The influence of nostalgic memories on consumer exploratory tendencies: Echoes from scents past

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Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 15 (2008) 277–287 www.elsevier.com/locate/jretconser

The influence of nostalgic memories on consumer exploratory tendencies: Echoes from scents past Ulrich R. Orth , Aurelie Bourrain Christian-Albrechts-Universita¨t Kiel, Agribusiness & Food Marketing, Wilhelm-Seelig-Platz 6/7 24098 Kiel, Germany

Abstract Integrating research on atmospherics with the power of nostalgia, this paper investigates the influence of scent-evoked nostalgic memories on consumer exploratory behavior. The context for the experiment is a laboratory setting scented with natural and manmade odors. Testing a comprehensive structural equation model shows that ambient scent evokes nostalgic memories which in turn positively influence consumer sensation seeking with downstream effects extending onto exploratory tendencies, namely on risk taking, variety seeking and curiosity-motivated behaviors. In addition, those behavioral states are affected by consumer personality. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed. r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Ambient odor; Arousal; Feelings; Personality; Shopping behavior

1. Introduction Research on atmospherics has shown great promise for influencing consumer-shopping behavior. In their review of experimental evidence, Turley and Milliman (2000) report statistically significant relationships between numerous elements of a store’s complex atmospherics and consumer-shopping behavior. Overall, the effect of a retail environment on consumer behavior is both strong and robust, thus indicating various options for retailers to shape the store environment for eliciting favorable behaviors from consumers (Michon et al., 2006).

In a parallel stream of thought, the notion that the ‘‘dear departed past’’ (Holbrook and Schindler, 1991, p. 330) may be used as a source of market value had a strong impact on both marketing practice and research over the past decade (Brown et al., 2003). In particular, nostalgia, an ‘‘individual’s desire for the past or a liking for possessions and activities of days gone by’’ (Holbrook, 1993, p. 245), has received considerable attention from researchers in marketing, consumer behavior, and psychology (see cf. Rindfleisch and Sprott, 2000 for a review). Little attention, Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 431 880 4416; fax: +49 431 880 2044.

E-mail address: uorth@ae.uni-kiel.de (U.R. Orth).

0969-6989/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2007.06.001

however, has been given to evoked nostalgia, that is, autobiographical nostalgic memories as a fleeting consumer state, and its potential influence on behavior. Such autobiographical memories constitute memories of past personal experiences, which come with a strong emotionalmotivational charge (Baumgartner et al., 1992). Nostalgic memories thus represent a subset of autobiographical memories that are charged with positive affect (cf. Holak and Havlena, 1998).

Few studies have linked evoked nostalgic memories to consumer behavior, and all of those were conducted in an advertising context (cf., Muehling and Sprott, 2004; Pascal et al., 2002; Sujan et al., 1993). Details of whether or how nostalgic memories actually work in a retail environment remain largely unknown. Even initial evidence is not available on this question, i.e. from experiments in controlled environments that could extend the literature in a manner beginning to address implementation.

This study examines effects of scent-induced nostalgic memories on consumer exploratory tendencies. It integrates past findings that nostalgic memories generate a variety of strong emotional-motivational responses (Baumgartner, 1992; Holak and Havlena, 1998; Sujan et al., 1993) and suggestions that consumer exploratory tendencies are driven by both consumer sensation seeking states and personality

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rather than by the personality alone (Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 1991). It is argued that nostalgic memories may exert an important influence on consumer sensation seeking states with downstream effects extending onto consumer exploratory tendencies and behavior. By testing the paths and effects in a comprehensive structural equation model, the findings will enhance our understanding of consumer response to nostalgic memories in the realm of atmospherics, and the role of consumer state and personality in downstream effects, particularly with respect to the exploratory acquisition of products and information. In addition, literature will be extended through a better understanding of the potential of scent to evoke measurable nostalgic memories. Fig. 1 summarizes the hypothesized relations between model components.

2. Theoretical framework 2.1. Scent as a trigger of nostalgic memories A substantial body of empirical and theoretical evidence suggests that scent is among the most powerful triggers of nostalgic memories. Choosing ambient scent among the many tangible and intangible options for evoking consumer nostalgic memories accounts for past research reporting that even an unnamed smell can elicit describable contextual memories (Annett, 1996). Intangible stimuli, such as food aromas and smells were particularly effective in triggering nostalgic thoughts (Holak and Havlena, 1992). In addition, scent appears to be superior to other experimental stimuli such as music because odors have been found to produce positive (and negative) memories with minimal cognitive involvement (Ehrlichman and Halpern, 1988). It is thus believed that consumer response to odors follows a path of peripheral rather than central processing (cf., Alpert and Alpert, 2004), largely bypassing cognitions in the creation of nostalgic memories and subsequent emotions.

Our view of nostalgic memories as affect-laden memories which involve the context of the smell (e.g., summer at the lake, holiday gatherings) further draws support from the

study of memory proper (see Schab, 1991 for a review).

Memory for smells is intrinsically different than visual or auditory memory because (1) odor memory is independent of memory of other modalities, and (2) it is resistant to interference and thus long-lasting (Annett, 1996). Olfactory memory hence appears to be qualitatively different from other forms of memory in that it involves memory for what are primarily sensations rather than for highly interpreted (and hence verbalized) perceptions. The distinct physiological reasons for the potential of scents to short-circuit to emotionally charged contextual memories via olfactory memory have been identified only very recently through research on odor detection, translation and representation in the human brain (Nobel Assembly, 2004). Additional support for the potential of environmental scent to trigger nostalgic memories and consequently to evoke positive affective states draws from Hirsch (1992) who identified particular smells that precipitated childhood memories and the overall level of happiness with one’s childhood.

Especially odors of nature (e.g. flowers, fruits) as well as manmade odors (e.g. freshly baked bread, cookies, cakes, and other food) reminded people pleasantly of their childhood.

2.2. Consumer response to nostalgic memories Little academic research has attempted to determine whether nostalgic memories influence consumer-shopping behavior, and through what paths corresponding effects may be channeled. The interest in nostalgia advertising testifies to advertising’s ability to cue or prime such memories (Holbrook and Schindler, 1991), and researchers have shown that ad-evoked memories influence attitudes and likings (Baumgartner et al., 1992). However, there appears to be a lack of corresponding research in retail atmospherics.

There is good reason to believe that scent-induced nostalgic memories work primarily through changes in consumer sensation seeking states with downstream effects onto behavioral outcomes. As an emotional-motivational state, consumer sensation seeking is complex in that its

Nostalgic Memories

Ambient Scent

Risk Taking

H1 (+)

H2a (+)

Sensation Seeking State Non-hypothesized Paths

H2b (+) H2c (+)

Variety Seeking

H4 (+) H3a (+) Sensation Seeking Trait

H3b (+) H3c (+)

Fig. 1. Hypothesized relationships between model components.

Curiositymotivated Behavior

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generation can involve positive feelings (the terms emotions and feelings are used interchangeably here) associated with the re-living of the original experience, as well as relatively unpleasant components of excitement and arousal due to an unfulfilled yearning for the past (Zuckerman, 1979).

Holak and Havlena (1998) argue that nostalgic memories are linked to positive emotions such as joy, warmth, affection and gratitude as well as sadness and desire to produce such a mixed but generally positive emotionalmotivational outcome. Triggered by nostalgic memories consumer sensation seeking states thus reflect an emotionally charged desire for new sensory input that motivates exploratory behavior and knowledge acquisition (Berlyne, 1958; Steenkamp et al., 1996).

While the bulk of olfactory-related research in psychology has focused on the role of memory and cognition (Richardson and Zucco, 1989), recent studies attest to odor’s potential to directly or indirectly evoke changes in people’s feelings (Campenni et al., 2004). Regarding a possible indirect path via nostalgic memories, Zhu and Meyers-Levy (2005) show that positive feelings emerge from semantic associations, particularly nostalgic associations with a stimulus. Termed ‘‘referential meaning’’, this phenomenon results from context-dependent conceptual associations with the stimulus. It further supports our notion that emotions play a pivotal role in consumer response to nostalgic memories. Consumer responses are likely to be affective in nature with an increased retrieval of autobiographical memories, since remembering affectladen personal experiences is accompanied by a reliving of the original emotion accompanied by arousal (Sujan et al., 1993). This emotional-motivational response is likely to be positive because there is a general bias toward remembering positive episodes from one’s life (Baumgartner et al., 1992).

Downstream influences of consumer emotional-motivational states on individual behavior, in turn, are generally acknowledged (Clark and Isen, 1982). Emotions as well as arousal have been found to significantly influence consumer activity in the marketplace (Chebat and Michon, 2003; Donovan and Rossiter, 1994; Sherman et al., 1997).

Various consumer shopping behaviors such as approach/ avoidance, impulse buying and enhanced satisfaction have been linked to emotional-motivational states (Mattila and Wirtz, 2001; Wakefield and Baker, 1998).

2.3. Consumer exploratory behavior, trait and state antecedents Individual behavior, aimed at modifying sensory input from the environment, has been termed ‘‘exploratory behavior’’. Dominating the body of consumer behavioral studies is Raju’s (1980) categorization of three situationspecific exploratory tendencies (Steenkamp and Baumgartner, 1992; Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 1996; Gierl et al., 1999): (1) Risk taking describes exploratory behavior expressed through choices of innovative and unfamiliar

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alternatives that are perceived as risky, (2) Variety seeking is expressed through an individual’s switching within familiar alternatives, including brand switching, and an aversion to habitual behavior, and (3) Curiosity-motivated behavior involves exploratory information seeking, interpersonal communication and shopping. Downstream effects of exploratory tendencies on exploratory behavior have been reported for various product categories, for risk taking (e.g., Burns and Krampf, 1992), variety seeking (e.g., Van Trijp et al., 1996), and curiosity-motivated behavior (e.g., Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 1996; Van Trijp et al., 1996).

Consistent with a self-regulatory approach, individuals modify sensory input through exploratory behavior in order to regulate sensory and cognitive stimulation resulting in differential states of emotions and arousal (Berlyne, 1960; Wundt, 1874; Zuckerman, 1994). Researchers have therefore suggested a more aggregate categorization of exploratory behavior into two dimensions, seeking of sensory and cognitive input (Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 1991; Zuckerman, 1994). Sensory exploration is associated with the exploratory acquisition of products through risky and innovative product choices and changing purchase experiences, whereas cognitive exploration is associated with exploratory information seeking through the acquisition of consumption relevant knowledge out of curiosity (Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 1996).

A significant part of the variance observed in consumer exploratory behavior has been attributed to individual differences in consumer sensation seeking, that is, a person’s intrinsically motivated desire to accomplish a specific level of sensory input (Raju, 1980; Roberti et al., 2003). Consumer research has confirmed behavioral differences correlated with different levels of sensation seeking indicating that an individual’s personality has a significant influence on their situation-specific exploratory behavior (Steenkamp and Baumgartner, 1992). Both, cognitive and sensory dimensions of exploratory behavior relate to individual differences, but consumer personality was generally found to be correlated more strongly with the sensory than with the cognitive dimension (Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 1996).

While individual difference or trait approaches have experienced a veritable rebirth in the study of consumer behavior (Baumgartner, 2002), they usually are not exclusive predictors of consumer behavior. Situationspecific factors, specifically sensation seeking states, also affect consumer-shopping behavior. Therefore, neither individual differences (traits) nor situational factors (states) are of exclusive importance per se; instead, it is the personwithin-a-situation interaction that contributes most of the variance (Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 1991). In the current context of consumer response to nostalgic memories, it seems reasonable to assume that sensation seeking states act in concert with individual personalities (sensation seeking traits) to influence exploratory tendencies.

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3. Hypotheses Our hypotheses set out from the notion that scent is a powerful trigger of autobiographical nostalgic memories (Annett, 1996; Hirsch, 1992; Holak and Havlena, 1998).

Those nostalgic memories, in turn, produce mixed but generally positive ermotional-motivational outcomes (Holak and Havlena, 1998). Without neglecting the role of cognition in memory research (Richardson and Zucco, 1989), emotions—accompanied by arousal—emerging from nostalgic associations with a stimulus appear to play the primary role (Campenni et al., 2004; Sujan et al., 1993; Zhu and Meyers-Levy, 2005). In addition, a person’s emotional-motivational response is likely to be positive because there is a general bias toward remembering positive episodes from one’s life (Baumgartner et al., 1992). We therefore advance the first hypothesis that scentinduced nostalgic memories exert a positive influence on emotional-motivational responses, namely sensation seeking states: H1. Nostalgic memories positively influence individual sensation seeking states.

The majority of studies investigating risk-taking, varietyseeking, and curiosity-related behaviors has not been conducted in a shopping context. In addition, scholars have focused on a variety of concepts and measures including the role of mood, emotions, and arousal in influencing consumer exploratory behavior. Because of links between the concepts and measures employed in past research and the emotional-motivational focus of this study we include corresponding literature for developing our hypotheses.

Moods, for example, are general predispositions to respond in specific ways (Aaker et al., 1986). In contrast to longer lasting moods, emotions are acute, specific, and reactive (triggered i.e., by nostalgic memories), changing rapidly, in seconds or minutes (Holbrook and O’Shaughnessy, 1984). Operationalizations of moods and emotions in past studies on exploratory behavior, however, do not always reflect those conceptual differences.

Regarding risk-taking tendencies, Raghunathan and Pham (1999) report positive correlations with negative moods, particularly anxiety and sadness. This negative effect is in line with Leith and Baumeister’s (1996) suggestion that risk-taking behaviors are linked to unpleasant moods. However, Leith and Baumeister (1996) find such an effect only when negative moods are accompanied by high arousal. As discussed before, arousal is linked to feelings and sensation seeking states via the intrinsically motivated desire to accomplish a specific level of (optimum) stimulation. According to the goaloriented self-regulatory position, individuals modify sensory input i.e. through exploratory behavior in order to obtain stimulation leading to differential affective states (Zuckerman, 1979). Further investigating the specific role of arousal, Caffray and Schneider (2000) show positive

effects on risky behaviors of adolescents such as drinking alcohol, using drugs, and having sex. This outcome is also in line with Leith and Baumeister’s (1996) findings.

More support for a positive correlation between sensation seeking states and risk taking stems from Mano’s (1994) examination of both pleasure and arousal influences on risk-taking behaviors. In his study, higher arousal levels lead to higher risk-taking expressed as higher willingnessto-pay for lotteries as well as lower willingness-to-pay for insurance. Also, higher pleasantness leads to greater risktaking expressed in terms of higher willingness-to-pay for lotteries. Similarly, Nicholson et al. (2005) find that stimulation-seeking promotes risk-taking.

Therefore, while some longer-lasting general predispositions may have a negative effect on risk taking, the acute emotional-motivational states which are in the center of this study’s interest appear to be positively correlated. Not only report Isen and Patrick (1983) positive effects of feelings on risk taking. In addition, there appears to be agreement that the relationships between affective states and risk taking depend on what is at stake. Specifically when the stakes are low, the relationship between sensation-seeking and risk taking is positive (Fessler et al., 2004; Isen and Patrick, 1983). Because the risks involved in shopping are relatively minor when compared to behaviors such as drug use, sex, or gambling, we follow the argument that consumers who experience higher sensation seeking states (e.g., feel more elated, daring, pleased, or stimulated) are more likely to take risks through choices of innovative or unfamiliar choices: H2a. An individual’s sensation seeking state positively influences risk taking.

Regarding variety-seeking behavior, Kahn and Isen (1993) have suggested that positive moods increase such behavior. However, other research has linked consumer sensation seeking negatively to variety-seeking (Menon and Kahn, 1995). Because the latter study separated effects of choice context stimulation and the stimulation derived from product choice, consumer sensation seeking may have been met by variety in a different product category or in other aspects of the choice context. In addition, if positive feelings were induced along with sensations then the reduction in variety-seeking behavior was mitigated (Menon and Kahn 1995). Only tentative support for a positive relation between sensation seeking and varietyseeking is provided by a study of exploratory behavior in an Internet-shopping context (Menon and Kahn, 2002).

Our proposition of positive relationship between consumer emotional-motivational states and variety seeking therefore draws from findings that individuals in a state of boredom (stronger need for sensation) are more willing to conduct interesting tasks (Kraiger et al., 1989). Berlyne (1958) originally suggests that when an individual is confronted with an object more complex, novel or irregular, their arousal increases. Because the most effective means of reducing arousal is to simply explore the source, individual

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sensation-seeking states should be positively related to variety seeking, i.e., switching to a different brand or product. Consistent with this notion, Martin et al. (2005) demonstrate that consumer sensation-seeking is positively correlated with preferences for verbal and visual complexity in websites. Gierl et al. (1999), finally, confirm positive relations between consumer emotional-motivational states and their variety seeking. We therefore postulate: H2b. An individual’s sensation seeking state positively influences their variety seeking.

Regarding effects from sensation seeking states on curiosity-motivated behavior, Gierl et al. (1999) suggest that such a relationship is positive. This would be in line with Berlyne’s (1958) theorizing: because the most effective means of reducing arousal is to simply explore the source, sensation-seeking states should be positively related to curiosity-motivated behavior (Litman et al., 2005). In addition, if, as reported in past studies (Gierl et al., 1999; Zuckerman, 1979) sensation seeking traits and states are positively correlated, and if the sensation seeking trait is positively correlated with exploratory behavior (Raju, 1980; Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 1996), then it can be predicted that sensation seeking states will be positively related to all three consumer exploratory tendencies.

Accordingly, sensation-seeking states will be positively related to curiosity-motivated behavior: H2c. An individual’s sensation seeking state positively influences their curiosity-motivated behavior.

Regarding the influence of consumer personality or individual differences (i.e., the sensation seeking trait) past research has found both sensory and cognitive sensation seeking to be related to the trait, but generally the trait was correlated more strongly with the sensory than with the cognitive dimension (Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 1996).

Effects from the sensation-seeking trait on the three facets of exploratory behavior were all positive. Although the following hypotheses parallel fragments of prior studies, they have not been tested in the comprehensive structural equation context proposed here. Our third set of hypotheses, therefore, is: H3a. An individual’s sensation seeking trait positively influences their risk taking.

H3b. An individual’s sensation seeking trait positively influences their variety seeking.

H3c. An individual’s sensation seeking trait positively influences their curiosity-motivated behavior.

As outlined before, individuals engage in exploratory behavior to attain a satisfactory level of stimulation. The differences in the amount of stimulation considered optimal by an individual are reliable, constituting the sensation-seeking trait (Berlyne, 1960; Raju, 1980; Roberti et al., 2003). In addition, this intrinsically motivated desire has been suggested to be positively related to consumer

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sensation seeking states (Steenkamp and Baumgartner, 1992; Zuckerman, 1979). When responding to a stimulus, individuals with an intrinsically higher level of sensation seeking (trait) exhibit higher sensation seeking states than individuals with a lower trait level. Analogous, individuals with an intrinsically lower trait level exhibit comparatively lower state levels in response to a stimulus. Gierl et al.

(1999) have provided initial evidence for this notion but they did not employ a measure suitable for assessing short-term sensation seeking states. Our final hypothesis therefore is: H4. An individual’s sensation seeking trait positively influences their sensation seeking state.

4. Method 4.1. Sample and data collection To exclude the influence of potentially distorting environmental variables such as noise, lighting, temperature or crowding, data were collected in a laboratory setting from a consumer panel maintained by sensory scientists at a university located in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Three hundred panel members were selected randomly and received an invitation to participate in a new product test. Consistent with past panel participations, a $10 gift certificate, valid at a variety of local stores and restaurants, was offered as an incentive. Of the 300 panel members who received an invitation, 281 consumers participated in this study (N ¼ 281), yielding a response rate of 93.7%. The participants represented a broad range of age groups (18–71 years of age, mean age ¼ 38.4, SD ¼ 8.47); 60% of the respondents were females. While the potential for non-response bias cannot be dismissed, we take the high response rate as an indication that such a non-response bias may be minimal.

4.2. Stimuli and pretests The scent selection was based on past research (Hirsch, 1992) with a pretest (n ¼ 19) conducted among the target population to determine scents capable of producing nostalgic responses. The scents were presented following established procedures (Morrin and Ratneshwar, 2000): identified by randomly assigned numbers, each scent was presented in a small lid-covered glass containing an aroma stick which had been dipped one quarter inch deep into the essential oil. Pre-testers removed the lid and sniffed the scent in random order approximately 4 in from the nose.

A total of 54 aromas were included and evaluated on the NOST scale, a 10-item seven-point Likert-type battery (Pascal et al., 2002), for their potential to evoke nostalgic memories. The scents were evaluated in subsets of six separated by extensive breaks. Student’s t-test on mean ratings revealed that some scents were more powerful stimuli than others, resulting in higher scores on the NOST

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scale. Because of the highly individualistic nature of nostalgic cues (Holbrook, 1993), five scents with the highest respective scores were selected for the subsequent study. Those scents were Blackberry, Cinnamon, Citrus blossom, Green Pepper (the smell of newly mowed grass), and freshly baked bread.

4.3. Procedure Another pilot test was conducted in the experimental room subsequently used for the main study to refine the scent diffusion technique. The test as well as the main experiment followed procedural guidelines validated in past research (Fiore et al., 2000; Morrin and Ratneshwar, 2000; Spangenberg et al., 1996). Specifically, scents were emitted by electrical diffusers into which a predetermined number of essential oil drops were placed to ascertain a noticeable yet subtle fragrance in the air. In the scented condition, diffusers which were invisible to the participants emitted the scent into the atmosphere one hour prior to participant admission; in the unscented condition, no scent was emitted. Before each treatment, the room was thoroughly ventilated to eliminate any preexisting odor.

Participants were admitted in small groups of six individuals into the lab. Each participant was seated in an individual booth in front of identical computer screens where a questionnaire was administered that operationalized the model constructs under the guise of a new product test. Respondents completed questions that established sensation seeking trait and state, exploratory tendencies, evoked nostalgic memories, and demographic variables.

4.4. Measurements Well-tested measures for all constructs were available and were employed. A summary of the measurement characteristics of all study constructs is shown in Table 1.

To assess the Nostalgic Memories evoked by the scents, participants evaluated the respective condition using the 10-item, seven-point NOST scale developed and validated in past studies (Pascal et al., 2002; Muehling and Sprott,

Table 1 Summary statistics and reliabilities for study constructs Variable

Mean

Standard deviation

Reliability (a)

Nostalgic memories Affective state Sensation seeking trait Risk taking Variety seeking Curiosity-motivated behavior

4.52 5.05 5.30 4.25 4.01 5.31

1.28 1.17 1.25 1.21 1.27 1.13

.95 .88 .92 .78 .86 .81

2004). Preceded by the introductory phrase ‘‘The atmosphere in this roomy’’, the scale included items such as ‘‘yreminds me of the past,’’ ‘‘y helps me recall pleasant memories,’’ ‘‘y makes me feel nostalgic’’, among others.

Consistent with past applications, the scale items loaded strongly on a single factor (eigenvalue ¼ 7.02; explained variance ¼ .78) with uni-dimensionality established through principal-components factor analysis with varimax rotation. In addition, the scale was found to be highly consistent (Cronbach’s a ¼ .95) with satisfactory sampling adequacy (Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin ¼ .92; Kaiser, 1974).

Closely aligned with past research (Caffray and Schneider, 2000; Mano, 1994; Martin et al., 2005; Menon and Kahn, 2002; Nicholson et al., 2005), Zuckerman’s (1979) scale was employed for assessing each individual’s sensation seeking state. Given the mixed emotional-motivational responses evoked by nostalgic memories, this item battery was considered to be particularly useful. For each of the 15 items (adventurous, amused, elated, confident, cooperative, curious, daring, enthusiastic, imaginative, interested, joyful, lucky, playful, pleased, zany), consumer response to the statement ‘‘Right now, I feely’’ was measured on a seven-point Likert type scale. Preliminary measurement models confirmed that a single factor solution provided a superior fit to the data compared to two- or more-factor models. Specifically, the one-factor model had a significantly lower w2 and significantly higher fit statistics (higher adjusted goodness-of-fit index, or AGFI, and normed fit index, or NFI, and lower root mean square error of approximation, or RMSEA) than two-, three-, or four-factor models. In addition, the model fit was better if ‘‘zany’’—which was thought to be an oldfashioned term—was dropped.

Steenkamp and Baumgartner’s (1995) change seeker index (CSI) was used for measuring individuals’ sensation seeking trait. The seven-item battery has been validated across cultures and has been shown to be superior to other scales (Steenkamp and Baumgartner, 1995). Using the eigenvalue cutoff-criterion, principal-components factor analysis with varimax rotation established unidimensionality with the scale items loading on a single factor (eigenvalue ¼ 4.07; explained variance ¼ .69). Reliability was found to be acceptable (Cronbach’s a ¼ .92) and the sampling adequacy was satisfactory (Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin value ¼ .90).

To assess risk taking, variety seeking, and curiositymotivated behavior at a state level, consumer exploratory tendencies were measured through the scale introduced by Raju (1980), the instrument most commonly used in this context. To alleviate the task load on the respondents, the original number of 39 items was reduced to 12 (Wahlers et al., 1986; Gierl et al., 1999). Preliminary measurement models confirmed that a three-factor solution provided a superior fit to the data compared to a single factor solution. Specifically, the three-factor model had a significantly lower w2 and significantly higher fit statistics than a one-factor model or two-factor models.

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5. Results 5.1. Manipulation check A fundamental premise of this study is that ambient scent is linked to nostalgic memories. To ascertain that the scents diffused actually evoked nostalgic memories, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed. Differences were found (F(5,275) ¼ 6.29, po.001) for the five scents and the control group, confirming that the scents indeed produced nostalgic memories (MNo scent ¼ 2.44, MBlackberry ¼ 4.12, MCinnamon ¼ 5.42, MCitrus blossom ¼ 4.25, MGreen pepper ¼ 5.61, MFresh-baked bread ¼ 5.64). The manipulation check thus shows that ‘‘no scent’’ did not evoke nostalgic memories, that citrus blossom and blackberry were somewhat more likely to evoke nostalgic memories, and that green pepper, cinnamon and bread were quite effective. Accordingly, scent was incorporated into the following comprehensive model in three corresponding treatments ‘‘low’’, ‘‘moderate’’, and ‘‘high’’.

5.2. Comprehensive measurement model test In keeping with the procedure recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988), a comprehensive measurement model was estimated that included all constructs and measures subsequently used in the testing of structural relations (Steenkamp and Baumgartner, 2000). To evaluate the effects, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted using AMOS 4.0 (Arbuckle and Wothke, 1999). Following tradition, the scale of measurement for the constructs was established by setting one of the factor loadings to a default value of 1.0. The overall goodness-of-fit statistics for this comprehensive measurement model were acceptable: w(943) ¼ 1836.33, po.001; GFI ¼ .94, AGFI ¼ .91, Bollen’s (1989) incremental fit index (IFI) ¼ .95.

Five of the six aggregated constructs used each had average variance extracted (AVEs) equaling or exceeding

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.50, indicating acceptable convergent validity. One exception was the three-item variety-seeking construct, which fell just short of this conventional benchmark (AVE ¼ .47; CCR ¼ .70). Because using a two-best item variety-seeking scale raised the AVE to .71 and the CCR to .83, we choose to use only the two strongest items from these three. In addition, re-estimating our final structural models using just the two-best items did not change any of the results. In light of the preliminary factor analysis results, ‘‘zany’’ was dropped from the sensation seeking state scale.

Discriminant validity among these latent constructs was tested by examining if their pairwise correlations (adjusted for measurement error) were each significantly different from 1.0 (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). None of these correlations were greater than .68, and all were more than three standard errors away from 1.0, indicating that they were all significantly different from 1.0 at po.01.

5.3. Research findings Hypotheses were tested through confirmatory factor analysis (AMOS) estimates by specifying a recursive model (see Fig. 1) in which ambient scent evoked nostalgic memories which influenced consumer sensation seeking states, which then influenced exploratory tendencies jointly with the sensation seeking trait. A causal model estimating ‘‘all paths’’ had the following fit statistics: overall w(946) ¼ 1490.14, po.001; GFI ¼ .96, AGFI ¼ .93; RMR ¼ .11; RMSEA ¼ .07.

The standardized path coefficients of the all paths model (Table 2, Column 3) show that the path between ambient scent and evoked nostalgia was significant (.37, po.001), hence confirming the basic assumption of this research that ambient scent evokes nostalgic memories. In addition, the path between evoked nostalgia and consumer sensation seeking state was significant (.33, po.01), thus providing support for H1.

Table 2 Observed effects Estimated path

Scent-nostalgic memories Scent-sensation seeking state Nostalgic memories-sensation seeking state Nostalgic memories-risk taking Nostalgic memories-variety seeking Nostalgic memories-curiosity-motivated behavior Sensation seeking state-risk taking Sensation seeking state-variety seeking Sensation seeking state-curiosity-motivated behavior Sensation seeking trait-risk taking Sensation seeking trait-variety seeking Sensation seeking trait-curiosity-motivated behavior Sensation seeking trait-sensation seeking state po.01

Hyp.

H1

H2a H2b H2c H3a H3b H3c H4

Standardized path coefficients All paths model

Hypothesized paths model

.37 .06 .34 .02 .05 .16 .18 .15 .29 .43 .33 .25 .20

.37 .33

.18 .15 .29 .44 .32 .23 .20

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The non-hypothesized paths between scent and sensation seeking state and between nostalgic memories and the exploratory tendencies risk taking and variety-seeking were not significant with p4.05. Unexpectedly, curiosity-motivated behavior related positively to nostalgic memories (.16, po.05). Paths between the sensation seeking state and exploratory tendency constructs were significant for risk taking (.18, po.05), variety-seeking (.15, po.05), and curiosity-motivated behavior (.29, po.01). This finding is in line with past research (i.e., Gierl et al., 1999), and supports hypotheses H2a, H2b and H2c.

The paths between the sensation seeking trait and consumer exploratory tendencies were significant for risk taking (.43, po.01), variety seeking (.33, po.01), and curiosity-motivated behavior (.25, po.01). Hypotheses H3a, H3b, and H3c were thus supported.

Finally, there was a significant positive correlation between the sensation seeking trait and state (.20, po.01), with a magnitude similar to past studies (Zuckerman, 1979; Gierl et al., 1999). We take this as support for H4.

Another model, with just the hypothesized paths, was also estimated, and its results are shown in Column 4 of Table 2. This ‘‘hypothesized paths only’’ model has fit statistics slightly below those of the all paths model (w(666) ¼ 1048.08, po.001; GFI ¼ .93, AGFI ¼ .91) with standardized path coefficients very similar to the all paths model.

6. Discussion Following suggestions that the details of how nostalgic memories work in the marketplace remain largely unknown (Rindfleisch and Sprott 2000; Pascal et al., 2002), this study took a first step by examining how autobiographical nostalgic memories influence consumer exploratory shopping behaviors. It could be argued that conducting the study in a laboratory environment does not provide insight about how nostalgic memories actually work in retail settings. However, there appears to be general acknowledgement that laboratory settings are advantageous for generating initial knowledge extending the literature in a manner that begins to address implementation. After contrasting the option to exclude potentially distorting factors against the need to conduct the study in a realistic setting which is more difficult to control, the current research adopted the perspective that—in order to obtain meaningful insights in this under-investigated area—controlling for potentially distorting environmental factors takes precedence over the need for realistic settings.

6.1. Managerial implications We believe the findings are important for several reasons. First, we provide the first study to test a comprehensive framework including ambient scent, nostalgic memories, sensation seeking state and trait variables

and consumer exploratory tendencies. The results demonstrate that scent does evoke nostalgic memories which in turn affect consumer sensation seeking with downstream effects on exploratory tendencies. Effects from nostalgic memories on consumer emotional-motivational response (their sensation seeking state), and from sensation seeking on risk taking, variety seeking, and curiosity-motivated behavior are significant while other effects, i.e. from nostalgic memories on risk taking, and variety seeking are not. These findings are in line with past suggestions that, in addition to the personality trait, an individual’s sensation seeking state is an important predictor of exploratory behavior (Gierl et al., 1999). We also extend past research reporting effects from related concepts such as mood (Kahn and Isen, 1993; Leith and Baumeister, 1996; Raghunathan and Pham, 1999), arousal (Leith and Baumeister, 1996; Mano, 1994) and feelings (Fessler et al., 2004; Isen and Patrick, 1983; Mano, 1994; Menon and Kahn, 1995). Additional evidence is generated emphasizing the need for clearly distinguishing between those constructs, particularly between acute emotions and longer lasting moods (Aaker et al., 1986). Because consumer sensation seeking was found to affect exploratory tendencies with a magnitude similar to the trait construct, more attention needs to be given to the consumer states, in which past studies collected data. The importance previously granted to the personality trait in affecting exploratory behavior may have been overstated and individual sensation seeking states need to be included for better predictions of consumer exploratory tendencies.

By establishing the power of ambient scent to evoke autobiographical memories, our study also adds a new perspective to research in atmospherics. Past olfaction research in retail settings has largely focused on scent pleasantness as a driver of effects on consumer behavior (e.g., Bone and Scholder, 1999; Chebat and Michon, 2003; Mattila and Wirtz, 2001). Simultaneously, past research reported that nostalgic memories, triggered by environmental cues, generate emotional-motivational responses (e.g., Baumgartner, 1992; Sujan et al., 1993). This research suggests that there may be another route of how consumers respond to ambient scent, namely through autographical memories evoked by an odor, an option that has not been considered before.

Our finding that scent triggers nostalgic memories has never been confirmed before. We therefore provide new empirical evidence to verify earlier accounts of anecdotal evidence (Hirsch, 1992) or related to music (Baumgartner, 1992; Zhu and Meyers-Levy, 2005). Our findings supplement the body of evidence that intangible stimuli such as ambient scent can elicit describable and contextual memories (Annett, 1996; Ehrlichman and Halpern, 1988; Holak and Havlena, 1992), and that odors of nature as well as man-made scents trigger nostalgic memories with respondents (Hirsch, 1992).

The finding of a satisfactory performance of an extended framework that includes consumer personality and state

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constructs has additional practical relevance: Unlike personality traits, individual sensation seeking states are more open to marketers’ influence. Marketers hence may affect consumer exploratory tendencies by evoking nostalgic memories, for example, through the diffusion of scents into a retail environment. They must be aware, however, that such manipulations will be difficult to control due to the highly individualistic nature of nostalgic cues and nostalgia proneness (Holbrook, 1993).

6.2. Future research Our research suggests several questions for future inquiries. Due to past research verifying links between behavioral tendencies and actual behavior (c.f. Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 1996) our study examined consumer exploratory tendencies but not actual behavior. Future research therefore should examine effects of evoked nostalgia on product-category specific exploratory behavior, for example measured in terms of product attribute weights or choice (Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 1996; Van Trijp et al., 1996) or in some selection context (e.g., how many products or brands one chooses to research). For retailers, it might be particularly beneficial to know if there is an effect on risky choice, for example between several alternatives with the same outcome but different levels of perceived risk (e.g., ‘‘certified organic’’ and ‘‘conventional’’ food), on variety seeking over time (e.g., choice of lunch over several weeks) or on curiosity-motivated behavior (e.g., choice of an informational leaflet or internet promotional website). A focal area of investigation could then be the likely differences or similarities for effects between products or product categories, particularly due to variance in product category involvement (Gierl et al., 1999).

The finding of a significant direct effect of nostalgic memories on curiosity-motivated behavior is unexpected.

Considering that this path was significant for cognitive but not for sensory sensation seeking expressions (i.e., risk taking, variety seeking) we take this as initial evidence that differences may exist in how consumers process autobiographical memories. These differences might be rooted in differential neuropsychiatric memory retrieval mechanisms (Ehrlichman and Halpern, 1988; Sujan et al., 1993). Such an interpretation would be consistent with reports on individual differences in the predisposition to process autobiographical memories via the central of peripheral route (Alpert and Alpert, 2004), and with studies on the referential versus embodied meanings of environmental stimuli (Zhu and Meyers-Levy, 2005). Future studies could thus examine the nature of nostalgic triggers (i.e., sensory versus cognitive cues), and specific feelings and thoughts evoked by those nostalgic cues to disentangle the differential impact of autobiographical memories on cognitive versus sensory sensation seeking.

It would also be helpful to relate the focus of this study, autobiographical nostalgic memories, to the body of

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research that emphasizes the role of nostalgia proneness as an individual difference variable (Schindler and Holbrook, 2003). Integrating both research streams could start by examining whether and how the personality trait (nostalgia proneness) and the consumer state (evoked nostalgic memories) interact in affecting consumer response. Specifically, it appears to be promising to test a moderating role of nostalgia proneness in relation to consumer emotional responses and arousal. This way, more insight into effect mechanisms of nostalgic memories could be obtained.

Finally, research on effects of evoked nostalgia in a shopping context may be extended by examining in more detail the suitability of different stimuli for eliciting memories of the past. For example, will the effect paths be identical for scent or music, tangible and intangible stimuli? And what are potential synergistic or mutually inhibitory effects of visual and auditory memory? In short, more research is needed to provide further insights into how nostalgic memories actually work in retail settings.

Acknowledgments The authors wish to thank Hans Baumgartner and Lynn Kahle for their comments on an earlier version of this paper. We also recognize the contribution of the anonymous reviewers to improving this manuscript, and would like to thank Mina McDaniel and Cindy Lederer for their assistance in collecting the data. Financial support for this research was provided in part by Bridgeview Inc. Inquiries should be directed to the first author.

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