Candidacy Examination

R E N S S E L A E R P O LY T E C H N I C I N S T I T U T E

ELECTRONIC ARTS 2019

CANDIDACY EXAMS

ARIELLE CERINI

R O B E R T H A M I LT O N +

S H AW N L AW S O N +

ROBERT NIDEFFER +

GARNET HERTZ +

D I G I TA L P E N M A N S H I P

ARIELLE CERINI CANDIDACY EXAMINATION COMPLETED IN FULFILLMET OF DOCTORAL REQUIREMENTS AT RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC ARTS SHAWN LAWSON [PRIMARY ADVISOR] ROBERT HAMILTON GARNET HERTZ ROBERT NIDEFFER

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... VI I BIOMETRI CS ................................................................................................................. 001 CRITI CAL CREATIVE PRACTI CES ................................................................................. 019 STEGANOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 041 TYPOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................... 053 CRITI CAL DEISGN & TYPOGRAPHY ............................................................................... 069 DYNAMI C TYPEFACE ....................................................................................................... 100 EMBEDDED BIOMETRCS + STEGANOGRAPHY ............................................................... 117 GLOSSARY ....................................................................................................................... 141

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I N T RODUCT ION The following text has been completed in compliance with the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute’s department of Electronic Arts Qualifying Examination degree requirement.

Per the 2018-2019 Graduate Arts Handbook, this Qualifying Examination is “intended to formally determine [my] ability to pursue research leading to a doctoral degree.” Therefore, this body of work represents a curated perspective of my individual research interests, which has been shaped in an attempt to answer the following three examination questions: 1. Discuss the concept of “critical design.” How have critical design practices influenced our understanding of the history of typography?

2. Discuss the development of biometrics in relation to human identification, control, and communication. How might biometric design principles influence type design, and what might be gained by adopting such an approach?

3. Discuss the idea of “embodied biometrics.” How is it different for or similar to steganography? How do such practices position users with regard to issues of awareness and agency?

The information presented in this examination was completed by me, Arielle Cerini, and in most cases was done so for this examination, with a few exceptions to note: • Critical Creative Practices is a reworking and further developing of a literature review that I completed for my Research Methods class in Fall of 2018.

The paper was written with the intent that it would be used for my final dissertation. My previous paper was used merely as a starting point, and the end text differs drastically from its original form.

• Elements of the Defining Terms section have been adapted from my HASS fellowship application and my initial text sent to my committee. Although the text has been reworked and redeveloped there could, potentially, be some repeated content still present.

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Committee, First off, I want to thank you all for being on my committee and taking the time to come up with some really awesome questions—whomever proposed steganography **snaps** to you.

Second off, thank you for taking the time to read 19000+ words of my writing. I did my best to make it somewhat enjoyable throughout… as entertaining as writing about code and math and what not can be… and if not, the bright colors are sure to keep your brain stimulated :-P you’re welcome.

As you can probably tell by this point, the overall format of my exam is somewhat unconventional, but who likes doing things the conventional way?

I chose to format my exam as a designed/typeset book because this is how I would like to do my final dissertation, or at least one version of it. The overall point of my research is that communication is so much more than a series of words on a paper/screen. Just like hand-gestures, body language, inflection, etc. changes how you interpret a spoken message, the design of a body of text can alter how it is read. Therefore, I believe the design of my text is just as important as the written words.

A point of concern going into my exams was my use of the term ‘non-verbal.’ The use of non-verbal stems from my background in psychology.

Within social psychology the definition of non-verbal communication

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is expanded to not just mean hand-gestures, body language, etc., but any stylistic qualities that accompany a message. In addition, I wanted to use non-verbal to shed light on how print and digital communication has allowed for the manifestation of the verbal and the non-verbal, but its evolution has really given focus to the verbal, viewing everything else as noise. This not only decontextualizes a message, it restricts expression and diminishes the ‘human’ from the exchange. So, I guess you can say design is the non-verbal of the written word????

A comparison I like to make is between rhetoric and design.

I actually wrote a paper last fall on the parallels between design and rhetoric—rhetoric not as persuasion, but as mastery of the art of speaking/ communication.

I understand the concern of using the term non-verbal and I am open to hearing some suggestions for alternative terminology; however, presently, I am pretty set on using it…I can be pretty stubborn at times, but I promise to keep an open mind. :-P Okay, I prolonged you reading my exams long enough…

I look forward to hearing your thoughts and answering your questions.

Enjoy!

-Arielle

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X

Critical Creative Practices St eganog raphy Typography

DEFINING THE TERMS

Biometrics

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BIOM E T RICS Biometrics

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Behavioral Biometrics

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Embedded Biometrics

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Keystroke dynamics

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The term biometrics comes from the Greek words bio (life) and metrics (to <?> Althoughthere there is evidence measure).01 Although is evidence of of biometric identifiers being to biometric identifiers being usedused to reprepresent an individual that back date to back resent an individual that date as 02 to asasearly as 500 B.C.,<?> automated early 500 B.C., automated biometric biometrichave systems havebeing onlydeveloped started systems only started being developed in 03the last few in the last few decades.

Biometrics candebe cades.<?> be definedthe as defined asBiometrics “the sciencecan of establishing “the science of establishing thethe identity identity of an individual based on physof anchemical, individual on the physical, ical, or based behavioral attributes of behavioralthese attributes achemical, person.”04orDeveloping digital of sys-a <?> person.”

Developing these digital systems requires information—data—on an tems requires information—data—on an individual’s biometrics.

These systems individual’s biometrics.

These systems gain access to this information through gain access to this information through given and assumed permissions.

While given and assumed permissions.

While advancements in digital technology are advancements in the digital technology what has enabled deveopment of are what has enabledsystems, the deveopment these technological the adof these technological systems, the vent and implementation of them has

adventperpetuated and implementation of them has been by the public’s desire been peroetuatedthat by the public’s desire for technologies improve upon the for technologies that improve upon the quality of life by giving emphasis to sim05 quality and of lifeperceived by giving emphasis to simplicity personalization. <?> plicity and perceived personalization.

Digital biometric systems make use of Digital biometric systems use of behavioral biometrics­ —i.e. make handwritting behavioral biometrics­ —i.e. gait, handwritanalysis, keystroke dynamics, etc.­— ting analysis, keystroke dynamics, gait, and traditional automated biometric etc.­—and traditional automated biometsystems—i.e. fingerprint scanners, handric systems—i.e. fingerprint prints, etc.—to create securescanners, systems handprints, secure systhat work toetc.—to encrypt create or encode a user’s tems that work to06encrypt or encode a digital information. user’s digital information.<?> Since early 1999, four factors (reduced Sincereduced early 1999, four factorsaccuracy, (reduced cost, size, increased cost,increased reduced size, accuracy, and easeincreased of use) have comand increased of use)an have combined to make ease biometrics increasbined feasible to make biometrics an securing increasingly solution for 07 ingly feasible solution securing access to computers and for networks. access to computers and networks.<?>

001. Stephen Mayhew, “History of Biometrics.”

002. Mayhew, “History of Biometrics.”

003. Mayhew, “History of Biometrics.”

004. Anil K Jain, Patrick Flynn, and Arun A Ross, Handbook of Biometrics (Springer Science & Business Media, 2007), 1.

005. Samir Nanavati, Michael Thieme, and Raj Nanavati, Biometrics: Identity Verification in a Networked World, vol. 20, ed. Margaret Eldridge and Adaobi Obi (New York, NY, USA John Wiley & Sons, 2002), XV. 006. AR Arun, Nandakumar Karthik, and K Jain Anil, Handbook of Multibiometrics (Springer, New York, 2006).

007. Nanavati, Biometrics.

DEFI N I NG TERMS- BIOM ETRICS

Despite their recent popularity, biometric identifiers have been unconsciously used for day-to-day identification and perception by people for hundreds-to-thousands of years.08 Historically, “the oldest and most basic examples of a characteristics that is used for recognition by humans is the face.

Since the beginning of civilization, humans have used faces to identify known (familiar) and unknown (unfamiliar) individuals.”09 Before the implementation of biometrics, “knowledge-based (e.g., passwords) and token-based (e.g., ID cards) mechanisms”10 were used to protect an individual’s’ identity and information. These traditional security authentication technologies are referred to as “surrogate representations of identity.”11 The name surrogate representations of identity comes from the fact that they are artificial extensions of an individual that can be easily taken on by another person, through the loss, stealing, or sharing of them. This ease of transfer makes them an ineffective mode of authentication within security systems.

Unlike surrogate representations of identity, biometrics are unique to an individual, or a group of people, and are non-transferable.12 In addition to its implementations within security systems biometrics have also been used to create regulatory technologies that allow for negative recognition and non-repudiation. Negative recognition is the ability to tell if a person is already enrolled within a system or not.13 This is particularly useful

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within systems like welfare disbursement where a person is only eligible to receive the benefits once. Non-repudiation deals with tracking who uses a facility or accesses a resource, so that later they cannot deny having done it.14 One of the most wide spread implementations of human biometric systems is “largescale identity management systems whose functionality relies on the accurate determination of an individual’s identity in the context of several different applications.”15 These identity-management systems are used for storing an individual’s personal data, which can then be used for verifying or identifying who an individual is—or claims to be.16 Within identity-management systems, an individual’s authentication data is referred to as a person’s identity.17 This authentication data can be multi-modal— using two or more forms of biometrics for authentication—however, there has yet to be a technology developed that encompasses a person’s identity in its entirety.

A biometric system is essentially a pattern recognition system that acquires biometric data from an individual, extracts a salient feature set from the data, compares this feature set against the feature set(s) stored in the database, and executes an action based on the result of the comparison.18

008. Mayhew, “History of Biometrics.”

009. Mayhew, “History of Biometrics.”

009.

010. Arun, Karthik, and Anil, Handbook of Multibiometrics, 1.

011. Arun, Karthik, and Anil, Handbook of Multibiometrics.

012. Arun, Karthik, and Anil, Handbook of Multibiometrics.

013. Jain, Flynn, and Ross, Handbook of Biometrics, 3.

014. Jain, Flynn, and Ross, Handbook of Biometrics, 3.

015. Arun, Karthik, and Anil, Handbook of Multibiometrics.

016. Arun, Karthik, and Anil, Handbook of Multibiometrics.

017. Jain, Flynn, and Ross, Handbook of Biometrics, 3.

018. Jain, Flynn, and Ross, Handbook of Biometrics.

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DEFI N I NG TERMS- BIOM ETRICS

A basic biometric system is composed of four modules: 1) Sensor module; 2) Quality Assessment and Feature Extraction Module; 3) Matching and Decision-Making Module; 4) System Database Module.19 These modules come together to take in a person’s biometric data, extract the needed information, and then compare the collected feature set(s) with those that were collected at enrollment. After comparison the system is given a directive based on the results.

1) SENSOR MODULE a biometric reader that is used to take in the raw data of an individual20 Place your finger on the iPhone home button to unlock your device

2) QUALITY ASSESSMENT & FEATURE EXTRACTION MODULE the quality of the collected raw data us assessed and if it does not meet the systems requirements, the user can be asked to provide this information again.21 the iPhone registers your fingerprint data and if it is not enough for a verification your iPhone asks you to try again

If the data is good enough, then it is processed and a set of individual characteristics are extracted by the system22 for example, the shape of your finger-print lines etc.

3) MATCHING AND DECISION MAKING MODULE the collected data and the identified qualities are compared to the information that was collected during enrollment.23 This data is referred to as the template data. In order for a match to be registered then it needs to score a value equal to or higher than a pre-determined match score the data received by the fingerprint scanner on your device is compared to the enrollment data that was collected when you first activated the touchID on your device

Within this module there is also a decision making module that confirms or verifies a persons identity.24 if your current fingerprint scan and your template scan have a match score equal to or greater than the one that Apple’s software requires then your device will be unlocked.

If not, then your access will be denied.

4) SYSTEM DATABASE MODULE “The database acts as the repository of biometric information”25 The template (enrollment features) are paired with biographic information of the individual—i.e. you fingerprint is stored with who you are When you first setup your iPhone’s fingerprint scanner on your device you are prompted with a message to continually place and lift you finger, slightly adjusting the angles each time. This is because your device is collecting your information and constructing a templates for comparisson. By having you change the angle of your finger it allows the scanner to register a more accurate scan of your finger, decreasing the number of failed authentications that will occur.

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BIOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS: UNIVERSALITY UNIQUENESS PERMANENCE MEASURABILITY PERFORMANCE ACCEPTABILITY

PALM PRINT

CIRCUMVENTION BIOMETRIC IDENTIFIERS FACE FINGERPRINT HAND GEOMETRY PALMPRINT IRIS KEYSTROKE

IRIS SCANNER

SIGNATURE VOICE GAIT

019. Arun, Karthik, and Anil, Handbook of Multibiometrics.

020. Arun, Karthik, and Anil, Handbook of Multibiometrics, 5.

021. Arun, Karthik, and Anil, Handbook of Multibiometrics, 6.

022. Arun, Karthik, and Anil, Handbook of Multibiometrics, 7.

023. Arun, Karthik, and Anil, Handbook of Multibiometrics, 8.

024. Arun, Karthik, and Anil, Handbook of Multibiometrics.

025. Arun, Karthik, and Anil, Handbook of Multibiometrics.

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DEFI N I NG TERMS- BIOM ETRICS

BEHAVIORAL BIOMETRICS Behavioral biometrics is a category of biometric technologies that involve the use of an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s unique behaviors for identification and verification.26 These behaviors include, but are not limited to handwriting, gait, keystrokes, etc.

Since the early 2000s, the study of behavioral biometrics has flooded the disciplines of Human Computer Interaction, Cybersecurity, and Machine Learning, however its origins can be traced back to as early as the 1860s with the advent of the telegraph.27 As telegraph operators got more experienced in using the new machine, they became recognizable by the way they would send dash and dot signals. In fact, Allied forces in World War II would verify the authenticity of messages they received by how they were sent.28 As more technologies have been developed, behavioral biometrics have served as an essential tool for security technologies that verify identity, including signature verification, voice recognition, and speech recognition.29 Present day computing technology, such as smartphones and

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computers have a greater potential for receiving an abundance of information and processing it quickly, as a result data on hand tremors, handeye coordination, finger movements, keystrokes, etc. is able to be collected and used for embedded biometric systems.30 Security technology is able to tell how well the people know the information that they are entering and how familiar they are with the application that they are using without having to access any off-site or external server.31 In most cases, behavioral biometric technology is developed to use the unconscious identifiers of human perception for technological authentication, however that is not the only application of the technology.32 Although rarely, if at all, referred to as such popular technologies like Google, Facebook, and Instagram make use of these same principles within their algorithms. By tracking and analyzing a userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s digital activity these platforms are able to customize a userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s experience, as well the advertisements they receive. More information on this can be found in question 3.

026. Kenneth Revett, Behavioral Biometrics: A Remote Access Approach (West Sussex, United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons, 2008).

027. Avi Turgeman, “Behavioral Bometrics Are Not, New So Why Are They So Hot Right Now,” Forbes Technology Council, June 20, 2017.

028. Turgeman, “Behavioral Bometrics Are Not, New So Why Are They So Hot Right Now.” 029. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics, 1.

030. V Conti et al., “An Embedded Biometric Sensor for Ubiquitous Ad Authentication” (paper presented at the AEIT Annual Conference 2013, 2013). An embedded biometric system is a system that is contained within itself. What this means, is that in order for authentication to occur, the device does not need to connect to any external databases, instead the enrollment data used for authentication is stored within the system. This allows for a more secure security system and faster verification.

031. Conti et al., “An Embedded Biometric Sensor for Ubiquitous Ad Authentication.”

032. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics.

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DEFI N I NG TERMS- BIOM ETRICS

KEYSTROKE DYNAMICS Keystroke dynamics is a form of behavioral biometrics that uses how a person types to identify or verify their identity.33 Unlike other behavioral biometric technologies that are used within security systems, keystroke dynamics is cost effective because it does not require the addition of any new hardware for it to be implemented and it is easy to implement because it makes use of a behavior that users already preform for authentication.34 Although keystroke dynamics is a relatively new area of study, the low-cost and ease of use makes it a desirable research topic within the field.

Short-text input analysis is popular, primarily, becasuse of two-reasons:

To-date, the majority of the research that has been done on keystroke dynamics has focused the technologies ability to successfully verify an individual’s identity using short-text inputs. These short-text inputs typically test a user using a pre-determined input text—i.e. a password—and focus on template matching of extracted features with enrollment features.35

035. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics, 77.

1. Short-text inputs have a lower amount of information that is collected making analysis and comparison easier 2. Short-textinputs—password

authentication—benefit

from Power Law of Practice36 because strong accuracy means greater knowledge and confidence of a password.

033. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics, 73.

034. Liang Wang, Behavioral Biometrics for Human Identification: Intelligent Applications: Intelligent Applications (IGI Global, 2009), 343.

036.

036. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics, 76; Power Law of Practice: repitition impacts a user’s performance. .

037. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics, 77.

038. Arun, Karthik, Multibiometrics.

and

Anil,

039. Arun, Karthik, and Anil, Handbook of Multibiometrics.

040. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics.

041. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics

CO M P U T I N G I N K E YS T R O K E B I O M E T R I C S

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Handbook

of

SHORT-TEXT INPUTS | Short-text input systems are keystroke dynamic technologies that uses one word or a short-sequence of text to verify or identify an individual’s identity.37 An example of this is password authentication systems.38 As previously stated in this section, password authentication systems use surrogate representations of identity for verification and authentication. By adding keystroke dynamics to password authentication technology, a more secure system is created that improves upon the old one without completely changing things for the user.39 In addition to short-text input keystroke analysis systems, there has also been research focused on the use of keystroke dynamics within long-text input experiments.40 These experiments have researched identification and verification accuracy of an individual using both free-text inputs and provided text inputs.41

LONG-TEXT INPUTS | Long-text input systems use all of the type activity during a user’s session for authentication and verification. Outside of experimentation, there has been little-to-no commercial implementation of long-text input keystroke dynamic technology, however the proposed setup for it involves the continual verification and authentication of a user throughout their session, also known as dynamic verification.42 While long-text input experimentation is a better judgement for the implementation of keystroke dynamics within commercial systems—because they look at a user’s entire typing session, rather than an individual instance of it—it is a less stable mode of measurement. This instability can be attributed to the fact that an individual’s keystorkes can be impacted by situtational factors. These include, but are not limited to the following: 43 1. The keyboard the user is typing on.

2. The text that the user is typing—the meaning behind the words that the user is typing.

Dynamic verification systems are intended to run in the background on an individual’s device, recording every key-stroke and analyzing it for continual authentication and verification.44 Implementing dynamic verification within a security system can, theoretically, make it more secure because continual verification makes it increasingly more difficult for someone to fake another person’s identity.45 In addition, a dynamic verification system continually collects a user’s typing data, which gives the system more information to analyze; this, in turn, creates a more intelligent keystroke dynamic system.

3. The mental/emotional state of the user at the time of typing.

042. Jingyan Wang et al., “An Effective Multi-Biometrics Solution for Embedded Device” (paper presented at the 2009 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 2009), 360.

043. Nanavati, Thieme, and Nanavati, Biometrics, 20.

044. Wang, Behavioral Biometrics for Human Identification, 343.

045. Wang, Behavioral Biometrics for Human Identification.

045.

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DEFI N I NG TERMS- BIOM ETRICS

“Keystroke biometrics systems measure typing characteristics believed to be unique to an individual and difficult to duplicate.”46

046. Wang, Behavioral Biometrics for Human Identification.

047. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics, 74.

048. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics, 78.

049. Wang, Behavioral Biometrics for Human Identification, 343.

There are three fundamental attributes that are used to create features for comparison in keystroke dynamics: scan code; dwell time; time of flight.47 Key press and release times can be used to generate a fairly consistent feature vector of an individual’s typing.48 To do this, keystrokes are examined as digraphs and trigraphs. By analyzing data as diand trigraphs, it can be determined if there are any overlapping keypresses in the keystroke input.49 The following is an overview of how a digraph can be used to determine the time-of-flight for two sequential keystrokes.50 Analyzing time of fligth can provide insight into whether or not the two keystrokes were overlapping or not.

If t1 represents the press time of the second key in the digraph – the release time of the first key then…

050. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics, 78.

051. Wang, Behavioral Biometrics for Human Identification, 343.

052. Wang, Behavioral Biometrics for Human Identification.

053. Wang, Behavioral Biometrics for Human Identification.

054. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics, 77.

054.

055. Po-Ming Lee, Wei-Hsuan Tsui, and Tzu-Chien Hsiao, “The Influence of Emotion on Keyboard Typing: An Experimental Study Using Auditory Stimuli,” PloS one 10, no. 6 (2015). Valence: Valence, as used in psychology, especially in discussing emotions, means the intrinsic attractiveness/”good”-ness (positive valence) or averseness/”bad”-ness (negative valence) of an event, object, or situation. The term also characterizes and categorizes specific emotions.

056. Lee, Tsui, and Hsiao, “The Influence of Emotion on KeyboardTyping.” Arousal: increased physiological activity.

057. Lee, Tsui, and Hsiao, “The Influence of Emotion on Keyboard Typing.”

058. Lee, Tsui, and Hsiao, “The Influence of Emotion on Keyboard Typing.”

If t1 is positive then keystrokes are not overlapping.51 If t1 is negative overlapping.52

then

keystrokes

are

If t2 represents release time of the first key in the digraph – press time of the second key then... t2 is always positive.53 Long-text input studies use descriptive statistics and standard deviation of key presses and transitions to analyze an individual’s keystrokes.54 In addition, a user’s type preferences for special keys can be collected and analyzed for comparisson. For example, some users do not capitalize when they type, or use the left shift key vs. the right shift key. See the next page for an overview of the ‘special keys.’

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CASE STUDY: An experiment conducted by Po-Ming Lee, Wei-Hsuan Tsui, and Tzu-Chien Hsiao entitled “The influence of emotion on keyboard typing: an experimental study using visual stimuli” found there to be significant effect between emotional state—valence55 and arousal56—and specific keystroke features—duration, latency, and accuracy.57 It is important to note, though, that even though the results were significant, the size of the effect was relatively small. However, individual variability was relatively high. Based on the findings from their experimentation Lee et al concluded that although keystroke dynamics can be used to gain insight on an individual’s emotional state, the accuracy can be increased though the development of “personalized models.”58

CO M P U T I N G I N K E YS T R O K E B I O M E T R I C S

12

13

DEFI N I NG TERMS- BIOM ETRICS

S P E C I A L K E YS

14

DEFI N I NG TERMS- BIOM ETRICS

TYPI NG

G STYLE T wo - h a n d e d

TYPI right Hand 15

G STYLE

ES Pecking

I NG STY Left Hand 16

DEFI N I NG TERMS- BIOM ETRICS

AROUSAL|Arousal, as it pertains to the field of psychology and Lee et al’s experiment, can be defined as increased physiological activity.59

LONG-TEXT INPUT|Long-text input systems use all of the type activity during a user’s session for authentication and verification.69

BIOMETRICS|“the science of establishing the identity of an individual based on the physical, chemical, or behavioral attributes of a person.”60

NEGATIVE RECOGNITION|Negative recognition is the ability to tell if a person is already enrolled within a system or not.70

BEHAVIORAL BIOMETRICS|Behavioral biometrics is a category of biometric technologies that involve the use of an individual’s unique behaviors for identification and verification.61 These behaviors include, but are not limited to handwriting, gait, keystrokes, etc.

N-GRAPH|N-graphs are the amount of time that it took to type n-keys.71 Combining n-graphs with dwell times can provide insight on a person’s overall typing speed. When constructing n-graphs the leading edge—when the key is pressed—or the trailing edge—when the key is released—can be used.

DIGRAPHS|Digraphs, in orthography, are two letters that come together to create a sound that deviates from its phonetic pronunciation.62 In keystroke dynamics, digraphs are two letters analyzed to generate features which are used for comparison.63 DWELL TIME | Dwell time is the amount of time that a key is pressed for.64 Dwell time can shed light on a users key press transition time and typing speed. In addition, a long dwell time can also be representative of a user emphasizing a certain key or pausing for thought, this is typically the case if the long dwell time is an outlier.

DYNAMIC VERIFICATION|Dynamic verification systems are intended to run in the background on an individual’s device, recording every key-stroke and analyzing it for continual authentication and verification.65 EMBEDDED BIOMETRIC SYSTEMS|The textbook definition of an embedded biometric system is a biometric system that is contained within itself,66 however the more expansive definition is a digital-responsive system that is self-contained and regulated using biological input data.

ENTROPY|Entropy is the amount of difference that exists between two sets of keys strokes.67 FEATURES EXTRACTION|“the automated process of locating and encoding distinctive characteristics from biometric data in order to generate a template.”68

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NON-REPUDIATION|Non-repudiation deals with tracking who uses a facility or accesses a resource, so that later they cannot deny having done it.72 POWER LAW OF PRACTICE|Power Law of Practice says that response or reaction time will decrease linearly with each practice of an action.73 verification and identification.74 SCAN CODE|Scan code is the unique identifying value that is assigned to a key so that an operating system is aware of what key is pressed on a keyboard.75 This becomes specifically valuable when determining a user’s typing preferences.

SHORT-TEXT INPUT|Short-text input systems are keystroke dynamic technologies that uses one word or a short-sequence of text to verify or identify an individual’s identity.76

SURROGATE REPRESENTATIONS OF IDENTITY| “knowledge-based (e.g., passwords) and token-based (e.g., ID cards) mechanisms”77 that are used to protect an individual’s’ identity and information. These are artificial extensions of an individual that can be easily taken on by another person, through the loss, stealing, or sharing of them.

TIME OF FLIGHT|Time of flight (also known as flight time) is the time between keypresses. 78

TRIGRAPHS|Tirgraphs, in orthography, is the coming together of three letters to create a specific sound that deviates from its phonetic pronunciation.79 In keystroke dynamics, trigraphs is the analysis of three letters to generate features for comparison.80

059. Lee, Tsui, and Hsiao, “The Influence of Emotion on 059.

Keyboard Typing.”

VALENCE|Valence, as it pertains to the field of psychology means the intrinsic attractiveness/”good”-ness (positive valence) or averseness/”bad”-ness (negative valence) of an event, object, or situation.81 The term also characterizes and categorizes specific emotions.

063. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics, 77.

060. Arun, Karthik, and Anil, Handbook of Multibiometrics.

061. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics.

062. Brenda Rapp and Simon Fischer-Baum, “Representation of Orthographic,” The Oxford handbook of language production (2014).

064. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics, 74.

065. Wang, Behavioral Biometrics for Human Identification, 343.

066. Conti et al., “An Embedded Biometric Sensor for Ubiquitous Ad Authentication.”

067. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics.

068. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics, 77 069. Jain, Flynn, and Ross, Handbook of Biometrics, 3.

070. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics, 74.

071. Jain, Flynn, and Ross, Handbook of Biometrics, 3.

072. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics, 74.

073. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics.

074. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics 77.

075. Nanavati, Thieme, and Nanavati, Biometrics, 18.

076. Arun, Karthik, and Anil, Handbook of Multibiometrics.

077. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics, 77.

078. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics, 77.

079. Rapp and Fischer-Baum, Orthographic.”

“Representation

of

080. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics. 77.

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CRI T ICAL CREATIVE PRACTICES

The term biometrics comes from the A common misconception about design, Greek words and metrics is that for it tobio be (life) successful it needs(to to <?> measure).

Although there evidence solve a problem or fulfill an is already esof biometric identifiers used to tablished need; however,being this definition represent ansection individual that date back omits a huge of the practice from <?> to as early as 500 B.C., automated the discipline.

Discursive design practices biometric have only Design, started like Criticalsystems Design, Adversarial being developed in etc. the use last design few deInterrogative Design, to cades.<?> Biometrics canreveal, be defined communicate, question, or elicitasa “the science the identity problem, topic,oforestablishing truth for critical reflecof an activation, individual based on the physical, tion, and conversation.

The chemical, or behavioral attributes a largest distinction between traditionalofdeperson.”

Developing syssign and<?> these radical these designdigital practices, tems information—data—on is thatrequires practices like critical design in an no individual’s biometrics.

These systems way claim to be solving a problem or fulfillgainanaccess this information ing alreadytoestablished need. through Instead, given disciplines and assumed While these use permissions. methodologies like advancements in todigital speculative fiction activatetechnology the imagiare what nations of has theirenabled audience,the to deveopment raise awareof these technological systems, 96 the ness and provoke critical discussion.

advent and implementation of them hasa …criticism as design method offers been peroetuated by the public’s desirea fundamental opportunity to develop for technologies that improve upon reflected and critical approach to the dequality of life by giving emphasissociety. to simsign, and more importantly, plicity and perceived This method createspersonalization. opportunities <?> to Digital systems make usethat of developbiometric a critical practice; one behavioral biometrics­ —i.e. and handwritshapes a continuous agency interting dynamics, gait, est inanalysis, wicked, keystroke systemic and infrastrucetc.­ —problems and traditional tural withautomated a constantbiometability ric systems—i.e. scanners, to critically adaptfingerprint and research their handprints, etc.—to create multi-layered nature.

That secure will onsysthe tems that help workthe to encrypt a one hand designerortoencode become <?> user’s digital information. a substantial agent of change and on the other, in particularly difficult cirSince early 1999, factors personal, (reduced cumstances of four conflicted cost, reduced size, increased accuracy, private, disciplinary and public interand increased ease of use)practice, have comest such as commercial to 97 bined to make biometrics an increasfind opportunities for criticality. ingly feasible solution for securing access to computers and networks.<?>

096. Francisco Miguel Laranjo, “Design as criticism: methods for a critical graphic design practice” (University of the Arts London, 2017), 3.

097. Laranjo, “Design as criticism.”

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Design originated as a tool for capitalism and industrialization. In the early 1900s, design aided in the standardization of components like the Allen Wrench (Hex Key) and the Philips screwdriver to help with mass-production.98 Despite the unintended consequences that resulted from design’s promoting of the one-size-fits-most mentality, historically, traditional design practices have been innovative and creative—as was the case in the image of Paul Rand’s iconic IBM logo on the right.99This forward movement of design is what has helped it to grow over the last century, and should not be devalued or thought of as insignificant. However, by grounding design in traditional practices and definitions, we are restricting the potential of the practice to the needs of the client. In the same regard, by perpetuating a need for a division to exist between design and art, we create arbitrary distinctions on what the fields should and should not do. Therefore, in order to realize and expand the potential of design, a redefining of the discipline is needed: one that makes space for both tradition and discursive design to exist harmoniously.

My revelation that design is in need of a destabilizing, could not be further from an original thought. In fact, critical creatives have been heeding the call for over half a century. Although met with some resistance, creative practitioners like El Lissitzky, Krzysztof Wodiczko, David Carson, etc. have shaped the field as it exists today. Their rebelliousness and criticality of the discipline has broadened the scope of what design can do and can be; however, the work of a critical creative practitioner is never done. The very nature of critical creative practices requires a constant state of destabilization for it to be successful.

Critical design aims to challenge the status quo. Therefore, its practice will always have to be marginal. To become mainstream would be paradoxical, losing its raison d’être and effect. Yet, this utopia has been imagined and attempted in the past, laying the foundations for a socially, politically and culturally engaged design practice. Although still being today generally identified as an artistic practice rather than a design activity, critical design positions itself at the margins of the graphic design discipline, by both living in and stretching the discipline’s boundaries on the quest for cultural, political and social change.

Critical design aims to challenge the status quo. Therefore, its practice will always have to be marginal. To become mainstream would be paradoxical, losing its raison d’être and effect.

Yet, this utopia has been imagined and attempted in the past, laying the foundations for a socially, politically and culturally engaged design practice. Although still being today generally identified as an artistic practice rather than a design activity, critical design positions itself at the margins of the graphic design discipline, by both living in and stretching the discipline’s boundaries on the quest for cultural, political and social change.100

In the late-1950s/early-1960s an alternative design practice emerged with the intent of altering social standards.

Many believe that anti-design was the origin of critical design, however the discipline has a much more complex history than that. Although anti-design is one of, if not the first, movement where design was seen as something separate from a tool or a skill, there

were other, albeit less popular, predecessors to the radical Italian design practice.101 Among these critical creative practitioners was Jan van Toorn, a Dutch designer who is most famously known for his conception of the three dimensions that all designers should consider when designing: personal, professional and social.102

Jan van Toorn saw the designer as an “expert on the socio-cultural context.”103 He believed that it is not enough for the designer to consider themselves and their profession when designing, they should also be aware of the social dimension.104 Van Toorn raised awareness of the importance of causality and the role that designers play in shaping society. In addition, Van Toorn believed that the three dimensions have as much effect on a designer’s work as their work has on the three dimensions.

Van Toorn’s work sparked the start of the designer questioning the nature of design ultimately leading to, still un-answered, questions like the ones written by Rick Poynor, British design critic, his book Critical Practice: So where does that leave the designer who takes the view that design, as a means of public communication, should be about more than merely providing promotional endorsement for our current version of reality? While many designers envy the freedom of artists to follow their own agendas, designers are required, by contrast, to focus their skills and commitment on the transmission of their clients’ messages. Leaving aside overt forms of graphic protest, is it possible (was it ever possible?) to embed an alternative or contrary way of thinking in the everyday commercial practice of design?105

098. Jeffrey Meikle, Twentieth Century Limited: Industrial Design in America 1925-1939 (Temple University Press, 2010).

099. Paul Rand, Eye-Bee-M, 1981.

100. Laranjo, “Design as criticism: methods for a critical graphic design practice,” 53.

101. Rick Poynor, JanVanToorn: Critical Practice, vol. 3 (010 Publishers, 2008).

102. Poynor, JanVanToorn.

103. Poynor, JanVanToorn.

104. Poynor, JanVanToorn.

105. Poynor, JanVanToorn.

105.

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ORIGIN STORY | The emergence of Anti-Design in the 1950s was facilitated by the shift in the economy that took place in Western Europe post-WW2.

Following the end of World War 2 in 1945, Europe was in a state of economic crisis.106 In an effort to offer economic support, in 1948 the United States put into effect the Marshall Plan, which lasted for four years—until 1951.107 While the impact of this aid and the role it played in improving Western Europe’s economy is highly debated,108 the stipulations that were placed on the financial aid did play a role in the industrial growth of Western Europe during this time. By the mid-1960s, mass-production and industrial manufacturing was seen as the norm.109 This rise of mass-production fostered the notion of “ideal, universally valid design,” a school of thought that began in the 1920s during the international modern movement in architecture and design.110 In the late-1950s/early-1960s AntiDesign collectives were created in Italy by recent university graduates and industrial designers out of a desire to find an “alternative to the limitations of post-war modern design.”111 This time period in Italy—from 1956 to 1970—is referred to as the Lineament Italian or Bel Design era.112 Much like the Situationists and other International AvantGarde art movements, Anti-Design—also known as Radical Design—was about going against conventions and challenging

preconceived notions. In his book Critical Design in Context Matt Malpass writes, “Here a provocative design culture emerged out of dissatisfaction with the role of design solely serving production and consumption.”113 This critically reflective design perspective truly existed as a hybrid between International Avant-Garde art movements and traditional design: “… to hold a design view where electronic objects function as criticism, one must move closer to the world of fine art because the design profession finds it difficult to accommodate such research.”114 At its synthesis, Anti-Design studios like UFO were inspired by the Dadaists from the early 1900s, particularly their use of the unconventional and absurd to push public perspectives and definitions.115 Anti-design projects aimed to open an intellectual discourse through design.

The collectives established explicit ideological and intellectual positions, where protest was seen as essential and the work was grounded in direct political action. Rather than design positioned as being in service to problems, design was used to facilitate active participation through happenings, interventions, exhibitions, and publications.

The designer aimed to engage consumers in shaping and questioning forms of consumption, community, and industrial models of production at large.116

106. Robert Everett Wood, From Marshall Plan to Debt Crisis: Foreign Aid and Development Choices in the World Economy Practice (California: University of California Press, 1986), 1-17.

107. Wood, From Marshall Plan to Debt Crisis, 1-17.

108. J. Bradford De Long and Barry Eichengreen, The Marshall Plan: History’s Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program (Massachusetts: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1991).

109. Wood, From Marshall Plan to Debt Crisis, 1-17.

110. Penny Sparke, “Ettore Sottsass and Critical Design in Italy, 1956-1985,” in Made in Italy: Rethinking a Century of Italian Design, ed. Grace Lees-Maffei and Kjetil Fallan (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014), 114.

111. Francesco Dama, “The Radical Discos of 1960s Italy and Architectural Innovation,” Article, Art (January 7 2016).

112. Dama, “The Radical Discos of 1960s Italy and Architectural Innovation.”

113. Dama, “The Radical Discos of 1960s Italy and Architectural Innovation.”, 19.

114. Dama, “The Radical Discos of 1960s Italy and Architectural Innovation.”, 63.

115. Matt Malpass, Critical Design in Context (NewYork, NY, USA: Bloomsbury, 2017)., 17-39.

116. Anthony Dunne, Hertzian Tales: Electronic Products, Aesthetic Experience, and Critical Design (Cambridge, MA, USA: MIT Press, 2005), 23.

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SUPERSTUDIO | Superstudio was an Italian AntiDesign collective founded in 1966 by Adolfo Natalini and Cristiano Toraldo di Francia.117 The two designers met in Italy while they were both studying architecture at the University of Florence. Other members of the group included Alessandro Magris, Roberto Magris, and Piero Frassinelli, designers who also attended the University of Florence. The Superstudio Collective believed that “It is the designer who must attempt to re-evaluate his role in the nightmare he helped to conceive, to retread the historical process which inverted the hopes of the modern movement.”118 In this respect, “the nightmare” that they are referring to is in reference to the focus of international modern designers in the 1920s, who were interested in creating “universally valid designs.”119 Superstudio thought that designers should take responsibility for the fields past, and that it was the designer who created this problem, so it is the designer who should fix it. While their practice was grounded in architecture, much of their work existed in the scope of industrial design, they created furniture designs, interior designs, interior lighting, etc. that aimed to push-back against the homogenizing of products and alter the way designers and consumers view capitalism and design.120

117. “Superstudio,” Archilovers, 2018.

118. Roberto Gargiani and Beatrice Lampariello, Superstudio (Editori Laterza, 2010).

119. Sparke, “Ettore Sottsass and Critical Design in Italy, 1956-1985,” 112-135.

120. Malpass, Critical Design in Context, 17-39.

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UFO | UFO was an Anti-Design collective created by Lapo Binazzi in the 1960s.121 Binazzi was fascinated with the absurd and the use of “…humor and free association to topple the existing hierarchies of quality as a reaction to Italy’s political and economic strife.”122 A major point of inspiration for Binazzi and UFO was the work of the Dadaists in the early 1900s. Like the Dadaists, the members of UFO were interested in the breaking of conventions and norms. They aimed to create experiential work that suggested an alternative way of life, evoking a need for change.

121. Kat Herriman, “The Artist-Architect Who Revolutionized Italian Design — With Humor,” The New York Times Style Magazine, September 27, 2016.

122. Herriman, “The Artist-Architect Who Revolutionized Italian Design —With Humor.”

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ARCHIGRAM | Archigram (Architecture and Telegram) consisted of six members: Warren Chalk, Peter Cook, Dennis Crompton, David Greene, Rob Herron, and Michael Webb.123 The collective/studio began as a magazine entitled Archigram that was created by Cook, Greene, and Webb in 1961. The magazine was intended to be a free-form platform for exploring new ideas and critical creative work. Although the magazine was free-form, its central theme was challenging the “strict modernist dictates of the 1960s.”124 Archigram evolved into a collective/studio when the three other members were invited to join them.

Although no longer just a magazine, the collective decided to stick with the name Archigram.125 Archigram are amongst the most seminal, iconoclastic and influential architectural groups of the modern age. They created some of the 20th century’s most iconic images and projects, rethought the relationship of technology, society and architecture, predicted and envisioned the information revolution decades before it came to pass, and reinvented a whole mode of architectural education–and therefore produced a seam of architectural thought with truly global impact.126

123. “Homepage,” Archigram Archival Project , 2019.

124. “About,” Archigram Archival Project , 2019.

125. “About,” Archigram Archival Project.

126. “About,” Archigram Archival Project.

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As a whole, Anti-Design practice was about the breaking of the homogenization that had over-taken the discipline.127 Grounded in industrial design, it was seen as a direct rebel against capitalism and industrialization, which had become the norm in 1960s Western Europe. While there are other historical design and art practices that took place that are similar to Italyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Anti-Design, the whimsical and speculative nature that was used by the Anti-Design collectives and the focus on criticality within the scope of design, and more specifically product and industrial design, makes it unique to the field. Anti-Design is the first historical mention of a design practice that existed separate from the International Avant-Garde movementsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; but was influenced by themâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;where design was seen as something separate from a tool or a skill, it was the emergence of design as an art-form and a way of life.

128

WHY ANTI-DESIGN DIED OUT | Just as the governmental and economic state of Europe and Italy made Anti-Design possible, they are also responsible for the gap in its practice from the late-1970s to the late1990s.129 In the late-1970s/early-1980s, the world underwent a drastic shift in ideals.

With politicians like Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Regan taking office, there was a shift in power towards capitalism and neo-liberaltarianism.130 Around this time, we begin to see a separation between government and economics, the establishment of a free market led to the end of government support programs like welfare and health care. This shift in dynamics created an environment where there was no choice but capitalism, and little to no space existed for social critique. This rigid monetarily fueled social structure removed the space that had been carved out for practices like Anti-Design and allowed traditional commercial design practices to re-establish their dominance over the discipline. While some practitioners continued to exist—such as David Carson’s deconstructive design—it was not until Anthony Dunne’s text Hertzian Tales, written in the late 1990s, that Anti-Design is able to reemerge as Critical Design.131

127. Sparke, “Ettore Sottsass and Critical Design in Italy, 1956-1985,” 112-135.

128. Malpass, Critical Design in Context, 18.

129. Malpass, Critical Design in Context.

130. Anthony Dunne and Fiona Raby, Speculative Everything: Design, Fiction, and Social Dreaming (MIT press, 2013), 8.

131. Dunne, HertzianTales, 23.

132. Malpass, Critical Design in Context, 17-39.

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CRITICAL DESIGN Critical Design exists as the re-imagining of the Anti-Design practices from Italy in the 1950s-1970s. Practitioners from the field, directly and indirectly, borrow from the practices of collectives like UFO and Superstudio, using speculation and Design Fiction as a methodology to design through.132 This relationship can be seen in the Critical Design practices of design leaders Anthony Dunne and Fiona Raby, whose methodologies resemble that of Lapo Bianazzi (UFO) and Superstudio. Much like Bianazzi, Dunne & Raby use humor and the absurd to break conventions.

BIOLAND, 2002/03 Bioland was a research project focused on developing a critical design approach for bioethics.

HIDEAWAY TYPE 1 Part of a series of images created by Anthony Dunne and Fiona Raby entitled: Designs for Fragile Personalities in Anxious Times, 2004/05.

Raby, A. D. F. (2002). BIOLAND, 2002/03.

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UNITED MICRO KINGDOMS, 2012/13

Since its origin in the late 1990s, critical design has helped to re-ignite the ‘spark’ of design as something other than a tool for problem solving.

DUNNE & RABY | Critical design uses speculative design proposals to challenge narrow assumptions, preconceptions, and givens about the role pr ducts play in everyday life.133 Anthony Dunne and Fiona Raby are a design couple that goes by the name Dunne & Raby. With Anthony Dunne having coined the term Critical Design in the 1990s, Dunne & Raby are known for their innovative design work that uses speculative methodologies for their Critical Design practice.

Dunne and Raby view design as a “medium to stimulate discussion and debate amongst designers, industry and the public about the social, cultural and ethical implications of existing and emerging technologies.”134 Although, Dunne & Raby were not the first people to propose an alternative purpose for design, their scholarship and critical creative works over the last two-decades have promoted discursive practices within the field of design.

This image is part of a larger work that was commissioned by the Design Museum in London. United Micro Kingdoms was intended to speculate a fictional future for the UK where England had divided into four self-governed and contained counties. “These ‘live laboratories’ interrogate the cultural and ethical impact of existing and new technologies and how they alter the way we live.”

Raby, A. D. F. (2012). UNITED MICRO KINGDOMS, 2012/13.

For the better part of the last three decades Dunne and Raby have been working to develop a design methodology that focuses on using fiction as a creative tool to “extrapolate and challenge the status quo and physical, social, or political laws, instead of affirming them.”135 By using the creative critical methodologies of anti-design to question, as well as make others question, Van Toone’s 3-dimensions, Dunne and Raby have been able to develop an evocative and effective design practice for social change.

133. Dunne and Raby, Speculative Everything, 34.

134. Anthony Dunne and Fiona Raby, “Critical Design,” Public Seminar, March 21, 2017.

135. Dunne and Raby, Speculative Everything.

136. Garnet Hertz, “What is Critical Making,” Current 07 (2016).

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Dunne and Raby take an object-oriented approach to critical design,136 viewing the prototype as the primary component of the practice.137 For them, the prototype is meant to promote the “construction of a speculative narrative to help us rethink designed objects and consumer culture.”138 While the prototype is the focus, the functionality is not important. What is important, is the provocativeness of the prototype, and its ability to activate the user’s imagination, creating space for critical thought.

MATT MALPASS | Critical Design practice is not objective or explanatory, but focuses on inter-subjectivity and proposition. In this context, design aims to generate debate where the purposive function of the design is discursive. 139 Matt Malpass is a Critical Industrial Designer and researcher who has written the most up-to-date account of Critical Design. While Malpass’ definition of Critical Design is closely related to that of Dunne and Raby’s, he creates the clear distinction that Critical Design can only exist as product and industrial

design, where Dunne and Raby explicitly states that is not the case.140 Malpass is interested in the creation of prototypes and objects that push the boundaries and understandings of realities.141 Under Malpass’ definition of Critical Design, prototypes are created with the intent of “generating debate where the purposive function of the design is discursive.”142 Like with Dunne and Raby, the prototype and its ability to effectively communicate a potential functionality is important, but the actual functionality is not. Malpass believes that Critical Design is “not objective or explanatory but focuses on inter-subjectivity and propositions.”143 Matt Malpass and Dunne & Raby’s perspectives on Critical Design acknowledge the influence of traditional design and International Advant-Garde art movements on the field, however they do not see Critical Design as part of either perspectives.144 Instead, they view Critical Design as existing in its own space between traditional design and art, borrowing from both, but never crossing over into their spaces. While having clear boundaries is beneficial because it makes things digestible, they become detrimental when they start to create limitations to the discipline.

137. Anthony Dunne & Fiona Raby, “Critical Design FAQ,” Dunne & Raby, 2007.

138. Malpass, Critical Design in Context.

139. Malpass, Critical Design in Context, 18.

140. Malpass, Critical Design in Context.

141. Malpass, Critical Design in Context.

142. Malpass, Critical Design in Context.

143. Malpass, Critical Design in Context.

144. Malpass, Critical Design in Context.

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CRITICAL MAKING Critical Making. Critical Making involves the thinking critically about the making process and what it means to be a maker in today’s society. Within the practice of Critical Making, two creative-leaders are Matt Ratto and Garnet Hertz.

MATT RATTO | To describe our work

signals a desire to theoretically and pragmatically connect two modes of engagement with the world that are often held as separate—critical thinking typically understood conceptually and linguistically based and physical making goal-based material work.145

145. Matt Ratto, “Critical Making: Conceptual and Material Studies inTechnology and Social Life,”The Information Society 4, no. 27 (2011).

146. Matt Malpass, “Critical Design Practice: Theoretical Perspectives and Methods of Engagement.,”The Design Journal 19, no. 3 (2016).

147. Hertz, “What is Critical Making.”

148. Ratto, “Critical Making.”

149. Hertz, “What is Critical Making.”

150. Ratto, “Critical Making.”

Matt Ratto is an engineer and creative who is interested in the intersecting of theory and making.146 In 2008, he coined the term Critical Making to categorize his creative practices. Matt Ratto’s definition of Critical Making gives emphasis to the making process, implementing criticality reflexively.147 Although Ratto’s practice of Critical Making does involve the creation of a prototype, it exists only as a remnant of the process.148The prototype in itself does not represent a critical or provocative piece, instead the overall process is critical.

Ratto’s practice of Critical Making is process- and scholarship-oriented.149 His work is strongly intertwined with critical theory, with the work serving as a critique within itself. Emphasizing methodology, Ratto’s explanation of Critical Making defines three stages to the process that are “analytically, though not functionally, separable”: 1) Review of relevant literature and compilation of useful concepts and theories; 2) “groups of scholars, students, and/or stakeholders jointly design and build technical prototypes;” 3) An iterative process of reconfiguration and

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151. Hertz, “What is Critical Making.

conversation, and reflection begins.150

152. Hertz, “What is Critical Making.”

153. Malpass, “Critical Design Practice.”

GARNET HERTZ Critical making is interested in mobilizing approaches from experimental media art, critically engaged industrial design, and computer science interaction research that take cultural production and humanities-oriented inquiry seriously within the context of building functional technology.151 Garnet Hertz views Critical Making as the intersection point between “experimental media art, critically engaged industrial design, and computer science interaction research.”152 Through this intersection, Hertz believes that Critical Making can be used to create functional technology and material speculations, which causes the user to think critically about the roles of technology and capitalism in their lives, and the maker to think critically about maker culture and the overall making process.153 Within Garnet Hertz’s definition of Critical Making, material speculations “utilizes actual and situated design artifacts in the everyday as a site of critical inquiry.”154 These material speculations can exist in the form of online documentation, public exhibition in an art gallery, published case studies in an academic paper, etc. For Hertz, this rethinking of Critical Making and introduction of material speculations is seen as a way of adding criticality to the field of Human Computer Interaction (HCI), allowing for critical thought within the development of technological systems.155 Hertz’s definition of Critical Making exists as a hybrid of Dunne and Raby’s Critical Design and Matt Ratto’s Critical Making. Borrowing from both practices, his Critical Making is object-oriented, while also giving focus to process and scholarship.156 This hybrid between the physicality and scholarship allows for criticality to

154. Hertz, “What is Critical Making.”

155. Hertz, “What is Critical Making.”

156. Hertz, “What is Critical Making.”

Phone Safe by Garnet Hertz is a safe that creates a situation where userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s can willingly give up their phone, and disconnect.

Users place their phone into the device and cannot retrieve it until the timer at the top of the safe runs out. Each time a passer by presses the red button at the top of the safe, time is added to the clock. There is no way to reduce time, you can only add time. There is no way to override the time and open up the safe.

This project not only creates a space for users to disconnect from their devices, but also brings awareness to our dependencies on our mobile phones.

The project was displayed at the 21st International Symposium on Electronic Art (ISEA 2015) at the Museum of Vancouver from August 16 - October 12, 2015.

Garnet Hertz (2015) Phone Safe 2.

Garnet Hertz (2015) Phone Safe 1.

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Discursive Design invites us to see objects in a new light, to understand more than their basic form and utitlity. Beyond the different foci of critical design, speculative design, desin fiction, interrogative design and adversarial design, Bruce and Srtephanie Tharp establish a more comprehensive, unifying vision as well as innovative methods. They not only offer social criticism but also explore how objects can, for example, be used by counselorsin therapy sessions, by town councils to facilitate pre-vote discussions by activists seeking engagement , and by institutions and industry to better understand the values, beliefsm and attitudes of those whom they serve, Discursive design sparks new ways of thinking and it is only through new thinking that out sociocultural cutures can change.157 Discursive Design. Bruce and Stephanie Tharp’s term, Discursive Design, although not explicitly stated as such, exists as an attempt at making sense of this alternative design space.158 Discursive Design is a relatively new term­. Although publications had been written by Bruce and Stephanie Tharp prior to this year, their book was just released this past February. According the Bruce and Stephanie Tharp, Discursive Design is not necessarily radical in a rebellious sense,159 but more in a provocative sense. They define it as, “a[n] object that has been intentionally (and usually abstractly) embedded with discourse and/or is used to elicit discussion.”160 Discursive Design is strucured around nine facets: intention; understanding; message; scenario; artifact; audience; context; interaction; and impact.161 “These interrelating nine facets provide a fundamental framework that guides the discursive design process.”162

157. Stephanie M.Tharp and Bruce M.Tharp, Discursive Design: Critical, Speculative, and Alternative Things (Cambridge, Massachusetts:The MIT Press, 2019).

158. Bruce M. Tharp and Stephanie M .Tharp, “Discursive Design Basics: Mode andAudience,” Nordes 1, no. 5 (2013).

159. Tharp andTharp, Discursive Design.

159.

160. Tharp andTharp, “Discursive Design Basics.”

161. Tharp andTharp, Discursive Design.

162. Tharp andTharp, Discursive Design, 344.

163. Tharp andTharp, Discursive Design, 344.

164. Tharp andTharp, “Discursive Design Basics.”

165. Dunne and Raby, Speculative Everything., 2 166. Dunne and Raby, Speculative Everything.

167. Interrogative Design” 1994. [unable to locate original publication, was only able to find these scanned pages of the source].

168. “Interrogative Design” 1994.

169. Carl DiSalvo, Adversarial Design (Cambridge, MA, USA:The MIT Press, 2012).

170. DiSalvo, Adversarial Design.

171. Tharp and Tharp, Discursive Design, 344.

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Discursive Design is intended to act as the genus to all of the non-traditional modes of desgin. Types of design that fall under this categorization include, but as not limited to: Speculative Design: Grounded in the imagination, Speculative Design uses prototypes to speculate a potential future.163 The goal of Speculative Design is to create space for dialogue about problems that are not discussed by society. “Design speculations can act as a catalyst for collectively redefining our relationship to reality.”164 Interrogative Design: Interrogative Design is design that deconstructs and challenges our lives.165 The primary goal of its practice “is to combine art and technology into design while infusing it with emerging cultural issues that play critical roles in our society yet are given the least design attention.”166 Interrogative Design creates design works that “provoke and inspire new questions” in an effort “to examine, expose and respond to critical cultural issues.”167 Adversarial Design: Adversarial Design, is design that uses design methodologies “to challenge beliefs values, and what is taken to be fact.”168 Adversarial Design practice goes beyond the implementation of traditional design within the context of politics—”attempting to improve governance for example, by redesigning ballots and polling places.”169 Instead, it is about challenging the “conventional approaches to political issues.”170

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ST EGANOG RAPHY

Steganography is the “ancient art of hiding information.”172 The word was first created by Trithemius in ancient Greece.

Trithemius was the author of Polygraphia and Steganographia, two of the earliest publications on cryptography.173 In Greek, steganography can be translated to mean ‘covered writing.’174 While the most traditional and well-known forms

of steganography deal with the use of an image to conceal a message, its applications are much more wide-spread than that. In fact, different methodologies of steganography can be used in virtually any form or media, the only stipulation is that there be a message that is in some way being concealed so that it becomes undetectable to an unknowing eye.

172. Neil F Johnson and Sushil %J Computer Jajodia, “Exploring Steganography: Seeing the Unseen,” 31, no. 2 (1998).

173. Johnson and Jajodia, “Exploring Steganography,” 4.

174. Johnson and Jajodia, “Exploring Steganography.”

D E F I N I N G T E R M S - ST EGA N OG RAPHY

While encrypted communication still plays a prominent role in government communication practices and war, its applications have been expanded by advancements in digital technology. Prior to the advent of digital communication systems and the field of information technology studies there existed clear-cut distinctions between watermarking, cryptography, and steganography.175 Developments in technology and information processing systems has resulted in network developers and engineers having to create responsive communication systems to combat obfuscation, anonymity, and stealthiness.176 The technologies that they created often made use of one or more of these information hiding technologies—cryptography, steganography, and watermarking—resulting in less clear divisions between the three schools of thought. Given these overlaps in practices, separating these threemodes of information hiding from one-another, leads to more confusion than clarification.177 OBFUSCATION Obfuscation is the intentional encoding or obscuring of code so that it is difficult for a human to read.178 This is a technique employed by programmers to make sure that a person will be unable to reverse engineer it.

STEALTHINESS In computer programming a stealth program is a program that can exist within a system without identification.179 These programs can be used for computer monitoring or can act like a virus or malware within your system.

175. Johnson and Jajodia, “Exploring Steganography,” 4.

176. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography, 48.

177. PeterWayner, Disappearing Cryptography: Information Hiding: Steganography and Watermarking (Morgan Kaufmann, 2009), 23.Johnson and Jajodia, “Exploring Steganography.”

178. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography.

179. Jielin Dong, Network Dictionary (Javvin Technologies Inc., 2007), 463.

180. Chris Bertrand, “Coding Concepts—Anonymous Functions,” Coding Concepts, 2018.

181. Bertrand, “Coding Concepts—Anonymous Functions.”

181.

182. Wayner, Disappearing Cryptography, ch 10.

183. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography, 57.

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ANONYMITY In computer programming anonymity pertains to anonymous functions. Anonymous functions are also referred to as function literal, lambda abstraction, or lambda expression.180 “In computer programming, an anonymous function is a function definition that is not bound to an identifier.

Anonymous functions are often arguments being passed to higher-order functions, or used for constructing the result of a higher order function that needs to return a function.”181 In other words, an anonymous function is a function that can accept an input and return an output, however instead of being defined as a function, it is defined as a variable that is associated with a function.

By defining the function as a variable that is equal to a function, the function Is not stored within the system making it an anonymous function.

EXAMPLE:

NORMAL FUNCTION:

//run the function

sayHello(); function sayHello() ( alert(“hello”); )

ANONYMOUS FUNCTION DEFINITION:

//run the function

var sayHello = function {

alert(“hello”);

} sayHello( );

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D E F I N I N G T E R M S - ST EGA N OG RAPHY

STEGANOGRAPHIC FILE SYSTEM A steganographic file system is a digital system where all of the information within it is encrypted and hidden so that it cannot be detected.182 In most cases, this information becomes available when the right ‘key’ is used. Key, in this context, means any pre-determined fingerprint or surrogate mode of authentication, including, but not limited to: fingerprint scan; iris scan; passcode; etc.183 Encrypting a database or system is done to prevent other people from accessing the information that it contains.184 Businesses will use encrypted systems to protect the privacy of their employees and customers. While these encrypted systems allude a sense of security, there are certain disadvantages that should be understood before an individual decides to encrypt their database.

1) Nothing is a 100% Guarantee: While digital steganography and cryptography technology has improved ten-fold over the last few years, the perfect system does not exist.185 How these systems realize their flaws is by someone getting through their encryption.186 Once a security system is breached, the programmers will analyze the flaw in their technology and then work to try and improve it, but it takes someone ‘breaking in’ for them to realize where their technology needs improving. After the security system is updated, the cycle begins all-over-again.

2) Glitches Happen: Just like your phone can get a glitch requiring you to reinstall your software, an encrypted software can have a glitch or become corrupted.187 If an encrypted system becomes corrupted it is nearly impossible to recover the information within it, at least not without paying a hefty fee for a professional data recovery specialist to attempt to recover it, and even then there are no guarantees. For instance, a few years ago I worked for Apple in the ‘Family Room’—also commonly referred to as the ‘Genius Bar.’ Apple gives users

51

several different methods for backing up their phones, one of which is to create an encrypted backup on their computers through the iTunes application. While this is a great option for individuals who may be skeptical about ‘The Cloud’ and who like the idea of their backup being encrypted because it gives the connotation of security, there were several instances where these backups became corrupt. Once an encrypted backup becomes corrupted, there is very little that can be done to fix it.

Leaving user’s stuck having to setup their devices as new and losing access to their personal photos and information. There was one instance where a customer lost the images of her husband who had died a few months before, and there was nothing that I could do to help her.

3) There is no Locksmith: An encrypted device requires a key for it to be unlocked.

Forget the key and the information becomes nothing more than digital waste.188 Compression can impact certain types of digital steganography techniques.189 There are two different types of compression formats: Lossless and lossy.190 LOSSLESS | A lossless compression lets you reconstruct the message back to its original format. This is the preferable form of compression when a message Is going to need to be reassembled.191 LOSSY | A lossy compression can create a smaller file, however it may not maintain the integrity of the original image resulting in loss of the encoded message.192 There are a variety of different methodologies for hiding information in an image.193 Straight message insertion may encode every bit of information in the message in noisy areas that draw less attention. These messages can be scattered throughout the image. Another methodology is redundant power encoding.

Redundant power encoding ‘wall papers’ the cover image with the message.

LEAST SIGNIFICANT BIT (LSB) |

LSB insertion is vulnerable to even the smallest amount of image manipulation.194 In 24 bit Images you can store 3 bits in each pixel.

A 1024 by 768 image has the potential to hide a total of 2,359.296 bits (294,912 bytes).

For example: the letter A can be hidden in 3 pixels assuming there is no compression

184. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography.

185. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography.

186. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography.

187. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography.

188. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography.

189. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography.

190. Johnson and Jajodia, “Exploring Steganography.”

191. Johnson and Jajodia, “Exploring Steganography.”

191.

192. Johnson and Jajodia, “Exploring Steganography.”

ORIGINAL |

193. Johnson and Jajodia, “Exploring Steganography.”

193.

194. Johnson and Jajodia, “Exploring Steganography.”

194.

100100111 11101001 11001001

195. Johnson and Jajodia, “Exploring Steganography.”

195.

196. Johnson and Jajodia, “Exploring Steganography.”

196.

100100111 11001000 11101001

197. Johnson and Jajodia, “Exploring Steganography.”

197.

198. Johnson and Jajodia, “Exploring Steganography.”

111001000 00100111 11101001

199. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography, 23.

The binary value for A is 10000011 INSERTING A INTO 3 PIXELS: 00100111 11101000 11001000 00100110 11001000 11101000 11001000 00100111 11101001 LSB only requires half the bits to be changed in an image so you can change only the least significant bits and still the human eye would not be able to discern it. 195 EXAMPLE SOFTWARES |196 Ez-Stego S-tools MASKING AND FILTERING

|

Masking and filtering Is restricted to a 34-bit and gray scale image.197 This methodology works similar to watermarking, however lossy compression does not result in information being lost.

FILE FORMATS | 198 JPEG-Jsteg Stego Dos White Noise Stor S-tools

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D E F I N I N G T E R M S - ST EGA N OG RAPHY

STEGANOGRAPHY THAT USES CONCEALING AS IDENTITY. Steganography that uses the process of concealment to ‘brand’ or express ownership over a particular form of media can also be referred to as a digital watermark.199 The inclusion of digital watermarks as part of the practice of steganography is controversial within the field. I believe this controversy stems from the history of watermarks. Digital watermarks derive from visual watermarks. While similar in purpose, visual watermarks differ in the sense that they are imprinted on top of the media, altering the visual appearance of the media it is marking.200 While digital watermarks can be a visual marking, they are more widely used for concealed identity markers.

There are several different forms of digital watermarks that exist. Table 1 represents the different marking forms and information regarding their categorization.201 The earliest mention of digital watermarking is in 1954, however the technology did not take-off until the mid-1990s in an effort to combat piracy.202 During the 1990s advancements in digital technology led to the illegal copying and distributing of copyrighted information. In an effort to protect a person’s intellectual property different methodologies for digital watermarking were created that made use of steganography methodologies as a way to attach information about the creator to the media form. These watermarking technologies can be organized into five categories:203

COPY RIGHT PROTECTION WATERMARKS : 204

DATA AUTHENTICATION WATERMARKS: Data Authentication Watermarks are digital signatures that are used to verify or authorize a document. 205 COPY CONTROL WATERMARK: A copy control watermark was developed in an effort to prevent the illegally copying of copyrighted content.206 DEVICE CONTROL WATERMARK: A device control watermark is an encryption method that only allows a media to be listened to or viewed on a specific device.207

200. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography.

201. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography, 24.

202. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography.

203. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography.

204. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography, 33.

205. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography, 95.

206. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography, 95.

207. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography, 95.

208. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography,94-95 209. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography,94-97.

210. ipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography.

210. K 211. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography, 95.

212. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography.

213. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography.

1. Copy Right Protection Watermarks 2. Data Authentication Watermarks 3. Fingerprinting Watermarks 4. Copy Control Watermarks 5. Device Control Watermarks

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214. Johnson and Jajodia, “Exploring Steganography.”

215. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography.

FINGERPRINTING WATERMARKS: Fingerprinting is a form of watermarking that contains information about the individual who created the work or the person who is receiving the work.208 Often times, fingerprinting is used to “trace authorized users distributing their material illegally.”209 An example of this is before a new single is released, all authorized copies are encoded with a secret invisible key that can be traced back to the particular individual if the single is found online prior to the date it is released.

TERMINOLOGY:210 MARK | a portion of an object with a set of several possible states FINGERPRINT | a collection of marks DISTRIBUTOR | An authorized provider of fingerprinted objects AUTHORIZED USERS | An individual who is authorized to gain access to a fingerprinted object ATTACKER | someone who gains unauthorized access to fingerprinted objects TRAITOR | An authorized user who distributes fingerprinted objects illegally

FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION: OBJECT-BASED CLASSIFICATION | Physical fingerprinting is where an object has characteristics that can be used to differentiate it from something else; Digital fingerprinting is a fingerprint in a form that a computer can process211 DETECTION-SENSITIVITY-BASED CLARIFICATION | Perfect fingerprinting is any alteration that makes the fingerprint unrecognizable; Statistical fingerprinting allows an examiner to compare fingerprint alterations to confidently determine that a compromised user has been identified; Threshold fingerprinting allows for a certain number of illegal uses, but when that number is reached or passed, it identifies it as an illegal copy212 FINGERPRINTING-METHOD-BASED CLASSIFICATION |213 RECOGNITION | human fingerprints DELETION | a portion of the original object is deleted ADDITION | a new portion is added to the original object MODIFICATION | a deliberate change to a portion of the object for identification FINGERPRINT-BASED CLASSIFICATION |214 DISCRETE | The fingerprint has a finite has value CONTINUOUS | The fingerprint has an infinite value, a human fingerprint

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D E F I N I N G T E R M S - ST EGA N OG RAPHY

STEGANOGRAPHY THAT USES CONCEALING AS COVERT COMMUNICATION The process of concealing as covert communication aligns more to traditional steganographic processes.

Historically, the practices of steganography, cryptography, and information hiding have been intertwined within the history of war. During the Cold War the United States was able to intercept a message between Russia and one of their spies, providing them with crucial information that gave them an advantage over the Russians.215 The message had been sent using a one-time pad encryption method, and was able to be decoded because it used the encryption key from a previous exchange.216 Throughout all of the world’s major wars, information concealment and interception has played a crucial role in determining how the events unfold.

ANONYMOUS REMAILERS An anonymous remailer is an online system that allows someone to send an email to another person without revealing their identity.217 In these systems, the remailer service acts as the ‘middleman’ of the exchange, keeping the senders identity anonymous.

216. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography.

217. Wayner, Disappearing Cryptography, ch 10.

218. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography, 23.

219. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography.

220. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography, 24.

221. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography.

222. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography, 10.

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HISTORICAL PRACTICES: The following is a brief overview of some of the historical uses of steganography as covert communication. These examples are meant to Illustrate the role that steganography has played in shaping our history, however they in no way claim to encompass the complex and intricate history of steganography.

MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS | Mary Queen of Scots was charged with treason in ______ and killed after her messages to her conspirators were intercepted and decoded.218 At the time, Queen Elizabeth, a Protestant, sat on the throne of England. Several catholic noblemen were unhappy with a Protestant sitting on the throne, and wanted to remove Queen Elizabeth and replace her with Mary, who was a catholic.

“Mary had used both cryptography and steganography to communicate with the conspirators by enciphering messages (cryptography) and then hiding them for transport in kegs of beer (steganography).”219 Although the encryption methodologies that Mary and her conspirators used were innovative, they were ineffective because Francis Walsingham, Queen Elizabeth’s principal secretary and England’s spymaster, was able to decode their communication and gather enough proof to bring Mary to trial for treason. Mary and several of the conspirators were sentenced to death.

STEGANOGRAPHY AND THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR | Throughout the Revolutionary War Washington and his troops used a variety of steganography techniques to covertly communicate with one-another.220 On a specific occasion Benjamin Tallmage and a group of spies that he belonged to used covert communication under the name Samuel Culper to communicate with one-another. “The Culper’s used a series of dead drops, some of which were so elaborate that they occasionally worked against them.”221 This form of communication proved useful, up until one of the Culpers lost his horse. The horse was carrying a satchel containing a variety of secret documents, among which was a letter from George Washington that referred to the secret group, Culpers, by their code name. Luckily, the letter did not mention the spies by there name, and Tallmage remained the only individual who knew the true identities of the spies. After this encounter, Tallmage was required to develop a more secure way for communicating, making use of steganography methodologies like invisible ink. Initially, the invisible ink was applied to a blank sheet of paper that was inserted within a ream of blank paper, however out of fear of someone thinking that this was suspicious, Washington ordered that the invisible ink be used on regular communications instead.

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D E F I N I N G T E R M S - ST EGA N OG RAPHY

STEGANOGRAPHY ACROSTICS | Acrostics are similar to null ciphers, however they are hidden within a poem or in a few short lines of text.222 How they work is a system is created to hide a message within a text, and when the reader employs this predetermined system a message is revealed to them.

RAPHYMETHODOLO ANAMORPHOSIS | Anamorphosis uses perspective of an image to conceal a message.223 In anamorphosis an image will appear to be distorted except for when “it is viewed from a special angle or with a special instrument.”224

GRILLES (CARDANO’S GRILLE) | The Grille method uses a Grille—a piece of cardboard with holes in it—to encode a message.225 When the grille is placed onto the text containing the encoded message the holes inside of It reveal the hidden text.

INVISIBLE INK | Invisible ink is a colorless liquid that when introduced with heat or a pH indicator—depending on the type of invisible solution was used—it becomes visible.226 METEOR SCATTER METHOD | “When a meteor travels through the Earth’s ionosphere, it leaves behind an ionized trail. This trail can be used to reflect radio signals over great distances.”227

ST

MICRODOTS | Microdots was created by Professor Walter Zapp, and uses dark room printing techniques.228 The process entails taking a photograph and then reducing it down to the size of a postage stamp, and then a reverse microscope is used to shrink the image down to 1 mm in diameter.

Next, the negative is printed, and once it has been fully developed it is punched out from the print, typically with a filed down syringe. Once the process has been completed the ‘dot’ is either added to a cover image— typically concealed in a period or other dot on the page—or hidden beneath a stamp or other material.

NOGRAPHYMETHO

STEGANOGRAP 223. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography, 9-10.

224. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography, 13-14.

225. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography, 10.

226. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography, 12.

227. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography.

228. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography.

ANOGRAPHYMETH 229. Kipper, Investigator’s Guide to Steganography, 8.

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THODOLOGIES ST

YMETHODOLOGIES ONE-TIME PADS| “A one-time pad is a method of encoding a message with a random key once and only once. This type of encoding is an unbreakable system because no matter how much time or sample text a cryptanalyst has available, breaking the code would be impossible, the cipher would never be the same twice.”229

LOGIES:

SERIES OF CHARACTERS AND WORDS | A common implementation of the Series of Characters and Words methodology is a null cipher.230 A null cipher is a set system that was previously agreed on by the individuals communicating that is needed to understand the message. An example could be that only every fifth word should be read. The null cipher was a popular covert communication tool of the Germans during World War I.

TEGANOGRAPHYM SPREAD SPECTRUM | “Spread Spectrum steganography is the method of hiding a small or narrow-band signal (message) in a large or wide-band cover.”231

STATISTICAL BASED | A statistical based methodology uses mathematics and statistical equations to hide a message and avoid detection.232 An example of a statistical methodology is a mimic function, which was first introduced

by Wayner. Mimic functions work by analyzing the statistical properties of a “chosen legitimate text.” Once the profile is established, “it employs the inverse of the Huffman Code by inputting a data steam of randomly distributed bits to produce text that obeys the statistical profile of a particular text.”233

ODOLOGIES:

TEXTUAL FORMAT MANIPULATION |Textual format manipulation is “a non-linguistic steganography technique that hides data by exploiting the format of text.”234 Alterations of the format can include adding spaces, misspelling words, using different fonts, altering the kerning and leading of the characters, using certain punctuation, etc.235

PHYMETHODOLOG 230. Abdelrahman Desoky, Noiseless Steganography: The Key to Covert Communications (Auerbach Publications, 2016), 11-12.

231. Desoky, Noiseless Steganography, 11.

232. Maninder Singh Rana, Bhupender Singh Sangwan, and Jitendra Singh Jangir, “Art of Hiding: An Introduction to Steganography,” International Journal Of Engineering And Computer Science 1, no. 1 (2012).

233. Desoky, Noiseless Steganography, 12-13.

THODOLOGIES 234. Desoky, Noiseless Steganography.

235. Desoky, Noiseless Steganography,11.

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STEGANOGRAPHYM

TypOGRAPHY

Font comes from a French word that means ‘molding’ or ‘casting.’236 A font is all of the needed ingredients to construct and depict a typeface.237 Fonts are composed of character outlines, character sets, a width table, and a kerning table.238 The graphical representations of words, letters, numbers, etc. are referred to as a typeface.239 Typography is the field/ practice of typesetting.240 Typesetting is the laying out of these characters within a particular composition.241 Typesetting pays specific attention to kerning, leading, alignment, etc. of text.242 All compositions adhere to a grid, whether the designer is

conscious of it or not. This grid can be followed or broken to enhance the meaning of a text. The experimental typesetting of a text to communicate a deeper meaning is referred to as Visual Poetics.243 Radical typographic designers are poets who communicate through the non-verbal.244

Typography functions in the construction of a reader’s experience by combining visual and textual strategies to enhance the message and the meaning.245

236. Jim Felici, The Complete Manual of Typography: A Guide to Setting Perfect Type (Berkley, CA: Adobe Press, 2011), Book, 10.

237. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography, 29.

238. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography, 41.

239. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography, 29.

240. Ellen Lupton,Thinking withType: A Critical Guide for Designers,Writers, Editors, & Students, ed. Mark Lamster (New York, NewYork: PrincetonArchitectural Press, 2014), Book.

241. Lupton, Thinking withType.

242. Lupton,Thinking withType.

243. TealTriggs, Type Design: Radical Innovations and Experimentation (Harper Collins, 2003), 144.

244. Triggs, Type Design, 144.

245. Lupton, Thinking withType.

DE FI N I NG T E R M S - Typog raphy

ANATOMY OF A TYPEFACE Typefaes are designed using a set of rules and specifications. By adhereing to these pre-determined design parameters a type designer can ensure that the typeface is unified and looks coherent to the user or reader.

The figure below depicts the prominent global parameters that govern a typeface design.246 The following pages cover what is commonly referred to as the anatomy of a typeface.247 These design elements come together to create the characteristics of a font and are responsible for the fonts communicative potential. The situational

BODY HEIGHT

context that a font is best suited for and the non-verbal information that they communicate is determined by the overall anatomy of the font.248 The following pages provide a visual dipiction of the anatomical structures of a typeface, for a complete definition and information regarding the source for said graphics please see the section entitled Typographic Terminology located at the end of the section.

x Ă&#x2030;pl CAP HEIGHT

In addition to defining the global parameters and rules of a typeface, a type designer needs to decide if a font is Serif or San Serif. The first typefaces were created to emulate caligraphy writing, therefore they contained what has commonly become

61

x-HEIGHT

Ascent Line CaP LINE

ASCENDER LINE

BASE LINE DESCENDER LINE

referred to as serifs. Serifs are small lines that you used to complete a stroke within the typeface characters. A font is considered a Serif font if it contains serifs, and it is a San Serif font if it does not contain serifs. 249

246. Lupton, Thinking withType.

247. Lupton, Thinking withType.

248. Lupton, Thinking withType.

249. Lupton, Thinking withType.

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63

DE FI N I NG T E R M S - Typog raphy

64

65

DE FI N I NG T E R M S - Typog raphy

66

67

DE FI N I NG T E R M S - Typog raphy

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SECT ION

250. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography, 13.

251. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography.

251.

252. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography.

253. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography, 14.

254. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography.

254.

255. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography.

256. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography.

256.

257. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography, 15.

257.

258. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography.

259. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography, 15; 260. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography, 15.

07

PostScript is a Page Description Language (PDL) that was created by Adobe.250 At its advent, there were several other PDL options that existed, however Adobe became the most widely accepted option because they were able to win commercial contracts with Apple and Mergenthaler-Linotype. In the most basic of definitions, PostScript is your devices visual interpreter. It is the translating of the coded material into depictions on your screen.251 For this translation to occur, a Raster Image Processor (RIP) is needed. The RIP gets its name from its earliest implementation. The first RIPs were used in television to rasterize the television broadcast.252 An image is created on a CRT screen, one horizontal line at a time, by a narrow beam that scans from side to side in socalled raster lines (raster comes from a Latin word meaning ‘rake’). These horizontal lines are drawn from top to bottom on the screen at a very high speed.253 PostScript takes a composition that was created on your screen and sends it to the RIP, which then calculates the coordinates used for rendering the graphic.254 In laser printers, the beam that is used is a

laser beam. This beam will blink on and off based on the information that it receives from the RIP.255 The quality of the print and the amount of data that the RIP needs to calculate on each page is established by the graphics dots per inch (dpi). “A page from a desktop laser printer with a resolution of 300 dots per inch (dpi) contains more than a million dots. At 600 dpi the number shoots ups to nearly 4 million.”256 Adobe’s PostScript language was the first system that allowed for fonts to be device independent.257 In order to make this happen, Adobe had to create a font that was composed of separate documents for a windows computer to read and an Apple computer to read, called PostScript Fonts.258

With the advent of PostScript Fonts, Adobe expanded the potential of fonts and home printing quality. Prior to its creation, printers and graphic renderings were created using bitmaps.

Adobe’s PostScript font looked at a page as a grid of pixels, using a coordinated system it was able to generate the graphics at virtually any size depending on the proportions of the grid, this process of rendering is called gridfitting.259 What makes gridfitting possible is the fact that PostScript fonts store their characters as a series of outlines. These outlines are constructed using straight lines and Bézier curves.260 To generate the fonts, the character outlines are copied from the font file and sent to the RIP. The RIP then registers the dpi and determines the amount of pixels within the gridded system. Once the RIP has established the size of the grid, it can then begin

70

DE FI N I NG T E R M S - Typog raphy

generating the scaled locations of the character outlines, and send these locations to an output device, which then generates the outlines and colors them in. “[I]n the 1980s PostScript was the single standardized font…”261 While other people could make PostScript Fonts, none of them were as fluid as those created

by Adobe, giving them a monopoly over the industry. In an effort to no longer be locked in to having to use Adobe fonts, Microsoft and Apple joined forces and create their own fonts that would work on both devices, these were called TrueType fonts. TrueType fonts were designed to be compatible with Adobe’s PostScript interpreters—the RIP—but there were some issues that existed with certain PostScript imagesetters.

TrueType also allowed for larger character sets. This made room for alternate forms of characters and permitted contextual character switching, meaning that under prescribed conditions one character could be automatically substituted for another. In fact, TrueType fonts enabled a wide range of typographical capabilities, most of which have never been realized because they are too complicated (read: too expensive) to program into the fonts themselves.262 An example of these added functionalities can be seen in ‘hinting,’ which exists in TrueType fonts.263 ‘Hinting’ is used to obtain maximum clarity of typefaces at the time of rendering, despite screen resolution. To obtain this, TrueType fonts have a set of parameters that tell the characters to reshape themselves at low and medium screen resolutions.

While both Apple and Windows users had access to TrueType fonts, they were much more popular with Windows users. In an effort to meet their customers’ needs and overcome the compatibility issues with some PostScript imagesetters, Windows joined forces with Adobe to create OpenType fonts. OpenType fonts are essentially “TrueType font[s] with a pocket for PostScript data.”264

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261. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography, 52.

261.

262. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography, 53.

262.

263. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography.

263.

264. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography.

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DE FI N I NG T E R M S - Typog raphy

ARM| the part of the letter that extends outwards or upwards, and is attached to the character at one end and free at the other265 ASCENDER|a vertical line/stroke that extends beyond the x-height of a typeface266 BAR|a horizontal stroke in letters like A, H, e and f267 BASELINE|the invisible line on which all of the characters within a typeface sit268 BOLD|added weight to the strokes of a letter resulting in a relative increase in thickness of the typeface269 BOWL|a stroke that creates an enclosed curved space, as in the letters d, b, o, D and B270

GRID|the structured yet flexible system that a designer uses when creating visual layouts.This grid creates the foundation for a strong typographic layout because it aids the designer with visual alignment and consistant spacing. In addition, a grid can be broken to elicit a reaction from the viewer and communicate another level of meaning278 LEG|a portion of a letter that extends downwards, that is attached at one end and free at the other.279 LOBE|the projecting and curved stroke that’s attached to the main structure of a character280 LOOP|the lower portion of a lowercase g281

CAP HEIGHT|the height of the majority of the capitalized characters within a typeface271

MEAN LINE|(midline) the line that marks the top of the majority of lowercase characters such as e, g and y282

COLUMN WIDTH|the length of lines of text in either a paragraph or column272

OVERSHOOT|when a rounded or pointed character within a typeface go above the cap height or below the baseline of the font 283

COUNTER|the enclosed space in letters like o, b, d, and a273 CORNER|an angle, as opposed to an area, of white or negative space274 DESCENDER|a vertical stroke that extends downwards below the x-height275 EAR|the small stroke that extends outwards from specific lowercase letters within some typeface—i.e. g276 FONT|all of the needed ingredients to construct and depict a typeface, including character outlines, character

73

sets, a width table, and a kerning table277

SERIF|a category of font types that is marked by the presence of ‘serifs,’ which are short lines at the beginning and end of strokes284 SPINE|the main curved stroke inside the upper and lower case S285 SPUR|a small projection that veers off the main stroke on many capital G’s286 STEM|the main vertical stroke in upright characters287

265. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography, 54.

STRESS|the direction of thickening in a curved stroke288 STROKE|A stroke is the main vertical diagonal line in a letter289

266. Lupton, Thinking withType.

266.

267. Lupton, Thinking withType.

268. Lupton, Thinking withType.

269. Lupton, Thinking withType.

270. Lupton, Thinking withType.

SWASH|a fancy or decorative replacement to a terminal or serif in any capital letter used at the beginning of a sentence290

271. Lupton, Thinking withType.

TAIL|the decorative curved descender of a capital Q, R and K291

275. Lupton, Thinking withType.

275.

272. Lupton, Thinking withType.

273. Lupton, Thinking withType.

274. Lupton, Thinking withType.

276. Lupton, Thinking withType.

277. Felici, The Complete Manual ofTypography, 29.

TERMINAL|the end of a stroke in any letter without a serif292 TITTLE|the circle or dot used in a lower case i and j293

278. Lupton, Thinking withType.

279. Lupton, Thinking withType.

280. Lupton, Thinking withType.

281. Lupton, Thinking withType.

281.

282. Lupton, Thinking withType.

282.

TYPEFACES|graphical representations of words, letters, numbers, etc.294 X-HEIGHT|the height of the majority of lowercase letters within a typeface295

283. Lupton, Thinking withType.

283.

284. Lupton, Thinking withType.

285. Lupton, Thinking withType.

286. Lupton, Thinking withType.

287. Lupton, Thinking withType.

288. Lupton, Thinking withType.

289. Lupton, Thinking withType.

290. Lupton, Thinking withType.

291. Lupton, Thinking withType.

292. Lupton, Thinking withType.

293. Lupton, Thinking withType.

294. Lupton, Thinking withType.Lupton, Thinking withType.

295. Lupton, Thinking withType.

295.

74

CRITICAL DESIGN & TYPOGRAPHY

08

Cr i t ical Des ig n & Typog raphy

EL LISSITZKY (1890 - 1941) El Lissitzky was a designer, photographer, artist, architect, and typographer from Russia.296 Given the political state of Russia in the early 20th century, much of El Lissitzkyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work was proganda for the Soviet Union. El Lissitzky believed that visual communication was a way to convey information to the uneducated, which allows for social and political change.297 Within works like Cover of yearbook of the Vkhutemas art school (1927), El Lissitzky pioneered the use of diagonal axes, asymmetry, white space, and bold san serif font type.

El Lissitzky is known for his use of graphic design for political reform.298 His work was often controversy in subject, and contained simple shapes, using red to accent his messageâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;allowing for a heirarchy to form within his design work. El Lissitzky thought that the use of simple compositions with strong messages would help him to communicate with the uneducated.

296. John Clifford, Graphic Icons: Visionaries Who Shaped Modern Graphic Design, 2013.

297. Clifford, Graphic Icons.

298. Clifford, Graphic Icons.

77

78

Cr i t ical Des ig n & Typog raphy

THE BAUHAUS (1919 - 1933)

Typography by Herbert Bayer

Some believe that the Bauhaus was the start of design.299 It was founded in 1919 by Walter Gropius.

Bauhaus was one of the first schools to teach typography as a part of its curriculm, and it was extremely influenctial to the start of san serif typefaces.

In 1933 Bauhaus was forced to close by the Nazi political party.

The Bauhaus Dessau

Anatomy of Murder (1959)

SAUL BASS (1920 - 2006)

Saul Bass was an American designer who was best known for his work creating movie title sequences like Vertigo.300 His design work not only pushed the boundaries of movie title sequences and type within film, it also expanded the construct of design. Saulâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s movie title sequences rethought the communicative potential of timing, exploring it as an additional method for enhancing meaning. Throughout his career he worked on more than 30 films, many of which went on to win awards.

79

U&LC: UPPER AND LOWER CASE (1970 - 1999) Upper and Lower Case was one of the first publications that was intended to be just for designers.301 The publication was intended to advertise and display new typefaces. U&Lc ran from 1979 until 1999 under the direction of Herb Lubalin, during which it released over 126 issues.

The publication fewatured often experimental typographic compositions juxtaposed with illustrations, cartoons, imagery and rhetoric talking about the benefits of the new type design.302

299. “Bauhaus,” Design is History.

300. “Saul Bass,” Design is History.

301. .“U&LC: Upper and Lower Case,” Design is History.

302. “U&LC: Upper and Lower Case,” Design is History.

80

Cr i t ical Des ig n & Typog raphy

Ken Garland (1964). First Things First Manifesto 1964.

303. R. Poynor, "FirstThings First Revisited," Emigre 51 (1999).

304. Poynor, "FirstThings First Revisited," Emigre 51.

FIRST THINGS FIRST (1964) First Things First was written in 1963 and published in 1964.303 The manifesto was created and signed by Ken Garland, and 20 other photographers, designers and students, in response to the state of society in Britatin in 1960. Within the manifesto, there was a call for a return to humanist aspect of design. â&#x20AC;&#x153;It lashed out against the fast-paced and often trival productions of mainstream advertising calling them trivial and time-consuming.â&#x20AC;?304 The manifesto wanted there to be a shift of focus in design to education and public service tasks that will better society.

305. Poynor, "FirstThings First Revisited," Emigre 51.

306. Poynor, "FirstThings First Revisited," Emigre 51.

305

81

J. Barnbrook, et al. (1999) "First Things First Manifesto 2000," Emigre 51.

FIRST THINGS FIRST 2000 In 1999 an updated manifesto was published as the cover of Emigre #51.306 The manifesto was meant to serve as a reassertion of the original declaration.

82

Cr i t ical Des ig n & Typog raphy

SOL LEWITT TYPEFACE Sol Lewitt was a designer known from his instructional design work that challenged the construct of what it meant to be a creator. Sol Lewitt never ‘created’ his instillations, but instead supplied a museum or institute with a list of instructions that they had to follow to construct his work.307 The Sol Lewitt typeface, also known as Sol, was created by Radim Pesko as a continuation of Sol Lewitt’s 1974 project ‘122 Variations on Incompleted Open Cubes.’ This project used wooden planks to create 122 compositions of unfinished cubes. “The character set of Sol is defined by the spatial potential of a cube.

Here, the new definitions are dependent on the viewer’s imagination and ability to recognize letters in seemingly abstract compositions.”308

307. Zak Kyes, M. O., Forms of Inquiry:The Architecture of Critical Graphic Design, Architectural Association, 2007.

308. Kyes, Forms of Inquiry, 16.

83

Sol Lewitt (1974) Variations on Incompl

completed Open Cubes.

Sol Lewitt (1974) Variations on Incompleted Open Cubes.

84

J

J

E

K

85

F

B Cr i t ical Des ig n & Typog raphy

A

LV

Jack O. (2017) Type:Rider. Futura Part 2,Video still.

Type:Rider photo in "Type:Rider—Review" by Samuel Gilzean (2016).

309. Samuel Gilzean, "Type:Rider— Review," in Cubed Gamers, 2016.

310. “Type:Rider,” Apple App Store Product Discription.

"Type:Rider," Playstation.

TYPE : RIDER Type:Rider is an application/game created by Agat Films & Cie - Ex Nihilo and published by BulkyPix and Arte.309 As the user plays the game they are exposed to different typefaces and historical figures who have influenced the production and development of typography.

Play as 2 dots and travel through the ages of typographic styles and techniques.

From the rock paintings of prehistoric times to Pixel art of the 2000’s, solve all the riddles by riding the most popular fonts and characters (Garamond, Helvetica, Times New Roman, Pixel, Comic Sans...) in a very captivating musical and visual environment.310

86

Cr i t ical Des ig n & Typog raphy

311. Luc Devroye, "RP DigitalType Foundry [Radim Pesko] ," Type Design Information.

312. Radim PeĹĄko, "About," Radim Pesko, https://radimpesko.com/about.

87

Atlas of Letterforms, workshop with Radim Peško.

RADIM PESKO Radim Peško (RP) "is a small scale digital type-foundry established in 2009 by Czech designer Radim Pesko."311 RP is known for its unique typefaces that are both "formally and conceptually distinctive."312 Radim Peško, the designer, is an educator and a creative.

His design work is centered around type and typography, exploring the potentials of the character as a tool for communication and a conceptual framework.

88

Cr i t ical Des ig n & Typog raphy

BOIJMANS VAN BEUN I NGEN Boijmans Van Beuningen is a museum located in Rotterdam.313 In 2003 the museum underwent a rebranding, which was done by thoink, a design studio located in Amsterdam. The rebranding was so successful it grew into a visual system to govern all facets of the museums design, including interior design, digital design, etc. Below is text taken from thoink's website on their design process.314 The visual language of the Boijmans Van Beuningen got extended to the physical space of the museum when we made a huge floor-painting for the courtyard. The extensive possibilities of the graphic language span a ten year communication program with invitations and posters for over 300 exhibitions. inspiration. Lance Wymanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Mexico 1968 Olympic Games graphic design is one of the most inspiring projects we know. In 2003 the Museum Boijmans van Beuningen in Rotterdam got a new logo, set in a typeface similar to the Mexico Olympics typeface.

Boijmans Van Beuningen (2019) Web

how it got done. We shifted the three-lined graphics from the name of the museum to the content of the museum. We set the name in a quite neutral typeface and used the expressive three-lined graphic style to typeset the program.

In this way the identity is not expressed in the name, like in normal branding, but in the communication of the exhibitions.Thick or thin lines, colors and patterns are used to adapt the graphics to the various exhibitions. client profile. Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen is one of the oldest museums in the Netherlands. In 1849 the lawyer Boijmans left his art collection to the city of Rotterdam. With the acquisition of the Van Beuningen collection in 1958 the museum got the second part of its name. The museum houses a unique collection of paintings, sculptures and everyday objects. The collection of prints and drawings is one of the best in the world.

313. Radim PeĹĄko, "About," Radim Pesko, https://radimpesko.com/about.

314. Kyes, Forms of Inquiry, 94.

thoink, (2013); Poster from thoink's

89

9) Website Homepage.

thoink, (2013); Poster from thoink's website.

oink's website.

thoink, (2013); Poster from thoink's website.

90

91

Cr i t ical Des ig n & Typog raphy

IF FONTS WERE DOGS 315

315. If Fonts Were Dogs, Ubersuper, (2010).

92

93

Cr i t ical Des ig n & Typog raphy

316. ErikVan Blockland, "Homepage," LerrError.

LETTERROR LettError is a design studio created by Erik van Blokland.316 The studio focuses on type design, typography and tool development. LettError uses typefaces as a tool for critical inquiry. Much of their design work emphasizes a flaw within a system or accentuates a flaw and exploits it as a tool for critical evocation.

317. ErikVan Blockland, "FF Beowolf," LerrError.

318. Blockland, "FF Beowolf."

FF Beowolf is a re-imagining of 'RandomFont'­ â&#x20AC;&#x201D;a PostScript font that was created by Erik van Blokland and Just van Rossum in 1989.317 Both FF Beowolf and RandomFont create a randomized output. The original RandomFont used the idea that PostScript files have a different file for depicting on a screen and printing to a printer to create a disconnect between what was shown to the user at the fruition of a composition and what was outputted by the printer.

The original fonts used to change their shapes in the printer using raw PostScript. These days it is a well behaved but over engineered OpenType font.318

94

Cr i t ical Des ig n & Typog raphy

319. ErikVan Blockland, "Noordzij Cube," LerrError.

NOORDZIJ CUBE The Noordzij cube was theorized by Gerrit Noordzij. Originally Gerrit Noordzij used a 2D depiction of 64 characters to depict his concept.319 Erik Van Blockland's 3d Noordzij Cube was the first constructed realization of Gerrit Noordzij's concept. The following is excerpts of text that has been taken from Erik Van Blockland's project page.

When Noordzij made the image it illustrated his theoretical model. It indicated how a designer could think about shapes, the degrees of change. It really is the first designspace: it has evolved into a model of interpolations and variable fonts. Not just the shapes a designer can think of, but all the shapes a font can make. These are not necessarily the same thing.That means the design needs to be good in every region of the designspace. Noordzijâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image shows seven of the eight contributing masters, but less than half of the results. The actual physical cube shows all of them.320 Using outlines made from the original Ikarus drawings by Petr van Blokland, I made a designspace with axes for thins-become-thicker, thicks-become-thicker and flavor. Using Drawbot I made a script that calculates the interpolations and positions them on a panel that fits the laser cutter. I thought it was necessary to code a simple outline alphabet to engrave the coordinates on the back of the letters. Each object, letter and the counters got a number so I would be able to tell them apart. Laser cutting at the Maquette Atelier,The Hague.321

95

320. Blockland, "Noordzij Cube."

321. Blockland, "Noordzij Cube."

96

Cr i t ical Des ig n & Typog raphy

DAVID CARSON David Carson is said to be the designer that is most associated with the term deconstruction: the taking of modernist elements and breaking them apart and reassembling them to create a new visual language.322 David Carson’s work with RayGun—a publication created by David Carson. Within RayGun, David Carson experimented with typography, breaking the ‘rules’ of traditional type-design through his creation of layouts that were ‘illegible’.323 In addition to being a designer, David Carson is also a surfer, and, therefore, much of his work is centered around the area of surfing and surfing publications.

David Carson, Cover for What Youth Magazine.

97

322. “David Carson” Design is History.

323. “David Carson” Design is History.

David Carson (1994) "Alice in Chains," Ray Gun.

David Carson (2016) Venice.

98 David Carson, 14 April Mag.

DEFI N I NG TERMS- Biom etrics

Biometrics are an extension of an individual. Whether behavioral or biological, a biometric is unique to an individual, or in some cases a specific group of people, and is a systematic representation of who you are.82 The evolution of these identification technologies have resulted in shifting dynamics in human identification, control, and communication. The following is an examination of the evolution of biometrics, looking specifically at the relationship between human and technology with through the lens of communication, identification, and control.

Freire says that only in being aware of your oppression, can you begin the struggle for liberation.85 Therefore, by understanding your role within every relationship you can begin to realize when you are giving up control and what control you are giving up. Being conscious of this can help a person to realize when they are giving someone or something power over something.

CONTROL | When I think about control it evokes a connotation of power. If someone or something has control over something else then they are in a position of power.

Being in control means that you have a perceived position of authority over a system, information, technology, person, etc. It is a person or technology who holds a position of control.

CONTROL & POWER : Power, is something that can be inherited, earned, awarded, taken, etc., but in order for someone or something to have power there needs to exist a subordinate or a submissive. Therefore, within every system where control exists, someone or something has to be the submissive party. As it is explained in Paulo Freireâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Pedagogy of the Oppressed, to be human is to exist in a dichotomy of oppressor and oppressed.83

Having control, means you have full governance and manipulation of a system, information, technology, person, etc.

Regardless of your position or title or what others are led to believe, you have control over the particular system or situation.

The pedagogy of the oppressed is an instrument for their critical discovery that both they and their oppressors are manifestations of dehumanization.84

19

TYPES OF CONTROL : An important distinction when it comes to control is having control and being in control.

When it comes to having control, it does not matter if you should or should not have it. Although having authorization or being giving permission is the more ethical approach, it is not required, and is in many cases granted as a default setting.

CONTROL AND BIOMETRICS : The evolution of biometric technology has resulted in the development of technological systems where the user is the individual who is in control, and the technology or the person who create the software has control.

What this means, is biometric systems allude that the user is in control of their information and data, and that having complete control is obtainable.

However, in reality, it is not possible to ever fully be in control of these biometric systems because participating in them means someone or something has access to your information.

Although rarely referred to as such, these monopolies are biometric systems that thrive off of perceived control.These ‘free’ services do not have a monetary cost to use their technology, however they collect data from your activity and analyze it to be used for their marketing services.

For additional information on how these biometric systems exploit your data and information to make a profit, see the section entitled “Embedded Biometrics and Steganography.”

By participating in digital society we are entering a state of oppression where the exploitation of capitalism by large corporations is the oppressor.

Large corporations like Google and Facebook are, in a sense, a monopoly. Google has a monopoly over knowledge, information, and truth.

Facebook is in complete control of many-to-many communication technologies and digital social terrains.

082. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics.

083. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Bloomsbury publishing USA, 2018).

084. Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed.

085. Freire, 5.

20

DEFI N I NG TERMS- Biom etrics

IDENTIFICATION | The following timeline is a historical overview of the evolution of biometrics as they relate to identity and identification.

1788 A.D. J. C. A. Mayer, a German anatomist and doctor, was the first individual to state that friction ridge skin patterns differed from person-to-person: “Although the arrangement of skin ridges is never duplicated in two persons, nevertheless the similarities are closer among some individuals.”

1300 A.D. Jaamehol Tawarikh, Persian book, contains information about how fingerprints were used to identify an individual

1684 A.D.

500 B.C.

“Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London” was published by Dr. Nehemiah Grew, which contained information about friction ridge skin observations.

1685 A.D. Clay tablets have been found that appeared to use fingerprints as an identifier when recording Babylonian business transactions.

Govard Bidloo publishes a book, “Anatomy of the Human Body,” which also contains information about friction ridge skin details.

1686 A.D. “Marcello Malpighi, an anatomy professor at the University of Bologna, noted fingerprint ridges, spirals and loops in his treatise.”

21

First uses

t n d f d s r ”

1980 A.D. NIST speech group is established

1985 A.D. Patent for hand identification is awarded Patent for vascular pattern recognition is awarded to Joseph Rice Concept that no two Irides are the same is proposed

1986 A.D. 1903 A.D. NY State prisons start using fingerprints

1870 A.D. Bertillon develops anthropometries for indentification

Exchange of fingerprint minutiae data standard is published

Bertillon System collapses

Patent is awarded stating that the iris can be used for identification

1936 A.D.

1988 A.D.

Concept of using the iris pattern for identification is proposed

First semi-automated facial recognition system is deployed Eigenface technique is developed for face recognition

1883 A.D. Twain writes about fingerprints in “life on the Mississippi”

2000 A.D.

2004 A.D.

First Face Recognition Vendor Test (FRVT 2000) is held

US-VISIT program becomes operational

West Virginia University biometrics degree program is established

DOD implements ABIS

2001 A.D.

Presidential directive calls for mandatory government-wide personal identification card for all federal employees and contractors

Face recognition is used at the Super Bowl in Tampa, Florida

First statewide automated palm print databases are deployed in the US

2002 A.D. ISO/IEC standards committee on biometrics is established M 1 Technical Committee on Biometrics is formed Palm Print Staff Paper is submitted to Identification Services Committee

2003 A.D. Formal US Government coordination of biometric activities begins ICAO adopts blueprint to integrate biometrics into machine readable travel documents European Biometrics Forum is established

1960 A.D. Face recognition becomes semi-automated First model acoustic speech production is created

1992 A.D.

1963 A.D.

Biometric Consortium is established within US government

Galton develops a classification system for fingerprints

Hughes research paper on fingerprint automation is published

1993 A.D.

1965 A.D.

FacE REcognition technology program is initiated

Automated signature recognition research begins

1994 A.D.

1969 A.D.

First iris recognition algorithm is patented

FBI pushes to make fingerprint recognition an automated process

1970 A.D. Face Recognition takes another step towards automation

1974 A.D. First commercial hand geometry systems become available

1975 A.D. FBI funds development of sensors and minutiae extracting technology

1976 A.D. First prototype system for speaker recognition is developed

1977 A.D. Patent is awarded for acquisition of dynamic signature information

Iris on the Move is announced at Biometrics Consortium Conference

2008 A.D. U.S. Government begin coordinating biometric database use

2010 A.D. U.S. national security apparatus utilizes biometrics for terrorist identification

2011 A.D.

1858 A.D.

1896 A.D.

US patent for iris recognition concept expires

Biometric identification used to identify body of Osama bin Laden

First system created that uses images of hands for identification.

1892 A.D.

2005 A.D.

1991 A.D. Face detection is pioneered, making real time face recognition possible

Galton develops a classification system for fingerprints

Face Recognition Grand Challenge begins

2013 A.D. Apple includes fingerprint scanners into consumer-targed smartphones

Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS) competition is held

1996 A.D. Iris prototype becomes available as a commercial product NIST begins hosting annual speaker recognition evaluations

1997 A.D. First commercial, generic biometric interoperability standard is published

1998 A.D. FBI launches COOlS (DNA forensic database)

1999 A.D. Study on the compatibility of biometrics and machine readable travel documents is launched FBI’s IAFIS major components become operational

22

DEFI N I NG TERMS- Biom etrics

COMMUNICATION | When it comes to communication, biometrics—more specifically behavioral biometrics—is all about the non-verbal. Gestures, tone of voice, body language, facial expressions, etc. not only communicate information about what you are thinking and contextualize your message, they also provide insight into who you are.86 An individual who knows you well, can pick up on even the slightest alterations in your non-verbal communication. They know that moving your hair behind your ear means you are happy or biting your lip means you are deep in thought.

This extra level of meaning can be referred to as intimacy between two people because a certain level of closeness is needed for them to pickup on your behavioral cues.

Within digital communication the same intimacy exists, but instead of being between two people it exists between an individual and a technological system(s). How these systems are able to develop these behavioral identifiers and adapt to you as an individual is because of behavioral biometrics.

The evolution of behavioral biometrics has allowed for the development of pattern recognition software that uses algorithms to generate features or identifiers/ characteristics for an individual.87 Much like how our brain unconsciously begins to start recognizing patterns of behavior from an individual, a behavioral biometric system curates all of the data from an individual’s recorded interactions or a database record,

23

and constructs a ‘template feature’ for that particular person.88 A responsive behavioral biometric system—more commonly known as an embedded behavioral biometric system—is able to update the template feature, or enrollment feature, in real time.89 This is because responsive biometric systems construct their features using standard deviation and descriptive statistics.90 Standard deviation is used within these responsive systems to adjust for outliers.91 Because this template feature is evolving, a more fitting term for it would be a ‘baseline.’ Responsive behavioral biometric systems are particularly useful in systems where continual authentication is required or changes of behavior are tracked.92 An example of a responsive behavioral biometric system is a long-input keystroke dynamic system.93 Unlike short-input systems, long-text input keystroke dynamic technologies continually read a user’s input data and alters the user’s features with every keystroke.94 When it comes to keystroke dynamics, responsive behavioral biometric systems are particularly useful because they allow for adjustments to be made to compensate for the Power of Repetition which states that repetition increases performance.95 For additional information on how these responsive behavioral biometric systems establish their baseline, see the section entitled “Dynamic Typeface.”

086.

086. L.A. Woolcott and W.R. Unwin, “Non-Verbal Communication,” in Mastering Business Communication, (London: Palgrave Master Series, 1983), 188-193.

087. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics.

087.

088. Arun, Karthik, and Anil, Handbook of Multibiometrics.

088.

089.

089. Conti et al., “An Embedded Biometric Sensor for Ubiquitous Ad Authentication.”

090. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics, 73.

090.

091. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics, 77.

092. Revett, Behavioral Biometrics, 74.

092.

093.

093. Jingyan Wang et al., “An Effective Multi-Biometrics Solution for Embedded Device,” 360.

094. Nanavati, Thieme, and Nanavati, Biometrics, 20.

095. anavati, Thieme, and Nanavati, Biometrics, 20.

095.

24

YYN A M I C P E FAC E P E FAC E

DY N A M I C T Y P E FAC E

DY N A M I C T Y P E FAC E

DY N A M I C T Y P E FAC E

DY N A M I C T Y P E FAC E

K e y s t r o k e Dy n a m i c s & T y p e fac e D e s i g n Descriptive Statistics Standard deviation Skewedness

The following is an overview of how the parameters measured in keystroke dynamics could be applied to typeface design. As stated in the keystroke dynamic section of Defining the Terms, digraphs and trigraphs are used to develop features for comparison in keystroke dynamics. These digraphs and trigraphs are used to calculate the variance and standard deviation of a data set, which is then compared with the enrollment template. In most cases, these digraphs and trigraphs are considered in respect to dwell time and time of flight. In addition to analyzing digraph and trigraph, keystroke dynamics looks at special keys and a userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s preference when it comes to using these special keys. Additional information on keystroke dynamics and special keys can be found in the section entitled â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Biometrics.â&#x20AC;&#x2122;

101

When designing a typeface there are global and local parameters.

Global parameters are values that are consistant accross the entire typeface design, where local are unique to the specific characters. While a dynamic typeface should be reponsive to how the individual is typing, it should not be completely illegible, therefore, a distinction should be made to how global and local parameters are being adjusted throughout the typing session. In addition, becuase keystroke dynamics are being used for communication rather than for authentication and identification, a template or enrollment period will not be needed, instead the typeface will be adjusted based on the users current typing session.

102

DY N A M I C T Y P E FAC E

Ď&#x192;

103

VA R I A N C E Variance measures the average squared difference from the mean. In other words, it is the measurement of the spread or distance between numbers within a data set.

â&#x2C6;&#x2018;

sum of

X

each value of a data set

X n

AVERAGE OF ALL values in Data Set number of data points in the population

104

DY N A M I C T Y P E FAC E

Ď&#x192;

105

S Ta n da r D D e v i at i o n Standard deviation measures the dispersion of a data set relative to its mean. The biggest fall back of standard deviation is that it can be drastically impacted by outliers and extremes, so in most cases these outliers are removed from the calculation.

â&#x2C6;&#x2018;

sum of

X

each value of a data set

X n

AVERAGE OF ALL values in Data Set number of data points in the population

106

NEGATIVE SKEW: In a negatively skewed dataset the average of the data is less than the median and the mode.

POSITIVE SKEW: In a positively skewed dataset the average of the data is greater than the median and the mode.

NORMAL SKEW: In a normal skewed dataset the mean, median, and mode are equivalent.

DY N A M I C T Y P E FAC E

Z 109

z Number of standard deviations a specific data point is from the mean.

∑

sum of

X

each value of a data set

X

AVERAGE OF ALL values in Data Set

σ

Standard deviation

110

111

DY N A M I C T Y P E FAC E

Kerning, or the spacing between two characters, will be calculated in respect to time of flight. As mentioned in the section on keystroke dynamics in the Biometrics section, time of flight is calculated using digraphsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;or two keys that are pressed one after the other. Each digraph is calculated to see the amount of time that passed in between keypresses.

To determine this the release time of the first key in the digraph is subtracted from the press time of the second key in the digraph. This will also provide information about if any overlapping strokes existed.

112

DY N A M I C T Y P E FAC E

LEFT

TIME OF FLIGHT

113

KEYBOA

ARD MAPPING

RIGHT

A Scatter Plot Graph can be created using location of keys on a keyboard and parameters like time of flight. By mapping out the keys on a keyboard you can gain further insight into the type of typing style an individual uses and whether they are left or right hand dominate.

The slope of the graph can then be used to determine a slant for the angle of the characters.

114

115

DY N A M I C T Y P E FAC E

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E M BEDDE D BIOM E T RCS ST EGANOGRAPHY Information on biometrics and steganography can be found in the ‘Defining Terms’ section of this text.

Advancements in digital technology have allowed for the creation of embedded biometric systems that use invisible code and algorithms to track an individual’s data.324 The textbook definition of an embedded biometric system is a biometric system that is contained within itself,325 however the more expansive definition is a digital-responsive system that is self-contained and regulated using biological input data. These biometric systems use steganography to conceal and encrypt information within them.326 Embedded biometric systems

are relatively new and entail a certain level of complexity that results in a lack of transparency, with little to no policies being implemented to regulate them. This lack of transparency results in issues of identity and agency, specifically the exploitation of a person’s basic rights for privacy. In order to gain insight on these embedded biometric systems and the larger implications they have, a critical analysis of the technology is needed. However, first, we must define what steganography is, and the role it serves within these embedded biometric systems.

324. J Chavez-Galaviz et al., “Embedded Biometric Cryptosystem Based on Finger Vein Patterns” (paper presented at the 2015 12th International Conference on Electrical Engineering, Computing Science and Automatic Control (CCE), 2015).Conti et al., “An Embedded Biometric Sensor for UbiquitousAdAuthentication.”

325. Conti et al., “An Embedded Biometric Sensor for UbiquitousAdAuthentication.”

326. Conti et al., “An Embedded Biometric Sensor for UbiquitousAdAuthentication.”

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STEGANOGRAPHY | A more expansive definition of steganography and its history can be found within the Defining the Terms section of this text, however in the simplest of terms, steganography is the art of hiding information,327 which can also be referred to as encryption. Encryption is the act of encoding information so that only authorized individuals can access it,328 and encoding, when thought of in a digital space, refers to the “process of applying a specific code, such as letters, symbols and numbers, to data for conversion into an equivalent cipher. In electronics, encoding refers to

327. Rana, Sangwan, and Jangir, “Art of Hiding.”

328. Dong, Network Dictionary.

329. “Encoding,” inTechnopedia (2019).

analog to digital conversion.”329 Therefore, if steganography is the art of hiding information, which is encryption, and if encryption is the encoding of information that requires authorization for decoding, and encoding is the translating of the analog into the digital, then digital steganography can be defined as the translation of the analog to the digital with controlled access, and digital steganography within embedded biometric systems is the translation of the individual into the digital where authorization is needed for decoding.

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U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U U

YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU

YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU

YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU

YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU

YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU

YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU

YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU

YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU

YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU

Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU

YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU WHAT YOU YOU YOU ENCODED: YOU YOU YOU YOU IS BEING YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU the purpose of YOU digital YOU YOU YOU steganography to categorize them: YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU 1. Steganography to protect the IndIvIdual YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU 2. Steganography to exploIt the IndIvIdual YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU The information that is being encoded is dependent upon the context. Being we ar interested in looking at digital steganography, more specifically digital steganography within embedded biometric systems, the blanket response is you are. While there are embedded biometric systems that exist for security purposes, the more alarming implementation of the technology are behavioral embedded biometric systems. These behavioral biometric technologies can be broken down into two group using 330

330. These are self-defined modes for classification.

331. Jielin Dong, Network Dictionary, 82; “Caching is a form of 331. replication in which information learned during a previos transaxtion is used to process later transactions.”

YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU YOU

YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO YO

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STEGANOGRAPHY TO PROTECT THE INDIVIDUAL | Steganography that is designed to protect the individual is an embedded biometric system that intends to improve upon the user’s life in some way and uses the biometric data to provide the user with insights about themselves or their behaviors. Within these embedded biometric systems, the implementation of steganography methodology alludes security and privacy. Making user’s feel safe to use the system without having to fear that their sensitive information will get out.

Applications that make use of steganography to protect the individual do so in a seemingly transparent way. These applications are permitted by the user to have access their data and information. The information that is collected by these systems, unless otherwise stated in their policy agreement, is meant to only be used to fulfill a desired service for the user.

In some cases, even the most transparent applications are given permissions by your device as a default. An example of this is Background App Refresh.

BACKGROUND APP REFRESH | Background App Refresh is what enables ‘multi-tasking’ on Apple devices. Applications run in the background of a device updating every chance they can. When a device is in low power mode this feature is automatically disabled. Background App Refresh can also be disabled in the settings of the device.

STEGANOGRAPHY TO EXPLOIT THE INDIVIDUAL | Steganography that is designed to exploit the individual is driven by capitalism.

Whether these technologies are maliciously accessing your device to learn your credit card numbers, or they are implemented by a company to improve their digital marketing, these digital systems are fueled by the desire for wealth and enabled by the graphical user interface.

The graphical user interface has been designed to make information accessible and simplistic. Its very purpose is it to take all the code and algorithms of the computer, and mask them behind a veil of minimalism and cleanliness, leaving people disillusioned to what is actually going on within their devices. This lack of knowledge leaves users vulnerable for exploitation, and in many cases, people don’t even know that they are being exploited and monitored.

Although authorized by companies, the individuals and companies who are implementing applications that use steganography to exploit the individual are not necessarily aware that they are doing so or what the application is actually doing. In many cases, companies will use caching331 a site to increase their page speed or remarketing ads to bring customers back to their site, both of which collect data that enable the tracking of a behavior but are essential for a business to be successful.

332. “ARCHIVED:What are Cookies?,” Knowledge Base, Indiana University, 2018, https://kb.iu.edu/d/agwm.

333. “ARCHIVED:What are Cookies?”

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WEARABLES | PROTECT Authorization: Authorization for wearable applications is provided by the user. Although the majority of the data collected is done so transparently, i.e. a userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s heart rate or their quantity of steps, there are certain permissions, which unless the user changes their settings under their devices system preferences, are defaulted to being given.

FITBIT 125

Fitbit is a fitness tracking wearable device that interacts with your mobile phone. Tha application connects with your fitbit device to track your physical activity throughout the day. Fitbit can also be linked with Appleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Fitness App.

H2O Pal is a weighted sensor at the base of your waterbottle. The sensor links with your mobile device and regulates your water intake throughout the day. In addition, the application can be linked with Appleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Health app and use your activity and physical health to tailor the application for you.

H2O PAL 126

COOKIES

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Cookies are hidden messages that are sent to your device by webservers and stored in a cookies.txt file.332 The term cookie is an allusion to a Unix (agat) program called Fortune Cookie that produces a different message, or fortune, each time it runs.333 Cookies can only be read by the server that creates it, however they can be provided by an advertisement company or service that the owner of a site you visit uses. In those cases, advertisement companies can curate the information that you insert into all of their clientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sites and use that information to create an advertisement profile.

Cookies are used by websites for a variety of reasons.334 Webservers use cookies to track whether or not you are a repeat visitor.335 This is used to maintain continuity of a userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s experience

by storing information from their last session so that they do not have to reinput it at their next visit.336 In addition, it allows businesses to analyze their customer base and curate information about their website traffic.337 Advertisement companies use cookies to provide custom advertisement content based off of the websites that you have visited.338 Websites like Facebook who do not use external advertisement companies, but instead provides advertisement services to businesses use cookies to track website traffic data and curate advertisements for you based off of the websites you have visited. The advertisements curated for you are comprised of ads from sites you have visited (Retargeting)339 or ads for sites that is related to sites you have visited (Lookalike).340

334. “ARCHIVED:What are Cookies?”

335. “HTTP cookies,”April 1, 2019.

336. Jon Penland, “Browser Cookies: What are they and why should you care?,” (2019).

337. “HTTP cookies.”

338. “The History of Facebook Advertising: A Timeline,” Marketing, Phrasee, October 22, 2018.

339. “The History of FacebookAdvertising:ATimeline.”

340. “The History of FacebookAdvertising:ATimeline.”

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ACEBOOK FACEBOOK FACEB

All of social media is pretty much controlled by the same company, Facebook, which makes sense since Mark Zuckenburg sees Facebook as having the potential to serve as the central dashboard that all applications and information goes through.341 In 2006 Facebook made their website opensource, allowing for people to integrate Facebook with their applications, as well as develop applications to be hosted on the Facebook website.342 In a little over a year, Facebook reached over 3,200 applications that made use of their system, which was just the start of building the empire that it is today.343 When met with a new social networking competitor, Facebook made the strategic decision to acquire that company, and in most cases were met with little resistance to do so. The one exception would be SnapChat, which turned down Facebooks offers until they finally agreed to sell.

Facebook’s history with acquisitions has resulted in the company having a ‘monopoly’ over social networking. What makes the company so brilliant, is they have a monopoly over a free service.

So, if the service is free, then where does Facebook make its profits from?

This is where Facebook gets creative.

Much like other websites Facebook uses advertising as a means to create a profit. During its early years, Facebook was solely a tool for college students, which influenced the naming/design of the first Facebook ads: “Facebook Flyers.”344 As the company expanded, and the userbase grew, Facebook outgrew “Facebook Flyers” and in 2005 they formed their first advertisement partnership with an online poker website.345 The advertisement agreement was based on the principle that the company would only pay Facebook for the results, and stipulated that for every new subscriber they got, Facebook would be given $300.

Overtime this number was able to grow to $60,000 per month.346 Seeing the success of their first advertising partnership, Facebook looked for other creative methods for developing profit, leading to an agreement being made between them and Apple. The agreement stated that Apple would sponsor a Facebook group, and pay Facebook $1 a month for every member in the group.

341. “The History of FacebookAdvertising:ATimeline.”

342. “The History of FacebookAdvertising:ATimeline.”

343. “The History of FacebookAdvertising:ATimeline.”

344. “The History of FacebookAdvertising:ATimeline.”

345. “The History of FacebookAdvertising:ATimeline.”

346. “The History of FacebookAdvertising:ATimeline.”

347. “Ad Evolution: The History of Facebook,” Ad Taxi, March 8, 2018.

347.

348. “Ad Evolution:The History of Facebook.”

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In 2007, Facebook launched their advertising system, allowing anyone to purchase advertisements for their website, however because of their agreement with Microsoft they had to create a new space on their website for advertisements.349 Two-thousand-and-eight marked a global recession. Wanting to ‘help’ companies, Facebook launched their ‘pages’ function in 2008.350 This application allowed businesses to create free Facebook Business pages. Although it appears to be a ‘selfless’ act, it was the smartest business decision Facebook ever made. Allowing businesses to create free pages on their social media platform, changed the nature of social media, creating the space for businesses within the exchange. This eventually led to targeted

Facebook advertisements and the ability for businesses to create their own advertisements and sell products from their Facebook Page.

As social media technology further developed and Facebook grew, the company saw a potential for advertising within their stories function, resulting in the launch of Facebook stories advertisements in 2011,351 and mobile advertisements in 2012.352 Now having saturated their platform with advertisements, Facebooke began implementing other advertisement techniques used by advertising firms, beginning with retargetting (see graphic below).353 In 2013 Facebook expanded their retargetting functionality, leading to the advent of ‘Lookalike Audiences.’ A lookalike audience.354 Facebook’s growth to over a billion users and the applications success with serving as an effective advertising tool for businesses leads to an increased popularity in their advertising services.355 In an effort to expand the potential for advertising on their website Facebook launches the inclusion of advertisements in a user’s Facebook newsfeed.356 At its launch news feed ads were restricted to advertisements that were

349. “The History of FacebookAdvertising:ATimeline.”

350. “Ad Evolution:The History of Facebook.”

351. “The History of FacebookAdvertising:ATimeline.”

352. “The History of FacebookAdvertising:ATimeline.”

353. “The History of FacebookAdvertising:ATimeline.”

354. “The History of FacebookAdvertising:ATimeline.”

355. “The History of FacebookAdvertising:ATimeline.”

356. “The History of FacebookAdvertising:ATimeline.”

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ACEBOOK FACEBOOK FACEBOO

In 2006 online poker was outlawed in the US, which in turn lead to Facebook losing $60,000 a month in advertising sales.347 As a result, in 2007 Facebook formed a partnership with Microsoft, resulting in Microsoft purchasing 1.6% shares of the company for $240 million and the stipulation that Microsoft would have exclusive rights to “banner advertisements and sponsored links” on Facebook.348

E m b e d d e d B iom e t r ic s & St egan og raphy

CEBOOK FACEBOOK FACEBO

classified as ‘retargeting advertisements.’ However, by 2015 this is expanded with the launch of ‘Dynamic Product Ads,’ which use your website viewing history to target you as a customer. Dynamic Product Ads is later followed by Facebook Pixel.

As you can probably see this is getting increasingly more complex, so for the sake of my sanity and your ability to follow, I am resulting in using a timeline to continue…

2016: Facebooks ‘messenger’ application creates additional business and advertising potential for the company, leading to the integration of Facebook Ads within the platform, as well as chatbots. 357

creates transparency between the company and businesses who are advertising with them.358 Delivery Insights allows businesses to see where their money is going and who their target audience is [if only they afforded the same transparency to their users].

2017: Providing more resources for businesses, Facebook launches split-testing functionality, which allows companies to test different demographics to gain further insight into who their target audience is and increase their advertisement effectiveness.359 2018: Phrase is launched

2017: Facebook launches advertisement “Delivery Insights,” which

357. “The History of FacebookAdvertising:ATimeline.”

358. “The History of FacebookAdvertising:ATimeline.”

359. “The History of FacebookAdvertising:ATimeline.”

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Facebook has found creative ways to gain personal data and invade the privacy of their users. For example, “Facebook Pixel,” allows companies to link their web-traffic data with Facebook Ads. This means that instead of using your system to gain access to your data, which requires permissions, Facebook has found a new way to get consumer data by hiding behind corporations. This allows companies to better reach their target audience and eliminates the need for Facebook to ask for permission from its users.

Technologies like Facebook have realized the value of biometric data, and are using ‘free’ services to collect it from their user’s to make a profit, and most people are not aware of it. We are living in a reality built upon lies and illusions where our ignorance leaves us vulnerable to corporate manipulation. The question is then do people want to remove their rose-colored glasses and see the truth behind the smoke and mirrors, or is ignorance really bliss?

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WHY ALL THIS MATTERS: Facebook’s evolution is the perfect example of how steganography within digital technology causes issues of transparency. Many people are not aware of this, but any website or database that uses a Facebook service embeds Facebook OpenGraph meta data within their website. This allows Facebook to function like advertisement agency and use cookies to track the websites that people visit. While Facebook is not the only database using this service, they are the only ones using it that also have access to all of your personal data.

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AROUSAL|Arousal, as it pertains to the field of psychology and Lee et al’s experiment, can be defined as increased physiological activity. 17 BIOMETRICS|“the science of establishing the identity of an individual based on the physical, chemical, or behavioral attributes of a person.” 17 BEHAVIORAL BIOMETRICS|Behavioral biometrics is a category of biometric technologies that involve the use of an individual’s unique behaviors for identification and verification. These behaviors include, but are not limited to handwriting, gait, keystrokes, etc. 17 DIGRAPHS|Digraphs, in orthography, are two letters that come together to create a sound that deviates from its phonetic pronunciation. In keystroke dynamics, digraphs are two letters analyzed to generate features which are used for comparison. 17 DWELL TIME | Dwell time is the amount of time that a key is pressed for. Dwell time can shed light on a users key press transition time and typing speed. In addition, a long dwell time can also be representative of a user emphasizing a certain key or pausing for thought, this is typically the case if the long dwell time is an outlier. 17 DYNAMIC VERIFICATION|Dynamic verification systems are intended to run in the background on an individual’s device, recording every key-stroke and analyzing it for continual authentication and verification. 17 EMBEDDED BIOMETRIC SYSTEMS|The textbook definition of an embedded biometric system is a biometric system that is contained within itself, however the more expansive definition is a digital-responsive

system that is self-contained and regulated using biological input data. 17 ENTROPY|Entropy is the amount of difference that exists between two sets of keys strokes. 17 FEATURES EXTRACTION|“the automated process of locating and encoding distinctive characteristics from biometric data in order to generate a template.” 17 LONG-TEXT INPUT|Long-text input systems use all of the type activity during a user’s session for authentication and verification. 17 NEGATIVE RECOGNITION|Negative recognition is the ability to tell if a person is already enrolled within a system or not. 17 N-GRAPH|N-graphs are the amount of time that it took to type n-keys. Combining n-graphs with dwell times can provide insight on a person’s overall typing speed. When constructing n-graphs the leading edge—when the key is pressed—or the trailing edge—when the key is released—can be used. 17 NON-REPUDIATION|Non-repudiation deals with tracking who uses a facility or accesses a resource, so that later they cannot deny having done it. 17 POWER LAW OF PRACTICE|Power Law of Practice says that response or reaction time will decrease linearly with each practice of an action. verification and identification. 17 SCAN CODE|Scan code is the unique identifying value that is assigned to a key so that an operating system is aware of what key is pressed on a keyboard. This becomes specifically valuable when determining a user’s typing preferences. 17

SHORT-TEXT INPUT|Short-text input systems are keystroke dynamic technologies that uses one word or a short-sequence of text to verify or identify an individual’s identity. 17

SURROGATE REPRESENTATIONS OF IDENTITY| “knowledge-based (e.g., passwords) and token-based (e.g., ID cards) mechanisms” that are used to protect an individual’s’ identity and information.

These are artificial extensions of an individual that can be easily taken on by another person, through the loss, stealing, or sharing of them. 17 TIME OF FLIGHT|Time of flight (also known as flight time) is the time between keypresses. 17 TRIGRAPHS|Tirgraphs, in orthography, is the coming together of three letters to create a specific sound that deviates from its phonetic pronunciation. In keystroke dynamics, trigraphs is the analysis of three letters to generate features for comparison. 18 VALENCE|Valence, as it pertains to the field of psychology means the intrinsic attractiveness/”good”-ness (positive valence) or averseness/”bad”-ness (negative valence) of an event, object, or situation. The term also characterizes and categorizes specific emotions. 18 ARM| the part of the letter that extends outwards or upwards, and is attached to the character at one end and free at the other 73 ASCENDER|a vertical line/stroke that extends beyond the x-height of a typeface 73 BAR|a horizontal stroke in letters like A, H, e and f 73

letter resulting in a relative increase in thickness of the typeface 73 BOWL|a stroke that creates an enclosed curved space, as in the letters d, b, o, D and B 73 CAP HEIGHT|the height of the majority of the capitalized characters within a typeface 73 COLUMN WIDTH|the length of lines of text in either a paragraph or column 73 COUNTER|the enclosed space in letters like o, b, d, and a 73 CORNER|an angle, as opposed to an area, of white or negative space 73 DESCENDER|a vertical stroke that extends downwards below the x-height 73 EAR|the small stroke that extends outwards from specific lowercase letters within some typeface—i.e. g 73 FONT|all of the needed ingredients to construct and depict a typeface, including character outlines, character sets, a width table, and a kerning table 73 GRID|the structured yet flexible system that a designer uses when creating visual layouts. This grid creates the foundation for a strong typographic layout because it aids the designer with visual alignment and consistant spacing. In addition, a grid can be broken to elicit a reaction from the viewer and communicate another level of meaning 73 LEG|a portion of a letter that extends downwards, that is attached at one end and free at the other. 73

BASELINE|the invisible line on which all of the characters within a typeface sit 73

LOBE | the projecting and cur ved stroke that’s at tached to the main structure of a character 73

BOLD|added weight to the strokes of a

LOOP|lower portion of a lowercase g 73

137

MEAN LINE|(midline) the line that marks the top of the majority of lowercase characters such as e, g and y 73 OVERSHOOT|when a rounded or pointed character within a typeface go above the cap height or below the baseline of the font 73 SERIF|a category of font types that is marked by the presence of ‘serifs,’ which are short lines at the beginning and end of strokes 73 SPINE|the main curved stroke inside the upper and lower case S 73 SPUR|a small projection that veers off the main stroke on many capital G’s 73 STEM|the main vertical stroke in upright characters 73 STRESS|the direction of thickening in a curved stroke 74 STROKE|A stroke is the main vertical diagonal line in a letter 74 SWASH|a fancy or decorative replacement to a terminal or serif in any capital letter used at the beginning of a sentence 74 TAIL|the decorative curved descender of a capital Q, R and K 74 TERMINAL|the end of a stroke in any letter without a serif 74 TITTLE|the circle or dot used in a lower case i and j 74 TYPEFACES|graphical representations of words, letters, numbers, etc. 74 X-HEIGHT|the height of the majority of lowercase letters within a typeface 74

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