Summer 2017 Early Years Bulletin by Association for Childhood Education International

Early Years Bulletin

Summer 2017 vol 4 no 4

Focus on Infants & Toddlers editors: Nur Tanyel and Laura Hooks

Fostering Resilience in Infants and Toddlers By Nur Tanyel, University of South Carolina Upstate

Emma was scared. While peeking through her bedroom door, she witnessed her dad beating her mom and saw a splatter of blood. Emma is now living with her grandmother in a new home in a new community. Ahmed, a 3-year-old in another part of the world, was startled by an explosion. As the dust began to settle and Ahmed could breathe again, he tried to comprehend the commotion around him and witnessed his family members, covered in blood, being pulled out of the rubble. He was the only one in his family to survive. He is now living in a refugee camp with another family that has children close to his age.

oung children experience stress and trauma every day. Some children are exposed to abuse, neglect, and separation from loved ones, and some experience community violence and war. While parents and other adults in childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lives try to keep children safe and protected, it is not always possible to do so. Nevertheless, adults can promote resilience in young children by fostering protective factors that can buffer the negative effects of stress and trauma (Pizzolongo & Hunter, 2011). Children who are born into an environment that provides rich relationships and appropriate expectations with low environmental stress tend to develop the internal resources that allow them to easily cope with environmental demands and become emotionally competent individuals. These children acquire an array of flexible responses that match the intensity of the situation within context (Poulsen, 1993). Furthermore, they recover from stressful events in a period of

time that matches the traumatic event and become resilient. Resilience refers to the childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s capacity to overcome biological, psychological, and environmental stressful events and develop the capacity to overcome adversity and achieve higher-levels of self-esteem and internal harmony. This article examines how adultchild interaction and attachment affects resiliency in infants and toddlers and also explores the personal and environmental characteristics that contribute to resilience. Adult-Child Interaction and Attachment The relationship between biological, environmental, and psychosocial circumstances forms a framework for building resilience in young children. Psychosocial influences that are significant for developing resilience include adult-child relationships, attachment, and goodness-of-fit model. The quality of adult-child interaction in infancy and early childhood is one of the key predictors of later positive interpersonal relationships, social and emotional

Contents p. 5 - Activities for the Classroom p. 8 - Focus on Pre-K & K

Early Years Bulletin

Summer 2017 Personal and Environmental Characteristics Research indicates that certain personal and environmental characteristics contribute to resilience. Resilient infants demonstrate easy temperamental traits, such as being active, energetic, and relaxed, with the capacity to elicit and receive positive attention as well as be socially responsive. Resilient infants also demonstrate determination, tolerance, impulse control, and ability to delay gratification (Rouse, 1998). Resilient toddlers display similar characteristics, such as autonomy, friendliness, sensitivity, and cooperation, along with a positive sense of self as well as an internal locus of control. Internal locus of control is the perception of control over events and the capacity to change them. This perception in children acts as a powerful buffer against risk factors. Resilient toddlers also expect the social environment to respect their autonomy and need for environmental exploration. Overall, autonomy, social responsiveness, and internal locus of control are three significant personal characteristics that foster resilience in young children. Although these personal characteristics may seem to be sourced from the child’s genetic make-up, the environment does plays a critical role in fostering and developing resilience in children. Environmental factors that influence resilience are social, economic, cultural, and community circumstances that affect the family’s capacity to provide safety, security, and nurturance for their children. Parental self-esteem, secure attachment, and the basic needs of shelter, food, and medical care are critical environmental elements that influence children’s development of resilience and an ability to cope with multi-risk environments. Furthermore, social support for the mother during pregnancy and infancy is also related to the child’s later resiliency, as it allows this primary caregiver to be more nurturing. Infants experiencing adverse physical environmental influences need other adults to shield them from stress and provide alternate care, especially when parents of young children are dealing with impoverished and stressful circumstances. Caregivers also need social support, as they may become frustrated and overstressed, which affects their caregiving practices and the quality of care they can provide.

competence, and autonomy. High-quality adult-child relationships also build resilience in young children. Primary caregivers are expected to function as buffers between the infant and an intrusive, overstimulating environment while providing the responsive caregiving infants and toddlers need to thrive. A responsive caregiver who is sensitive to the infant’s cues and clues and responds promptly, consistently, and attentively by holding and soothing gently will develop a trusting relationship—a secure attachment—with the child. In turn, the infant will develop competence in regulating him/herself. Such a secure adult-child attachment then becomes the blueprint for later emotional, social, and cognitive abilities. Competence in these developmental domains in infancy is a predictor of competence for all later social and intimate relationships. An effective match between child-rearing practices and the child’s temperament is called goodness-of-fit. A goodness-of-fit model needs to be accomplished early in young children’s lives in order to foster their resilience. This model includes creating a child-rearing environment that recognizes the child’s temperament while simultaneously encouraging more adaptiveness to the child’s temperamental traits. If the child’s disposition interferes with learning or getting along with others, adults must gently but consistently counteract the child’s maladaptive style (Berk, 2012). A close relationship with at least one adult who provides warmth by monitoring child’s activities, providing organized physical environments, and setting appropriately high expectations fosters resilience with goodness-of-fit (Masten & Shaffer, 2006). Therefore, caregivers need to not only know their own temperamental traits, but also recognize the child’s temperament in order to create a goodness-of-fit model for the young child. Children who are born with birth defects and low birth weight or who are living in families overwhelmed by psychosocial or environmental conditions often confront daily challenges that stress them beyond their capacity to cope. Without resilience-building intervention, such as creating a goodness-of-fit model or having a responsive caregiver in the child’s life, these children are at a higher risk for negative developmental outcomes. Caregivers can help parents by modeling high-quality adult-child interactions and build resilience in children by creating a goodness-of-fit model for these at-risk children.

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Early Years Bulletin

How to Promote Resiliency in a Child Care Settings Kavita, a 6-month-old, was lying on her back on a baby mat, and Derek, a 7-month-old, was next to Kavita reaching for the toys. Occasionally, the infants turned around to coo at each other. Kari, the primary caregiver for both Kavita and Derek, was observing from a distance while preparing Kavita’s bottle, anticipating her feeding time since the baby’s coos were indicating her tiredness. Kari checked the time and knew that Kavita would be ready for a nap soon. Kavita’s coos started becoming a little forceful and more like a cry. Kari acknowledged her by softly saying, “I know you are getting hungry and tired—your bottle is almost ready.” Kavita was soothed for a few seconds as she started rubbing her eyes. Before Kavita became stressed, Kari picked her up and showed her the bottle. Kavita was excited that her bottle was ready and the two settled into a rocking chair. Slowly, Kari let Kavita hold her bottle— while supporting her autonomy, she was letting Kavita know that she was there to soothe her. In the meantime, Kari was also observing Derek, to ensure he didn’t get bored of being in the same spot for a while. Kavita finished her bottle and was having fun interacting with Kari during a diaper change. She knew that it was naptime, and she was ready for it. Kari placed Kavita in her crib, rubbed her tummy, and said, “Sleep tight.” By that time, Derek was trying to turn on his side. Picking up on his fidgety moves, Kari chose a book to read with him. Soon, Derek and Kari were talking and interacting with the book on a soft pillow; Kavita went to sleep watching Kari and Derek. Later, Derek was on his tummy with his favorite toys, exploring through his senses.

As seen in the vignette, Kari is demonstrating strategies that foster resilience in infants. She is a responsive caregiver and creates a goodness-of-fit model by acknowledging Kavita’s and Derek’s temperamental traits. Kari cultivates a consistent, calm, and soothing environment that promotes trusting relationships and secure attachments. Kari is also demonstrating coping strategies as she picks up on Derek’s fidgety signals. Caregiving Strategies That Build Resilience in Infants Include: • Consistent, emotionally responsive caregiving that is sensitive to infant-initiated signals • A predictable environment that fosters warm and emotionally supportive relationships • Responsive caregiving principles that protect infants from environmental overstimulation from noise, lights, people, and commotion • Caregiving practices that gradually introduce environmental stimuli to build sensory thresholds, which increase calmness and foster focused alertness that is needed for environmental exploration • Approaches to increase visual engagement and appropriate social interaction in response to an infant’s overload signals that will encourage his/her development of self-calming strategies.

Sophie, a 2-year-old toddler, was playing with colored blocks. At first, she picked up one at a time from the basket. Then, she dumped all the blocks on the floor and started kicking the blocks around. Her caregiver, Marlena, began singing the “Clean Up Song” and announced that it was snack time. Sophie walked to the table and sat down. Marlena gently reminded Sophie that the blocks needed to be picked up and put away before she could have her snack. All of a sudden, Sophie threw herself on the floor and started crying. Marlena quietly approached Sophie and asked, “What happened?” Sophie said, “Hard. I am hungry.” Marlena held her close and asked if she would help Marlena to clean up. Sophie nodded in response. Marlena then said, “I am looking for red blocks. Can you find the red blocks?” Sophie ran and picked up a red block from the floor and brought it to Marlena with a big smile. Marlena said, “Well done, Sophie!” Sophie, who was encouraged, then looked

Early Years Bulletin around and found two more red blocks and put them in the basket. Marlena asked, “Can you find the blue ones now?” In response, with a big smile, Sophie began to pick up the rest of the blocks. When all the blocks were picked up and put away, Marlena asked Sophie to wash her hands. Sophie quickly went to the sink and washed her hands. Now she was ready for a snack. As seen in the vignette, Marlena provides a consistent and predictable environment with established routines for young children. Through gentle reminders and support, she gains Sophie’s cooperation. Using encouragement and praise and breaking the task into more manageable steps, Marlena supports Sophie as she fulfills her expected responsibility. She conveys respect of and support for Sophie’s autonomy. Caregiving Strategies That Build Resilience in Toddlers Include: • Consistent and predictable caregiving environment and routines that develop trust between the child and the caregiver • Modeling, encouraging, acknowledging, labeling, and responding to children’s expression of emotions while setting limits to help toddlers develop emotional and social competence and foster resilience • Encouragement of decision making with limited choices, while fostering self-help skills, which promotes competence • Personalized one-on-one time as part of the daily routine to build trusting relationships and secure attachment • Respecting the child’s autonomy by providing experiences at the child’s skill levels • Ample time for free play, which promotes social skills and social problem-solving skills and creates opportunities for the primary caregivers to observe and foster social competency.

Summer 2017 Conclusion Development of resilience is possible during infant and toddler years for children in stressful and adverse circumstances. Although personal characteristics play a role in developing resiliency, environmental factors are also significant. Quality of care that is responsive to children’s temperaments and physical needs and also promotes trust and secure attachment is key for developing resilience and social and emotional competence. Additionally, an environment that encourages and respects the child’s autonomy by allowing him/her to complete developmentally appropriate tasks on his/her own fosters self-confidence that promotes resilience. Additionally, social acceptance in group care has a significant impact on social competence and resilience. Creating an environment that is open and accepting also promotes trust and competence and, eventually, resilience in young children. References and Resources Cowie, H. (2012). From birth to sixteen. Children’s health, social emotional and linguistic development. New York, NY: Routledge. Berk, L. E. (2012). Infants and children prenatal through middle childhood (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. Masten, A. S., & Shaffer, A. (2006). How families matter in child development: Reflections from research on risk and resilience. In A. S. Masten & A. Shaffer (Eds.), Families count: Effects on child and adolescent development. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Pizzolongo, P. J., & Hunter, A. (2011). I am safe and secure promoting resilience in young children. Young Children, 66, 67-69. Poulsen, M. K. (1993). Strategies for building resilience in infants and young children at risk. Infants and Young Children, 6, 2940. Rouse, K. A. G. (1998). Infant and toddler resilience. Early Childhood Education Journal, 26, 47-52.

Summer 2017

Early Years Bulletin

Activities for the Classroom editors: Patricia A. Crawford and April A. Mattix Foster

Advocating for English Language Learners The following “Activities for the Classroom” column was submitted by April A. Mattix Foster and Kathleen A. Ramos, Assistant Professors of Teaching Culturally and Linguistically Diverse and Exceptional Learners at George Mason University.

n important aspect of every early childhood teacher’s role is advocacy for children, or championing students’ right to an equitable and effective learning environment. With the growing presence of English language learners (ELLs) in U.S. classrooms, it is important for early childhood educators and caregivers to be aware of specific ways in which we can advocate for our bilingual and multilingual students to help ensure their successful development and achievement. We can advocate for ELLs in many ways that can support engagement and success in school. This article highlights some of our favorite methods— both within classrooms and in the larger community— that early childhood teachers and caregivers can use to support ELLs through advocacy efforts. In Our Own Classrooms Get to Know Your ELLs: One of the most important things we can do as early childhood teachers is get to know our students. While this is true for all of our students, this effort can be especially important for ELLs. We need to make sure that our classroom environment and instruction values, and taps into ELLs’ cultural and language backgrounds. We can learn about ELLs’ cultures and find ways to incorporate their cultures into the classroom and lessons. For example, with young ELLs, teachers can pair up students to learn about each other’s special traditions or celebrations. Children can also be invited to share about family games, music, favorite foods, and even topics like household rules, responsibilities, what pets are kept (if

any), where the family shops, and what the family does for fun. This kind of sharing illuminates the variety of cultural perspectives and experiences in a classroom and helps early childhood teachers and young students alike get to know one another and appreciate others’ cultures. Creating classroom environments that value ELLs’ cultural backgrounds and funds of knowledge is part of advocacy for these learners. It is also important for early childhood teachers to learn about ELLs’ first languages (L1) and to find ways to honor and foster L1 usage in the classroom. Valuing ELLs’ L1s is a key part of advocacy work, as promoting bilingualism creates a supportive learning environment in which the relationships among culture, language, and identity are recognized. Children who feel proud of their L1 and are empowered to use it as a learning tool can develop a stronger sense of competence and confidence for learning, which can lead to increased motivation and positive academic outcomes. By integrating opportunities for ELLs to use their L1s in classrooms, early childhood teachers can also learn how their ELLs’ L1s are similar to and different from English. This information is important for designing learning tasks and talk that promote language and literacy development. Set High Expectations: Learning English needs to go hand-in-hand with learning age-appropriate content. Early childhood teachers can advocate for ELLs by always setting high expectations for students to learn concepts as they build oral language and literacy skills. We can foster ELLs’ language and literacy development by creating ample opportunities for

Early Years Bulletin ELLs to speak, listen, read, and write about content ideas in developmentally appropriate ways with their native English-speaking peers. Early childhood teachers can provide individualized scaffolds and supports to facilitate language and content learning experiences. For example, we can include ample peer-to-peer interactions; hands-on learning; and visual and sensory supports, such as labeled pictures, sentence or picture frames, and manipulatives that students can use as they think and talk about content concepts. Early childhood teachers’ and caregivers’ expectations for ELLs to think about, respond to, and demonstrate understanding of age-appropriate content enhances learning and lays a foundation for academic language development with young ELLs. As we know, the way that we view children directly influences how they perceive themselves as learners, which influences motivation and achievement. When early childhood teachers and caregivers commit to always holding high expectations for ELLs, and encourage colleagues to do the same, they are advocating for these learners. See ELLs From a Strengths-Based Perspective: Early childhood educators must always keep in mind that even ELLs with beginning levels of English language proficiency already communicate and understand the world in another language (or even more than one!). We should understand, and help others to appreciate, that bilingualism and multilingualism are assets for learning. It is well-documented that language and literacy strengths in one language can serve as a foundation for learning another language. These language and literacy skills include oral language proficiency (which includes vocabulary knowledge) and both cognitive and metacognitive strategy knowledge. It is especially important to keep in mind that young ELLs may have phonemic awareness in their L1, but are learning to associate language sounds and their print representations in a new language. Optimally, young ELLs benefit greatly by learning to read in their L1 as they also learn the English sound and print systems. Early childhood teachers can advocate for young ELLs by understanding and helping others understand that ELLs who are emergent readers and writers have age-appropriate language awareness and concept knowledge in their L1. These young learners are not “empty vessels” without language skills.

Summer 2017 Early childhood teachers should appreciate that young ELLs bring a wealth of background experiences from their cultures and lived experiences about concepts and themes that are part of school curricula. Young ELLs’ experiences may be similar to or different from their native English-speaking peers’ experiences and perspectives on everything from communicating with adults and other children to dietary habits to the way their families go about life—shopping, food preparation, transportation, daily routines, and family members’ roles and responsibilities. These lived experiences share similarities and differences across cultures and languages. Early childhood teachers can advocate for ELLs by encouraging other educators to appreciate that ELLs’ cultural and language backgrounds and ways of going about everyday life can be used as a bridge to learning in school and strengthening English (L2) language and literacy development. It is most important to view young ELLs as highly capable, intellectual members of the learning community who are not “deficient” learners in need of remediation, but rather have much to offer through their bilingualism and biculturalism and can participate fully in enriching, engaging instruction! Know the Language Learning Process for ELLs: Early childhood teachers should be fully aware of the difference between language learning and learning in a new language and the presence of a potential learning disability. Advocates for young ELLs understand the dynamic nature of thinking and learning processes when an additional language is added to an existing language (or languages). Advocates for young ELLs also understand that bilingual students can use both their L1 and L2 skills (their linguistic repertoires) to think about, discuss, respond to, and show understanding of content ideas. It is most important that advocates of ELLs understand that needing to learn English is not reflective of a cognitive difficulty. To advocate for ELLs, early childhood teachers can ensure that highquality, culturally responsive instruction takes place in every classroom and that multiple measures of growth are used before any determinations about possible referrals for special education protocols are considered. This kind of instruction means that lessons have ageappropriate content and language goals, expect high levels of thinking from all learners in a developmentally

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Early Years Bulletin

appropriate way, include differentiation of scaffolds and supports, and are based on the belief that every learner has strengths upon which to build.

resources and further reading on this topic, please see our suggestions below. These resources have a wide variety of additional ideas and strategies for including and advocating for young ELLs.

Outside of the Classroom In addition to these practices within our own classrooms, early childhood teachers and caregivers can also advocate for young ELLs and their families outside of the classroom. Here are a few quick ideas to connect families to community resources: Help ELLs Get Involved: Help the parents of young ELLs understand how to get involved in community activities like clubs and sports. Early childhood teachers and caregivers can also help ELL parents understand the details of parent permission slips, transportation, and other specifics that will help them feel at ease and knowledgeable about the process. Make Summer Connections: Share area community resources and learning opportunities with ELLs and their parents. It is particularly important to make those connections for summer learning programming and summer camps that will take place when school is not in session. Help parents complete the paperwork necessary for enrolling their children in these programs. Library Links: Connect students and their families to their local libraries, and help them apply for a library card. Beyond the obvious literacy resources, libraries also offer myriad other resources for young ELLs and their families, such as story time and play groups. English language learners are an ever-increasing population in U.S. classrooms. Advocacy for these children will not only help ensure better outcomes for the ELLs, but also create a richer and inclusive classroom for all young children in a classroom. For additional

Additional Resources How Educators Can Advocate for English Language Learners: http://www.colorincolorado.org/sites/default/ files/ELL_AdvocacyGuide2015.pdf Five Steps to ELL Advocacy: http://www.nea.org/ home/63594.htm Further Reading Gibbons, P. (2015). Scaffolding language scaffolding learning: Teaching English language learners in the mainstream classroom (2nd ed). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Haneda, M., & Alexander, M. (2015). ESL teacher advocacy beyond the classroom. Teaching and Teacher Education, 49, 149-158. Heritage, M., Walqui, A., & Linquanti, R. (2015). English language learners and the new standards: Developing language, content knowledge, and analytical practices in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. Nora, J., & Echevarria, J. (2016). No more low expectations for English learners. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Sowa, P., Lacina, J., New Levine, L., & Suarez, D. (2007). Helping English language learners succeed in in pre-k - elementary schools. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English of Speakers of Other Languages. Staehr Fenner, D. (2014). Advocating for English learners: A guide for educators. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Wright, W. (2016). Let them talk! Educational Leadership, 73(5), 24-29.

Early Years Bulletin

Summer 2017

Focus on Pre-K & K editors: Jennifer Baumgartner and Cynthia F. DiCarlo

RESEARCH: Using Number Lines to Build Early Number Sense in Pre-Kindergarten Children By Bradley A. Witzel and Erin Hamel, Winthrop University

hile early literacy remains a high priority in the United States, an emphasis on early numeracy in pre-kindergarten is still in its infancy (Clements & Sarama, 2013; Witzel, Riccomini, & Herlong, 2013). Recent research suggests that developing mathematics understanding early may be not only a good predictor of later mathematics performance (Aunola, Leskinen, Lerkkanen, & Nurmi, 2004), but also a better predictor of later reading achievement than early literacy skills alone (Duncan & Magnuson, 2011; Sarama, Lange, Clements, & Wolfe, 2012). When given the opportunity, young children can learn a substantial amount of mathematics concepts. However, too many students are not afforded effective and focused instructional time dedicated to mathematics learning. States have only recently begun to develop pre-kindergarten math standards (e.g., http://www. nysed.gov/common/nysed/files/math-draft-standardsprekindergarten.pdf ). Simply holding out hope that mathematics understanding will develop through maturation is unfounded (National Mathematics Advisory Panel [NMAP], 2008). Sadly, maturation alone is not adequate preparation for formalized mathematic instruction (Van Horn, Karlin, Ramey, Aldridge, & Snyder, 2005). Pre-kindergarten children require a focus on number sense in order to improve their learning trajectories of whole and rational numbers as well as calculation strategies (NMAP, 2008). From a holistic perspective, number sense is considered a child’s fluidity and flexibility with numbers (Gersten & Chard, 1999), such as understanding the number sequence (e.g., 0, 1, 2, 3) and mental manipulations of numbers (e.g., three can be conceptualized from two and one together). Operationalized, elements of number sense include, but

are not limited to, numeral and number recognition, magnitude comparisons, counting strategies, fact fluency, and mathematics language (Witzel et al., 2013). Number sense may be used to predict future success. In a study of 277 children, Jordan and her colleagues (Jordan, Kaplan, Locuniak, & Ramineni, 2007) found that middle of 1st-grade performance was predicted by early kindergarten number sense components: counting, number knowledge, nonverbal calculation, story problems, and number combinations. When students do not establish number sense early, they likely struggle later on. In a large-scale longitudinal study, Morgan, Farkas, and Wu (2009) found that 70% of the lowest performing students at the start of kindergarten remain the lowest performing students five years later. Deficient number sense is linked to persistent math difficulties, such as specific learning disabilities (Mazzocco, Feigenson, & Halberda, 2011). “Clearly, students who fail to acquire the pieces that make up number sense as early as kindergarten are at the greatest risk for failure in mathematics in the long term” (Witzel et al., 2013, p. 5). The predictability of later success in mathematics shouldn’t be surprising. When students develop number sense, they are afforded greater opportunity to succeed. Mathematics preparation in prekindergarten should be purposeful in its execution (Frye et al., 2013). In a study of 278 prekindergarten children in Head Start, Klein and his colleagues (Klein, Starkey, Clements, Sarama, & Iyer, 2008) found significant gains for children receiving mathematics-specific instruction. Likewise, in a study of over 1,300 prekindergarten children, Clements and his colleagues (Clements, Sarama, Spitler, Lange, & Wolfe, 2011) found that students experienced improved outcomes in numeracy, geometry, and conceptual understanding when taught using mathematics curricula

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Early Years Bulletin

focused on numeric, quantitative, spatial and geometric concepts. In a longitudinal study of 180 children starting in kindergarten, Geary, Hoard, Nugent, and Bailey (2013) found that knowledge of the number system predicted functional numeracy more than six years later. Their research controlled for the effects of what is normally thought of as strong predictors: intelligence, working memory, in-class attentive behavior, mathematical achievement, and family demographics. Interestingly, they determined that counting skills alone did not predict arithmetic performance and, in general, performance on mathematical achievement tests underestimated the importance of number sense. Providing children with high-quality mathematics education as early as prekindergarten creates a foundation for a greater future.

a magnitude is related to general mathematics achievement (Laski & Siegler, 2007). Students’ ability to accurately compare the magnitude of two numbers is central to foundational number sense and predictive of future math performance (Jordan, Glutting, Dyson, Hassinger-Das, & Irwin, 2012). Therefore, it is important to determine if a student can determine which of two numbers is greater or less than the other. Strategic Counting Researchers consider strategic counting to be a key element of number sense (Jordan, Kaplan, Ramineni, & Locuniak, 2009). Learning to count strategically has long been considered related to and preparation for computation (Clements & Sarama, 2007; Geary, BowThomas, & Yao, 1992). More specifically, counting on by one (e.g., 5, 5+1=6, 6+1= 7…) has been considered a basic and promising approach to learning counting on skills, which are also linked to advanced number sense and early computation (Baroody, 1995).

A Foundational Focus on Number Sense In order to succeed in advanced number sense, foundational number sense must be developed. When working with pre-kindergarten children, it is important to establish foundational number sense. Geary and van Marle (2016) found that pre-kindergartners’ development of foundational number sense (i.e., recognition of numerals, understanding of cardinal value, and recitation of counting strings) predicted later math achievement. These foundations of number sense help children develop a symbolic reasoning of number by linking number words to symbols, both verbal and written. Specifically, prekindergarten children must learn to recognize numerals, compare magnitudes of numbers, and count strategically (Batchelor, Keeble, & Gilmore, 2015).

Number Lines Although it is commonly known that students must develop number sense, research about just how to best develop number sense is still in its infancy. One of the more promising strategies for establishing number sense is through the use of number lines. In a longitudinal study, Geary (2011) found that children who used a number line to compute basic facts by 1st grade outperformed same-age peers up to five years later. Preschool children can learn components of number sense when taught using elaborations based on work with number lines (Pagani, Jalbert, & Girard, 2006). Moreover, number sense researchers claim that it is essential for students to develop a mental number line (Jordan et al., 2009). In a recent study of pre-kindergarten children, Maertens, De Smedt, Sasanguic, Elen, and Reynvoet, 2016 found that use of an open number line (i.e., a number line without increments) helped students improve their understanding of early numeracy. However, they concluded that the lack of fading of the number line and connections between tasks did not significantly differ results from a non-number line comparison approach. Xu and LeFerve (2016) found that students who learned numbers in a sequential counting format on a number line marked with a midpoint outperformed students

Number Recognition In order for students to effectively communicate numbers, it is important that they learn to recognize numerals. Students with significant difficulties in mathematics often struggle with numeral recognition (Landerl, Bevan, & Butterworth, 2004). Once established, students then must be able to recognize combinations of numerals, such as 34, and interpret as numbers, “thirtyfour” or “three tens - four ones.” Magnitude Understanding that numerals alone or next to another number represent a number and this number has

Early Years Bulletin who learned numbers sequentially without the midpoint marked. Thus, for preschool students, while the use of a number line is important, students must be able to make mental images of increments. Concrete-Representational-Abstract Sequence of Instruction The Concrete to Representational to Abstract sequence of instruction (CRA) is a graduated sequence of instruction that helps build accuracy. CRA is based on Bruner’s (1983) enactive and iconic representations and has been found to be effective with learning place value, computation, and advanced number lines (Miller & Kaffar, 2011; Vacc, 1995; Varma & Schwartz, 2011; Witzel et al., 2013). For this project, CRA is used as a graduated approach to helping students make mental number lines in an effort to develop early numeracy skills. The concrete step involved physical movement of blocks on a number line, the representational step included drawing on a number line, and the abstract step ensured discussion about numbers without a line present. Hypothesis This study was based on the premise that young children can develop key early numeracy skills as early as prekindergarten. By using number lines, students may be able to better access components of early number sense. A clearer understanding of how to develop early numeracy will help early childhood educators develop and deliver appropriate math instruction that prepares children for future mathematical success. While longitudinal effects have been determined from early work with number lines (Geary, 2011), there is a gap in research as to which components of early numeracy are affected by specific instructional approaches with number lines (Jordan et al., 2007). The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of a number line curriculum as an instructional tool for developing early numeracy. The research questions that guided this inquiry were: (1) Does number line instruction affect prekindergarten children’s number recognition skills? (2) Does number line instruction affect prekindergarten children’s understanding of number magnitude? (3) Does number line instruction affect prekindergarten children’s understanding of number seriation?

Summer 2017 Methods Setting and Participants The implementation took place at a state university early childhood laboratory school in the southeastern United States. The three classrooms are led by experienced, certified teachers with master of education degrees in early childhood from accredited institutions. The instructional comparison group participated in the childcentered, play-based early childhood program developed by the teachers. A component of this program includes manipulative-rich interactive learning centers, some of which focus on components of number sense. Researchers Three instructors were each assigned to one classroom and implemented the assessments and treatment for that classroom. Each had a minimum of a master’s of education degree and working knowledge of the intervention. The researchers established interrater reliability with the three components of Assessing Student Proficiency in Early Number Sense (ASPENS) assessment through scripted role play by dividing individual scores by average scores. Reliability was 100%. The researchers also established fidelity for implementation by co-writing the lesson scripts for the instructional treatment and practicing with each other before implementation. Fidelity between the three researchers, established over two lessons, was 100%. Random Assignment to Group Of the 52 children whose parents granted permission to participate, only the 35 children who scored below 50% on the preassessment in number recognition, magnitude comparison, and missing number seriation were randomly assigned to instructional groups (i.e., 19 to the treatment group and 16 to the instructional comparison group). The reason for three more children assigned to treatment was one per classroom. Instructional groups were similar in demographics. Each group had a mean age of three years, nine months. Marital status of children’s families was similar, with the Treatment group having four children in single-parent homes and 15 in two-parent homes while the Comparison group had three in single-parent homes and 13 in twoparent homes. The mode of mother’s education was a college degree for both Number Line Treatment and

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Early Years Bulletin

Comparison groups. Neither group had a child identified with an identified disability and both groups averaged a socioeconomic status based above the poverty level. Category Gender

Treatment Group

Parent’s Marital Status Mode Mother’s Education

Control Group

Female

Male

3.79

3.81

Married

Single Mother

College

Average Age

consisted of 10 lessons (see Figure 1) taught over 2 weeks that emphasized a CRA graduated-sequence number line approach, such that the students manipulated concrete objects matched to a number line, then drew on the number line, and then finally described number quantities without the use of a number line. Lessons were scripted to improve fidelity (see example). Let’s try some together. Let’s do 6. How many squares should I grab? <elicit response> Good, 6. <grab the squares showing subitization and verbalize how you know> Point to where we are counting. <point to the 6 on the number line> Let’s count together. <lay down squares as you count> From zero, one, two, three, four, five, six.

Number line treatment group. During math center time, students assigned to treatment condition were brought in groups of four or five to a small table to complete the number line curriculum. The curriculum

Comparison group. The comparison in this study is a center-based approach designed for children to interact with materials in order to develop number sense. In these centers, teachers supported students’ exploration

Figure 1 Treatment Lesson Sequence 1) Counting objects 0-5 matched to a number line

2) Counting 0-5 matched to a number line 3) Introduce by counting on a number line from 0-10 (K.CC.1) 4) Match objects to counting on a number line 0-10 (K.CC.5) 5) Identify spot on a number line 0-10 6) Counts forward from a given number (K.CC.2) using the number line

7) Counts forward from a given number without the number line 8) Comparing numbers as greater or less than when identified as numbers (K.CC.7) using the number line

9) Comparing numbers of objects to show which is less than, equal to or greater than (K.CC.6) 10) Compares numbers without the number line

Early Years Bulletin of mathematical concepts in a variety of settings and contexts (i.e., counting games in the math center, number recognition on the cash register in the home living center, magnitude comparison on the balance scale in the science center). Because of their frequency in preschool and kindergarten settings, they have been used as a comparison condition for several studies (Lewis-Presser, Clements, Ginsburg, & Ertle, 2015). Using counting, students interact with teachers and peers to build knowledge of mathematical terminology, number naming, number patterns, and counting strategies. Such interactions are important to developing mathematical thought and understanding underlying mathematics concepts (Frye et al., 2013). Assessment Instrument A number sense assessment that includes subtests for numeral recognition, number magnitude, and counting strategies is the Assessing Student Proficiency in Early Number Sense (ASPENS; Clarke, Gersten, Dimino, & Rolfhus, 2012). ASPENS may be used as a benchmark screener as well as a progress monitoring instrument with multiple forms. Multiple form test-retest reliability

Summer 2017 correlations range in the .70s and .80s, which are excellent for short screening instruments, especially with younger children. Although the assessment was developed for kindergarten and 1st-grade students, the criterion validity of three individual subtests matched the areas of number sense identified as foundational. Per the subtests, numeral recognition includes numerals from 0-20. Magnitude comparisons were assessed by presenting two numbers and asking the student to identify the greater number. For counting strategies, ASPENS employs a missing number exercise where two numbers are presented and a third is left as blank (e.g., 3, 4, ___; 3, ___, 5; or ___, 4, 5). The student must identify the number that goes in the blank space. All questions for this study were placed on individual threeinch by five-inch notecards and delivered one at a time individually to each student involved in the study. For each section, a ceiling rule is established when 5 items are answered incorrectly in a row. After the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; families signed a permission form, a pre-assessment was performed with each student between January and February and a post-assessment in April, within two weeks of the treatment delivery.

Table 1. Scores between groups for numeral recognition Number Line Treatment

Comparison

Pretest Mean Scores

M = 23.5 (SD = 19.3)

M = 14.1 (SD = 20.1)

Posttest Mean Scores

M = 74.1 (SD = 28.7)

M = 34.0 (SD = 35.4)

Table 2. Scores between groups for magnitude comparison Number Line Treatment

Comparison

Pretest Mean Scores

M = 27.5 (SD = 17.5)

M = 20.9 (SD = 17.4)

Posttest Mean Scores

M = 45.8 (SD = 11.6)

M = 29.9 (SD = 22.7)

Table 3. Scores between groups for counting strategies Number Line Treatment

Comparison

Pretest Mean Scores

M = 4.4 (SD = 10.3)

M = 1.3 (SD = 1.8)

Posttest Mean Scores

M = 14.7 (SD = 15.0)

M = 7.5 (SD = 13.5)

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Early Years Bulletin

Results To determine significant differences between instructional groups, both pretest and posttest scores were statistically compared. Overall, the number line treatment group outperformed the comparison group in number recognition and magnitude comparisons. However, posttest scores were not significant between the two groups in finding the missing number. Number Recognition Despite no significant difference between pretest scores (F(1,33) = 1.98, p = 0.17), posttest scores revealed a significant difference between instructional groups (F(1, 33) = 13.70, p = 0.00, Hedges’s g = 1.26). See Table 1 for statistical means from pretest to posttest scores. Magnitude There wasn’t a significant difference between pretest scores (F(1,33) = 1.25, p = 0.272). However, a significant difference between post assessment of magnitude existed between instructional groups (F(1,33) = 7.19, p = 0.01, Hedges’s g = 0.91). See Table 2 for comparison from pre to post test scores per group. Strategic Counting: Missing Number There wasn’t a significant difference between pretest scores per group (F(1,33) = 1.42, p = 0.24). However, despite increased growth for the treatment group, there wasn’t a significant difference between the instructional groups at the posttest (F(1,33) = 2.17, p = 0.15, Hedges’s g = 0.50). See Table 3 for comparisons. Limitations The current research is limited in that it did not compare the linear approach to another intensive intervention. Therefore, it is not known whether the current intervention would result in scores different from other intensive interventions. Additionally, although the results of using a linear model to teach prekindergarten students resulted in significant gains on two aspects of number sense after only a brief treatment, the results should not be generalized until replication studies are completed. While the laboratory school drew from the community, the population does not equally represent local or state population statistics. A replication study would need to pull from a larger and more diverse

sample of students, including those with identified development delays. Currently, development of early numeracy and number sense assessments is in its infancy. Although ASPENS was excellent in that it covered key topics of foundational number sense, it was geared toward kindergarten students rather than prekindergarten children. Additional research must be conducted to determine prekindergarten expectations in mathematics development, particularly number sense. The treatment was delivered in a face-to-face traditional approach. Future research considerations should include digital means for using the number line and other linear models. Mattoon, Bates, Shifflet, Latham, and Ennis (2015) found equal growth in prekindergarten children’s computational skills when using digital or three-dimensional manipulatives. Discussion Currently, early intervention research is only beginning to emerge as it relates to developing number sense in prekindergarten children. The results of this study were interesting in that the children who learned through the number line approach outscored their center-based peers in all three assessed aspects of number sense, two at a statistically significant level. The results left the researchers curious about whether the growth in number sense was related to the brief 10-session number line intervention or simply due to a more focused approach to number sense-related components. Still, the findings in this research add to the developing research on which number sense components are affected by number linefocused interventions. The results of the study were significant in that they supported Clements and Sarama’s (2013) findings that prekindergarten children can develop number sense through high-quality research-based approaches, as well as Geary and van Marle’s (2016) findings on the specific areas of number sense. Developing a strong foundation in math early prepares students for later success; developing number sense before kindergarten may help prevent future mathematics difficulties or even disabilities (Geary, Hoard, & Hamson, 1999). A CRA approach focused on mental number lines is promising for establishing a concentrated preschool intervention, and so assessment focused on numeral recognition,

Early Years Bulletin understanding of number magnitude, and counting strategies is recommended. As Geary et al. (2013) concluded in their research, “interventions to improve children’s early understanding of the relations among numerals need to be implemented before the start of schooling or in first grade” (p. 34). Research must continue to focus on early mathematics instructional approaches that may support the growth of children’s number sense. By maximizing our efforts to build a foundation in number sense, we provide children with an improved opportunity for future success in mathematics and life.

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Early Years Bulletin is published quarterly by the Association for Childhood Education International, 1200 18th St., N.W., Suite 700, Washington, DC 20036.

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