The Great Housing Paradox - A Superimposition of Mumbai’s Political Economy

The Great Housing Paradox A Superimposition of Mumbai’s Political Economy

by Amruta Mahakalkar 938094

Contemporary City: Descriptions and Projects Prof. Eliana Barbosa T.A. Elena Batunova T.A. Marco VedoĂ

Politecnico di Milano

School of Architecture Master of Science in Urban Planning and Policy Design Academic Year 2019/2020

Abstract Abstract In the last last few few decades, the the Global South has has developed several In the decades, Global South developed several megalopolises.

These vastvast horizontal stretches of urbanscape are lands megalopolises.

These horizontal stretches of urbanscape are lands of contradictions, where diverse actors comecome together in a melting pot pot of contradictions, where diverse actors together in a melting and yet withwith starkstark disparities.

The city Mumbai also also demonstrates andexist yet exist disparities.

The city Mumbai demonstrates manymany of these paradoxes, the most shocking one being its real of these paradoxes, the most shocking one being its estate real estate and housing situation. and housing situation.

Today Mumbai is witnessing a head-on collision between a top-down Today Mumbai is witnessing a head-on collision between a top-down process of speculative real-estate investments and and a bottom-up process of speculative real-estate investments a bottom-up decentralized network of informal housing.

ThereThere are aare range of reasons decentralized network of informal housing. a range of reasons for this problem - from its industrial foundation, obsolete zoning laws,laws, for this problem - from its industrial foundation, obsolete zoning and stringent regulations, to the neoliberal interferences, and an and stringent regulations, torecent the recent neoliberal interferences, and an alternate governance led by and the political partyparty - all - all alternate governance ledslumlords by slumlords and local the local political havehave played crucial role in defining and distorting the character of this played crucial role in defining and distorting the character of this city city region. region.

This This exercise is anisattempt to understand these invisible layers, map map exercise an attempt to understand these invisible layers, themthem in a timeline, stack them, and observe how how theythey havehave transformed in a timeline, stack them, and observe transformed individually, complemented and and contradicted one one another, and and individually, complemented contradicted another, ultimately impacted the physical and social realities of Mumbai and its ultimately impacted the physical and social realities of Mumbai and its people. people.

Theme - City- City and Politics Theme and Politics

The The analysis of every layer is is analysis of every layer supported by excerpts from the the widely supported by excerpts from widely acclaimed non-fiction Maximum City:City: acclaimed non-fiction Maximum Bombay LostLost andand Found written by by Bombay Found written author Suketu Mehta in 2004, in order author Suketu Mehta in 2004, in order to offer a narrative of how these to offer a narrative of how these policies andand legislations have impacted policies legislations have impacted the the everyday life life of Mumbaikars. everyday of Mumbaikars.

ñ Įĉĕ ĞĹ đIJİʭĕ ÿıċĭ ĒĞĭŁ ñ Įĉĕ ĞĹ đIJİʭĕ ÿıċĭ ĒĞĭŁ Ģēĭ ĞĂ ø ĸ ~ Ģēĭ ďý ø ĸ Ģēĭ ĞĂ ø ĸ ~ Ģēĭ ďý ø ĸ Ēĸ ĞĹ ďĺɾĸ đĸ ďĺɾĸ ēı ÿĭċ͡ Ēĸ ĞĹ đĸēı ÿĭċ͡ ... ... øĞı Ń ĮďİʒŃ øĞı ú Ń ĂŌ øĞı ĭđĸ øĞı Ń đļĂē øĞı Ń Įđĕ Ń Įđĕ øĞıúŃ ĮďİʒŃ Ń ĂŌ ĭđĸ øĞı Ń đļĂē øĞı Įđĕĭćĭ ĞĹ ĒĞĭŁ ĝď ø Ń Įĉĕ Ń Įĉĕ Įđĕĭćĭ ĞĹ ĒĞĭŁIJ þ èø Įđĕćĭ ċĞı ĝď øIJþ èø Įđĕćĭ ċĞı èŃ ĝĭŃ øĭ ċĞı Ń øĞı Ń ċĭđļĮċĚĭŁ èŃ ĝĭŃ øĭ ċĞı Ń øĞı Ń ċĭđļĮċĚĭŁ Ģēĭ ĞĂ ø ĸ ~ Ģēĭ ďý ø ĸ Ģēĭ ĞĂ ø ĸ ~ Ģēĭ ďý ø ĸ Ēĸ ĞĹ ďĺɾĸ đĸ ďĺɾĸ ēı ÿĭċ͡ Ēĸ ĞĹ đĸēı ÿĭċ͡

O heart, it's tough to liveto here O heart, it's tough live here Move aMove little,a little, be careful be careful This isThis Bombay, my dear. is Bombay, my dear. ... ...

Here you will find and trams Here you willbuildings find buildings and trams Here you will find cars and mills Here you willmotor find motor cars and mills Here you will find exceptexcept Here you willeverything find everything You will not find heart.

You will notone find one heart.

Here there no sign humans, Here is there is noofsign of humans, Be careful, be cautious Be careful, be cautious This isThis Bombay my love. is Bombay my love.

- Mohammed Rafi, CID (1956) - Mohammed Rafi, CID (1956)

Image by Abhay Singh, Singh, Unsplash Image

by Abhay Unsplash

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ontents Contents

mbai Mumbai Introduced Introduced

eThe Great Great Housing Housing Paradox Paradox

Rent 1. Rent Control’s Control’s Unintended Unintended Consequences Consequences

Bombay Bombay RentRent Control Control Act,Act, 1947 1947

Cotton 2. Cotton Mills Mills andand thethe Land Land Ceiled Ceiled

Decline Decline of Cotton of Cotton Mills,Mills, Urban Urban LandLand Ceiling Ceiling Act, Act, 19761976 and and the FSI theConundrum FSI Conundrum

Say 3. Say YesYes to Sprawls to Sprawls

Metropolitan Metropolitan Regional Regional PlansPlans

4.a Slums Slums - Bulldozed - Bulldozed butbut notnot Built Built Back Back SlumSlum Clearance Clearance and and Improvement Improvement Act,Act, 1956 1956 and and LandLand Acquisition Acquisition Act,Act, 1894 1894

4.b Slums Slums Solved Solved - Conditions - Conditions Applied Applied SlumSlum Redevelopment Redevelopment Scheme Scheme 19911991 and and Neoliberalism Neoliberalism

Shiv 5. Shiv Sena Sena - An- Alternate An Alternate Governance Governance

nclusion Conclusion

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ममब ंु ब ंु ई Mumbai Mumbai Greater Greater Metropolitan Mumbai Mumbai Metropolitan Region Region

PriorPrior 16001600 18001800 SevenSeven Fishing Fishing Islands Islands

1900190019701970 20202020

Industrial Industrial Bombay Bombay

Mumbai Mumbai Metropolitan Metropolitan Region Region

Mumbai MumbaiIntroduced Introduced

Mumbai Mumbai (renamed (renamed fromfrom Bombay Bombay in 1996) in 1996) is one is of one the of most the most significant significant cities cities of In and the and Global the Global South.

South.

Today, Today, the financial, the financial, commercial, commercial, and entertainment and entertainment capita ca the the country, country, it was it was originally originally a collection a collection of seven of seven fishing fishing islands. islands.

AfterAfte be reclaimed reclaimed into into a solid a solid landland fromfrom the the sea sea only only in 1845 in 1845 by the by the British, British, Bomb B th witnessed an immense industrial growth till the 20th 20 witnessed an immense industrial growth till late the late century, century, attracting attractin gre influxinflux of migrants of migrants around around the nation. the nation.

The second The second mostmost populous populous city city in India, in India, it is it amongst is amongst the densest the densest megacities megacities on t planet. planet.

OverOver the the last last century, century, withwith its exploding its exploding population, population, the the city,city, despite desp geographical geographical constraints constraints havehave sprawls sprawls outwards outwards and and today today covers covers the vast the vast MumM Metropolitan Metropolitan Region Region (MMR) (MMR) of 4,250 of 4,250 km2.km2.

WithWith its linear its linear growth growth alongalong the coast the coast in the in beginning, the beginning, the city the city can can be divided be divid in the main the main Greater Greater Mumbai Mumbai Island Island City City and its andsuburbs its suburbs on the on north-east the north-east thatthat gradua gr mushroomed mushroomed in the inlast the last decades. decades.

The island The island city city though though covering covering 10%10% of MMR, of MMR, hous a fourth a fourth of itsofpopulation. its population.

Apart fromfrom the the issues of a oftypical megacity, Mumbai facesfaces a peculiar problem Apart issues a typical megacity, Mumbai a peculiar prob housing.

It is Itnot the problem of space but abut complex nexus of political, pol housing. is just not just the problem of space a complex nexus of political and and legislative decisions thatthat has has produced this this mammoth challenge of hous legislative decisions produced mammoth challenge of h disparity in this city.city. disparity in this

ई

m of licy sing

“Can“Can I rent I rent a flat a flat at aat a price price I can I can afford?” afford?”

“No.”“No.” Coming Coming from from NewNew York, York, I amI am a pauper a pauper in in Bombay.

Bombay.

RATIO

RATIO

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0

Vancouver

Bangkok Vancouver

Dublin Bangkok

Kuala Lumpur Dublin

Auckland Kuala Lumpur

Singapore Auckland

Los Angeles Singapore

Mumbai Los Angeles

70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 -10 -10

San Francisco Mumbai

Part 1,Part The1, Country The Country of theof Nothe No (Maximum (Maximum City, Suketu City, Suketu Mehta) Mehta)

% GROWTH

nto ally ses

Population Population Density Density Mumbai Mumbai Metropolitan Metropolitan Region Region – 5,360 – 5,360 persons/ persons/ km2 km2 Greater Greater Mumbai Mumbai Island Island CityCity – 28,425 – 28,425 persons/ persons/ km2 km2

San Francisco

the its mbai

Population Population (2011) (2011) Mumbai Mumbai Metropolitan Metropolitan Region Region (MMR) (MMR) – 12.44 – 12.44 million million Greater Greater Mumbai Mumbai Island Island CityCity – 3.085 – 3.085 million million (25 (25 % of%total of total MMR) MMR)

% GROWTH

ndia al of eing bay eat

AreaArea Mumbai Mumbai Metropolitan Metropolitan Region Region (MMR)– (MMR)– 4,253 4,253 km2 km2 2 2 Greater Greater Mumbai Mumbai Island Island CityCity – 440 – 440 km (10% km (10% of total of total MMRMMR ) )

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Income to housing to housing rationration % Growth in housing % Growth in housing % Growth % Growth in income in income Income

Housing Housing vs. Income vs. Income growth growth , 2018, 2018 Source: Source: URBANURBAN FUTURES FUTURES - Edition - Edition 1, Knight 1, Knight Frank Frank 2019 2019

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The The Great Great Housing Housing Paradox Paradox

TotalTotal number number of census of census houses houses in MMR in MMR - 8,763,300 - 8,763,300 TotalTotal number number of slum of slum census census houses houses - 1,953,000 - 1,953,000 – 27% – 27% of MMR of MMR SlumSlum houses houses in Greater in Greater Mumbai Mumbai Island Island City City - 1,101,655 - 1,101,655 – 80% – 80% of total of total slumslum house ho Estimated Estimated formal formal housing housing needneed in MMR in MMR - 3.6- million 3.6 million by 2020 by 2020 % of% population of population livingliving in slum in slum

52.5% 52.5%

TotalTotal SlumSlum AreaArea in Greater in Greater Mumbai Mumbai

8.75% 8.75%

LandLand AreaArea Reserved Reserved for Housing for Housing in Greater in Greater Mumbai Mumbai as per asMaster per Master Plan Plan 21.17% 21.17

FourFour or more or more rooms rooms

Two Two or three or three rooms rooms

No Exclusive No Exclusive or or a single a single roomroom

Girish’s Girish’s shanty shanty is a isroom. a room.

There Th manner manner of implicit of implicit understandin understan howhow the the family family members members will w d their their timetime in the in the room. room.

There Th enough enough space space for for everybody everybody to at once, at once, except except when when they’re they’re all when when body body movements movements are are ke minimum. minimum.

It’s It’s the the onlyonly wayway theyt stacked, stacked, when when they’re they’re sleeping sleepio Home, Home, in the in the slum, slum, is a istime-s a tim

Part 3,Part Girish: 3, Girish: A Tourist A Tourist in His in City His C

The housing The housing situation situation of Mumbai of Mumbai is appalling is appalling at best. at best.

Presently, Presently, a third a third of itsofhousehol its hous island island city city is even is even worse worse withwith 80%80% of itsof houses its houses supplied supplied informally. informally.

Mumbai Mumbai cont largest largest slums, slums, among among its 2400 its 2400 otherother clusters. clusters.

But these But these slums, slums, due to duetheir to their immense imm overover 8.5%8.5% areaarea of the city.city.

Also,Also, 55%55% of the live in a single room.room. of island the island of families the families live in a single In addition, a range of factors, of land is skyrocketing, In addition, due due to atorange of factors, the the costcost of land herehere is skyrocketing, ma absolutely unaffordable for most its citizens.

An estimated three-quarters of u absolutely unaffordable for most of itsofcitizens.

An estimated three-quarters of urban 6% its households, and just 91 people control the majority all vacant only only 6 % of itsofhouseholds, and just 91 people control the majority of allofvacant land la i Meanwhile, 250,000 houses mainly constructed for higher and middle-incom Meanwhile, overover 250,000 houses mainly constructed for higher and middle-income gro or vacant in Mumbai. of them are simply locked to evade Mumbai’s unr or vacant in Mumbai.

ManyMany of them are simply locked up toupevade Mumbai’s unreaso These staggering contradictions a result a number of policy decisions These staggering contradictions are aareresult of a ofnumber of policy decisions and obsolete yet existing and many evolving in emerging the emerging atmosphere of neoliberal obsolete yet existing and many evolving in the atmosphere of neoliberalism.

es

ee are all all ngs about about divide e up up n’t e isn’t there be there eping, sleeping, ept to ato a an y can be be dead. or dead. re. share.

ive lds in live slums. in slums.

The The stains Dharavi, Dharavi, Asia's Asia's nsity e density covercover just just

aking formal formal housing housing ace n space is owned is owned by by umbai. in Mumbai. oups are lying are lying unsold unsold onable le housing housing laws.laws. gislations, d legislations, somesome .

SlumsSlums in Mumbai in Mumbai , 2011, 2011 Source: Source: P K Das P Kand DasAssociates and Associates Mumbai Mumbai 2011 2011

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I ask I ask howhow Girish Girish sleeps sleeps withwith his famil his fa takes takes out out a pen. a pen.

“See, “See, we we are are seven sevp the the cot,”cot,” andand he sketches he sketches twotwo circc younger brothers on the floor.”

TwoT younger brothers on the floor.”

“My“My parents in the kitchen,” onlyonly no parents in the kitchen,” halfhalf of the room.

Then he draw of the room.

Then he d “My“My sister under the the table.”

After th sister under table.”

Afte napkin, folds it once, folds it over aga napkin, folds it once, folds it over it very hard in his presses it it very hard in fingers, his fingers, presse become small, so small thatthat it isitinsign become small, so small is in looks up and s looks up an

Part 3,Part Girish: 3, Giris AT

nlythe in the room. room.

He looks He looks at me, at me, then then ple. people.

Me and Me and my my older older brother brother on on on les aonrectangle. a rectangle. “Then “Then my my twotwo more balloons below rectangle. re balloons below the the rectangle. otionally separated from front nally separated from the the front ws a line, writes onTABLE. it TABLE. a line, writes on it his explanation, he takes paper explanation, he takes the the paper ain, scrunches it into a ball, presses scrunches it into a ball, presses tthwith all might, his might, when it has all his andand when it has nificant, he throws it away.

Then cant, he throws it away.

Then he he smiles at me. es at me.

tourist in His in City His City

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“The“The housing market in the citycity bestbest represents the the political e housing market in the represents politic Mumbai, withwith its base in creating wealth by any means, result Mumbai, its base in creating wealth by any means, re structural inequalities in the system” (Sharma 2007). structural inequalities in the system” (Sharma 2007).

Mumbai’s social and and physical fabricfabric today is a is result of complex layers of macr Mumbai’s social physical today a result of complex layers of m legislations and and politics continuing to weave and and entangle for over seven d legislations politics continuing to weave entangle for over seve independence in 1947.

Five Five suchsuch majormajor layers of itsofpolitical economy are identifie independence in 1947. layers its political economy are iden

nomy of of economy in vast ting in vast

nd micromicro policies, ro and policies, des sincesince India's decades India's d discussed next.next. ed and discussed

Image by Vinay Unsplash Image byDarekar, Vinay Darekar, Unsplash

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1.1.Rent RentControl’s Control’sUnintended UnintendedC

Economic Economic Liber

Independent Independent India India

1991 1991 200 1985 1985 1975 1975 1995 1995 1980 1980 1965 19651970 1970 1930 1930 1940 1940 1947 1947 1955 19551960 1960

Bombay Bombay Rents, Rents, Hotel,Hotel, and and Lodging Lodging House House RatesRates Control Control Act, 1947 Act, 1947

Amendment Amendm Control A Cont

The The reason reason Bombay Bombay is choking is choking is the is the RentRent Act.Act. It was It was an a institutionalized institutionalized expropriation expropriation of private of private property. property.

Democracies Democracies have have a weakness: a weakness: If a Ifbad a bad lawlaw has has enough enoug money or people behind it stays on the books.

In Bom money or people behind it, itit,stays on the books.

In Bombay I can walk a flat rented a year th I can walk intointo a flat I’ve I’ve rented for for a year andand staystay there of my it to onmy to my after for for the the restrest of my life,life, passpass it on sonssons after me,me, and defydefy the the lawful lawful proprietor’s proprietor’s efforts efforts to get to get my my ass ass off off his property...

I have behind property...

I have the the lawlaw behind me. me.

Part 1Part - Power, 1 - Power, Mumbai Mumbai

Bomb Bo

Monthly Monthly Rent Rent = =

5kg 5kgofof Rice!

Rice!

The Bo Th controv co reform ref propert pro OverOv ti nevernem theyth se a build ab obstruc ob unmain un to the to RentRe Ac a valua av act wa ac mostly mo

* Map Source: * Map S Image by Prerna Rajkumar, Unsplash Image

by Prerna Rajkumar, Unsplash

Consequences nsequences

ralization tion

2020 2020 2005 2005 2015 2015 00 2010 2010

the toRent the Rent 1999 Act, 1999

Proposal Proposal for a for dual a dual system system RentRent Control Control Act, 2019 Act, 2019

y e d

Proportion Proportion of total of total rent-controlled rent-controlled residential residential carpet carpet area*area* No Data No Data 0%-20% 0%-20% 20%-40% 20%-40% 40%-60% 40%-60% 60%-80% 60%-80% 80%-100% 80%-100%

bay Rent Rent Control Control Act,Act, 1947 1947

ombay y Rents, Rents, HotelHotel and Lodging and Lodging House House Rates Rates Control Control Act, Act, 19471947 was was one of onethe of most the most ial versial piecepiece of legislation of legislation impacting impacting the built the built formform of the of city. the city.

It was It was passed passed as a as a protect to protect the tenants the tenants fromfrom inflation inflation and evictions and evictions afterafter WWIIWWII and froze and froze the rents the rents of of ties in the in island the island city city for next for next fifty fifty years, years, only only to betoslightly be slightly amended amended in 1999. in 1999. ime, the real the rent real rent paid paid to the to landlord the landlord tends tends toward toward zero.zero.

As a As consequence a consequence tenants tenants emove out. out.

WhileWhile landlords landlords still have still have the right the right to sell toentire sell entire buildings buildings under under rent rent control, control, m eldom do itdo foritan forobvious an obvious lack lack of demand. of demand.

Therefore, Therefore, the older the older and the and more the more decrepit decrepit ding s, the is, less the less likelylikely it is it toisbetosold, be sold, rebuilt rebuilt or maintained. or maintained.

This This lack lack of incentive of incentive and and nction to private to private property property market market has has led to leda to significant a significant portion portion of housing of housing stock stock ned, ntained, deteriorated deteriorated and underused and underused on such on such valuable valuable land land withwith virtually virtually no addition no addition al rental housing, housing, especially especially for low-income for low-income group, group, for decades for decades (S Patel, (S Patel, 2005).

2005). as ct become has become a sensitive a sensitive and untouchable and untouchable issue, issue, backed backed by the by large the large tenant tenant lobby, lobby, able votevote bankbank thatthat has stopped has stopped it from it from appropriate appropriate reforms. reforms.

Reluctantly Reluctantly in 1999, in 1999, the the mended as amended which which has led has to leda to gradual a gradual increase increase in private in private housing housing investment investment but but yhigh-value for high-value residential residential properties properties only.only.

del, : UTandel, V., Patel, V., S., Patel, Gandhi, S., Gandhi, S., Pethe, S., Pethe, A., & Agarwal, A., & Agarwal, K. (2016).

K. (2016).

DeclineDecline of rental of housing rental housing in India:inthe India: case theofcase Mumbai of Mumbai

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2.2.Cotton CottonMills Millsand andthe theLands LandsCeC

Economic Economic Liber

Independent Independent India India

1991 1991 200 1985 1985 1975 1975 1995 1995 1980 1980 1965 19651970 1970 1930 1930 1940 1940 1947 1947 1955 19551960 1960

Decline Decline of Cotton of Cotton Mills Mills 1980s 1980s

Redevelop Redev mill lands mill

UrbanUrban LandLand (Ceiling (Ceiling and and Regulation) Regulation) Act -Act ULCRA, - ULCRA, 19761976 FSI frozen FSI frozen to 1.33 to 1.33 8

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Maximum Residential FSI

Maximum Residential FSI

9 New9York New York

6 Singapore 6 Singapore 5 4

5

DharaviDharavi Slum Slum

Seoul Seoul 4

3 Vancouver 3 Vancouver 2 1 0

2

MumbaiMumbai 1

0 Centre Centre 4

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Decline Decline of Cotton of Cotton Mills, Mills, Urban Urban LandLand Ce FSI (Floor FSI (Floor SpaceSpace # # Index)Index) Regulations Regulations 4 1.5 1.33 1 0.75 0.50

4 1.5 1.33 1 0.75 0.50

Mumbai Mumbai 2 1.24 m 1.24 /person m2/person

WHO Standards WHO Standards for Open for Open SpaceSpace - 9 m2-/person 9 m2/person

The once The once thriving thriving cotton cotton textile textile industry industry in Muin unused unused land land rightright in the in heart the heart of the of city. the city.

Howe restrictions restrictions underunder the city’s the city’s Development Development Cont artificial artificial scarcity scarcity of land. of land.

Mill land Mill land owners owners coul ULCRA ULCRA 19761976 that that limited limited private private ownership ownershi of into legal into legal disputes disputes on state on state acquisition acquisition and com and Additionally, Additionally, the landuse the landuse and FSI andrestriction FSI restriction und with with higher higher density. density.

In comparison In comparison to other to other globa The Regional The Regional Plan Plan of 1970 of 1970 instead instead of optimally of optimu pushed pushed the development the development in theinperiphery. the periphery.

Only Only in 1991, in 1991, afterafter the revision the revision of the of DCRs, the DC reserving reserving a third a third of land of land for open for open spaces, spaces, one thi on not satisfied not satisfied with with the amount the amount of land of land for profit for p wentwent in favor in favor of the ofmill theworkers, mill workers, but ultimately but ultima

Map / Chart Map /Sources: Chart Sources: * Report * Report of the Study of the Group Study on Group Cotton on Cotton Textile Te M # # Mumbai Mumbai FAR/FSIFAR/FSI Conundrum: Conundrum: The perfect The perfect storm

eiled led

ralization tion

2020 2020 2005 2005 2015 2015 00 2010 2010

nt pment of of 01 s 2001

CRA ULCRA repealed repealed 20072007 FSI and FSI TDR andincentives TDR incentives 20082008

Locations Locations of former of former textile textile cotton cotton mills*mills*

# Distance ce from city from centre city centre (in km)(in km)#

24

28

28

32

32

eiling g Act,Act, 1976 1976 andand the the FSI Conundrum FSI Conundrum

2 umbai i reached reached its thresholds its thresholds and declined and declined in 1980s. in 1980s.

This This left about left about 2.5 km 2.52 of kmunder of under and and ,ever, the Urban the Urban LandLand (Ceiling (Ceiling and Holding) and Holding) Act ULCRA Act ULCRA - 1976 - 1976 and Floor and Floor Space Space IndexIndex (FSI)(FSI) Regulations trol Regulations (DCR)(DCR) mademade redevelopment redevelopment of these of these land land parcels parcels impossible, impossible, causing causing an an ld t sell not their sell their landslands without without surrendering surrendering a large a large portion portion of land of land for public for public usesuses due to due to land uptoupto just 2000 just 2000 m2. Instead m2. Instead of bringing of bringing the lands the lands in theinmarket, the market, the Act thelocked Act locked themthem nsation. mpensation. der he Zoning the Zoning LawsLaws mademade it impossible it impossible to convert to convert the land the land use or use build or build a newa construction new construction egacities, al megacities, Mumbai Mumbai still has stillan has unreasonably an unreasonably low FSI lowlimit FSI limit of 1.33 of 1.33 in theinisland the island city area. city area. zing utilizing the available the available vacant vacant land land in theincity the centre city centre for social for social housing housing and public and public spaces, spaces,

velopment redevelopment of these of these land land parcels parcels was was specifically specifically permitted, permitted, with with the condition the condition of of orirdsocial for social housing housing and rest and one restthird one third for private for private development. development.

But again But again the mill theowners, mill owners, ttested protested for more for more land land for luxury for luxury apartments apartments and commercial and commercial use. use.

The court The court judgment judgment ther y further reduced reduced the possibility the possibility of new of affordable new affordable housing housing in theinisland the island city. city.

Mills Mumbai in Mumbai

by Government

by Government of Maharashtra of Maharashtra Urban Development Urban Development Department, Department, 1996 1996 m: ourthe factors four factors restricting restricting the construction the construction of newof floor newspace floor in space Mumbai, in Mumbai, A. Bertaud, A. Bertaud, 2011 2011

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3. Say Yes to Sprawls - Metrop

Economic Liber

Independent India 1930

1940

1947

1955

1960

1970

1965

1975

Mumbai Metropolitan Plan

1980

1985

1991

1970-1991

1995

200

1

FSI frozen to 1.33 Virar Industry

Angaon Industry

Vasai

Sape Industry Kharbao

Nilje

Greater Mumbai

New Mumbai Taloja Industry

Shedung Khopta Industry

Proposed poly-nucleated regional structure Urban Growth Centre Industrial Nodes

FSI (Floor Space Index) Regulations 4 1.5 1.33 1 0.75 0.50

Amba Industry

Khalapar Industry

As a response to congestion, Mumb formulated the firs strategies and regu Instead of redevelo island such as the developments, free city outwards to de Navi Mumbai and middle-income hou However, this drac Control Act 1947, m on the island city gentrifying the mid Only after 1991, th of Development Ri improve the land u exchange of financ The city’s regressiv conditions of a z continues to do so

The of Fo la Jo f

politan Regional Plans

ralization

00

2005

1996-2011

2010

2015

2020

2016-2036

FSI and TDR incentives 2008

Image by Nazish Mirekar, Unsplash

o the growing air pollution, land use polarization and bai Metropolitan Regional Development Authority (MMRDA) st Regional Plan in 1970 and proposed some well-intentioned ulations that eventually turned counterproductive. oping the existing underused and vacant land parcels on the e Mills’ land, the plan imposed complete restriction on new ezing the FSI to 1.33, and adopted a strategy to guide the ecentralize its growth. As a result, new counter-magnets like d Bandra – Kurla complex were constructed attracting using and slum redevelopment projects to these locations. conian land use policy, coupled with ULCRA 1976 and Rent made new investments and developments almost impossible and artificially escalated the market value of land, further ddle class and poor outward or into slums. he FSI restrictions were eased through the practice of Trading ights (TDR). But this was never a deliberate spatial policy to use efficiency and was given only to a few individual plots in cial resources from the developer (A Bertaud, 2011). ve land use policies over five decades have only created the zero sum game for the consumption of floor space, and o.

e progress of the Thakkar family is the story f the growth of Bombay. They moved from ort (village), where Girish’s father lived in a arge house with his extended family, to the ogeshwari shanty and now to the Mira Road flat (suburb). Girish wants to move on to America, the peak of that trajectory.

Part 3, Girish: A Tourist in His City

9

4.a 4.aSlums Slums- Bulldozed - Bulldozedbut butnot notBu Independent India India Independent

Economic Liber Economic

1991 1991 200 1985 1985 1975 1975 1995 1995 1980 1980 1965 19651970 1970 1930 1930 1940 1940 1947 1947 1955 19551960 1960

SlumSlum Clearance Clearance and Improvement and Improvement Act 1956 Act 1956

LandLand Acquisition Acquisition Act 1894 Act 1894

SlumSlum Vacant Vacant SlumSlum up-gradation up-gradation Improvement Improvement LandsLands Act Act program (SUP)(SUP) & & program Programme Programme 19751975 Low Income GroupGroup Low Income (SIP)(SIP) 19701970 Shelter Programme Shelter Programme (LISP)(LISP) 19851985

LandLand Acquisition Act Act Acquisition Amendment 19641964 Amendment

LandLand Acqu Res

Slum Clearance andand Improvement Act,Act, 1956 andand Land Acquisition Slum Clearance Improvement 1956 Land AcquisitiA

PriorPrior to liberalization in 1990s, the Bombay Municipal Corporation (BMC), like lit to liberalization in 1990s, the Bombay Municipal Corporation (BMC), identified itselfitself as aascontroller, provider and and facilitator.

It majorly approached identified a controller, provider facilitator.

It majorly approacht improvement ‘schemes’ involving new new housing construction on public lands, a improvement ‘schemes’ involving housing construction on public land providing alternative accommodation to evicted dwellers.

Various programmes and providing alternative accommodation to evicted dwellers.

Various programmes periodized as phases of negation (1950s and 1960s), tolerance (1970s) and accep periodized as phases of negation (1950s and 1960s), tolerance (1970s) and a Armed withwith another draconian law, law, the Land Acquisition Act of the BMC wou Armed another draconian the Land Acquisition Act1894, of 1894, the BMC schemes under SlumSlum Clearance and Improvement Act 1956 and other SlumSlum Improve schemes under Clearance and Improvement Act 1956 and other Imp city,city, evictevict slumslum dwellers on short or noornotice without compensation and “resettl dwellers on short no notice without compensation and “res fromfrom theirtheir places of employment. places of employment.

The quality and quantity of social housing provided to urban poorpoor was was The quality and quantity of social housing provided to urban also also questionable.

In the century, BMC BMC demolished moremore houses questionable.

In last the last century, demolished houses thanthan it built, further contributing to the increasing housing it built, further contributing to rapidly the rapidly increasing housing shortage.

The slum improvement and and upgradation schemes ironically shortage.

The slum improvement upgradation schemes ironically avoided incremental housing or their in-situ redevlopment, and rather avoided incremental housing or their in-situ redevlopment, and rather adopted complete demolition and and reconstruction of new public adopted complete demolition reconstruction of new public housing apartments in other partsparts of the These public housing, housing apartments in other of city. the city.

These public housing, mostly builtbuilt in the city’s suburbs today can can qualify as formal yet yet mostly in the city’s suburbs today qualify as formal verticle slums. verticle slums.

India’s Planning Commission in 1983 declared thatthat “there is is India’s Planning Commission in 1983 declared “there overwhelming evidence to show thatthat efforts to produce affordable overwhelming evidence to show efforts to produce affordable housing for the by government bodies havehave failed.” housing for poor the poor by government bodies failed.”

o c

ilt uiltBack Back

tion ralization

2020 2020 2005 2005 2015 2015 00 2010 2010

uisition, Rehabilitation ion, Rehabilitation and and settlement Act, 2013 ement Act, 2013

,Act, 1894 1894

rest of the government, the rest of socialist the socialist government, problem of slums by carrying out out the problem of slums by carrying by targeting slumslum areasareas without and by targeting without cies pertaining to slums havehave beenbeen policies pertaining to slums ce (1980s) (Indorewala, 2018). ptance (1980s) (Indorewala, 2018). undertake comprehensive renewal uld undertake comprehensive renewal t Programmes in large areasareas of the ement Programmes in large of the hem to distant locations far away le” them to distant locations far away

e The squad is supposed to give a seven-day squad is supposed to give a seven-day al notice asking for for documentation thatthat legal notice asking documentation he the structure is legal.

If the license isn’tisn’t structure is legal.

If the license ovided, the the demolition is supposed to go provided, demolition is supposed to go ead.

But But “the“the staff is under great fear.” ahead. staff is under great fear.” ndAnd there is the money; “if the notice is is there is the money; “if the notice ued, the the entire file file will will be sold for for a lakh issued, entire be sold a lakh wotwo to the party concerned.”

An employee or to the party concerned.”

An employee make more in bribes on aonsingle building can make more in bribes a single building han the the amount he earns in his than amount he earns in entire his entire career in the municipal corporation. career in the municipal corporation.

Part 1Part - Powertoni, Elections 1998 1998 1 - Powertoni, Elections

10 10

HowHow doesdoes he like the the footpath life?life? he like footpath I ask him.him.

“I like it very much.

I have I ask “I like it very much.

I have no problems.

I don’t want a home; I no problems.

I don’t want a home; I am am more freefree on the footpath..

The The more on the footpath.. footpath is the friend of the poor. footpath is the friend of the poor.

HowHow many people it accommodates to to many people it accommodates sleep on!”on!” sleep – Babbanji, poet, homeless immigrant, – Babbanji, poet, homeless immigrant, 17 years old old 17 years Part 3,Part Babbanji: Runaway Poet Poet 3, Babbanji: Runaway

Image by BINDbyCollective, NEXT CITY 2016 Image BIND Collective, NEXT CITY 2016

11 11

4.b 4.bSlums SlumsSolved Solved- Conditions - ConditionsA

Economic Economic Liber

Independent Independent India India

1991 1991 200 1985 1985 1975 1975 1995 1995 1980 1980 1965 19651970 1970 1930 1930 1940 1940 1947 1947 1955 19551960 1960

SlumSlum SlumSlum Redevelopment Redevelopment Rehabilitation Rehabilitat Scheme Scheme (SRS)(SRS) Authority Authority (SRA)(S 19911991 19951995 LandLand Acquisition Acquisition Act 1894 Act 1894

LandLand Acquisition Acquisition Act Act Amendment Amendment 19641964

LandLand Acqu Res

Slum Slum Redevelopment Redevelopment Scheme Scheme 1991 1991 andand Neoliberalism Neoliberalism WithWith the emergence the emergence of neoliberal of neoliberal structural structural adjustment adjustment from from 1980s 1980s onwards, onwards, the nature the nature of government of government shifted shifted from from a provider a provider to just to ajust facilitator a facilitator for the forprivate the private actors actors to generate to generate housing housing for both for both rich rich and and poor.poor.

The The new new national national and and statestate housing housing policies policies and and SlumSlum Rehabilitation Rehabilitation Programmes Programmes suchsuch as Slum as Slum Redevelopment Redevelopment Scheme Scheme 1991, 1991, RajivRajiv AwasAwas Yojana Yojana 20092009 and and Pradhan Pradhan Mantri Mantri AwasAwas Yojana Yojana 20152015 adopted adopted an ‘enabling an ‘enabling markets’ markets’ strategy strategy underunder this framework. this framework.

This can This easily can easily be observed be observed through through the pattern the pattern of policy of policy evolution evolution that that has has moved moved from from a welfare-state a welfare-state based based public public housing housing provision provision to an to in-situ an in-situ centric centric slumslum rehabilitation rehabilitation approach approach whichwhich encourages encourages homehome owners owners to incrementally to incrementally improve improve theirtheir housing housing through through financial financial assistance, assistance, and and incentivise incentivise private private developers developers to build to build affordable affordable housing housing for the for poor. the poor.

To achieve To achieve this, this, policy policy instruments instruments suchsuch as cross-subsidy as cross-subsidy development development on slum on slum land land and and homehome loansloans at subsidized at subsidized ratesrates havehave beenbeen adopted. adopted.

However, However, theythey still still remain remain unsuccessful unsuccessful in in improving improving housing housing affordability affordability or calming or calming downdown the the sky-high sky-high land land values values on the onisland the island city. city.

The housing The housing is now is bei now not anot public a public good.good The Mumbai Mumbai as a as World a Wor Cl and and New New York York ha criminalized criminalized the city’s the c the city’s the city’s informal informa set This This vision vision has hain infrastructure infrastructureproje Transportation Transportation that t convenience convenience of the of et Between Between 2004-05 2004-0 its 100,000 100,000 homes homes acr development development for publi for p No Development No Development ZoneZ Although Although thesethese new nm evictions evictions and and reloca re aggressive aggressive neoliberal neolib deregulation deregulation at the at commoners. commoners.

ralization tion

2020 2020 2005 2005 2015 2015 00 2010 2010

StateStateRajivRajiv Pradhan Pradhan ousing Housing Mantri Mantri AwasAwas AwasAwas Policy Policy Yojana Yojana (PMAY) (PMAY) Yojana Yojana 2007200720092009 20152015

ion, uisition, Rehabilitation Rehabilitation and and settlement ement Act, 2013 Act, 2013

econceived ing reconceived as anaseconomic an economic and and we political new political and cultural and cultural dream dream of of lass city city with with the likes the likes of Shanghai of Shanghai as ultimately ultimately pathologized pathologized and and ms. s slums.

This dream This dream descended descended uponupon sttlers with with shocking shocking brutality. brutality. ed nvited international international levellevel largelarge ectsof ofMassMassTransit Transitand and oritized prioritized the the movement movement and and elite over over the shelter the shelter of the of poor. the poor. self, the Government the Government bulldozed bulldozed over over ross the the island island in the in the namename of of ic rpose purpose and encroachment and encroachment in thein the 2018). dorewala, e (Indorewala, 2018). measures do anymore not anymore advocate ures do not advocate ation, are still veiled in the , theythey are still veiled in the agenda of privatization and state nda of privatization and state reckless of shelter for the kless cost cost of shelter for the

Relocated Relocated MahulMahul Township Township underunder Slum Slum Rehabilitation Rehabilitation Authority's Authority's PAP scheme PAP scheme next to next refineries to refineries and chemical and chemical factories, factories, also known also known as "Mumbai’s as "Mumbai’s Gas Chamber" Gas Chamber"

12 9 9 12

Image - Google Earth 2019

Image - Google Earth 2019

Applied plied pplied

5.5.Shiv ShivSena Sena- An - AnAlternate AlternateGove Go Independent Independent India India

Economic Liber Economic

1991 1991 200 1985 1985 1975 1975 1995 1995 1980 1980 1965 19651970 1970 1930 1930 1940 1940 1947 1947 1955 19551960 1960

Shiv Shiv SenaSena established established 19661966

1985-90 1985-90 1995-99 199

Mumbai’s Mumbai’s housing housing situation situation is also is also peculiarly peculiarly shaped shaped by the by role the role of itsofregional its regional political political partyparty Shiv Shiv Sena,Sena, a right-wing a right-wing HinduHindu Nationalist Nationalist Party.

Party.

Established Established in in 19661966 and and periodically periodically in power, in power, this this partyparty has advocated has advocated for Right for Right to the to City, the City, but only but only for its forvote its vote bankbank - the- Marathi the Marathi manus manus (citizen). (citizen).

Marathis Marathis are the are native the native the the immigrants. immigrants.

The The partyparty has has developed developed a robust a robust grassroot grassroot network network of of volunteers volunteers and and locallocal service service delivery delivery penetrating penetrating to every to every end end of the of the city,city, especially especially in slums. in slums.

It has It been has been functioning functioning as anasalternative an alternative formform of local of local governance governance bodybody ensuring ensuring housing, housing, formally formally whenwhen in power in power and informally and informally anyway. anyway.

The slum The slum dwellers, dwellers, mostly mostly HinduHindu and and Marathi, Marathi, largely largely rely rely on Shiv on Shiv SenaSena and and its decentralized its decentralized Shakhas Shakhas (branches) (branches) for basic for basic services services and and alternate alternate administration administration (Saunders, (Saunders, 2012).

2012).

WhileWhile its assistance its assistance alleviates alleviates theirtheir struggle struggle of housing of housing to a to degree, a degree, it fails it fails the the largerlarger picture picture of citizens of citizens demanding demanding formal formal and and proper proper housing housing to the to actual the actual concerned concerned authority. authority.

That’s That’s his property. his property.

“We“We have have captured captured the the land.” land.”

Currently, Currently, it isitoccupied is occupied by laborers by laborers to whom to whom Sunil Sunil has has given given the the hutshuts for for free, free, so that so that tenure tenure maymay be be established established over over the the land. land.

They They have have been been demolished demolished twice twice by the by the Railways.

Railways.

Each Each time, time, theythey have have been been reconstructed… reconstructed…

The The costcost of the of the material, material, which which Sunil Sunil getsgets from from Goregaon: Goregaon: INR INR 1,500.

1,500.

The The timetime it takes it takes to rebuild to rebuild the the shack shack after after a demolition: a demolition: an hour an hour or or two… two…

If they If they are are demolished demolished a third a third time, time, he is he is determined determined to build to build them them again, again, andand thisthis timetime he he sayssays he will he will erect erect brick brick structures. structures.

Part 1Part - Powertoni, 1 - Powertoni, Elections Elections 1998 1998

rnance ernance

ralization tion

2020 2020 2005 2005 2015 2015 00 2010 2010

9

Alliance Alliance with with the theIncumbent Incumbent 20192019 majority majority partyparty 2014-19 2014-19

The The right right of the of the slum slum dwellers dwellers to to live live herehere is protected is protected

by Sunil

by Sunil andand his friends. his friends.

“We“We are are the the Bhais Bhais —the —the Dons— Dons— of the of the area. area.

So So nobody nobody will will trouble trouble them. them.

Part 1Part - Powertoni, 1 - Powertoni, Elections Elections 1998 1998

12 13 12

Image by Image REUTERS/Shailesh

by REUTERS/Shailesh Andrade Andrade 2017 2017

Conclusion Conclusion Decline of Cotton Decline of Cotton 1980s Mills Mills 1980s

Rede Redevelo mill mill land

(Ceiling UrbanUrban LandLand (Ceiling and and Regulation) - ULCRA, Regulation) Act -Act ULCRA, 19761976

established Shiv Shiv SenaSena established 19661966

1985-90 1985-90

1995 1995-99

SlumSlum SlumSlu Redevelopment Redevelopment Rehabil Rehabilitatio Scheme Scheme (SRS)(SRS) Authorit Authority (SR 19911991 199519 up-gradation SlumSlum up-gradation SlumSlum Vacant Clearance Improvement SlumSlum Clearance program & Income Low Income program & Low ImprovementVacant Act Act GroupGroup and Improvement Programme and Improvement Shelter Shelter ProgrammeLandsLands Act 1956 Act 1956 Programme 19851985 (SIP)(SIP) 19701970 19751975 Programme

FSI frozen to 1.33 FSI frozen to 1.33 Mumbai Metropolitan Mumbai Metropolitan Plan Plan Bombay Rents, and Lodging Bombay Rents, Hotel,Hotel, and Lodging House Control Act, 1947 House RatesRates Control Act, 1947

Acquisition LandLand Acquisition Act 1894 Act 1894

Acquisition LandLand Acquisition Act Act Amendment Amendment 19641964

1970-1991 1970-1991

1

Amendmt Amendment Contr Control Ac

Ac LandLand Acquis ResetR

1991 1991 200 1985 1985 1975 1975 1995 1995 1980 1980 1965 19651970 1970 1930 1930 1940 1940 1947 1947 1955 19551960 1960

Independent Independent India India

Economic Economic Liber

opment nt of of ds 2001 001

ULCRA repealed CRA repealed 20072007

Alliance Alliance with with Incumbent 20192019 2014-19 Incumbent 2014-19

On plotting chronology of Mumbai’s On plotting the the chronology of Mumbai’s political economy in the political economy in the form form of of its its legislation, policies politics, legislation, policies and and politics, one one can can conclude a city’s physical conclude that that a city’s physical form form is notis not merely a product its municipal merely a product of itsofmunicipal land land use use regional strategies, a very plan plan and and regional strategies, but but a very intricate synthesis of decisions intricate synthesis of decisions mademade by a by a of actors space and time.

Made rangerange of actors over over space and time.

Made em em specific objective, one really can really with with specific objective, one can not not comprehend the ripple effect of these comprehend whatwhat the ripple effect of these decisions and events decisions and events couldcould be. be.

1996-2011 6-2011

2016-2036 2016-2036

u ips

Lor

Lor

u ips

m

FSI TDR andincentives TDR incentives FSI and 20082008

m

Pradhan StateState RajivRajiv Pradhan Housing Mantri Housing AwasAwas Mantri AwasAwas on Policy Yojana Yojana (PMAY) Yojana Yojana (PMAY) RA)Policy 20072007 20092009 20152015

In case of Mumbai, housing In case of Mumbai, the the housing crisiscrisis continues to worsen as older decisions, continues to worsen as older decisions, though intentions though mademade with with goodgood intentions but but ended up causing immense damage, ended up causing immense damage, are are not acknowledged and revised, still still not acknowledged and revised, whilewhile newer forces emerge, further adding to the newer forces emerge, further adding to the complexities. complexities.

to the Rent Proposal Proposal a dual system e Rent for a for dual system ct, 1999 Control Act, 2019 999 RentRent Control Act, 2019

sition, Rehabilitation n, Rehabilitation and and ttlement Act, 2013 ment Act, 2013

2020 2020 2005 2005 2015 2015 00 2010 2010

ralization tion

13 13 14

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Politecnico di Milano

School of Architecture Master of Science in Urban Planning and Policy Design Academic Year 2019/2020