Hacking for Intimacy

%% hacking for intimacy

[how can hacking break systems to allow for intimacy and expressivity in publishing?]

Arielle Cerini

/Table_of_contents;

{ Research Question

Abstract

Glossary

Historical Context

Contribution

}

/research_question; {

how can hacking break systems to

allow for intimacy and expressivity

in publishing? }

ABSTRACT Socrates believed that the creation of the written language would result in a semblance of wisdom—distancing humanity from absolute truth. Starting with the written form, the evolution of mankind has favored simplified systems for publishing that increase understanding and accessibility of a message. While these tools for sharing aim to create a utopian society, equalizing capabilities of mankind, this socialistic perspective has created an undervaluing of the individual, disconnecting the message from its creator. Hacking—the anti-socialist— can be used to break through and challenge these social structures, reviving the intimacy of communicating and allowing for expressivity of the individual.

%%glossary

Glossary /hack; {

break systems to allow for intimacy and expressivity

}

/intimacy; { the human component of publishing }

/publishing; { making information public }

the occupation, business, or activity of preparing and issuing books, journals, and other material for sale.

/intimacy; { the exploration of self in publishing }

/technology; { tools }

/efficiency; { the potential of a message to lead to future innovations

}

/design socialism; { the philosophical belief that the evolution of design and technology should focus on the needs of the human species, rather than the indiviual; the belief that designers should create systemized interfaces that allow for increased userability } /design individualism; { the philosophical belief that the evolution of design and technology should focus on the needs of the individual, rather than the human species; the belief that designers should create for the individual, allowing for freedom of creation and personalization— giving consideration to the impact of the technology on individuality }

/components_of_publishing;

message: [contents]

method:

[dissemination]

me¡d i¡um noun

medium: [form]

}

%%historical_context

{ publishing

history of publishing: loss of intimacy

designers as hacker

}

Publishing, in its basic form, means “to disseminate to the public.”1 However, throughout history, the evolution of technology has resulted in a redefining of the act of publishing and what it means to make something public. While the word continues to maintain its original definition, social connotations have been applied to the term, resulting in the lack of consideration of certain forms as an act of publishing. In fact, today, the term ‘to publish’ is defined by Google Knowledge Graphs2 as: “(of an author or company) prepare and issue (a book, journal, piece of music, or other work) for public sale.”3 The belief that publishing needs to be for public sale results in the undervaluing of social media as a publishing form, which is likely to influence the way users treat the content that they are posting.

Defining Publishing /publishing; { to disseminate to the public

}

Merriam-Webster. Accessed July 08, 2016. http://www.merriam-webster.com/ dictionary/publish.

1.

An added feature of Google that sorts through the information available, and based on the results generates a response that best suits the majority of the information – a digital form of group think. “Google Launches Knowledge Graph To Provide Answers, Not Just Links,” Search Engine Land, 2012, , accessed July 08, 2016, http:// searchengineland.com/google-launches-knowledge-graph-121585.

2.

3.

Google Knowledge Graphs (See note 2 above).

History of Publishing: Loss of Intimacy /Gestures;

As a formal study, publishing, originates in ancient Greece and Rome, however the act of information sharing pre-dates homo sapiens.4 Research suggests that the homo erectus—distant relatives of homo sapiens— used gestures, facial expressions, and body language

{ strongly rooted in human intimacy

to communicate.5 These methods of communicating were

and expressivity

strongly rooted in human intimacy, requiring some

}

knowledge of the other person to effectively converse. As a result, tools during this time were slow

“The History of Public Speaking...

An Interesting Piece.,” HubPages, http://hubpages.com/business/The-History-of-Public-Speaking.

4.

Wynn, T. 1998. “Did Homo erectus Speak?” Cambridge Archaeological Journal, vol 8, pp. 78-81.

to develop, causing restrictions on the capacity for progression, therefore deeming these publishing forms as ineffective methods for communicating.

5.

Smithsonian`s National Museum of Natural History, “Language & Symbols | The Smithsonian Institution`s Human Origins Program,” Language & Symbols | The Smithsonian Institution`s Human Origins Program, accessed July 06, 2016, http://humanorigins.si.edu/human-characteristics/language-symbols.

6.

7.

See note 4.

Raaflaub, Kurt A., Josiah Ober, Robert W. Wallace, Paul Cartledge, and Cynthia Farrar. Origins of Democracy in Ancient Greece. U of California, 2007. Web. 8.

DeCaro, Peter A., PhD. “Origins of Public Speaking.” The Public Speaking Project. 2013. Print.

9.

Emerging from these early methods of information sharing, formal language allowed for the expansion of cultures and increased the productivity of the human race.6 The act of communicating no longer required knowledge of the other person, but instead was used as a tool to learn from one-another. This use of language provided a system for individuals to express themselves through, limiting confusion and allowing for seamless communication.

In ancient Greece and Rome debate arose as the first formal study of publishing as an expression of power.7 Though its temporary form created limita-

/formal_language;

tions in potential audience size and productivity,

{ language as a tool for learning from

debate served as the framework for all publishing

one-another, rather than a way of con-

forms that came after it. Within these ancient civ-

versing with those you already knew

ilizations there was a rise of democracy and for

the first time in history, knowledge was viewed as

}

power.8 Those who could speak eloquently and studied /debate; { formal study of publishing as an expression of power

}

the art of public speaking, rhetoric, became known as orators.9 The lack of methods for communicating, during this time, meant that knowledge was reliant on an individual’s personal abilities. When speaking, the focus was on the delivery of the speech, but more

importantly how it aided in the expression of the

/socrates; {

message. The art of persuasion requires not only a

feared the written word, thinking that

well-rounded body of knowledge, but also a thorough

it would create a ‘semblance’ of wis-

understanding of language.10

dom — written language will result

in the loss of absolute truth

The communal act of debate played an intricate role in

}

these ancient civilizations.11 Philosophers believed that the art of debate allowed for the exercise of the mind and the formation of viewpoints. It was because of this, that ancient philosophers like Socrates feared the written word, thinking that it would create a ‘semblance’ of wisdom.

12

Oral communication

10.

Lucas, Stephen. “Speaking to Persuade.” The Art of Public Speaking.

10th ed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2009. Print.

11.

See note 10.

ual knowledge, it exists only in one time and place.

12.

Socrates beliefs written by Plato.

Phaedrus, trans. Paul Woodruff and Alexander Nehamas (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 274c-275b.

With the emergence of written form debate lost its

13.

is strongly rooted in personal contact and individ-

importance and knowledge became communal.

13

People

were no longer limited by the capacity of their physical being, but could instead rely on the use

Spar, Ira. “The Origins of Writing.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wrtg/hd_wrtg.htm October, 2004.

of tools and systems to further their potential.14

14.

See note 10.

Messages began to lose their complexity, becoming

15.

See note 12.

one-dimensional, leading to the loss of the ‘true

16.

See note 13.

meaning’ of its content.15

17.

See note 12.

The formation of written languages was the start of the movement of publishing away from personal abilities.16 Not only did knowledge become exis-

18.

"The History of Print from 1400 to 1499." Prepressure The History of Print from 1400 to 1499 Comments. Accessed July 08, 2016. http://www.prepressure.com/printing/history/1400-1499.

tent outside of the ‘self,’ but the disconnect of the message from a time and place began to emerge, allowing for it to be perceived absent of the author.17 The negatives of the written form during its time, though, was the loss of the value of knowledge. Written books were expensive to create and were, therefore, limited to the wealthy.18

/witten_languages; {

This led to the church controlling the information

movement of publishing away from per-

that was made available to the general public, mis-

sonal abilities — ­ a message was no

construing their perceptions to fit needs the needs

longer restricted by time and space

of the church.

}

“History of the Printing Press Invention of the Printing Press,” History of the Printing Press - Invention of the Printing Press, http:// www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/printpress.htm.

19.

20.

See note 18.

The creation of the printing press by Guttenberg in 1445 made way for greater possibilities for the art of information sharing.19 As a medium for creating, the printing press revolutionized the nature of making information public, transcending the rate of

Dewar, James A. “The Information Age and the Printing Press,” Ubiquity 2000, no. August 2000.

production from 40 pages per day, to 3,600.20

“U.S. Copyright Office - Information Circular.” U.S. Copyright Office - Information Circular. Accessed July 08, 2016. http://www.copyright.gov/ circs/circ1a.html.

audience of a message—by increasing the informa-

21.

22.

Duke University. “Using Visual Rhetoric in Academic Writing.” Writing Studio Thompson Writing Program. Duke University.

23.

Meggs, Philip B. “Graphic Design.”

Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Accessed July 08, 2016. https://www.britannica. com/art/graphic-design.

24.

“Timeline Highlights.” Computers. http://www.computerhistory.org/timeline/computers/.

25.

This

‘mass production’ expanded the public—the intended tion made available to the lower and middle classes, allowing for them to formulate their own opinions – paving the way for governmental democracy.21 The wide adoption of the printed form led to an increase in the knowledge and content that existed within the public realm. The interconnectivity amongst civilizations, made the act of ‘innovating’ increasingly more difficult. This led to the formation of the first federal copy right law that was enacted by congress in May of 1790 as a protection of identity and individuality.22 By the late 19th century, the

/printing_press; {

importance of visual elements and the understanding

revolutionized the nature of making

of perception started to be considered, leading to

information public—systemized the act

the creation of the term visual rhetoric: the use

of making

of visual elements to support a message and better

communicate an argument.23 In the visual world, the

}

graphic designer24 took on the role of orator and the focus of publishing became centered around form rather than knowledge.

/computer; { the combining of the components of publishing: method, medium, and message-equalized the capacity to create

}

The invention of the computer in the 1980s allowed for the further systemization of tools for publishing, equalizing the capacity to create.25 What makes digital methods of publishing different from other forms, is the nature of the computer. The computer is the first technology that has the ability to take on all of the individual components of publishing—message, medium, and method—a skillset that until now only humans possessed.

With the computer, the rate of creating increased exponentially. Seeking to add a human component to technology, systems evolved to parallel the physical world26 —i.e. Photoshop’s interface uses principles similar to dark room photography. This increased ease in publishing was furthered with the commercialization of the internet in 1991,

27

which gave the

computer the ability to not just be a means of creating, but also a method for sharing – blurring the lines between the medium, message, and method for publishing. This integration between forms within

Franklin, Ursula M. The Real World of Technology. Toronto, Ont.: Anansi, 1999. Print.

26.

“Internet Society.” Brief History of the Internet. http://www.internetsociety.org/internet/what-internet/ history-internet/brief-history-internet.

27.

Kietzmann, Jan H. et al., “Social Media?

Get Serious!

Understanding the Functional Building Blocks of Social Media,” Business Horizons 54, no. 3 (2011):, doi:10.1016/j. bushor.2011.01.005.

28.

Hunt, Olivia “Social Media: Creating a False Reality?,” editorial, Sonoma State Star, November 9, 2015.

29.

one platform was the precursor to publishing as it exists today. /social­_media; {

The public of today is largely rooted in social

systemized publishing, creating a uni-

media.28 The interactive nature of these applications

formed outlet for information sharing

enables users to generate an ‘alternative’ reality;

}

posting to control others perceptions of themselves.29 Driven by userability, these interfaces have taken on a systemized means of publishing, evolving to minimalize the visual design and increase the accessibility of content. While the systemized nature of publishing within these platforms affords greater understanding of the content, it furthers the use of ‘filters’ for expressing, restricting the notion of individuality.

The difference between someone who designs and a designer, is a designer considers the ‘intended future’ and the impact their creation will have.

Despite the loss of intimacy that has occurred throughout the evolution publishing, designers have worked to ‘hack’ these systems aiming to reintroduce intimacy and expressivity to a message. However, contrary to their efforts, interface creators have made this ‘hacking’ increasingly more difficult, jeopardizing what it means to be an individual.

Designers as Hackers 30.

Girling, Rob. “21st Century Design: Shaping behavior for preferable outcomes.” 2011.

/hack; { breaking systems to allow for intimacy and expressivity

}

“40 Crucial Lessons From The Most Famous Graphic Designers in History.”

Design School. 09 Nov. 2015.

31.

The life span for each individual designer listed was found on Google Knowledge Graphs.

32.

”LettError: The Innovative Dutch Design Duo.” Frieze. 09 Mar. 1995.

Web.

33

Aldus Manutius (1449 - 1515): Was one of the first book designers who used italic type within a book, which economized book making and allowed for more text exist on a page Bradbury Thompson: (1911 - 1995) “Experiment. With Everything.”

Cipe Pineles: (1908 - 1991) Broke free from basic forms—hired artists to her magazine to create illustrations for the magazine Paul Rand: (1914 - 1996) Merged text with the design, removing the ‘copy’ from the central component of the message Abram Games: (1914 - 1996) “Maximum meaning, minimum means”— a message and its meaning should be strong, but the design should be clean and direct.

Muriel Cooper: (1925 - 1994) Pioneered computerized graphic design: was able to create visual depth, size changes, shifts in focus, 3D designs, etc Alan Fletcher: (1931- 2006) Father of graphic design in Brittain— experimented with type as a tool for expressing Seymour Chwast: (1931) The central component of his designs is cross discipline, yeilding abstract and experimental results that are said to challenge the clean and minimalistic nature of Swiss design.

His experimental use of systems are frequently referred to as ‘radical’ and ‘playful’ Wolfgang Weingart: (1941) Experiment With Typography April Greiman: (1948) Helped pave the way for the use of technology in design Paula Scher: (1948) Known for her work treating type as a visual image David Carson: (1954) ‘The godfather of grunge’ revolutionized design by breaking standard layout systems Peter Saville: (1955) His work focused on expressivity—known for his album cover designs. Peter Saville believed in being bold and expressive when designing John Maeda: (1966) Pushed the boundaries of the mediums that he used, redefining their potential and discovering new outlets for making.

Erik van Blockland: (1967)33 Used programming to randomized the appearance of Postscript fonts

Aldus Manutius (1449 - 1515)

Manutius, Aldus, Francesco Colonna, and Benedetto Bordon. Hypnerotomachia Poliphili Page View. Digital image. Artstor, 1499.

Galle, Philips. Aldus Manutius. Digital image., 1587.

Manutius, Aldus. The Torch of Polia Extinguished in the Altar. Digital image.

Artstor, 1499.

Thompson, Bradbury. M Stands for Men. Digital image. 1953.

Thompson, Bradbury. Westvaco 198 Cover Westvaco Inspirations for Printers 198. Digital image. 1954.

Bradbury Thompson (1911 - 1995)

Thompson, Bradbury. Pages from Westvaco Inspirations 216. Digital image. Pratt Institute Libraries Digital Image Collection, 1961.

Cipe Pineles (1908 - 1991)

Pineles, Cipe. Charm Magazine, September 1957 Cover.

Digital image. Pratt Institute Libraries Digital Image Collection, 1957.

Pineles, Cipe. Charm Magazine, January 1954 Cover. Digital image. Pratt Institute Libraries Digital Image Collection, 1954.

Pineles, Cipe. Seventeen Magazine, July 1949 Cover. Digital image. Pratt Institute Libraries Digital Image Collection, 1949

Paul Rand (1914 - 1996)

Rand, Paul. Men Who Do Nothing but Think. Digital image. 1962.

Rand, Paul. Relax. Digital image.

Rand, Paul. Sparkle and Spin Comprehensives Sparkle and Spin Jacket Spread. Digital image. 1957.

Abram Games (1914 - 1996)

Games, Abram. Poster for the US War Office. Digital image. 1942.

Games, Abram. The Army Blood Transfusion Service. Digital image. 1941-1943.

Games, Abram. Your Talk May Kill Your Comrades.

Digital image. 1942.

Muriel Cooper (1925 - 1994)

Cooper, Muriel. TED5 Three-dimensional Information Programmers. Digital image. N.p., 1994.

Cooper, Muriel. Learning from Las Vegas Cover. Digital image. 1972.

Cooper, Muriel. Bauhaus Cover.

Digital image. 1969

Alan Fletcher (1931-2006)

Fletcher, Alan. Bus Poster for Pirelli Slippers.

Digital image. Pratt Institute Libraries Digital Image Collection, 1931-2006.

Fletcher, Alan. Environment Game Poster for an Exhibition about the Urban Environment.

Digital image. Artstor. 1931.

Fletcher, Alan. British Painting รก74, Arts Council Exhibition. Digital image. Artstor. 1974.

Chwast, Seymour. Fatty Arbuckle.

Digital image.

Chawst, Seymour. Blues Project.

Digital image. 1968.

Seymour Chwast (1931)

Chawst, Seymour. Elektra Film Productions. Digital image. 1969.

Wolfgang Weingart (1941)

Weingart, Wolfgang. Collage: Det.: From a Special Edition of Typografische Monatsblatter. Digital image.

Weingart, Wolfgang. Kunstkredit (Art Credit). Digital image.

N.p., 1976-1977.

Weingart, Wolfgang. Das Schweizer Plakat. Digital image.

1984.

April Greiman (1948)

Greiman, April. Poster for the Los Angeles Institute of Contemporary Art. Digital image.

1986.

Greiman, April. Sci-Arc Poster.

Digital image. 1991.

Greiman, April. Snow White + the Seven Pixels, An Evening with April Greiman. Digital image. 1986.

Paula Scher (1948)

Scher, Paula. Reel Conversations. Digital image. 1991.

Scher, Paula. The Diva Is Dismissed. Digital image. 1994.

Scher, Paula. Bring in ‘Da Noise Bring in ‘Da Funk.

Digital image. 1995.

David Carson (1954)

Carson, David. Hanging at Carmine Street. Digital image. Pratt Institute Libraries Digital Image Collection, 1991.

Carson, David. Remote. Digital image. N.p., 1995.

Carson, David. Is Techno Dead, Ray Gunn. Digital image. Pratt Institute Libraries Digital Image Collection, 1994.

Peter Saville (1955)

Saville, Peter. Upon Paper. Digital image. N.p., 25 Jan. 2013.

Rhino Records. Total. Digital image.

Saville, Peter. Chromium Pleasure. Digital image. N.p., 2015.

John Maeda (1966)

Maeda, John. RGB. Digital image. Contemporary Art ( Larry Qualls Archive), 2000.

Maeda, John.

RGB. Digital image. Contemporary Art ( Larry Qualls Archive), 2000.

Maeda, John. Net. Digital image. Photographer: Larry Qualls, 2000.

Erik van Blockland (1967)

Van Blokland, Erik, and Just Van Rossum. FF Beowolf.

Digital image. N.p., 1990.

Van Blokland, Erik, and Andrew Johnson. Santa Fe ½ Miles. Digital image. N.p., 29 Aug. 2016.

Kazin, Sol, 2014. Erik Van Blokland Trixie 1991. Digital image. 2014.

contribution statement The exploration of hacking as a way of intimacy and expressivity

introducing humanity to technology offers a new perspective to the evolution of publishing. By challenging these systems for information sharing, a discussion can emerge regarding the social responsibility of the preferred future

designer and what it means to be an individual in today’s society.

Bibliography “40 Crucial Lessons From The Most Famous Graphic Designers in History.” Design School. 09 Nov. 2015.

Games, Abram. The Army Blood Transfusion Service. Digital image. 1941-1943.

Carson, David. Hanging at Carmine Street. Digital image. Pratt Institute Libraries Digital Image Collection, 1991.

Games, Abram. Poster for the US War Office. Digital image. 1942.

Carson, David. Is Techno Dead, Ray Gunn. Digital image. Pratt Institute Libraries Digital Image Collection, 1994.

Carson, David. Remote. Digital image. 1995.

Chwast, Seymour. Fatty Arbuckle. Digital image.

Chwast, Seymour. Blues Project. Digital image. 1968.

Chawst, Seymour. Elektra Film Productions. Digital image. 1969.

Cooper, Muriel. Bauhaus Cover. Digital image.

1969

Cooper, Muriel. Learning from Las Vegas Cover. Digital image. 1972.

Cooper, Muriel. TED5 Three-dimensional Information Programmers. Digital image. N.p., 1994.

DeCaro, Peter A., PhD. “Origins of Public Speaking.”

The Public Speaking 2013. Print.

Dewar, James A. “The Information Age and the Printing Press,” Ubiquity 2000, no. August (2000): , doi:10.1145/347634.348784.

Duke University. “Using Visual Rhetoric in Academic Writing.” Writing Studio (n.d.): n. pag. Thompson Writing Program. Duke University.

Fletcher, Alan. Environment Game Poster for an Exhibition about the Urban Environment. Digital image.

Artstor. 1931.

Fletcher, Alan. British Painting á74, Arts Council Exhibition. Digital image. Artstor. 1974.

Fletcher, Alan. Bus Poster for Pirelli Slippers. Digital image. Pratt Institute Libraries Digital Image Collection, 1931-2006.

Games, Abram. Your Talk May Kill Your Comrades. Digital image. 1942.

Girling, Rob. “21st Century Design: Shaping behavior for preferable outcomes.” Artefactgroup. com (2011).

“Google Launches Knowledge Graph To Provide Answers, Not Just Links,” Search Engine Land, 2012, , accessed July 08, 2016, http://searchengineland.com/google-launches-knowledge-graph-121585.

Greiman, April. Snow White + the Seven Pixels, An Evening with April Greiman. Digital image. 1986.

Greiman, April. Poster for the Los Angeles Institute of Contemporary Art. Digital image. 1986.

Greiman, April. Sci-Arc Poster. Digital image. 1991.

“History of the Printing Press - Invention of the Printing Press,” History of the Printing Press - Invention of the Printing Press, http://www.ideafinder. com/history/inventions/printpress.htm.

Hunt, Olivia “Social Media: Creating a False Reality?,” editorial, Sonoma State Star, November 9, 2015.

“Internet Society.” Brief History of the Internet. http://www.internetsociety.org/internet/what-internet/history-internet/brief-history-internet.

Kazin, Sol, 2014. Erik Van Blokland Trixie 1991. Digital image. 2014.

Kietzmann, Jan H. et al., “Social Media? Get Serious! Understanding the Functional Building Blocks of Social Media,” Business Horizons 54, no. 3 (2011):, doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2011.01.005.

“LettError: The Innovative Dutch Design Duo.” Frieze.

09 Mar. 1995. Web.

Franklin, Ursula M. The Real World of Technology.

Toronto, Ont.: Anansi, 1999. Print.

Lucas, Stephen. “Speaking to Persuade.” The Art of Public Speaking. 10th ed. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2009. Print.

Galle, Philips. Aldus Manutius. Digital image., 1587.

Maeda, John. Net. Digital image. Photographer: Larry Qualls, 2000.

Maeda, John. RGB. Digital image. Contemporary Art ( Larry Qualls Archive), 2000.

Maeda, John. Smash. Digital image. Contemporary Art ( Larry Qualls Archive), 2000 Manutius, Aldus. The Torch of Polia Extinguished in the Altar. Digital image. Artstor, 1499.

Manutius, Aldus, Francesco Colonna, and Benedetto Bordon. Hypnerotomachia Poliphili Page View. Digital image. Artstor, 1499.

Meggs, Philip B. “Graphic Design.” Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Accessed July 08, 2016. https://www. britannica.com/art/graphic-design.

Merriam-Webster. Accessed July 08, 2016. http://www. merriam-webster.com/dictionary/publish.

Pineles, Cipe. Seventeen Magazine, July 1949 Cover.

Digital image. Pratt Institute Libraries Digital Image Collection, 1949 Pineles, Cipe. Charm Magazine, January 1954 Cover.

Digital image. Pratt Institute Libraries Digital Image Collection, 1954.

Pineles, Cipe. Charm Magazine, September 1957 Cover.

Digital image. Pratt Institute Libraries Digital Image Collection, 1957.

Plato, Phaedrus, trans. Paul Woodruff and Alexander Nehamas (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 274c-275b.

Raaflaub, Kurt A., Josiah Ober, Robert W. Wallace, Paul Cartledge, and Cynthia Farrar. Origins of Democracy in Ancient Greece. U of California, 2007. Web. Rand, Paul. Relax. Digital image.

Rand, Paul. Sparkle and Spin Comprehensives Sparkle and Spin Jacket Spread. Digital image. 1957.

Rand, Paul. Men Who Do Nothing but Think. Digital image. 1962.

Rhino Records. Total. Digital image.

Saville, Peter. Upon Paper. Digital image. 25 Jan. 2013.

Saville, Peter. Chromium Pleasure. Digital image. 2015.

Scher, Paula. Reel Conversations. Digital image. 1991.

Scher, Paula. The Diva Is Dismissed. Digital image. 1994.

Scher, Paula. Bring in ‘Da Noise Bring in ‘Da Funk.

Digital image. 1995.

Smithsonian`s National Museum of Natural History, “Language & Symbols | The Smithsonian Institution`s Human Origins Program,” Language & Symbols | The

Smithsonian Institution`s Human Origins Program, accessed July 06, 2016, http://humanorigins.si.edu/ human-characteristics/language-symbols.

Spar, Ira. “The Origins of Writing.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ hd/wrtg/hd_wrtg.htm (October 2004) “The History of Print from 1400 to 1499.” Prepressure The History of Print from 1400 to 1499 Comments.

Accessed July 08, 2016. http://www.prepressure.com/ printing/history/1400-1499.

“The History of Public Speaking...An Interesting Piece.,” HubPages, http://hubpages.com/business/The-History-of-Public-Speaking.

Thompson, Bradbury. M Stands for Men. Digital image. 1953.

Thompson, Bradbury. Westvaco 198 Cover Westvaco Inspirations for Printers 198. Digital image. 1954.

Thompson, Bradbury. Pages from Westvaco Inspirations 216. Digital image. Pratt Institute Libraries Digital Image Collection, 1961.

“Timeline Highlights.” Computers. http://www.computerhistory.org/timeline/computers/.

“U.S. Copyright Office - Information Circular.” U.S. Copyright Office - Information Circular. Accessed July 08, 2016. http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ1a.html.

Van Blokland, Erik, and Just Van Rossum. FF Beowolf.

Digital image. N.p., 1990.

Van Blokland, Erik, and Andrew Johnson. Santa Fe ½ Miles. Digital image. N.p., 29 Aug. 2016.

Weingart, Wolfgang. Collage: Det.: From a Special Edition of Typografische Monatsblatter. Digital image.

Weingart, Wolfgang. Kunstkredit (Art Credit). Digital image. N.p., 1976-1977.

Weingart, Wolfgang. Das Schweizer Plakat. Digital image. 1984.

Wynn, T. 1998. “Did Homo erectus Speak?” Cambridge Archaeological Journal, vol 8, pp. 78-81.

Arielle Cerini Pratt Institute Communications Designs Fall Semester 2016