The Medieval Calendar Locating Time in the Middle Ages Roger S. Wieck
The morgan library & museum, new york in association with Scala Arts Publishers, Inc.
The Medieval Calendar Locating Time in the Middle Ages Roger S. Wieck
The morgan library & museum, new york in association with Scala Arts Publishers, Inc.
contents Director’s Foreword viii Introduction xi
chapter i
The Medieval Calendar 1 chapter ii
A Calendar for the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris 37 chapter iii
How to Localize a Calendar 71 A Note About corsair 89 Works Cited in Abbreviated Form 91 Index of Cited Manuscripts 95 Acknowledgments 97
contents Director’s Foreword viii Introduction xi
chapter i
The Medieval Calendar 1 chapter ii
A Calendar for the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris 37 chapter iii
How to Localize a Calendar 71 A Note About corsair 89 Works Cited in Abbreviated Form 91 Index of Cited Manuscripts 95 Acknowledgments 97
Chapter I
The Medieval Calendar
C
alendars had the same function in the Middle Ages as they do today: to tell what day it is. Medieval calendars, however, told time somewhat differently than our modern ones do. Each day’s importance stemmed from the feast that was celebrated on it. Today, when we speak of Christmas Eve and Christmas Day, St. Valentine’s Day, St. Patrick’s Day, and Halloween, we know the dates to which we are referring—December 24 and 25, February 14, March 17, and October 31. This is the medieval way of telling time.1 The feasts listed in medieval calendars were mostly saints’ days, that is, commemorations of those particular days on which, history or tradition has it, the saints died or were martyred—their dies natalis, their “birthdays” into heaven.2 The saints’ names were cited in the genitive case because the word festivitas (feast) was assumed but hardly ever written. Each saint’s name was normally followed by a Latin noun giving his or her title—such as pope, archbishop, or bishop—or a qualifier—such as martyr, virgin, or widow.3 (The calendar for the Sainte-Chapelle, analyzed in Chapter II, contains many of these titles.) While most feasts commemorated the deaths of the saints, there were exceptions. A few pivotal events in the lives of truly important saints sometimes constituted their own feasts, such as the Conversion of Paul (January 25) and the (actual) Birth of John the Baptist (June 24). The cult of relics was so important in the Middle Ages that the unexpected but happy discovery of some long-forgotten (or misplaced) bones of a saint could itself become a feast, such as the discovery of the relics of St. Denis and his companions (April 22 in Paris calendars). A translatio, that is, the moving of a saint’s relics from one place to another (or even from one site within a church to another) could also be cause for celebration, such as the transfer (a theft, really, in 1087) of the relics of St. Nicholas from Myra, an ancient Greek town in what is today Turkey, to Bari, on the southeastern coast of Italy (May 9). Some of the calendar’s feasts—called universal—were celebrated by the whole Church. But calendars also often included many local celebrations. These help to localize the calendar, in other words, to determine its “use,” the place where the manuscript was intended to be used. Local festivals can indicate the country, region, diocese, city, or, in some rare instances, even a particular church (or part of a church) in which a book was to be used. Paris calendars, for example, always celebrate the feast of St. Geneviève (January 3), patroness of the city, as a red-letter day. While all of France marks the feast of St.
1
Chapter I
The Medieval Calendar
C
alendars had the same function in the Middle Ages as they do today: to tell what day it is. Medieval calendars, however, told time somewhat differently than our modern ones do. Each day’s importance stemmed from the feast that was celebrated on it. Today, when we speak of Christmas Eve and Christmas Day, St. Valentine’s Day, St. Patrick’s Day, and Halloween, we know the dates to which we are referring—December 24 and 25, February 14, March 17, and October 31. This is the medieval way of telling time.1 The feasts listed in medieval calendars were mostly saints’ days, that is, commemorations of those particular days on which, history or tradition has it, the saints died or were martyred—their dies natalis, their “birthdays” into heaven.2 The saints’ names were cited in the genitive case because the word festivitas (feast) was assumed but hardly ever written. Each saint’s name was normally followed by a Latin noun giving his or her title—such as pope, archbishop, or bishop—or a qualifier—such as martyr, virgin, or widow.3 (The calendar for the Sainte-Chapelle, analyzed in Chapter II, contains many of these titles.) While most feasts commemorated the deaths of the saints, there were exceptions. A few pivotal events in the lives of truly important saints sometimes constituted their own feasts, such as the Conversion of Paul (January 25) and the (actual) Birth of John the Baptist (June 24). The cult of relics was so important in the Middle Ages that the unexpected but happy discovery of some long-forgotten (or misplaced) bones of a saint could itself become a feast, such as the discovery of the relics of St. Denis and his companions (April 22 in Paris calendars). A translatio, that is, the moving of a saint’s relics from one place to another (or even from one site within a church to another) could also be cause for celebration, such as the transfer (a theft, really, in 1087) of the relics of St. Nicholas from Myra, an ancient Greek town in what is today Turkey, to Bari, on the southeastern coast of Italy (May 9). Some of the calendar’s feasts—called universal—were celebrated by the whole Church. But calendars also often included many local celebrations. These help to localize the calendar, in other words, to determine its “use,” the place where the manuscript was intended to be used. Local festivals can indicate the country, region, diocese, city, or, in some rare instances, even a particular church (or part of a church) in which a book was to be used. Paris calendars, for example, always celebrate the feast of St. Geneviève (January 3), patroness of the city, as a red-letter day. While all of France marks the feast of St.
1
Fig. 31.
Fig. 32.
Full-Page Signs of the Zodiac. The
The Sun Enters the Constellations.
unusual calendar in this Book of Hours is
Each month in this calendar features its
treated to full-page illustrations of the
appropriate zodiacal constellation through
zodiac. For May’s Gemini, two nude youths
which the sun rises. August’s constellation
embrace, one holding a sickle and the other
is Virgo, shown here as a young maiden.
a lyre, the tool and the musical instrument
She appears on a gold band, the arc of
alluding to the month’s occupations of
which alludes to the repeated annual
work and leisure. Book of Hours; Italy,
progression of these twelve constellations
Milan(?), ca. 1470, illuminated by Venturino
through the night sky. In this deluxe
Mercati(?) (Gift of the Trustees of the
calendar, the major feasts are written in
William S. Glazier Collection, 1984; ms g.14,
blue and all the others in gold. Book of
fol. 7v).
Hours; Italy, Florence, 1490s, illuminated by Attavante degli Attavanti (Purchased by Pierpont Morgan, 1902; ms m.14, fol. 11v).
Fig. 33. Twelve Ages of Man. The calendar in this tiny Book of Hours is illustrated with the Twelve Ages of Man. Reproduced here is the cycle’s penultimate illustration, for November. An ailing man, age sixty-six, nears the end of life. Eyes shut, he holds his aching head while a doctor examines a urine specimen, and his wife whips up some comfort food. The rhyming verses below the image tell us: “When reaching sixty-six years / As represented by the month of November / One becomes old, decrepit, and sick / Now is the time to remember to do good.” Sagittarius appears in a patch of sky above the unhappy man’s head. Book of Hours; France, Paris, 1511–20,
The Morgan is blessed to own a very rare example of a pictographic calendar in runes (Morgan ms m.1099; Fig. 34).63 This unusual calendar consists of ten thin ivory plaques. In the pages, the first line of runes contains the days of the month represented by the repeating Dominical Letters, and the second line lists the sequence of the Golden Numbers. The top half of each month is illustrated with pictographs carved into the surface. A thin line connects each image with its proper date within the month. While the major feasts, illustrated by larger images, are, for the most part, easy to identify, some motifs, abbreviated to just a head or a crozier, can be a challenge. For our final calendar, we return to the Bolognese illuminator known as the Master of B 18 (or the Second Master of San Domenico), an example of whose work we have already seen (Fig. 20). This second work is a Breviary he illuminated around 1330 (Morgan ms m.373; Fig. 35).64 Each page of the calendar features a figure at the bottom, framed by acanthus or gold balls or both. They include a monk reading a scroll, a man walking with a stick, an old man pulling on his beard, and so forth. The figures, in other words, have no iconographic relationship with the months they decorate; they were painted simply for fun, making this an odd calendar indeed. The presence of these playful, if meaningless, figures is more understandable when one examines the folios of the Bre-
30
illuminated by Jean Pichore (Gift of George Blumenthal, 1941; ms m.813, fol. 17v).
31
Fig. 31.
Fig. 32.
Full-Page Signs of the Zodiac. The
The Sun Enters the Constellations.
unusual calendar in this Book of Hours is
Each month in this calendar features its
treated to full-page illustrations of the
appropriate zodiacal constellation through
zodiac. For May’s Gemini, two nude youths
which the sun rises. August’s constellation
embrace, one holding a sickle and the other
is Virgo, shown here as a young maiden.
a lyre, the tool and the musical instrument
She appears on a gold band, the arc of
alluding to the month’s occupations of
which alludes to the repeated annual
work and leisure. Book of Hours; Italy,
progression of these twelve constellations
Milan(?), ca. 1470, illuminated by Venturino
through the night sky. In this deluxe
Mercati(?) (Gift of the Trustees of the
calendar, the major feasts are written in
William S. Glazier Collection, 1984; ms g.14,
blue and all the others in gold. Book of
fol. 7v).
Hours; Italy, Florence, 1490s, illuminated by Attavante degli Attavanti (Purchased by Pierpont Morgan, 1902; ms m.14, fol. 11v).
Fig. 33. Twelve Ages of Man. The calendar in this tiny Book of Hours is illustrated with the Twelve Ages of Man. Reproduced here is the cycle’s penultimate illustration, for November. An ailing man, age sixty-six, nears the end of life. Eyes shut, he holds his aching head while a doctor examines a urine specimen, and his wife whips up some comfort food. The rhyming verses below the image tell us: “When reaching sixty-six years / As represented by the month of November / One becomes old, decrepit, and sick / Now is the time to remember to do good.” Sagittarius appears in a patch of sky above the unhappy man’s head. Book of Hours; France, Paris, 1511–20,
The Morgan is blessed to own a very rare example of a pictographic calendar in runes (Morgan ms m.1099; Fig. 34).63 This unusual calendar consists of ten thin ivory plaques. In the pages, the first line of runes contains the days of the month represented by the repeating Dominical Letters, and the second line lists the sequence of the Golden Numbers. The top half of each month is illustrated with pictographs carved into the surface. A thin line connects each image with its proper date within the month. While the major feasts, illustrated by larger images, are, for the most part, easy to identify, some motifs, abbreviated to just a head or a crozier, can be a challenge. For our final calendar, we return to the Bolognese illuminator known as the Master of B 18 (or the Second Master of San Domenico), an example of whose work we have already seen (Fig. 20). This second work is a Breviary he illuminated around 1330 (Morgan ms m.373; Fig. 35).64 Each page of the calendar features a figure at the bottom, framed by acanthus or gold balls or both. They include a monk reading a scroll, a man walking with a stick, an old man pulling on his beard, and so forth. The figures, in other words, have no iconographic relationship with the months they decorate; they were painted simply for fun, making this an odd calendar indeed. The presence of these playful, if meaningless, figures is more understandable when one examines the folios of the Bre-
30
illuminated by Jean Pichore (Gift of George Blumenthal, 1941; ms m.813, fol. 17v).
31
July The hexameter for July (“The thirteenth of July changes, and the tenth comes calling”) tells us that the thirteenth and the tenth (counting backward from the end, that is, July 22) are Egyptian Days. The month has thirty-one solar days and thirty lunar days. July’s labor is reaping wheat; the zodiacal sign is Leo. The first of July is the universal Church feast of the octave of the Birth of John the Baptist (which is celebrated on June 24). On this same day, Paris commemorates Leonorius, a sixth-century bishop of Brittany whose relics were housed in the city’s church of St.-Magloire. On July 2 falls the universal Church feast of the first-century martyrs Processus and Martinian (they were the converted warders of the imprisoned Peter and Paul). The fourth of July is the universal French feast of the Translation of Martin, fourth-century bishop of Tours, from Candes (near Chinon) to Tours, and of the dedication of his basilica. (Martin is also celebrated on November 11, the day of his death.) The sixth of July is the universal Church feast of the octave of Peter and Paul (whose feast occurs on June 29). The seventh of July is the semidouble feast of the Translation of Thomas Becket, particularly popular in Paris (where the famous twelfth-century archbishop of Canterbury studied canon law at the abbey of St. Victor); the feast, which was established in 1220, has mistakenly been entered on July 8. The Parisian celebrations of July 8 have been entered erroneously on July 7: the feast of the thirdcentury Roman martyrs Claudius, Nicostratus, Symphorian, and Victorinus, and the commemoration of the obscure Parisian saint Nummius (entered on the line below and marked with a pilcrow). The ninth of July is the semidouble feast of the eleventh-century hermit Theobald, popular in Paris. The tenth of July is the universal Church feast of the Seven Brothers, second-century Roman martyrs and sons of St. Felicitas, who is commemorated on November 23. The eleventh of July is the feast of the Translation of Benedict, a nearly universal observance in France (during the seventh
56
KL
1 xix g 2 viij A vi N 3 b v N 4 xvi c iiij N 5 v d iij N 6 e ij N 7 xiij f Nonas 8 ij g viij Id 9 A vij Id 10 x b vi Id 11 c v Id 12 xviij d iiij Id 13 vij e iij Id 14 f ij Id 15 xv g Idus 16 iiij A xvij Kl 17 b xvi Kl 18 xij c xv Kl 19 i d xiiij Kl 20 e xiij Kl 21 ix f xij Kl 22 g xi Kl 23 xvij A x Kl 24 vi b ix Kl 25 c viij Kl 26 xiiij d vij Kl 27 iij e vi Kl 28 f v Kl 29 xi g iiij Kl 30 xix A iij Kl 31 b ij Kl
Tredecimus mutat Julij decim9q3 salutat Julius ht dies xxxi, luna xxx Octave scī Iohannis ix l’c. Leonorij epī & conf ’ Mea Scoŗ Processi & Martiniani mrŗ iij l’c Translatio scī Martini ix l’c Oct’ apl’orum ix l’c Claudij, Nichostrati, Simphoriani & Victorici maŗ iij l’c Translatio scī Thome maris Semid’ ¶Num[m]ij epī & 9f ’ Ma Scī Theobaldi conf ’ Semid’ Septem fratrum iij l’c Translatio scī B[e]n[e]dicti ix l’c Thuriani epī & conf ’ ix l’c Anniversarium. Hic incipiunt dies caniculares Inclite memorie regis Phylippi Augustus Arnulphi epī & mar ix l’c
D
Sol in leone
Margarete virginis iij l’c Victoris socioŗq3 eius ix l’c. Praxedis virg’ Mea Marie magdalene Duplū. Wandregisilij Apollinaris maris & epī iij l’c abb’is Me Cristine virginis & mar iij l’c Iacobi apl’ī ix l’c. Xp[ist]ofori & Cucufatis maŗ Mea Translatio scī Marcelli Duplū ¶Germani & Iul[iani] 9f ’ Ma Transfiguratio D[omi]ni iij l’c ¶taleonis mar Mea Scē Anne m[at]ris bē virgīs ix l’c. Sa[m]sonis epī & 9f ’ & Pa[n]Felicis, Simplicij, Faustini & Beatricis maŗ iij l’c Abdon & Sennes mŗ iij l’c Germani epī antissiodoŗ ix l’c
D
century bishop of Paris, Germanus, to what is now St.-Germain-des-Prés (his main feast is on May 28) and the ninth-century(?) Translation of Julian, first bishop of Le Mans (his main feast is January 27). On July 26, Paris celebrates the Translation in 945 of Marcellus, fifth-century bishop of Paris, as a double. (His main feast is celebrated on November 3.) On July 27, Paris (as well as Amiens and Cambrai) celebrates the feast of Christ’s Transfiguration (this feast did not become fixed to August 6 until 1456). On July 28, Paris celebrates the feast of Anne, mother of the Virgin (while the rest of France and Europe celebrate her on July 26). Also on the twenty-eighth, Paris commemorates Samson, a sixth-century bishop of Dol (his relics were brought to Paris in the ninth century), and the fourth-century martyr Pantaleon (who is celebrated by the rest of France on the twenty-seventh). The twenty-ninth of July is the universal French feast of the fourth-century Roman martyrs Pope Felix ii and the brothers Simplicius and Faustinus and their sister Beatrix. The thirtieth of July is the universal Church feast of the third-century Roman brother martyrs Abdon and Sennen. The thirty-first is the universal French feast of Germanus, a fifth-century bishop of Auxerre (whose burial in Auxerre is commemorated on October 1).
Morgan ms m.1042, fol. 4v
century, the remains of Benedict and his sister Scholastica were brought from Montecassino Abbey in Italy to Fleury Abbey in the town that was later called St.-Benoît-sur-Loire; the saint’s main feast falls on March 21). The thirteenth of July is the feast of Turiaf, an eighth-century bishop of Dol who was popular in Paris as his relics had been brought to St.-Germain-des-Prés in the ninth century. The thirteenth is also the first of the month’s Egyptian Days. The fourteenth of July is the “anniversary of the illustrious memory of King Philip” (the inscription flows onto the line below); Philip ii died on July 14, 1223. The fourteenth is also the
day, as the annotation tells us, when the Dog Days commence (lasting till September 5, where their closure is noted). The sixteenth of July is written as xvij before the Kalends of August. The eighteenth of July is the nearly universal French feast of the sixth-century missionary Arnulphus (Arnoul), who, although noted here as a bishop, was actually not one but was martyred between Paris and Chartres. (He is not to be confused with the seventh-century Arnulphus who was a bishop of Metz, and was not martyred, but who shares this same feast day.) On this same day, the sun enters the constellation of Leo. Written in blue, July 20 is the universal French feast of the
third-century virgin martyr Margaret of Antioch. The twenty-first of July is the universal French feast of the third-century Victor, who, along with his companions, was martyred in Marseilles. On the same day, the universal Church feast of the second-century Roman virgin martyr Praxedes is given only a memoria in Paris. The twenty-second of July is the universal Church feast of Mary Magdalene; it is written in blue and ranked a double. On the same day, Paris (and a handful of other French cities) commemorates Wandregesilus (Wandrille), a seventh-century abbot of Fontenelle in Normandy. July 22 is also the month’s second
Egyptian Day. The twenty-third is the universal French feast of Apollinaris, first-century bishop of Ravenna. The twenty-fourth is the universal Church feast of the early Christian virgin martyr Christina. July 25 is a crowded day. It is the universal Church feast of the apostle James the Major, written in blue and celebrated with nine lessons. On the same day, France, as well as much of Europe, commemorates one of the most famous saints of the Middle Ages, Christopher, and the fourth-century Spanish martyr Cucufas (whose relics were at St.-Denis). Also on this day, Paris commemorates the Translation in 755 of the relics of the sixth-
57
July The hexameter for July (“The thirteenth of July changes, and the tenth comes calling”) tells us that the thirteenth and the tenth (counting backward from the end, that is, July 22) are Egyptian Days. The month has thirty-one solar days and thirty lunar days. July’s labor is reaping wheat; the zodiacal sign is Leo. The first of July is the universal Church feast of the octave of the Birth of John the Baptist (which is celebrated on June 24). On this same day, Paris commemorates Leonorius, a sixth-century bishop of Brittany whose relics were housed in the city’s church of St.-Magloire. On July 2 falls the universal Church feast of the first-century martyrs Processus and Martinian (they were the converted warders of the imprisoned Peter and Paul). The fourth of July is the universal French feast of the Translation of Martin, fourth-century bishop of Tours, from Candes (near Chinon) to Tours, and of the dedication of his basilica. (Martin is also celebrated on November 11, the day of his death.) The sixth of July is the universal Church feast of the octave of Peter and Paul (whose feast occurs on June 29). The seventh of July is the semidouble feast of the Translation of Thomas Becket, particularly popular in Paris (where the famous twelfth-century archbishop of Canterbury studied canon law at the abbey of St. Victor); the feast, which was established in 1220, has mistakenly been entered on July 8. The Parisian celebrations of July 8 have been entered erroneously on July 7: the feast of the thirdcentury Roman martyrs Claudius, Nicostratus, Symphorian, and Victorinus, and the commemoration of the obscure Parisian saint Nummius (entered on the line below and marked with a pilcrow). The ninth of July is the semidouble feast of the eleventh-century hermit Theobald, popular in Paris. The tenth of July is the universal Church feast of the Seven Brothers, second-century Roman martyrs and sons of St. Felicitas, who is commemorated on November 23. The eleventh of July is the feast of the Translation of Benedict, a nearly universal observance in France (during the seventh
56
KL
1 xix g 2 viij A vi N 3 b v N 4 xvi c iiij N 5 v d iij N 6 e ij N 7 xiij f Nonas 8 ij g viij Id 9 A vij Id 10 x b vi Id 11 c v Id 12 xviij d iiij Id 13 vij e iij Id 14 f ij Id 15 xv g Idus 16 iiij A xvij Kl 17 b xvi Kl 18 xij c xv Kl 19 i d xiiij Kl 20 e xiij Kl 21 ix f xij Kl 22 g xi Kl 23 xvij A x Kl 24 vi b ix Kl 25 c viij Kl 26 xiiij d vij Kl 27 iij e vi Kl 28 f v Kl 29 xi g iiij Kl 30 xix A iij Kl 31 b ij Kl
Tredecimus mutat Julij decim9q3 salutat Julius ht dies xxxi, luna xxx Octave scī Iohannis ix l’c. Leonorij epī & conf ’ Mea Scoŗ Processi & Martiniani mrŗ iij l’c Translatio scī Martini ix l’c Oct’ apl’orum ix l’c Claudij, Nichostrati, Simphoriani & Victorici maŗ iij l’c Translatio scī Thome maris Semid’ ¶Num[m]ij epī & 9f ’ Ma Scī Theobaldi conf ’ Semid’ Septem fratrum iij l’c Translatio scī B[e]n[e]dicti ix l’c Thuriani epī & conf ’ ix l’c Anniversarium. Hic incipiunt dies caniculares Inclite memorie regis Phylippi Augustus Arnulphi epī & mar ix l’c
D
Sol in leone
Margarete virginis iij l’c Victoris socioŗq3 eius ix l’c. Praxedis virg’ Mea Marie magdalene Duplū. Wandregisilij Apollinaris maris & epī iij l’c abb’is Me Cristine virginis & mar iij l’c Iacobi apl’ī ix l’c. Xp[ist]ofori & Cucufatis maŗ Mea Translatio scī Marcelli Duplū ¶Germani & Iul[iani] 9f ’ Ma Transfiguratio D[omi]ni iij l’c ¶taleonis mar Mea Scē Anne m[at]ris bē virgīs ix l’c. Sa[m]sonis epī & 9f ’ & Pa[n]Felicis, Simplicij, Faustini & Beatricis maŗ iij l’c Abdon & Sennes mŗ iij l’c Germani epī antissiodoŗ ix l’c
D
century bishop of Paris, Germanus, to what is now St.-Germain-des-Prés (his main feast is on May 28) and the ninth-century(?) Translation of Julian, first bishop of Le Mans (his main feast is January 27). On July 26, Paris celebrates the Translation in 945 of Marcellus, fifth-century bishop of Paris, as a double. (His main feast is celebrated on November 3.) On July 27, Paris (as well as Amiens and Cambrai) celebrates the feast of Christ’s Transfiguration (this feast did not become fixed to August 6 until 1456). On July 28, Paris celebrates the feast of Anne, mother of the Virgin (while the rest of France and Europe celebrate her on July 26). Also on the twenty-eighth, Paris commemorates Samson, a sixth-century bishop of Dol (his relics were brought to Paris in the ninth century), and the fourth-century martyr Pantaleon (who is celebrated by the rest of France on the twenty-seventh). The twenty-ninth of July is the universal French feast of the fourth-century Roman martyrs Pope Felix ii and the brothers Simplicius and Faustinus and their sister Beatrix. The thirtieth of July is the universal Church feast of the third-century Roman brother martyrs Abdon and Sennen. The thirty-first is the universal French feast of Germanus, a fifth-century bishop of Auxerre (whose burial in Auxerre is commemorated on October 1).
Morgan ms m.1042, fol. 4v
century, the remains of Benedict and his sister Scholastica were brought from Montecassino Abbey in Italy to Fleury Abbey in the town that was later called St.-Benoît-sur-Loire; the saint’s main feast falls on March 21). The thirteenth of July is the feast of Turiaf, an eighth-century bishop of Dol who was popular in Paris as his relics had been brought to St.-Germain-des-Prés in the ninth century. The thirteenth is also the first of the month’s Egyptian Days. The fourteenth of July is the “anniversary of the illustrious memory of King Philip” (the inscription flows onto the line below); Philip ii died on July 14, 1223. The fourteenth is also the
day, as the annotation tells us, when the Dog Days commence (lasting till September 5, where their closure is noted). The sixteenth of July is written as xvij before the Kalends of August. The eighteenth of July is the nearly universal French feast of the sixth-century missionary Arnulphus (Arnoul), who, although noted here as a bishop, was actually not one but was martyred between Paris and Chartres. (He is not to be confused with the seventh-century Arnulphus who was a bishop of Metz, and was not martyred, but who shares this same feast day.) On this same day, the sun enters the constellation of Leo. Written in blue, July 20 is the universal French feast of the
third-century virgin martyr Margaret of Antioch. The twenty-first of July is the universal French feast of the third-century Victor, who, along with his companions, was martyred in Marseilles. On the same day, the universal Church feast of the second-century Roman virgin martyr Praxedes is given only a memoria in Paris. The twenty-second of July is the universal Church feast of Mary Magdalene; it is written in blue and ranked a double. On the same day, Paris (and a handful of other French cities) commemorates Wandregesilus (Wandrille), a seventh-century abbot of Fontenelle in Normandy. July 22 is also the month’s second
Egyptian Day. The twenty-third is the universal French feast of Apollinaris, first-century bishop of Ravenna. The twenty-fourth is the universal Church feast of the early Christian virgin martyr Christina. July 25 is a crowded day. It is the universal Church feast of the apostle James the Major, written in blue and celebrated with nine lessons. On the same day, France, as well as much of Europe, commemorates one of the most famous saints of the Middle Ages, Christopher, and the fourth-century Spanish martyr Cucufas (whose relics were at St.-Denis). Also on this day, Paris commemorates the Translation in 755 of the relics of the sixth-
57
Chapter III
How to Localize a Calendar
A
calendar can be helpful in localizing the medieval or Renaissance manuscript in which it appears. Calendars, in other words, can indicate the place—country, area, diocese, city, or sometimes a specific chapel— where the manuscript was to be used. This is the calendar’s “use.” Localizing a calendar can also indicate the place where the manuscript to which it is attached was made. This, however, is not always the case: many fifteenth-century Books of Hours with English (Sarum) use, for example, were actually made in Bruges for export to England. Chapter II examined a calendar from a thirteenth-century Breviary that was made to be used in the upper chapel of the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris. That chapter presented the results of an analysis of each of its feasts, but it did not explain the method. That is the purpose of this chapter: to present a method for localizing French calendars.1
Step 1. Is your calendar French? If your calendar is written in French or uses some French (at the top, for instance, with the names of the months or the number of solar and lunar days), your calendar is from France (or the French-speaking, mostly southern, part of Belgium). If your calendar is not in French, check the rest of the manuscript; it may have some French, possibly in the rubrics. The presence of French in the manuscript that is contemporaneous (that is, not a later addition) situates your manuscript in France (or Flanders). Likewise, you may use art-historical evidence—the style of the illumination— to place your manuscript in France or Flanders. Step 2. Is your calendar in Latin? That fact is useless for the purposes of localizing, since Latin was the universal language of the Middle Ages and early Renaissance. A Latin calendar can come from anywhere in Europe. If you have no idea as to your calendar’s country of origin, use the Web site called the On-line Calendar of Saints Days.2 Casting a wide net over much of Europe, the site’s multiple sources include localizations from the Alphabetisches Verzeichnis from Grotefend 1898.3 Start by looking up your red-letter days on the site. Patience should reward you and point in the direction of some part of Europe. If your calendar seems to be from France, proceed to the next step. Step 3. Since so many French manuscripts were produced in Paris, it makes sense to compare your calendar to that of Paris. Use the Paris calendars edited by Perdrizet or Clark or the list of Parisian feasts given at the beginning of Chapter II.4 If you have signifi-
71
Chapter III
How to Localize a Calendar
A
calendar can be helpful in localizing the medieval or Renaissance manuscript in which it appears. Calendars, in other words, can indicate the place—country, area, diocese, city, or sometimes a specific chapel— where the manuscript was to be used. This is the calendar’s “use.” Localizing a calendar can also indicate the place where the manuscript to which it is attached was made. This, however, is not always the case: many fifteenth-century Books of Hours with English (Sarum) use, for example, were actually made in Bruges for export to England. Chapter II examined a calendar from a thirteenth-century Breviary that was made to be used in the upper chapel of the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris. That chapter presented the results of an analysis of each of its feasts, but it did not explain the method. That is the purpose of this chapter: to present a method for localizing French calendars.1
Step 1. Is your calendar French? If your calendar is written in French or uses some French (at the top, for instance, with the names of the months or the number of solar and lunar days), your calendar is from France (or the French-speaking, mostly southern, part of Belgium). If your calendar is not in French, check the rest of the manuscript; it may have some French, possibly in the rubrics. The presence of French in the manuscript that is contemporaneous (that is, not a later addition) situates your manuscript in France (or Flanders). Likewise, you may use art-historical evidence—the style of the illumination— to place your manuscript in France or Flanders. Step 2. Is your calendar in Latin? That fact is useless for the purposes of localizing, since Latin was the universal language of the Middle Ages and early Renaissance. A Latin calendar can come from anywhere in Europe. If you have no idea as to your calendar’s country of origin, use the Web site called the On-line Calendar of Saints Days.2 Casting a wide net over much of Europe, the site’s multiple sources include localizations from the Alphabetisches Verzeichnis from Grotefend 1898.3 Start by looking up your red-letter days on the site. Patience should reward you and point in the direction of some part of Europe. If your calendar seems to be from France, proceed to the next step. Step 3. Since so many French manuscripts were produced in Paris, it makes sense to compare your calendar to that of Paris. Use the Paris calendars edited by Perdrizet or Clark or the list of Parisian feasts given at the beginning of Chapter II.4 If you have signifi-
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A Note About corsair The online catalogue of the Morgan Library & Museum, corsair, contains a detailed record for each of the Morgan’s medieval and Renaissance manuscripts. There are two paths to access these records. Both paths also provide links to images, bibliographies, and archival curatorial descriptions. Path 1: At the Morgan’s home page (www.themorgan.org), click on or hover over Collection from the menu at top right, proceed to Collection Online, and then click on Medieval & Renaissance Manuscripts; this will bring you to a page where you can scroll through the entire manuscript collection online; to reach a manuscript’s corsair record, click on its shelf number in the far left column on the list.
Path 2: At the corsair home page (corsair.themorgan.org), click on Search the catalogue; in the Find This box, type, for example, if you want the corsair record for MS M.399 (Da Costa Hours): osin ms m.399 and in the Search by list, select Expert; click on Search; the manuscript’s corsair record will appear. In typing, be aware that each Morgan manuscript includes a letter, such as M (for Morgan) or S (for Stillman), immediately followed by a period, immediately followed by a number.
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A Note About corsair The online catalogue of the Morgan Library & Museum, corsair, contains a detailed record for each of the Morgan’s medieval and Renaissance manuscripts. There are two paths to access these records. Both paths also provide links to images, bibliographies, and archival curatorial descriptions. Path 1: At the Morgan’s home page (www.themorgan.org), click on or hover over Collection from the menu at top right, proceed to Collection Online, and then click on Medieval & Renaissance Manuscripts; this will bring you to a page where you can scroll through the entire manuscript collection online; to reach a manuscript’s corsair record, click on its shelf number in the far left column on the list.
Path 2: At the corsair home page (corsair.themorgan.org), click on Search the catalogue; in the Find This box, type, for example, if you want the corsair record for MS M.399 (Da Costa Hours): osin ms m.399 and in the Search by list, select Expert; click on Search; the manuscript’s corsair record will appear. In typing, be aware that each Morgan manuscript includes a letter, such as M (for Morgan) or S (for Stillman), immediately followed by a period, immediately followed by a number.
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