Guidelines for Scientific Writing

Guidelines for Scientific Writing

How to Write a Scientific Paper

A scientific paper includes the following sections (or categories of information): Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Literature Cited.

The actual titles of the sections (i.e., Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Literature Cited) should be used as headers within the body of a scientific paper.

Note, also, that each section should begin on a new page (including the Literature Cited) and that tables and figures should appear at the end of a scientific paper (after the Discussion section but before the Literature Cited section).

Title The title of a scientific paper is not one of the paper’s sections. Rather, the title appears on the first page of the document. It should be centered and placed above the author’s name; it should not appear in bold or italics.

The title should contain three elements: 1. The Latin name of the essential oil studied.

2. The particular aspect or system studied.

3. The variable(s) manipulated.

For example: The Effects of Tea Tree New Zealand Leptospermum scoparium on Anxiety with Post-­‐Operative Cervical Cancer Patients

Abstract

The Abstract is the first section of a scientific paper. It should appear on a new page following the title page.

The Abstract is a very brief summary of the entire work described in the scientific paper. It should be one paragraph long (about 150-­‐200 words).

HINT: Due to the cumulative nature of the Abstract, write this section after you have completed all other sections of the paper. Otherwise, you may not have adequate information.

The Abstract should be a self-­‐contained section of writing. The Abstract is what people will read first; therefore, the Abstract should be very clear and

understandable to any reader, whether they do or do not have access to the remaining body of the scientific paper.

The Abstract should contain four elements:

1. The purpose of the study (the central question).

2. A brief statement of what was done (Methods).

3. A brief statement of what was found (Results).

4. A brief statement of what was concluded (Discussion, in part).

Frequently, readers of a scientific journal will only read the Abstract, choosing to read at length those papers that are most interesting to them. For this reason, and because abstracts are frequently made available to scientists by various computer abstracting services, this section should be written carefully and succinctly to have the greatest impact in as few words as possible.

Introduction

The Introduction section of a scientific paper presents the research question (hypothesis) being asked. The Introduction will place the research question being asked in context of what is already known about the topic. In addition, an Introduction may include background information that clarifies why the research topic is of particular interest, as well as relevant findings on the topic already published by other scientists.

In other words, the Introduction section should contain three elements:

1. A description of the nature of the problem and current state of knowledge or understanding at the beginning of the paper’s research (background).

2. A statement of the purpose, scope, and general method of investigation in your study. The statement of purpose expresses the central question you are asking and thus presents the variable you are investigating.

3. Your paper’s hypothesis/hypotheses and predictions. The hypothesis is the explanation you are proposing for certain observations. It should be accompanied by a prediction of results expected under certain conditions if the hypothesis is correct.

Do not get lost in reviewing background information. Remember that the Introduction is meant to introduce the reader to your research, not summarize and evaluate all past literature on the subject (which is the purpose of a review paper).

Many of the other studies you may be tempted to discuss in your Introduction are better saved for the Discussion section, where they become a powerful tool for comparing and interpreting your results. Include only enough background information to allow your reader to understand why you are asking the questions

you are asking and why your hypotheses are reasonable. Often, a brief explanation of the theory involved is sufficient.

Example Statement of Purpose:

This study investigates the relationship between …

OR

The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of …

Example of a Hypothesis:

Tea Tree New Zealand Leptospermum scoparium is being studied for potential nervine properties and may be an effective post-­‐operative support for cancer patients when administered via (insert method) every (insert frequency) for (insert duration).

Methods

The Methods section of a scientific paper describes all experimental procedures, including controls. The description should be complete enough to enable someone else to repeat your work.

If there is more than one part to the experiment (testing of the hypothesis), it is a good idea to describe your methods and present your results in the same order in each section. This may not be the same order in which the experiments were performed—it is up to you to decide what order of presentation will make the most sense to your reader.

The Methods section should contain five elements:

1. Explain why each procedure was done (i.e., what variable were you measuring and why?).

2. Experimental procedures and results are narrated in the past tense (i.e., when narrating how the experiment was carried out and what you discovered, use the past tense verb form, such as “studied,” “measured,” and “calculated”).

3. Mathematical equations and statistical tests are considered mathematical methods and should be described in this section along with the actual experimental work.

4. Use active voice when possible. (Active voice means the subject is performing the action, not receiving the action.) Also, use the singular “I” rather than the plural “we” when you are the only author of the paper. And,

throughout the paper, avoid contractions (e.g., use “did not” instead of “didn’t”).

5. If any of your methods have been fully described in a previous publication (yours or someone else’s), you can cite that publication instead of describing the procedure again.

Results

The Results section of a scientific paper summarizes general trends in the data collected from the experiment performed. The data summarized should be without bias, interpretation, or judgment.

In addition, statistical tests applied to your data are reported in this section.

However, conclusions about your original hypothesis/hypotheses should not be included in this section; conclusions about your original hypothesis/hypotheses should be included in the Discussion section of your scientific paper.

Data may be presented in figures and tables, but figures and tables may not be used as a substitute for, or in place of a written summary of your findings.

Much like the Abstract section, the Results section of your paper must be written so it is easily understood by someone who has not reviewed your figures and tables.

For example:

It is incorrect to say: The results are given in Figure 1.

It is correct to say: Temperature was directly proportional to metabolic rate (Fig. 1).

The Results section should contain three elements:

1. All results should be presented, including those that do not support the hypothesis.

2. Statements made in the text must be supported by the results contained in figures and tables.

3. The results of statistical tests can be presented in parentheses following a verbal description. For example: Fruit size was significantly greater in trees growing alone (t = 3.65, df = 2, p < 0.05).

Discussion

The Discussion section of a scientific paper analyzes the data results from your experiment in relation to the data from other studies. To analyze means to evaluate the meaning of your results in terms of the original question or hypothesis AND to point out the significance of your results.

At the minimum, your Discussion’s analysis should include:

1. The relationship between the results and the original hypothesis (i.e., whether the results support the hypothesis or cause it to be rejected or modified).

2. An integration of your results with those of previous studies in order to arrive at explanations for the observed phenomena.

3. Possible explanations for unexpected results and observations phrased as hypotheses that can be tested with realistic experimental procedures, which you should describe.

4. Trends that are not statistically significant can still be discussed if they are suggestive or interesting, but cannot be made the basis for conclusions as if they were significant.

5. End with a summary of the principal points you want the reader to remember. This is also the appropriate place to propose specific further study if that will serve some purpose.

Avoid redundancy between the Results and the Discussion sections of your paper.

Do not repeat detailed descriptions of the data and results in the Discussion section.

In some journals, Results and Discussions are joined in a single section in order to permit a single integrated treatment with minimal repetition. This is more appropriate for short, simple articles than for longer, more complicated ones. Use your judgment as to which is appropriate for your paper.

Tables and Figures

Tables and figures should be used when they are a more efficient way to convey information than written description. However, they cannot replace or “stand in” for written description. Rather, think of tables and figures as a visual aid to support or further clarify your written description.

Tables and figures must be independent units accompanied by explanatory captions that allow them to be understood by someone who has not read the paper’s primary text.

Do not repeat in the text the information that appears in your tables and figures, but do reference your tables and figures with a summary statement when that is appropriate.

Whenever possible, use a figure instead of a table. Relationships between numbers are more readily grasped when they are presented graphically rather than as columns in a table.

Tables

Do not repeat information in a table that you are depicting in a graph; include a table only if it presents new information.

It is easier to compare numbers by reading down a column than across a row.

Therefore, list sets of data you want your reader to compare in vertical form.

Provide each table with a number (Table 1, Table 2, etc.) and a title. The numbered title is placed above the table.

Figures The term “figures” includes graphs, histograms, and illustrations (both drawings and photographs). Provide each figure with a number (Fig. 1, Fig. 2, etc.) and a caption that explains what the figure depicts. The numbered caption is placed below the figure.

Should you find yourself submitting papers for publication, keep in mind … figures submitted for publication must be “photo ready” (i.e., figures will appear in publication just as you submit them, though perhaps photographically reduced in size). Therefore, when you graduate from student papers to publishable manuscripts, you must learn to prepare figures that will not embarrass you. Lines should be drawn with black ink (not ballpoint or marker). Symbols, letters, and numerals must be produced by stencil or mechanically, and should be large enough to withstand reduction. Proportions must be the same as those of the page in the journal to which the paper will be submitted.

More information about formatting documents, tables, and figures for publication is available from each specific publication; visit the Writer’s Guidelines section of each publication’s website for specific information or send an SASE for a hardcopy of their guidelines.

Literature Cited

The Literature Cited section is the last section of the scientific paper. References should be listed by author as indicated in the example list of formatted references included below.

Note, references are not referred to by footnotes as in literature papers but are cited within the body of the text. (See the section Format for Citing References in the Text, included below).

We will follow the format of the journal, Ecology. Other journals use variations on this theme. (See examples below.)

All authors must be named in the Literature Cited. It is only appropriate to use the abbreviation “et al.” for studies with several authors that appear within the body of your paper. All authors should be named in the Literature Cited.

Your Literature Cited section should include all references that appear in the body of your paper. References that do not appear in the body of your paper should not appear in your Literature Cited section.

Example List of Formatted References

Journal: Strong, D. R., Jr. 1980. Null hypothesis in ecology. Synthese 43: 271-­‐285.

Book: Eadie, W. R. 1954. Animal control in field farm and forest. MacMillan Co., New York, New York, USA.

Article in a book: Werner, P.A. 1979. Competition and coexistence of similar species. Pages 287-­‐310. In O.T. Solbrig, S. Jain, G. B. Johnson and P. Raven, editors.

Topics in plant population biology. Columbia University Press, New York, New York, USA.

Multiple authors: Gross, K. L. and P. A. Werner. 1978. The biology of Canadian weeds. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 58:401-­‐413.

Thesis: Calvo, R. N. 1990. Pollinator limitation, cost of reproduction, and fitness in plants: a demographic approach. Dissertation. University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, USA.

Technical report: Heinselman, M. L. 1981. Fire intensity and frequency as factors in the distribution and structure of northern ecosystems. Pages 7-­‐57 in H. Mooney, I. M. Bonnicksen, N. L. Christensen, J. E. Loten, and W. A. Reiners, editors. Fire regimes and ecosystem properties. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report WO-­‐26.

Websites as per National Library of Medicine Recommended Formats for Bibliographic Citation1: Hypertension, Dialysis & Clinical Nephrology [Internet]. Hinsdale (IL): Medtext, Inc.; c1995-­‐2001 [cited 2001 Mar 8]. Available from: http://www.medtext.com/hdcn.htm

Order of the elements of a citation, with punctuation, to a homepage: Author (Author Affiliation); Author (Author Affiliation). Title [Content Designator Medium Designator]. Place of Publication: Publisher; Date of Publication [Date of Update/Revision; Date of Citation]. Availability. (Language). Notes.

Refer to http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/formats/internet.pdf if needing to cite online resources such as video or audio.

Format for Citing References in the Text

1 http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/formats/internet.pdf

You must cite another researcher whenever you refer to his or her results, conclusions, or methods in your paper. The reference in the text is made only to the author’s name and date of publication. There are three ways of doing this:

1. Both the name and date can go inside parentheses is the name is not actually part of your sentence. Not all journals include the comma between author and year.

For example:

Enzymes are inhibited by cyanide (Grubb 1977).

Because enzymes are inhibited by cyanide (Grubb 1977), I expect …

Those with hypertension can exhibit excessive sweating (Hypertension, Dialysis & Clinical Nephrology, 1994-­‐2001).

Note that in the third option, “Hypertension, Dialysis & Clinical Nephrology, 1994-­‐ 2001” is a reference to a website that doesn’t have a specific author associated with the article.

Note, too, that the in-­‐text parenthesis is placed at the end of a sentence and that punctuation FOLLOWS the citation.

2. Another way to cite a study is to make the last name of the researcher the subject or object of the sentence or clause and follow it immediately with the date of the study in parentheses.

For example:

Grubb (1977) found that cyanide inhibits enzymes.

Because Grubb (1977) found that cyanide inhibits enzymes....

These data support the conclusions of Grubb (1977).

3. If you wish to emphasize the date of the cited study, you can omit the parentheses.

This strategy is often effective for presenting a historical perspective of the problem (i.e., useful in the Introduction section of a scientific paper).

For example:

As early as 1977, Grubb observed the inhibitory effect of cyanide on enzyme action.

In Addition, When Citing References in the Text …

1. It is INCORRECT to separate the date of publication from the author’s name.

For example:

It is incorrect formatting to say: Grubb found that cyanide inhibits enzyme action (1977).

2. If you want to cite more than one study per reference (i.e., if more than one author has reached the same conclusion or worked on the same problem independently), you may list them together in the same parentheses and separate their names by semicolons.

For example:

Cyanide has been found to inhibit enzyme action (Grubb 1977, Smith 1980, Taylor 1983).

By convention, the citations within the parenthesis are listed in chronological order.

3. When a reference has more than three authors, you may use the abbreviation et al. (from et alii, Latin for “and others”) after the first author’s name.

For example:

Cyanide has been found to inhibit enzyme action (Jones et al., 1985).

Sources for These Guidelines

These writing guidelines were taken from Guidelines for Writing Scientific Papers from Michigan State University as provided by the Bamfield Marine Sciences Center Library. It has been modified for our particular format desires with some excerpts about online resource citation. You can find the original document here: www.bms.bc.ca/library/Guidelines%20for%20writing%20Scientific%20papers.pdf

Additional sources include: • Guidelines for Writing Scientific Papers from San Diego State University: www.sci.sdsu.edu/~smaloy/MicrobialGenetics/topics/scientific-­‐ writing.pdf • Elements of Style by Strunk and White, which is available online at: http://www.bartleby.com/141/ • CBE Citation Guide from Ohio State University Library: http://library.osu.edu/sites/guides/cbegd.php

Additional Resources

Ambrose, H. W., III. & Ambrose, K. P. (1995). A handbook of biological investigation (5th ed). Winston-­‐Salem: Hunter Textbooks, Inc.

Day, R.A. (1983). How to write and publish a scientific paper (2nd ed). Philadelphia: ISI Press.

McMillan, V.E. (1988). Writing papers in the biological sciences. New York: Martin's Press.

Neter, E., Altman, P.L., Burgan, M.W., Holmgren, N.H., Pollock, G., Zipf, E.M. (1983).

CBE style manual: a guide for authors, editors, and publishers in the biological sciences (5th ed). Bethesda: Council of Biology Editors, Inc.

Woodford, F.P. (Ed.). (1986). Scientific writing for graduate students: a manual on the teaching of scientific writing. Committee on Graduate Training in Scientific Writing. Bethesda: Council of Biology Editors, Inc.