0.02 to 0.03 ha/hour/man was recorded by Embrapa Algodão in the State of Paraíba (BELTRÃO; VIEIRA, 2001).

Figure 57. Sesame bundle with a diameter around 30 cm being tied by the producer with strips of the caroá plant or regular string. Photo: Marenilson Batista da Silva.

C h a p t e r I I | 87 Drying the bundles: The producer needs to synchronize the planting (season) to have a dry season at harvest. The producers of São Francisco de Assis do Piauí tie the bundles with two ribbons of polyethylene, with one tape placed at the base of the bundle and the other at the middle part. Once anchored on the fences, the producers tie the bundles together by passing a rope or wire braided together to prevent tilting or falling to the ground. There are frequent winds in the region from April to July. If the bundles are not secured to the fences, the wind may flip the bundles to the ground (Figure 58).

Figure 58. Sesame bundles supported on barbed wire and propped on opposite sides in the community field of Veredas in São Francisco de Assis do Piauí, PI. Photo: Vicente de Paula Queiroga

In the summer period, from May to December in the semi-arid region of the Northeast, in some years it is possible to have an atypical rain between the months of May and July. This may lead to the darkening of sesame seeds in the drying process on the field. Consequently, this oxidation devalues the product. The bundles place the tips of the open capsules up to prevent the seed from falling out. The producers of the municipality of Lucrecia-RN use large plastic canvases to keep the plants dry. In the dry periods the canvases are pulled back to have the sun dry the bundles faster (Figure 59).

C h a p t e r I I | 88

Figure 59. Sesame bundle drying system with plastic canvas cover in the field to avoid occasional rainfall. Lucrecia, RN, 2012. Photos: Ana Yimiko Kojima.

Threshing of the bundles: After two weeks of sun drying, the bundles are threshed on plastic canvas. The family producers of the communities involved in the programming of the NGO FFA threshed the bundles 3 times because the capsules of the plant had different levels of drying. In general, threshing occurred at 8, 15, and 22 days after cutting the sesame plants in the different communities of São Francisco de Assis do Piauí. If more drying is necessary after the original threshing, the seeds should be spread in a thin layer on the plastic canvas. The seed needs to have a moisture content of 4-6%.

Within a bundle, the plants dry down at a different rate. The plants outside each bundle dry down faster than the plants inside because of more exposure to the sun and wind. In addition, the lower capsules have less moisture at cutting than the upper capsules leading to later drying in the upper capsules. Waiting for all the capsules to dry down to the same level results in loss of more seed from the capsules that dried down first. Thus, the bundles are normally threshed multiple times. This is particularly true of the cultivar BRS Seda.

To meet the quality requirements of the market and achieve a better price for the product, the sesame seeds should have a purity standard of 99.96%, free of non-seed material such as leaf parts, peduncles, nectaries, insects, immature seeds, dirt, etc. (QUEIROGA et al., 2007). To achieve this stringent quality standard, the producers of the communities of São Francisco de Assis do Piauí tied the ends of the polyethylene waxed canvas (3 x 3 m) to several 1-meter high pickets (the form of the canvas is similar to a canoe), by (Figure 60).

C h a p t e r I I | 89

Figure 60. Tying of the sesame bundles on a plastic canvas. Photo: Vicente de Paula Queiroga.

The producers keep the bundles upright while moving them to the threshing area (Figure 61) to prevent the seeds from falling out of the capsules. The bundles were inverted over the canoe-shaped canvas (Figure 62). That field had different bundles with different heights, and it was easier to handle the shorter bundles. It is recommended to cut the BRS Seda plant with a machete below the lowest capsule or branch and avoid cutting extra stems length below the first capsule.

Figure 61 Moving the sesame bundles (large bundles) in an upright position to ensure the seed does not fall out. Photo: Vicente de Paula Queiroga.

Figure 62. Producers invert the bundles so the seed can flow out and strike the bundles to get more seed. Photo: Vicente de Paula Queiroga.

Once the threshing operation is carried out with by hand or a small stick, the producers of Rio Grande do Norte clean the seed by passing the seed through a circular sieve. A plastic bucket (Figure 63) is used to help with this seed cleaning task. In some countries, the seed is then spread on a second sieve with a smaller mesh to allow impurities smaller

C h a p t e r I I | 90 than the seed to be removed. This extra sieving removes much of the material that would have to be winnowed in the next step.

Figure 63. After the seed has been extracted, the seed and capsules are sieved to take out the capsules and larger plant parts that have broken off. Photos: Vicente de Paula Queiroga.

Winnowing: Wind winnowing is an agricultural method developed by ancient cultures for separating grain from chaff and has been used for over 5,500 years for sesame. Soon after beating and before bagging, it is recommended to use winnowing to eliminate the foreign material in the seed. Foreign matter are impurities (leaf parts, peduncles, nectaries, insects, immature seeds, dirt, etc.) that are small enough to pass through the sieve. For the producers of SĂŁo Francisco de Assis do PiauĂ, winnowing is carried out in the windy hours. In the case of no wind, a fan can be used (Figure 64). Many in those communities they do not have electric power to winnow the sesame with fan. Either a tarpaulin or a cemented block is needed. Winnowing is an art in that depending on the amount of wind, the sesame should be poured slowly. It normally takes several repetitions to rid the sesame of all the foreign matter depending on the strength of the wind and the amount of foreign matter.

C h a p t e r I I | 91

Figure 64. Winnowing of the seed to remove the smaller non-sesame parts that were not removed from the sieving process. This is normally done with a small breeze (cannot be done in a strong wind). When there is no breeze, a fan can be used. Photos: Vicente de Paula Queiroga.

Harvest aids are normally associated with direct harvest of standing sesame in the field. However, research in South Korea indicates that spraying diquat or paraquat three days or 3 hours before manually cutting the plants had the same yield and germination. However, there was 25% less labor required in threshing as opposed to the untreated, and 100% of the seed was recovered in 9 days as opposed to 12 days for the untreated (HAN et al., 1993).

SEMI-MECHANIZED HARVEST

There are many levels of semi-mechanization, particularly to save labor on cutting the sesame manually. On the first level, there are hand held machines that can be adapted to cutting sesame as they have been for cutting rice (Figure 65). These are not in bundles and would have to be bundled and shocked.

C h a p t e r I I | 92

Figure 65. Small bundles of rice gathered by the adapted motorized cutter with accessory in the shape of a metal flap along with a cutter blade. Photos: Obtained from Google.

Similar machines have been adapted to create a bundle (Figure 66). This semimechanized system uses at least 3 people to harvest the sesame (2 ha/day): one worker to cut with the brush cutter and two workers for the other activities: to group the small bundles of plants, tie them with strings, and shock them or place them along wire fences for drying (QUEIROGA et al., 2009). This is a significant improvement over the 0.480.72 ha/day for 3 workers for manually cutting mentioned above.

C h a p t e r I I | 93

Figure 66. Motorized trimmer with accessory, in the shape of a metal flap along with a saw blade, for the cutting of sesame plants in small bundle.

The mechanical cutting of the plants must be done before the opening of the capsules. The power trimmer is able to cut and group the plants into small bundles. Immediately, they are assembled and tied in bundles of 30 cm in diameter, thus forming the stack which is composed by the grouping of 6 to 8 bundles (Figure 67). The cone-shaped stack and plastic cover will provide greater protection for the dry capsules with occasional rainfall.

C h a p t e r I I | 94

Figure 67. A) Sesame bundle of about 30 cm in diameter being tied by the producer with strings. B) Forming stacks with 6 to 8 bundles of sesame. C). Individual plastic cover on each stack to avoid occasional rain. The rain increases shattering resulting in more loss of seed. Photos: Marenilson Batista da Silva and obtained from Google.

The next level of mechanization in Pakistan is to machine cut the sesame, but not bind it (Figure 68). This machine can cover more hectares than with a hand-held cutter with less labor. In Myanmar, there is a machine that can cut and bind, but it is for a single row at a time (Figure 69). It covers less area per day but may be more affordable for small family farmers.

Figure 68. In Pakistan, cutting sesame and laying it on its side. Photo: YouTube by A.L. Riaz and Brothers.

Figure 69. In Myanmar, Ren Kevin has developed a reaper-binder for a single row. Photo: YouTube by Ren Kevin.

The first reaper-binder use in sesame in large fields was introduced in Venezuela in the early 1940s by Derald Langham (Figure 70). Attached to a tractor, this type of equipment is still used in Venezuela to cut the sesame plants at harvest maturity (2 ha/h capacity). As the machine belt fills the drawer or box next to it, the sitting operator controls the release of the small tied bundles of plants to the ground (MAZZANI, 1999). This reaper-

C h a p t e r I I | 95 binder was replaced with one that did not require an operator to determine when to tie the bundle (Figure 71).

Figure 70. Reaper-binder machine attached at the side of a tractor was used to cut dehiscent sesame plants at the harvest maturity. Photo: Bruno Mazzani.

Figure 71. This reaper-binder replaced the one to the left and did not require an extra operator. Photo: Ray Langham.

The use of this machine still requires manual cutting of an area to allow the tractor to enter the field because the reaper-binder is attached to the side of the tractor. Normally, the ends and sides of the field are manually cut, allowing the tractor + reaper-binder to circle the field. In a large field, one or more alleys are cut the length of the field to allow for smaller areas to be cut to be able to cut more area per day. The sesame in these manually cut areas are taken out of the field and shocked in another area to not interfere with the cutting.

The bundles are then assembled in shocks aligned in the field by the workers (Figure 72). Cone-shaped shocks keep the capsules upright as they dry and open. By stacking them together properly, they will not be blown over by a wind for the three weeks of sun drying. As with manual cutting and shocking, the inner bundles take longer to dry down.

Figure 72. Field drying of the aligned sesame shocks. Photo: Ray Langham.

C h a p t e r I I | 96 In the case of semi-mechanized harvesting, the planting of the sesame cultivar BRS Seda (dehiscent capsules), a reaper-binder has a daily cutting capacity of 16 ha/day. The 12row planter below has a capacity of 25 ha/day (Figure 73). The producer should plan his planting in accordance with the capacity of the reaper-binder in order to harvest at the optimum time. In a field with 75 ha, the producer should divide the field in 5 areas of about 15 ha (Figure 74). Thus, each portion of 15 ha being planted (moist soil) on different days of the week, that is, it would start planting the first plot (15 ha) on a Monday and the last installment (15 ha) would end on Friday. Although this is the ideal, in fields with different soil types, later planted sesame may mature sooner that early planted sesame.

Figure 73 Adapted planter of twelve rows for the planting of sesame seeds. Photo: Diego Antonio NĂłbrega.

Figure 74. Sesame field of dehiscent capsules divided into five batches with each batch sown on different days of the week, in order to synchronize the harvesting capacity of the producer. Photo: Vicente de Paula Queiroga.

In Bolivia, a small (semi-mechanized) harvester-machine was developed by Italian manufacturer Lombardini for sesame plants with height up to 130-140 cm (Figure 75). For larger sesame, it is necessary to adapt the front of the feed flow as shown by the red tubing with plastic canvas in blue color. Such lateral protection mechanisms prevent plants taller than 1.5 m from tipping out of the machine. The width of the cut is 140 cm, and the bundles are tied 28 cm in height from the base of the plants with cord or synthetic tape. The high speed of work allows a reduction in the use of labor. The non-branched cultivar (BRS AnahĂ) is more appropriate for the reaper-binder, according to the Bolivian Chamber of Exporters of Sesame (CABEXSE). This machine can be acquired and made available by tractor-service providers to producers in the semi-arid region of Brazil.

C h a p t e r I I | 97

Figure 75. The swather on the right was designed for smaller plants such as rice. Sesame is taller and requires adopting a modification to push the taller sesame into the center. The red tubing moves the sesame to the center with the blue cloths helping as the stalks start curving to the center. Photos: Company Archives BCS and TarcĂsio Marcos de Souza Gondim.

There have been many other reaper-binders that have been developed across the world as shown as shown in Figures 76-80.

Figure 76. These types of esame cutter-binders in Sudan harvests hundreds of thousands of hectares each year. The sesame is cut and tied in bundles by machine. Photo: W.M. Mahgoub.

Figure 77. Shocks still need to be manually gathered on to a tarp to catch sesame that falls out of the capsules. Photo: A.A. Khalafalla.

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Figure 78. A Yapel CDG 300 Reaper Binder and a Yapel TC DG 140 Reaper Binder in Sudan. Photos: Yapel Agricultural Machinery.

Figure 79. Reaper-binder developed by the United Kingdom used in the harvesting of non-branched sesame. The implement is pulled and driven by a tractor. Its daily production is 8 ha. Its commercial value is 7,575 pounds sterling, excluding the value of the freight (weight 345 kg). Photos: Files of AB Alvan Blanch.

Figure 80 Reaper-binder developed in China by Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences. These bundles are taken to a threshing floor so that as the seed falls out, it can still be collected. Photos: Ray Langham.

C h a p t e r I I | 99 The semi-mechanized sesame harvester developed in Brazil by SĂŠsamo Real (Figure 81) is use in organized communities of family producers in the semi-arid region of Brazil. This machine works coupled to the tractor to make the cut of 3-4 ha/day, using 2-3 men/day to bundle and shock the material. This harvester is recommended in the small areas of sesame production, provided that such equipment is purchased and made available by tractor-service providers to producers in the semi-arid region of Brazil.

Figure 81. Semi-mechanized sesame harvester used in the small production areas of family agriculture in Brazil. Photos: TĂşlio Benatti.

Most of the sesame in Brazil is hand threshed into tarps as shown before. It is more economical to hand thresh it into a small trailer that can move through the field to different shocks instead of re-staking the tarps or carrying the bundles from a long distance (Figure 82).

Figure 82. Plastic canvas or moving trailer in the field facilitates the beating of the sesame bundles. Photos: Vicente de Paula Queiroga.

C h a p t e r I I | 100 Another option for small-scale producers to thresh sesame is to manually feed the bundles into a small bean crusher (Figure 83), provided that the sieve is replaced for 1/8-inch holes (MAZZANI, 1999).

Figure 83. The bundles of harvested sesame can be fed directly into an adapted bean threshing machine. Photos: Lucrecia, RN (RN - State of Rio Grande of Norte).

Even though it is considered the largest sesame producing area in Brazil, sesame producers in the state of Goiรกs still use the manual cutting system of the plants at harvest maturity. Fifteen to twenty days after cutting, the dried bundles, arranged in shocks, are manually fed into an adapted rice combine (Figure 84).

Figure 84. Semimechanized harvesting system of sesame used by producers in the State of Goiรกs, where dried bundles are fed manually in the combine. Photo: Waltemilton Vieira Cartaxo.

Note: It is not recommended to sit on the header as the person on the right. Near his feet, there is an auger that moves the plants to the feeder housing. There could be serious injury if his pants or foot is caught in the auger, he falls from the back of the header, and his clothes are caught by the auger.

C h a p t e r I I | 101 MECHANICAL HARVEST OF SESAME IN VENEZUELA Based on the gradual reduction of manual labor in the field, the harvesting system of sesame in Venezuela can be classified in three different ways: (a) the traditional system, (b) the Colleoni system, and (c) the Schultz system.

(a) Traditional system The traditional system was developed by Derald Langham in the 1940s. Mechanization of the cutting and threshing was critical because the fields reclaimed from the forests were far from villages. Therefore, there was not enough manual labor to cut and thresh the sesame. A reaper-binder of cereals is used for the cutting of plants at the harvest maturity of each cultivar (Figures 70, 71, and 85). With an inter-row spacing of 60 cm, 3 to 4 rows of plants are cut and then tied in a bundle and ejected to the field (Figure 86) (DAVILA, 1978).

Figure 85. Side and rear view of cutting of sesame plants made with a reaper-binder machine. The sesame is tied in a bundle and left on the ground. Photos: Rafael E. Davila Cardenas.

C h a p t e r I I | 102

Figure 86. Detail of reaper-binder machine throwing the tied bundle of sesame to the ground. Photo: Rafael E. Davila Cardenas.

Then, the bundles thrown by the reaper-binder are manually assembled in several aligned shocks in the field (Figure 87).

Figure 87. The bundles from the reaper-binder are then shocked similar to manual harvest. They are aligned to facilitate the threshing, which is the next operation when the sesame is dry. Photos: Bruno Mazzani.

After 3 weeks of drying in the sun, a bagger equipped threshing machine was manually fed by four workers; two in charge of picking up the dry bundles of the shocks and two others who receive and insert them into the machine (Figure 88). Besides the thresher operator, two workers are assigned at the top of the machine to tie the bags with the seeds and let them slide on a ramp to fall to the ground, which will be picked up by another tractor equipped with a wagon. This traditional harvesting system is considered semimechanized (MAZZANI, 1999). The next level of evolution was to have a combine drive up to the shock and the workers would toss the bundles into the header. A combine threshes and cleans the seed. The next level of evolution was to build platforms on the sides of the header. Two workers would ride the combine from shock to shock and move the shocks into the header with pitchforks.

C h a p t e r I I | 103

Figure 88. At left, ending the dry sesame bundles into the thresher/bagger. At right, the present system is to use a combine with platforms built at sides of the header. The laborers ride on these platforms, and then with pitchforks move the shock into the combine. Photos: Rafael E. Davila Cardenas and Ray Langham.

With all 3 systems, the combines are the same, and in some cases grain buggies are used to transfer the sesame from the combine to take the seed to a truck. This allows the combine to avoid leaving the field to empty, leading to more harvested hectares per day (Figure 89)

Figure 89. The combine can dump the harvested sesame into a grain buggy to move it to a truck. Photo: Ray Langham.

(b) Colleoni system The Colleoni system is similar to the traditional one and also involves the cutting operation with the reaper-binder machine and moving the bundles into shocks, following the same procedure described above. The difference is in moving the shocks into the combine mechanically rather than with laborers. A combine is fitted with a mechanical device to collect the shocks and feed them into the combine. This platform consists of a cubic-shaped metal structure with the top part and one side open. On the open side there is a door (Figures 90 and 91), which moves the shock into the combine. Once inside the

C h a p t e r I I | 104 chamber, the sesame shock is carried by a conveyor belt to feeder housing which moves the sesame into the combine (Figure 92).

Figure 90. The combine used is the same as is used in the traditional harvest. The feeding platform is different and attached to the combine. Platform of metal structure with side opening and a door operated by hydraulics to collect the shocks. The combine drives up to the shock and does not require labor to fill the shocks into the combine. Photo: Rafael E. Davila Cardenas.

Figure 91. The door then pushes the shock Figure 92. There is a conveyor in the into the chamber. Photo: Ray Langham. chamber that moves the sesame to the feeder housing and into the combine. Photo: Rafael E. Davila Cardenas.

(c) Schultz system This sesame harvesting system, developed by the producer Rodolfo Schultz, presents the remarkable characteristic of being fully mechanized (DAVILA, 1978), versus the two semi-mechanized harvesting systems mentioned above (Traditional and Colleoni). The sesame is sprayed with a desiccant and left standing in the field to dry down. It is then combined direct (MAZZANI, 1999).

C h a p t e r I I | 105 Application of Desiccant At harvest maturity, a harvest aid (diquat or paraquat) is sprayed over the sesame to accelerate the drydown (MAZZANI, 1999). Depending on the size of the cultivated area of sesame in Venezuela (50 to 200 ha), the desiccant can be applied by sprayer or plane (Figure 93). Some producers apply one dose of desiccant, while others apply two doses.

Figure 93. Application of desiccants at the harvesting maturity through a sprayer or plane, depending on the size of the sesame planted area. Photo: Diego Antonio Nรณbrega.

After five or six days of drying (Figure 94), the combine can harvest the dry sesame (Figure 95). The purpose of using the desiccants is to accelerate and standardize the drying of sesame plants, thus facilitating the mechanized harvest.

Figure 94. Sesame field in Venezuela with the plants drying for mechanized harvest after application of desiccant. Photo: Bruno Mazzani.

Figure 95. Direct harvesting system in the sesame field of indehiscent cultivar by a combine with a row platform. Photo: Bruno Mazzani.

C h a p t e r I I | 106 According to Mazzani (1999), there are some technical specifications of the adapted combine (Figure 95) when employed in the direct harvesting system of indehiscent sesame, which are the followings:

a) The threshing machine harvests 4 to 7 rows depending on the inter-row distances of 50 to 80 cm; b) The performance of the combine is 2.5 hectares per hour under standard field conditions; c) Five to ten percent of the sesame seeds are damaged by threshing; d) There was an increase from 4 to 8% in the costs of the Schultz system (direct harvest) compared to the Colleoni system; e) The combine plus header can also be used for harvesting sorghum, sunflower and other similar species.

Working with the desiccant Reglone (diquat), Urdaneta; Mazzani (1978) sprayed at 96 and 103 days with two dosages (1.5 and 2.5 L/ha) using 1 cultivar (Aceitera R) using 3 different surfactants. The optimum harvest time was 101 days. The objective was to evaluate the desiccant effect on the percentage of foliage, capsules and dry stems per plant after 5 days of its application, and its effect on seed yield, percentage of immature seeds, 1,000 seed weight, and germination in relation to control with no desiccant. The results were: the highest yield was with the control; there were considerable differences in yield based on the 3 different surfactants; spraying at 96 days had the most immature seed, followed by 103 days, and negligible amounts for the control; all desiccant treatments reduced 1,000 seed weight; there was no appreciable differences in germination. In the sprayed plots, the best was 1.5 L/ha at 103 days (13% less yield than the control) and the worst was 2.5 L/ha at 96 days (49% less yield). The recommended Reglone rates are 1.52.5 liters per hectare in 50-75 liters of water, applied by plane, to achieve a satisfactory level of desiccation of the sesame plants. In several tests with desiccant products (Reglone - diquat, Gramoxone â&#x20AC;&#x201C; paraquat, and PCP) and defoliants (NH4 N03, NaCl and CaCl2) conducted at the experimental test of Maracay, researchers from the Venezuelan Ministry of Agriculture and Breeding concluded that only the Reglone at higher doses caused the desired desiccant effect in the sesame plant (MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND BREEDING OF VENEZUELA,

C h a p t e r I I | 107 1974). However, PĂŠrez; GonzĂĄlez (1970), while evaluating the effect of the desiccant Gramoxone at 1% on the indehiscent Morada cultivar, concluded that there are no differences in yield between the studied treatments, except for the oil content.

For over 40 years in Venezuela, there has been a goal of developing indehiscent sesame. These indehiscent materials reduce losses of seeds during harvesting, even in situations that are influenced by natural effects (rains, wind, etc.) or even if at the time of harvest, the header comes into contact with the plant. Mazzani (1983) reported advantages of large-scale cultivation of the indehiscent sesame: a) less urgency to complete the harvest, b) shorter period of operations to do the direct harvesting and c) lower harvesting cost, since the cutting and threshing of plants are done in only one operation. To perform a proper mechanical harvest of the indehiscent sesame, Davila (1978) recommended at that time, to select some cultivar traits: absence of branching, capsules grouped in the upper 2/3 of the plant, little flexibility of the stem, etc. According to Mazzani (1999), indehiscent and branched plants are nowadays considered the most productive and they do not present extra difficulties to be mechanically harvested when this operation is performed by an adapted combine.

However, indehiscent cultivars produce less yield than dehiscent cultivars despite more loss from the shattering in the dehiscent cultivars. In addition, the Colleoni method has higher yields than the Schulz method. The Schultz method has two major advantages: in years when the weather forces a late planting, the Schultz method has an earlier harvest avoiding possible rains during the drying period; in normal planting periods, the Schulz method clears the field sooner to provide additional time to prepare the soil for the next crop before the rainy season begins (MAZZANI and JIMENEZ, personal communication, 1998).

Davila (1978) reported the main advantages and disadvantages of the three harvesting systems of sesame used by Venezuelan producers (Table 17) depending on the cultivars, dehiscent or indehiscent, besides the level of progressive reduction of manual labor required during the harvesting operation. All three methods use a combine for threshing and cleaning the seed versus manual methods.

C h a p t e r I I | 108 Table 17. Comparison between the sesame harvesting systems used in Venezuela: Traditional, Colleoni and Schultz, based on the advantages and disadvantages presented by each system. HARVESTING SYSTEM

ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

TRADITIONAL

- Works with dehiscent and indehiscent cultivars - No additional investments for the combine, which is used for rice and sorghum - No additional investments for the chamber used in the Colleoni system or the header used in the Schultz method. - No need for a desiccant

- Requires manual labor in the field - Risk of accidents of laborers feeding the shocks into the combine - Low effective capacity - Uses the reaper-binder machine, which the Schultz method does not - High total costs (40% > Colleoni) - Subject to occasional rains (15 to 30 days of drying) - Semi-mechanized system

COLLEONI

- Reduced risk of accidents over traditional - Higher effective capacity - Average labor cost - Lower total cost - Works with dehiscent and indehiscent cultivars - No need for a desiccant

- High investment to acquire a chamber - Use of the reaper-binder machine, which the Schultz method does not - Subject to occasional rains (15 to 30 days of drying - Semi-mechanized system

SCHULTZ

- Reduced risk of accidents over traditional - Minimum rainfall risk (6 days to complete drying after desiccant application) - Lower labor cost - Does not use reaper-binder machine - Works with dehiscent and indehiscent cultivars - Fully mechanized system

- Additional expenses with application of desiccants (airplane or sprayer) - Shortage of indehiscent cultivars resulting in lower yields - If there is a wind during the drying process, sesame can be shattered out of the dry capsules. - The header is more expensive that the traditional header, but less expensive than the Colleoni header

The use of the traditional harvesting system is recommended when the producer already has suitable machinery for this purpose, provided that there is the availability of manpower in the region and does not adversely affect the harvest. For the organized communities of family producers, who have enough manpower, this system can be used in the sesame harvest since safety rules are maintained during the course of operation (DAVILA, 1978).

C h a p t e r I I | 109 Harvesting by the Colleoni system is considered superior to the traditional harvest, because the moving the shocks into the combine, which is more critical, does not depend on manual labor. (There is one manual step: in putting the bundles in shocks, there is a twine that is tied around all the bundles. A laborer cuts this twine ahead of the combine, so the bundles separate in the chamber and feed into the combine). The uncertainty of weather conditions, which can influence the success of the harvest, can be minimized by planting an early cultivar or by a scheduled sowing so that the harvest is carried out in a time of no rainfall (DAVILA, 1978). Planning to plant early and planting early can be two different things. In some years the monsoon is extended preventing planting for as much as a month. In other years, the producers think the rains have ended and plant. Before emergence there is a rain, necessitating re-preparing the field and planting.

The Schultz system has been more appropriated for the state of Portuguesa, Venezuela, because the harvest controlled with desiccant takes less time (6 days) of plant exposure to the climatic conditions of the region. Because proper crop management is required for mechanical harvesting, the producers use improved shatter resistant cultivar to reduce seed losses.

MECHANIZED HARVEST OF SESAME IN AUSTRALIA

In Australia, the sesame is harvested similar to the Schultz method in Venezuela. The sesame is sprayed with a desiccant and then harvested direct. It is important that the sesame plant is completely dry before harvest, as the presence of still green capsules during the harvest can change the uniformity of the standard color of the cultivar and contaminate the seeds, creating an abnormal aroma in the subsequent processed products.

The recommended procedure in Australia for the sesame harvest is to spray the field with a desiccant when at least 70% of the capsules change their green color to a light or yellowish green. In the north of the country, an aerial application of 1 Lâ&#x2C6;&#x2022; ha of Reglone proved to be effective. However, in the southern state of Queensland, the best result of Reglone was obtained by increasing the dosage (2-3 L/ha). In regions with mild temperatures it is necessary to increase the dose of same desiccant (BENNETT, 2004).

C h a p t e r I I | 110 The mechanical harvesting of sesame should only be performed when 100% of the capsules are brown (Figure 96), which can occur approximately 10 to 15 days after the application of the desiccant. At this stage, the moisture content of the seed should be between 6 and 7%, in the North of Australia. However, in more temperate areas of the country, the moisture content of the seeds is higher, and their drying takes longer, which demands from the sesame producer delaying the harvest for longer (BENNETT, 2004).

Figure 96. Field of dehiscent sesame in Australia at harvesting conditions. Photo: Malcolm Bennett.

Bennett (2004) reports that sesame harvesting is more efficient when the speed of the thresher is 4 to 6 kmâ&#x2C6;&#x2022;h, because it reduces mechanical damages to the seed (about 50% oil). If the speed of the machine reel (the one required for cereals) is reduced by half, the seed damage can be less than 10%. These damages to the seed during harvest affect their viability during storage and their oil quality.

Bennett (personal communication, 2018) confirmed that sesame is no longer produced in Australia on a large scale. In some years, there are producers that will try it, but then usually will not plant the crop again due to lack of economic return to justify the risk. The main problem is shattering as shown in Figure 97 showing the amount of seed on the ground before combine cutter bar struck the stems and shattered out more seed (BENNETT et al. 1995).

C h a p t e r I I | 111

Figure 97. Amount of seed on the ground before the combine has struck the plants. There is more seed lost over time with most not pictured because it was eaten by insects and rodents or covered by leaves and dust. Photo: Malcolm Bennett.

MECHANIZED HARVEST OF SESAME IN THE USA Historically, there have been 4 harvest methods used in the USA: (a) Traditional: In the 1950s and 1960s, the traditional method from Venezuela was adapted; (b) Swathing: From 1982 to about 1990, the plants were swathed and left on the ground at harvest maturity and then picked up by a combine (this method was used occasionally after that); (c) Direct harvest without harvest aids: 1988 was the first year that there was enough shatter resistance to leave the crop in the field and harvest direct standing sesame; (d) Direct harvest with harvest aids: In the early-2010s, glyphosate was approved as a harvest aid to accelerated drydown. There are six requirements for direct harvest sesame: 1. The plants should terminate flowering (Figure 98). Sesame is generally indeterminate meaning that as long as there is sufficient moisture, fertility, and temperature, the plants will continue to flower and set capsules. At the same time, the lower capsules will dry, open, and release their seed. There are several mechanisms to terminate flowering: the plants run out of moisture or fertility; the temperatures drop to the point where there is little metabolism; there are genotypes that stop flowering based on daylength; there are determinate genotypes; and there can be a frost or freeze.

C h a p t e r I I | 112 Figure 98. This photo was taken from the edge of the field, and the plants closest to the edge are all flowering, but behind these plants, the rest of the plants have very few to no flowers. The branches and minor plants will stop flowering sooner than the main stems of the dominant plants. Many fields will have areas with heavier soils or low spots that will flower longer. Photo: Ray Langham.

2. The plants should drop their leaves (Figure 99). Leaves on the plants at harvest cause 3 potential problems dependent on the harvest method: (a) In a combine, they break apart and add dockage and foreign matter in the seed. Dockage are pieces that are larger than the seed or smaller than the seed and can be cleaned by screens. Foreign matter are pieces that are about the same size and/or specific gravity of the sesame seeds that are difficult to clean out. (b) In shocks, insects will feed on the leaves creating excreta, which often results as foreign matter in the seed. (3) When harvest aids are used, the leaves shield the stems and capsules from the chemical, increasing the time to dry down. Figure 99. The initial phase of maturation in which the plants naturally drop the leaves on the ground. In the United States, these plants are not ready for harvest or for harvest aids because the seeds at the top of the plant are not mature. Photo: Ray Langham.

C h a p t e r I I | 113 In the reproductive phase, leaves at the base of the plants that do not get sun will generally dehisce. Unlike crops like cotton, sesame will shed its leaves and does not need a defoliant. 3. The seed in the upper capsules should mature before the lower capsules open (Figure 100). In many harvest methods, the plants are cut when first capsules dry. If the upper capsule seed is immature, it will be lost in the cleaning or winnowing process, thereby reducing potential yield.

Figure 100. There are many exceptions, but generally, as the capsules at a leaf axil are mature, the leaf subtending that capsule will drop. Photo: Ray Langham.

4. The capsules should retain their seed until the plant is in the combine (Figure 101). In all methods of harvest, the capsules go through the same pattern: the capsules will dry down, the tips of the capsules will open, and seed can potentially fall out of the capsules, thereby reducing yield. Non-dehiscent and improved non-dehiscent genotypes developed by Sesaco lose a minimum amount of seed while the sesame is still in the field drying. Figure 101. Non-dehiscent sesame cultivar developed by Sesaco Corporation, Texas, USA, with seed retention in the capsules (placenta). Photos: Langham Simon.

and

Jay

Ray S.

C h a p t e r I I | 114 5. The capsules should release the seed in the combine with minimal damage. Sesame has a nominal 52% oil content (current known range: 29.5 to 62.7%), and thus, the seed is tender. Damage to the seed coat will lead to an increase of free fatty acids and loss of germination. High free fatty acids lead to rancidity. There is more damage from the combine than with manual threshing. It is important that the capsules release the seed in the combine easily, or the operator will increase the cylinder speed and/or close down the concaves creating more damage.

6. The harvested seed should be at 6% moisture or below. Most of the world seed right from harvest is stored in 50 kg bags that breathe. As a result, for example in South Korea, sesame is harvested at 8-10% moisture. The excess moisture will evaporate out of the bags. When moving the seed in trucks with a 2 MT capacity and transferring it into silos that hold as much as 2,000 MT, the moisture does not evaporate. Being an oilseed, with high moisture the seed temperature will increase and can potentially catch on fire.

(a) Traditional harvest The traditional harvest in the USA paralleled the traditional harvest in Venezuela: the use of a reaper-binder to cut the sesame; manual labor to place the bundles in shocks and when dry, to throw the shocks into the combine; combine. Several methods were attempted to facilitate moving the shocks into the combine. In one year, a forklift attachment was placed in front of the header. In another year, a belt conveyor was attached to the front of the header. Although both methods saved on labor, in both there was too much seed loss before the plants reached the header.

Although most cultivar descriptions show a number of days to harvest maturity, the number reflects either one year or an average of several years. Producers must look to the plant to tell them when to harvest the crop. The weather in Texas from year to year is very unpredictable in terms of rainfall and temperature. Even in an irrigated area, the timing and amount of rainfall is erratic. Looking at total rainfall during the growing period can be deceiving because the rains can range from 10 to 500 mm in a single day. Obviously, heavy rains will run off the field instead of penetrating the soil. Table 18 shows data on S26 from 2000 to 2006.

C h a p t e r I I | 115 Table 18. Effects of the environment on an S26 cultivar planted within 500 m each year. 2000

2001

2002

2004

2005

2006

Planting date

05/28

06/06

06/09

05/17

05/20

05/25

Previous winter crop

Wheat

Fallow

Pre-plant nitrogen (kg/ha)

Post-plant nitrogen (kg/ha)

No. of post-plant irrigations

1,453

1,734

1,679

1,730

1,848

1,669

Days to flowering

Days to flower termination

Days to physiological maturity

103

102

106

Days to direct harvest

114

154

145

146

141

118

Yield (kg/ha)

These research nurseries were planted within 500 yards of each other on the same soils, using the same planter, and under irrigation. The seed was planted into moisture after a pre-plant irrigation. Moisture (amount and timing) and fertility make a tremendous difference in production. In 2000, there was a rain substituting for the first post-plant irrigation that prevented adding the application of the post-plant nitrogen, which terminated the crop earlier. Then, there was no rain from the end of flowering to drydown, which accelerated complete drydown. In 2001 to 2005, there were rains between ripening and drying, lengthening this period (LANGHAM, 2008).

M. L. Kinman (personal communication, 1981) developed a methodology to determine the harvest maturity. At that time, the cultivars would have dry capsules at the base before the top capsules had mature seed. He determined the seeds in a capsule were mature based on the color of the seed, the presence of a dark tip, and a seed line (Figure 102 and 103). The color turns from a milky white to the final color; the placenta attachment dries and turns brown; and the seed coat will have dark line on one side. Not all light seeded genotypes will have the prominent seed line shown below.

C h a p t e r I I | 116

Figure 102. Within the green capsule, the seed will change from a milky white color in the capsule to the left to the buff color in the capsule on the right when the seed is physiologically mature. Photo by Jerry Riney.

Figure 103. These seeds are physiologically mature. Note the dark line and the dark tips on the seeds. The line is only on one side of the seed. Note from the side view that the seeds are somewhat flat. Photo by Jerry Riney.

Generally, the capsules will show mature seeds from the base of the plant to the top of the main stem. In rare cases the bottom 1-3 node pairs will not be the first to mature. The branches stop flowering and will have mature capsules before the top of the main stem. In the warm months, the physiological maturity level of the plants will increase one node day per day. In cooler nights, it is 1 node pair per 2-4 days depending on the temperatures. In the same field, Kinman did a replicated trial where he cut the plants based on the level of node pairs with mature seed. He found that the maximum yield was when the seeds were mature Âž up the capsule zone of the main stem. At that point, the lower capsules were still closed even the top seed was not mature. After that point the gain from waiting for upper seeds was offset by the loss of seed from the lower capsules as they opened. It should be noted that capsules above the Âž level have seed that is close to being at full seed weight. Seeds are living organisms, and although at cutting, the circulation system of the plant will no longer push photosynthates into the seeds, the seeds can proceed to have a dry placenta attachment (dark tip), and they will put on the seed color and seed line. They also have the capability to germinate. It is normally only the top two node pairs that have immature seed that will blow out the back of the combine with the proper air setting, and the seed weight in the top fully mature capsules is much lower than the lower capsules.

C h a p t e r I I | 117 The traditional method of harvest ended in the 1960s when immigration laws were changed, and laborers were not available to stock shocks and place them in the combine.

(b) Swathing harvest The first commercial harvests of indehiscent cultivars by Sesaco in Arizona in 1981 and 1982 were direct when the plants dried down. The yields were low, and the seed damage was high. Thus, harvesting indehiscent cultivars direct was not economically feasible. In 1982, there were cultivars that had sufficient shatter-resistance to swath and then pick up into the combine (Figure 104 and 105). The windrows were left on the ground to dry for 4 to 10 days depending on the heat, wind, and depth of the windrow. Dropping of the leaves prior to swathing was important because they would delay the drying in the windrow. The example below in Figure 104 was a candidate cultivar that was discarded because there was too much leaf matter in the windrows. There was seed loss as the capsules opened and as the plants were fed into the combine, but the seed in the bin was sufficient to provide an economic return to the producer. Over time the newer cultivars had more shatter-resistance, less harvest loss, higher yields, and greater profit.

Figure 104. Swathing sesame at physiological maturity in Yuma, Arizona. Photo: D.G. Langham.

Figure 105. Picking up sesame from a windrow when it is dry, and the seed is at less than 6% moisture. Photo: D.G. Langham.

Initially, the same Kinman methodology was used to determine the harvest maturity. A few years later cultivars were developed that has a â&#x20AC;&#x153;swathing windowâ&#x20AC;? â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the lower capsules would not open even when the top capsules were fully mature. The swathing windows of cultivars ranged from 1 to 3 weeks. This development was important because the swather could cover more hectares per day than the combine.

C h a p t e r I I | 118 (c) Direct harvest without harvest aids

Over the years as shatter-resistance improved, there were attempts to leave the sesame in the field to dry down and combine direct. However, the seed loss was great, and the seed in the combine bin was not enough for a profit. In 1988, S11 was the first cultivar that could be harvested direct for profit. S11 was tall an needed a row crop header at harvest (Figure 106). The most common header in the sesame growing areas were platform headers, and thus, later cultivars were selected for lower plant height (Figure 107).

Figure 106. S11 being harvested with a row crop header. Photo: Jay S. Simon.

Figure 107. S26 being harvested by a platform header. Photo: Jerry Riney.

Although S11 had enough shatter resistance for direct harvest, there was still considerable seed lost during the drying period, particularly with rain and winds. Improving shatter resistance is a gray area in that more shatter resistance is good, but too much shatter resistance is bad. The non-dehiscent and improved non-dehiscent cultivars that have been developed for direct harvest release the seed in the combine with minimum threshing. The Sesaco cultivars take 30 to 50 days from physiological maturity to drydown with 6% seed moisture (Figure 108). This is a trying time for the producer because there will be seed lost from the open capsules, particularly with wind and/or after rains. It is actually not the rain itself that causes the most damage. It is the moisture from the rain that creates

C h a p t e r I I | 119 dews in the mornings. As the capsules gain moisture in the evening, the tips of the capsules will close, and as they lose moisture in the morning, they will open. Each closing/opening leads to more opening and less shatter-resistance.

Figure 108. On the left, generally, at 50% drying, the plants are not at the same stage of drying. Plants in a higher population will dry down faster. As the plants dry the field will have a brown hue. The color at drydown depends on the cultivar, but will be darker after rains. In the photo to the right with 95% drying, although the capsules and the seed are dry, the moisture in the green stems will be introduced into the bin sample and raise the moisture. This methodology is still used in part of the USA where there are early frosts or freezes. The use of the harvest aid glyphosate does not dry down the plants as quickly in cool nights. There are areas with shorter growing windows (later planting temperatures and earlier frosts). In these areas, the frost generally dries down the plants faster than a harvest aid.

(d) Direct harvest with harvest aids The use of harvest aids (HAID) in Venezuela and Australia were known in the USA, but the US government did not approve the use of harvest aids for sesame until the mid2010s. From that point forward, harvest aids are used except for the northern areas with short growing windows. Although research has shown that paraquat, diquat, and glufosinate dry down the sesame faster than glyphosate, glyphosate is the only approved harvest aid. Glyphosate can satisfy all the harvest aid requirements, whereas some of the requirements are not fulfilled with faster drying harvest aids. Initially, weed scientists were certain that the plants had to be leafed for the glyphosate to act. The opposite is true.

C h a p t e r I I | 120 With no leaves, the glyphosate penetrates further down the plant decreasing the length of the plant the active ingredient needs to travel to kill the plant. There are six reasons to use an harvest aid (LANGHAM, 2019): 1. Accelerate drydown. No weather event can increase yield after the crop is mature, and yet there are many weather events that reduce yield. Natural drydown averages 5-6 weeks, and weather can prevent a combine from entering a field for as many as 8-9 weeks. With harvest aids the drydown is 1-3 weeks depending on dosage, heat, and humidity. No matter how much shatter resistance there is, the field will lose yield the longer it is exposed to weather and possible lodging. 2. Burn-down green weeds. Green weeds can add moisture to the sesame seed in the combine bin. As stated above, the moisture needs to be around 6%. The sesame seeds can be dry and yet in the combine bin and the truck, the moisture from the weeds will be absorbed by the sesame seeds. 3. Even up a field with varying levels of dry-down. Many fields have low spots that can still be green while high spots are drying. 4. Stop regrowth. Certain cultivars have a propensity for restarting growth and flowering after the main stem has stopped flowering. Regrowth usually occurs in areas where conditions are such that the plants have run out of moisture and/or fertility. If there is rain (normally rain carries nitrogen as fertility, particularly in thunderstorms), some lines will form branches at the bottom of the plant, and these will flower and set capsules while the main stem and the older branches will not start flowering again and will dry down. There are three types of regrowth: top (restarts at the tops of the main stems), middle (branches emerge from the middle of the main stem), and bottom (branches start in the axils of other branches or below the branches) (Figure 109). Regrowth is not an issue with manual cutting or swathing since the sesame is harvested at harvest maturity.

C h a p t e r I I | 121 Figure 109. In this photo, there is bottom regrowth. The stems and capsules on the main stem and branches will continue to dry down, but the regrowth will form flowers and capsules and will stay green for another 50 days. Spraying a HAID, would allow harvest in 1-3 weeks. The optimum time to spray a HAID is when the regrowth is just starting like the photo on the right. Photo: R.M. Gloaguen. 5. Stop vivipary. Under some conditions (mostly high temperatures and humidity), there is vivipary in sesame – the seeds will germinate in the capsules (LANGHAM, 2017) as shown in Figure 110. Not only are the germinated seeds lost, but the roots of the seedlings bind the rest of the seed and keep it in the capsule when combined. There is little to no vivipary once the night temperatures go below 21°C – the optimum temperature for sesame germination. At the 1984 FAO meetings in Italy, Ashri suggested breeding temporary seed dormancy into the sesame cultivars. There has been dormancy reported in some cultivars such as Cola de Borrego from Mexico and some cultivars in Thailand. Vivipary occurs only in green capsules. Generally, getting moisture into dry, open capsules does not lead to vivipary. Figure 110. In many areas of the world, seed will germinate inside the green capsule when the temperatures are high. Photo on the left: S.U. Kim and on right, Ray Langham.

C h a p t e r I I | 122 6. Prepare to plant a new crop. In many areas of the US, wheat and sesame are double cropped. The earlier the sesame is harvested, the earlier the wheat can be planted.

Using HAIDs reverts to the concern as to when to apply the harvest aid. Although there is no visible effect of spraying any of the HAIDs in the first 2-6 days, the spray immediately stops seed fill, and thus, there is a freezing of the potential yield. As with cutting the plants, after using HAIDs, the seeds in the first few node pairs above the Âž mark will have a dry placenta attachment, add seed coat color and seed line, and most will germinate. Some producers still apply the HAID when the capsules Âž up the capsule zone have mature seeds because they want to be out of the field as soon as possible. Other producers will wait until the capsules at the top are mature. Another consideration is that a sprayer or airplane can cover more hectares than can be harvested in a day by a combine.

GENERAL POINTS ABOUT SESAME IN THE USA

Al color combines (Figure 111) can be adjusted to harvest sesame with very few modifications.

Figure 111. Any combine that is used for wheat, sorghum, soybeans, corn, etc., can be adjusted with few modifications to harvest sesame.

The main modification is the sieves inside the combine to conform with the small sesame seed size. Small grain sieves can be used, but sieves for corn and larger seeds need to be changed. Some producers add a screen at the back of the header to keep the plants from going over the header instead of into the combine (Figure 112). Although it is not a modification, it is advisable to not fill the bin above the auger since the constant churning may damage the seed (Figure 113).

C h a p t e r I I | 123

Figure 112. The screen at the back of the header prevents plants from flying over the back of the header. Photo: Ray Langham.

Figure 113. The seed in the bin should be kept below the auger exit to prevent seed damage. Photo: Jerry Riney.

Although the authors have seen a bag of sesame transported from the field on a bicycle, most sesame in the USA is transported in trucks with as much as 25,000 kg (Figure 114).

Figure 114. Combines transfering seed to trucks to haul the seed to receiving points or processors. Photos: Jerry Riney.

C h a p t e r I I | 124 The seed is then dumped into silos for cleaning (Figure 115).

Figure 115. Discharge of sesame seeds inside the seed processing unit,

after the

harvest done by the combine thresher. Photo A: Jerry Riney and Photos B,C: Diógenes Galindo Diniz.

STORAGE

Due to their natural antioxidants such as sesamin and sesamolin (MAZZANI, 1983), sesame seeds are very stable. They can maintain germination even in high relative humidity environment, such as the city of Campina Grande-PB, where they can be stored for more than six months without losing the initial germination rate (QUEIROGA; BELTRÃO, et al., 2001). For long-term safe storage, the sesame seed must be clean and the moisture content around 6% in a controlled environment with relative humidity of approximately 50% and temperature below 18° C. Under optimum conditions of storage, the sesame can be packed for approximately one year (FA0, 2006). In case of storage in mixed deposits, conventional and organic products should be properly separated to prevent contamination problems; preferably store the sesame in silos. It is not permitted to treat the sesame seeds in the mixed warehouse or to purge the products with methyl bromide.

C h a p t e r I I | 125 The storage packages should be free of insecticides. The elimination of oxalic acid within the coat or shell of the seed must be carried out by steam treatment. There is still a debate as whether the oxalic acid crystals are harmful, and there are seed coats without oxalic acid crystals. In the warehouse, sesame should not be treated with methyl bromide (purge) or ethylene oxide. The use of ionized rays is not permitted (FAO, 2006). In order to meet the quality requirements adopted by the market and to avoid possible contamination of sesame seeds, their post-harvest processing should be carried out in conditions of absolute hygiene and cleaning. Table 19 presents some sesame quality traits, including their requirement degrees, minimum and maximum (FA0, 2006). There is no definitive set of standards for the whole world. Producers and processors need to understand the specifications for their markets. At times specifications are stricter or more lenient than those in the following table.

Table 19. Quality standards of sesame seeds adopted by the market. Quality traits

Minimum and maximum values

Flavor and smell

Type specific, fresh, not rancid, not moldy

Purity

(99.96%). Free from external agents like sand, little rocks, fiber remains, insects etc.

Moisture

Maximum 5-7 %

Residues Pesticides

Not detected

Bromine

Not detected

Ethylene oxide

Not detected

Heavy metals Cadmium (Cd)

Maximum 0.8 mg/kg

Microorganisms Total germs

Maximum 10,000/g

Yeasts and molds

Maximum 500/g

Enterobacteriaceae

Maximum 10/g

Escherichia coli

No detectable

Staphylococcus aureus

Maximum 100/g

Salmonellas

No detectable in 25 g

Coliforms

Maximum 10/g

Mycotoxins Aflatoxin B1

Maximum 2 Âľg/kg

Sum of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2

Maximum 4 Âľg/kg

C h a p t e r I I | 126 In regions with high environmental humidity, the sesame seeds absorb moisture and are at risk of molding. Under these conditions the seeds should be stored for a short time; if storage is required for a long period, they should be stored in a hermetically sealed container. BASS et al. (1963), using sealed containers found that sesame seeds were preserved for two years when kept at a temperature of 10Â°C and moisture of 7%. At 21Â°C, conservation was only maintained when the moisture content of the seeds was 4%.

The location chosen for storage should be appropriate, that means safe, dry, with aeration possibilities and conditions for easy control of rodents, insects and microorganisms (POPINIGIS, 1985). Adequate spaces and corridors should be maintained for handling and sampling, as well as divisions allowing prompt identification between different batches of seeds in the same row.

The sesame seeds should be stored in new multiwall paper bags (Figure 116), burlap or braided polyethylene. These bags should be stacked on wooden pallets, keeping a distance of 1 meter from the walls. Periodically, the lots should be inspected to check for abnormalities such as moisture, insects, etc. (QUEIROGA; BELTRĂ&#x192;O, 2001).

Figure 116. Sesame seeds packaged in multiwall/valve paper bags and stacked on wooden pallets. Photo: Vicente de Paula Queiroga.

The recommended size of each lot is up to one MT, and the lots should be separated by producer. Clear all facilities before using them to avoid accidental mixing and compromising the quality of the stored material. It is recommended to identify the number

C h a p t e r I I | 127 of the lot with a pilot pencil in the sesame bags of each lot. This control of the producersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; lots is fundamental to commercialization (before closing the deal, the sesame buyer requires sample of the product). In a production of sesame involving multiple suppliers, some producers may have lower quality seed (QUEIROGA et al., 2007). In the case of not adopting a rigid control of the identification of the sacks of each producer, there will certainly be depreciation in the general price of the product, due to random mixing of the sacks of good versus poor seed.

R e f e r e n c e s | 128 BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCE

ABD EL CHANY, A. K.; EZZ EL RAFEI, M.; BEKHIT, M. R.; EL YAMANY, T. Studies on root wilt disease of sesame. Agricultural Research Review, v.48, n.3, p.8599, 1970.

AL-ANI, H. Y.; NATOUR, R. M.; EL-BEHADLI, A. H. Charcoal root of sesame in Iraq. Phytopathology Mediterranean, v.9, p.50-53, 1970.

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