Cold and Urban Design. Challenging Russian Cities by Anna Nesterova

Politecnico di Milano Faculty of Architecture and Society Master of Science in Urban Planning and Policy Design

Thesis

Cold and Urban Design. Challenging Russian Cities

Student Anna Nesterova 786031 Supervisor Prof. Eugenio Morello Consultant Ing. Marco Rossi AA 2013 - 2014

NDEX ABSTRACT...........................................................................................15 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................16 PLANNING ISSUES..............................................................................21 HISTORY OF SIBERIAN URBANIZATION............................................ 22 FEATURES OF THE SOVIET HOUSING AND PLANNING.................... 29 PLANNING PRACTICE IN SIBERIA...................................................... 36 POSITIVE ATTEPMTS IN NOTHERN PLANNING................................ 48 BUILDING CODES................................................................................ 57 CLIMATE ISSUES.................................................................................65 CLIMAT FEATURES OF THE RUSSIAN NORTH................................... 66 CLIMATE CHANGE.............................................................................. 86 METHODOLOGY.................................................................................99 METHODOLOGY OVERVIEW............................................................ 100 SAMPLES SELECTION....................................................................... 102 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP.................................................................... 118 CASE STUDIES ANALYSIS..................................................................133 MURMANSK. PROFILE...................................................................... 134 NIZHNEVARTOVSK. PROFILE............................................................ 142 NORILSK. PROFILE............................................................................ 150 NOVY URENGOY. PROFILE............................................................... 158 SURGUT. PROFILE............................................................................. 166 UDACHNY. PROFILE.......................................................................... 174 VORKUTA. PROFILE.......................................................................... 182 YAKUTSK. PROFILE............................................................................ 190 INTERPRETATIONS............................................................................ 198 PROPOSALS AND GUIDELINES.........................................................209 CONCLUSION....................................................................................233 REFERENCES.....................................................................................238 APPENDIX ........................................................................................249

NDEX OF FIGURES Figure 1. Mangazeya, 16th century. Reconstruction........................................................23 Figure 2. Norilsk. Masterplan, arch. G. Lomagin, A. Sharoyko, 1935...............................24 Figure 3. Norilsk built by GULAG prisoners, 1945............................................................24 Figure 4. Map of major Russian gas basins.....................................................................25 Figure 5. Novy Urengoy under construction. 1980s.........................................................26 Figure 6. Norilsk. City view in 2000..................................................................................27 Figure 7. Students’ communal house. Moscow, 1930. Arch. I. Nikolaev..........................30 Figure 8. “Stalinka”, Barnaul............................................................................................31 Figure 9. “Stalinka”, Norilsk.............................................................................................31 Figure 10. “Khrushchyovka”, Vorkuta...............................................................................32 Figure 11. “Khrushchyovka’s” assembling.......................................................................32 Figure 12. Micro district “A” in Nikolaev, arch. V. Gurevich, 60s......................................34 Figure 13. Micro district #70 in Nikolaev, arch. A. Kavun, A. Samoylenko, 1978..............34 Figure 14. Vorkuta...........................................................................................................38 Figure 15. Nizhnevartovsk................................................................................................40 Figure 16. Surgut.............................................................................................................41 Figure 17. Norilsk.............................................................................................................45 Figure 18. Murmansk.......................................................................................................46 Figure 19. Master plan for Nadym, 1970, arch. E. Putintsev...........................................48 Figure 20. Project of Aikhal micro city for 4.500 residents, arch. E. Putintsev.................55 Figure 21. Plan of Aikhal micro city, arch. E. Putintsev....................................................56 Figure 22. Aikhal..............................................................................................................56 Figure 23. Aikhal..............................................................................................................56 Figure 24. Map of average air temperature in June........................................................66 Figure 25. Map of average air temperature in January...................................................67 Figure 26. Map of permafrost areas with different soul temperatures distribution........68 Figure 27. Winter sun path in Polar region......................................................................69 Figure 28. Murmansk at 3pm, December........................................................................69 Figure 29. Clothing in Yakutsk..........................................................................................70 Figure 30. Yakutsk............................................................................................................70 Figure 31. Snowdrifts in Norilsk.......................................................................................72 Figure 32. Permafrost landslide.......................................................................................75 Figure 33. Kindergarten destruction in Chita...................................................................75 Figure 34. Degradation of permafrost.............................................................................89 Figure 35. Map of cities on permafrost, Russia............................................................ 102 Figure 36. Murmansk, city plan.................................................................................... 108 Figure 37. Nizhnevartovsk, city plan............................................................................. 109 Figure 38. Norilsk, city plan.......................................................................................... 110 Figure 39. Novy Urengoy, city plan............................................................................... 112 Figure 40. Surgut, city plan........................................................................................... 113 Figure 41. Udachny, city plan........................................................................................ 114 Figure 42. Vorkuta, city plan......................................................................................... 115 Figure 43. Yakutsk, city plan......................................................................................... 116 Figure 44. Patterns selection process, Surgut............................................................... 119 Figure 45. 5-storey panel “Khrushchevka”, Surgut........................................................ 120 Figure 46. AutoCad SW layout...................................................................................... 120 Figure 47. Building height estimation........................................................................... 121 Figure 48. 3d Max SW layout........................................................................................ 122 Figure 49. 3d Max top render, Surgut........................................................................... 122

Figure 50. 3d Max DEM render, Surgut......................................................................... 122 Figure 51. Green areas mask, Surgut............................................................................ 124 Figure 52. Regular mesh on the surface (left) and within the object (right)................. 126 Figure 53. Cartesian mesh............................................................................................ 127 Figure 54. Import of the .STL file into the Karalit working area.................................... 128 Figure 55. LGR of the model domain, Karalit layout..................................................... 129 Figure 56. Result of the LGR, Surgut, Karalit layout...................................................... 129 Figure 57. Climate data input, Surgut, Karalit.............................................................. 130 Figure 58. Satellite view of Murmansk......................................................................... 134 Figure 59. Map of services. Murmansk......................................................................... 134 Figure 60. Buildings map. Murmansk........................................................................... 134 Figure 61. Streets layout map. Murmansk.................................................................... 134 Figure 62. Top view rendering. Murmansk................................................................... 135 Figure 63. 3d rendering. Murmansk............................................................................. 135 Figure 64. Land use map. Murmansk............................................................................ 135 Figure 65. Shadows on 21 December. Murmansk......................................................... 137 Figure 66. Shadows on 21 March. Murmansk.............................................................. 137 Figure 67. Shadows on 21 June. Murmansk.................................................................. 137 Figure 68. DEM. Murmansk.......................................................................................... 137 Figure 69. SVF on the whole area. Murmansk.............................................................. 137 Figure 70. SVF on the open spaces. Murmansk............................................................ 137 Figure 71. Flow density map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Murmansk.................. 138 Figure 72. Pressure map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Murmansk......................... 138 Figure 73. Temperature map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Murmansk.................. 138 Figure 74. Turbulence map at 5 meters above the ground. Murmansk........................ 138 Figure 75. X wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Murmansk.............. 139 Figure 76. Y wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Murmansk............... 139 Figure 77. Z wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Murmansk............... 139 Figure 78. Velocity magnitude map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Murmansk....... 139 Figure 79. Velocity magnitude map. Streets orientation and wind speed. Murmansk..................................................................................................................... 140 Figure 80. Areas of wind calm on the left. Snow accumulation on the right. Murmansk..................................................................................................................... 141 Figure 81. Snow accumulation on the left. Areas of permanent shadows on the right. Murmansk..................................................................................................................... 141 Figure 82. Satellite view of Nizhnevartovsk.................................................................. 142 Figure 83. Map of services. Nizhnevartovsk.................................................................. 142 Figure 84. Buildings map. Nizhnevartovsk.................................................................... 142 Figure 85. Streets layout map. Nizhnevartovsk............................................................ 142 Figure 86. Top view rendering. Nizhnevartovsk............................................................ 143 Figure 87. 3d rendering. Nizhnevartovsk...................................................................... 143 Figure 88. Land use map. Nizhnevartovsk.................................................................... 143 Figure 89. Shadows on 21 December. Nizhnevartovsk.................................................. 145 Figure 90. Shadows on 21 March. Nizhnevartovsk....................................................... 145 Figure 91. Shadows on 21 June. Nizhnevartovsk.......................................................... 145 Figure 92. DEM. Nizhnevartovsk................................................................................... 145 Figure 93. SVF on the whole area. Nizhnevartovsk....................................................... 145 Figure 94. SVF on the open spaces. Nizhnevartovsk..................................................... 145 Figure 95. Flow density map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Nizhnevartovsk........... 146 Figure 96. Pressure map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Nizhnevartovsk................. 146 Figure 97. Temperature map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Nizhnevartovsk........... 146 Figure 98. Turbulence map at 5 meters above the ground. Nizhnevartovsk................. 146 Figure 99. X wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Nizhnevartovsk....... 147

Figure 100. Y wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Nizhnevartovsk..... 147 Figure 101. Z wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Nizhnevartovsk..... 147 Figure 102. Velocity magnitude map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Nizhnevartovsk............................................................................................................. 147 Figure 103. Velocity magnitude map. Streets orientation and wind speed. Nizhnevartovsk............................................................................................................. 148 Figure 104. Areas of wind calm on the left. Turbulence on the right. Nizhnevartovsk............................................................................................................. 149 Figure 105. Snow accumulation on the left. Areas of permanent shadows on the right. Nizhnevartovsk......................................................................................... 149 Figure 106. Satellite view of Norilsk.............................................................................. 150 Figure 107. Map of services. Norilsk............................................................................. 150 Figure 108. Buildings map. Norilsk............................................................................... 150 Figure 109. Streets layout map. Norilsk........................................................................ 150 Figure 110. Top view rendering. Norilsk........................................................................ 151 Figure 111. 3d rendering. Norilsk.................................................................................. 151 Figure 112. Land use map. Norilsk................................................................................ 151 Figure 113. Shadows on 21 December. Norilsk............................................................. 152 Figure 114. Shadows on 21 March. Norilsk.................................................................. 152 Figure 115. Shadows on 21 June. Norilsk...................................................................... 152 Figure 116. DEM. Norilsk.............................................................................................. 152 Figure 117. SVF on the whole area. Norilsk.................................................................. 152 Figure 118. SVF on the open spaces. Norilsk................................................................. 152 Figure 119. Flow density map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Norilsk....................... 154 Figure 120. Pressure map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Norilsk............................. 154 Figure 121. Temperature map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Norilsk...................... 154 Figure 122. Turbulence map at 5 meters above the ground. Norilsk............................ 154 Figure 123. X wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Norilsk................... 155 Figure 124. Y wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Norilsk................... 155 Figure 125. Z wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Norilsk................... 155 Figure 126. Velocity magnitude map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Norilsk............ 155 Figure 127. Velocity magnitude map. Streets orientation and wind speed. Norilsk..... 156 Figure 128. Block openness and wind penetration. Norilsk.......................................... 157 Figure 129. Snow accumulation on the left. Areas of permanent shadows on the right. Norilsk....................................................................................... 157 Figure 130. Satellite view of Novy Urengoy.................................................................. 158 Figure 131. Map of services. Novy Urengoy................................................................. 158 Figure 132. Buildings map. Novy Urengoy.................................................................... 158 Figure 133. Streets layout map. Novy Urengoy............................................................ 158 Figure 134. Top view rendering. Novy Urengoy............................................................ 159 Figure 135. 3d rendering. Novy Urengoy...................................................................... 159 Figure 136. Land use map. Novy Urengoy.................................................................... 159 Figure 137. Shadows on 21 December. Novy Urengoy................................................. 161 Figure 138. Shadows on 21 March. Novy Urengoy....................................................... 161 Figure 139. Shadows on 21 June. Novy Urengoy.......................................................... 161 Figure 140. DEM. Novy Urengoy................................................................................... 161 Figure 141. SVF on the whole area. Novy Urengoy....................................................... 161 Figure 142. SVF on the open spaces. Novy Urengoy..................................................... 161 Figure 143. Flow density map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Novy Urengoy........... 162 Figure 144. Pressure map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Novy Urengoy................. 162 Figure 145. Temperature map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Novy Urengoy.......... 162 Figure 146. Turbulence map at 5 meters above the ground. Novy Urengoy................ 162 Figure 147. X wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Novy Urengoy....... 163

Figure 148. Y wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Novy Urengoy....... 163 Figure 149. Z wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Novy Urengoy....... 163 Figure 150. Velocity magnitude map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Novy Urengoy.163 Figure 151. Velocity magnitude map. Streets orientation and wind speed. Novy Urengoy............................................................................................................... 164 Figure 152. Wind convergence in specific built layout. Novy Urengoy......................... 165 Figure 153. Wind convergence in the chess order of streets. Novy Urengoy................ 165 Figure 154. Snow accumulation. Novy Urengoy........................................................... 165 Figure 155. Satellite view of Surgut.............................................................................. 166 Figure 156. Map of services. Surgut............................................................................. 166 Figure 157. Buildings map. Surgut................................................................................ 166 Figure 158. Streets layout map. Surgut........................................................................ 166 Figure 159. Top view rendering. Surgut........................................................................ 167 Figure 160. 3d rendering. Surgut.................................................................................. 167 Figure 161. Land use map. Surgut................................................................................ 167 Figure 162. Shadows on 21 December. Surgut.............................................................. 169 Figure 163. Shadows on 21 March. Surgut................................................................... 169 Figure 164. Shadows on 21 June. Surgut...................................................................... 169 Figure 165. DEM. Surgut............................................................................................... 169 Figure 166. SVF on the whole area. Surgut................................................................... 169 Figure 167. SVF on the open spaces. Surgut................................................................. 169 Figure 168. Flow density map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Surgut....................... 170 Figure 169. Pressure map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Surgut............................. 170 Figure 170. Temperature map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Surgut....................... 170 Figure 171. Turbulence map at 5 meters above the ground. Surgut............................. 170 Figure 172. X wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Surgut................... 171 Figure 173. Y wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Surgut................... 171 Figure 174. Z wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Surgut................... 171 Figure 175. Velocity magnitude map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Surgut............ 171 Figure 176. Velocity magnitude map. Streets orientation and wind speed. Surgut...... 172 Figure 177. Snow accumulation on the left. Areas of permanent shadows on the right. Surgut....................................................................................................... 173 Figure 178. Satellite view of Udachny........................................................................... 174 Figure 179. Map of services. Udachny.......................................................................... 174 Figure 180. Buildings map. Udachny............................................................................ 174 Figure 181. Streets layout map. Udachny..................................................................... 174 Figure 182. Top view rendering. Udachny..................................................................... 175 Figure 183. 3d rendering. Udachny............................................................................... 175 Figure 184. Land use map. Udachny............................................................................. 175 Figure 185. Shadows on 21 December. Udachny.......................................................... 177 Figure 186. Shadows on 21 March. Udachny................................................................ 177 Figure 187. Shadows on 21 June. Udachny................................................................... 177 Figure 188. DEM. Udachny........................................................................................... 177 Figure 189. SVF on the whole area. Udachny............................................................... 177 Figure 190. SVF on the open spaces. Udachny.............................................................. 177 Figure 191. Flow density map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Udachny.................... 178 Figure 192. Pressure map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Udachny.......................... 178 Figure 193. Temperature map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Udachny................... 178 Figure 194. Turbulence map at 5 meters above the ground. Udachny......................... 178 Figure 195. X wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Udachny................ 179 Figure 196. Y wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Udachny................ 179 Figure 197. Z wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Udachny................ 179 Figure 198. Velocity magnitude map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Udachny......... 179

Figure 199. Velocity magnitude map. Decrease of the wind speed inside the blocks. Udachny............................................................................................ 180 Figure 200. Snow accumulation on the left. Areas of shadows on the right. Udachny........................................................................................................................ 181 Figure 201. Satellite view of Vorkuta............................................................................ 182 Figure 202. Map of services. Vorkuta............................................................................ 182 Figure 203. Buildings map. Vorkuta.............................................................................. 182 Figure 204. Streets layout map. Vorkuta...................................................................... 182 Figure 205. Top view rendering. Vorkuta...................................................................... 183 Figure 206. 3d rendering. Vorkuta................................................................................ 183 Figure 207. Land use map. Vorkuta.............................................................................. 183 Figure 208. Shadows on 21 December. Vorkuta............................................................ 185 Figure 209. Shadows on 21 March. Vorkuta................................................................. 185 Figure 210. Shadows on 21 June. Vorkuta.................................................................... 185 Figure 211. DEM. Vorkuta............................................................................................. 185 Figure 212. SVF on the whole area. Vorkuta................................................................. 185 Figure 213. SVF on the open spaces. Vorkuta............................................................... 185 Figure 214. Flow density map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Vorkuta..................... 186 Figure 215. Pressure map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Vorkuta........................... 186 Figure 216. Temperature map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Vorkuta..................... 186 Figure 217. Turbulence map at 5 meters above the ground. Vorkuta........................... 186 Figure 218. X wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Vorkuta................. 187 Figure 219. Y wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Vorkuta................. 187 Figure 220. Z wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Vorkuta................. 187 Figure 221. Velocity magnitude map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Vorkuta.......... 187 Figure 222. Velocity magnitude map. Street orientation and wind speed. Vorkuta..... 188 Figure 223. Velocity magnitude map. Wind penetration inside the block. Vorkuta...... 189 Figure 224. Snow accumulation on the left. Areas of permanent shadows on the right. Vorkuta..................................................................................................... 189 Figure 225. Satellite view of Yakutsk............................................................................. 190 Figure 226. Map of services. Yakutsk............................................................................ 190 Figure 227. Buildings map. Yakutsk.............................................................................. 190 Figure 228. Streets layout map. Yakutsk....................................................................... 190 Figure 229. Top view rendering. Yakutsk....................................................................... 191 Figure 230. 3d rendering. Yakutsk................................................................................. 191 Figure 231. Land use map. Yakutsk............................................................................... 191 Figure 232. Shadows on 21 December. Yakutsk............................................................ 193 Figure 233. Shadows on 21 March. Yakutsk................................................................. 193 Figure 234. Shadows on 21 June. Yakutsk..................................................................... 193 Figure 235. DEM. Yakutsk............................................................................................. 193 Figure 236. SVF on the whole area. Yakutsk................................................................. 193 Figure 237. SVF on the open spaces. Yakutsk................................................................ 193 Figure 238. Flow density map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Yakutsk...................... 194 Figure 239. Pressure map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Yakutsk............................ 194 Figure 240. Temperature map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Yakutsk..................... 194 Figure 241. Turbulence map at 5 meters above the ground. Yakutsk........................... 194 Figure 242. X wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Yakutsk.................. 195 Figure 243. Y wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Yakutsk.................. 195 Figure 244. Z wind velocity map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Yakutsk.................. 195 Figure 245. Velocity magnitude map at 1.3 meters above the ground. Yakutsk........... 195 Figure 246. Velocity magnitude map. Street orientation and wind speed. Yakutsk...... 196 Figure 247. Snow accumulation on the left. Areas of permanent shadows on the right. Yakutsk..................................................................................................... 197

Figure 248. Street orientation and wind speed; a. Murmansk, b. Nizhnevartovsk, c. Norilsk, d. Surgut...................................................................................................... 198 Figure 249. Width to height ratio and wind speed, Vorkuta......................................... 199 Figure 250. Angled streets and wind speed, Murmansk............................................... 199 Figure 251. Areas of wind calm inside the micro districts; a. Murmansk, b. Nizhnevartovsk......................................................................................................... 200 Figure 252. Chess order of buildings in Surgut.............................................................. 200 Figure 253. Gaps and wind breaks; a. Murmansk, b. Norilsk........................................ 201 Figure 254. Wind breaks causing turbulence inside the district, Novy Urengoy........... 201 Figure 255. Buildings position and wind flow, Novy Urengoy....................................... 202 Figure 256. Turbulence caused by the high buildings, Murmansk................................ 202 Figure 257. Turbulence caused by the high buildings, Norilsk...................................... 203 Figure 258. Turbulence in the courtyards of the nursery schools, Murmansk.............. 203 Figure 259. Turbulence and buildings heights variations, Novy Urengoy..................... 204 Figure 260. Snow accumulation in the areas of wind calm inside the districts; a. Murmansk, b. Surgut................................................................................................ 204 Figure 261. Snow accumulation and buildings orientation, Norilsk.............................. 205 Figure 262. Snow accumulation and openness of the block, Nizhnevartovsk............... 205 Figure 263. Compact low-rise pattern, wind calm and snow accumulation, Udachny........................................................................................................................ 205 Figure 264. Typical section of residential buildings of the second half of the 20th century....................................................................................................... 213

NDEX OF SCHEMES

Scheme 1. “Stage maintenance system”..........................................................................35 Scheme 2. Hierarchy of regulations in Russian Federation..............................................59 Scheme 3. Trees comparison............................................................................................71 Scheme 4. Snow drifts types............................................................................................73 Scheme 5. Katabatic wind............................................................................................... 74 Scheme 6. Indoor temperature with different winds and outdoor temperatures............74 Scheme 7. “Cooled” piles foundation on permafrost.......................................................76 Scheme 8. Methodology overview................................................................................ 101 Scheme 9. Experimental flow overview........................................................................ 131 Scheme 10. Azimuths of the sun day for the latitude of Surgut.................................... 210 Scheme 11. Loss of the sunlight for the latitude of Surgut........................................... 211 Scheme 12. Loss of the sunlight for the latitude of Surgut........................................... 211 Scheme 13. Loss of the sunlight in the buildings with courtyards................................. 212 Scheme 14. Preferable functional zoning of residential section. Possible width of the section due to the sun height...................................................... 214 Scheme 15. Permanent shadows of different buildings’ configurations of 3-storey height.......................................................................................................... 215 Scheme 16. Dependence of the building rotation angle toward the wind and the size of the snow blanket......................................................................................... 216 Scheme 17. Combined wind roses of case study cities in January................................ 217 Scheme 18. Dependence of the width and height of the building and the length of the wind calm zone................................................................................................... 218 Scheme 19. Mean velocity profiles over terrain with three different roughness characteristics............................................................................................. 219 Scheme 20. Wind flow over buildings of different heights............................................ 219 Scheme 21. Wind strategies and building ground floor design.................................... 220

Scheme 22. Blocking under-building winds with walls................................................. 221 Scheme 23. Roof types and snow maintenance............................................................ 221 Scheme 24. Concept of micro district with improved public transport supply.............. 223 Scheme 25. Northern and southern wind protection and its consequences in insolation of open space............................................................................................... 223 Scheme 26. Wind protection and insolation of open space with southern wind.......... 224 Scheme 27. Options of compact development and improved accessibility................... 225 Scheme 28. System of pedestrian paths within district................................................. 226 Scheme 29. Streets layout and design.......................................................................... 226 Scheme 30. Scheme of transport-oriented development.............................................. 227 Scheme 31. Location of industrial zone in relation to the city and wind direction........ 228 Scheme 32. Coloration of buildings.............................................................................. 229 Scheme 33. Temperature distribution along the slopes................................................ 231 Scheme 34. Katabatic wind on the slopes and temperature in the city........................ 231

NDEX OF TABLES Table 1. Temperature persiveness at different wind speeds............................................80 Table 2. Climate Change impact on ecosystems in Russia...............................................88 Table 3. Recent trends in permafrost temperatures measured at different locations.....90 Table 4. Data for the cities on permafrost.................................................................... 104

NDEX OF CHARTS Chart 1. Population Dynamics of the largest cities in Siberia..........................................28 Chart 2. Changes in average annual surface air temperature (째C) in Russia...................87 Chart 3. Land use pie. Murmansk................................................................................. 135 Chart 4. Monthly temperatures in Murmansk.............................................................. 136 Chart 5. Monthly wind speeds in Murmansk................................................................ 136 Chart 6. Monthly air humidity in Murmansk................................................................ 136 Chart 7. Seasonal wind roses in Murmansk.................................................................. 136 Chart 8. Land use pie. Nizhnevartovsk.......................................................................... 143 Chart 9. Monthly temperatures in Nizhnevartovsk....................................................... 144 Chart 10. Monthly wind speeds in Nizhnevartovsk....................................................... 144 Chart 11. Monthly air humidity in Nizhnevartovsk....................................................... 144 Chart 12. Seasonal wind roses in Nizhnevartovsk......................................................... 144 Chart 13. Land use pie. Norilsk..................................................................................... 151 Chart 14. Monthly temperatures in Norilsk.................................................................. 152 Chart 15. Monthly wind speeds in Norilsk.................................................................... 152 Chart 16. Monthly air humidity in Norilsk..................................................................... 152 Chart 17. Seasonal wind roses in Norilsk...................................................................... 152 Chart 18. Land use pie. Novy Urengoy.......................................................................... 159 Chart 19. Monthly temperatures in Novy Urengoy....................................................... 160 Chart 20. Monthly wind speeds in Novy Urengoy......................................................... 160 Chart 21. Monthly air humidity in Novy Urengoy......................................................... 160 Chart 22. Seasonal wind roses in Novy Urengoy........................................................... 160 Chart 23. Land use pie. Surgut...................................................................................... 167

Chart 24. Monthly temperatures in Surgut................................................................... 168 Chart 25. Monthly wind speeds in Surgut..................................................................... 168 Chart 26. Monthly air humidity in Surgut..................................................................... 168 Chart 27. Seasonal wind roses in Surgut....................................................................... 168 Chart 28. Land use pie. Udachny.................................................................................. 175 Chart 29. Monthly temperatures in Udachny............................................................... 176 Chart 30. Monthly wind speeds in Udachny................................................................. 176 Chart 31. Monthly air humidity in Udachny.................................................................. 176 Chart 32. Seasonal wind roses in Udachny................................................................... 176 Chart 33. Land use pie. Vorkuta.................................................................................... 183 Chart 34. Monthly temperatures in Vorkuta................................................................. 184 Chart 35. Monthly wind speeds in Vorkuta................................................................... 184 Chart 36. Monthly air humidity in Vorkuta................................................................... 184 Chart 37. Seasonal wind roses in Vorkuta..................................................................... 184 Chart 38. Land use pie. Yakutsk.................................................................................... 191 Chart 39. Monthly temperatures in Yakutsk................................................................. 192 Chart 40. Monthly wind speeds in Yakutsk................................................................... 192 Chart 41. Monthly air humidity in Yakutsk.................................................................... 192 Chart 42. Seasonal wind roses in Yakutsk..................................................................... 192

BSTRACT

n the present essay the climate-related issues are for the first time investigated for the Russian cities. This topic has never been widely discussed and therefore has an innovative concern. The thesis gives an overview of the existing conditions in the northern Russian cities, which is the result of the history of the mastering of Siberia but mainly of the rapid urbanization and industrialization during the 20th century under Soviet regime. This period is considered to be the starting point of the mass construction and typical building design solutions. The appearance of new paradigm of effective, cheap and utilitarian construction was conformable with the socialistic ideology. This race has led to the arisen of numerous new cities across the country, which were all similar as the tweens. The vast areas of Siberia and North were not an exception, since the region has the rich basins of natural resources. Relation between climate and urban issues requires a comprehensive research in order to provide comfortable microclimate conditions by the means of urban design and architecture. Un-

fortunately, in the 20th century this was not an issue due to the fast pace of development and is not an issue today in the period of ubiquitous private developments concerned only with the profitable land mastering. Nevertheless, the special attention has to be given to the comfort living conditions on the north, since they are encumbered by the lack of solar radiation, long winter periods, extremely low temperatures and strong winds, excessive snowfalls and lack of vegetation on permafrost. The aim of the thesis is the understanding of what are the living conditions in the northern cities and what were the processes which have led to the current situation and proposal of regulations, which should be used for planning in the northern cities according to their specificities. By providing testing of selected samples of typical Soviet urban design solutions with the Karalit SW in different climatic regions the evidence of their typical character as well as the discrepancy to the climate is interpreted in relation to the morphological parameters of the urban fabric. The interpretations of the simulation results are the basis for the authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s proposals and guidelines.

NTRODUCTION

rban climatology is fast developing science, which was considerably deepen during the last years with the arisen of the high concern about the effect of urban morphology on the climate comfort. With the fast pace of urbanization and soil consumption together with climate change and global warming, the main issue of numerous studies has become the urban heat island effect and the investigation of methods for its mitigation. Although, much less studies have been conducted on the opposite issues, namely not the mitigation of exceeding hot in the cities but the mitigation of cold climate effect on human comfort in the cities at high latitudes. The reason for this lack of attention could be that the world population above the latitude of 60째 degrees North is considerably lower and constitute not more than 5% of the total world population. Meanwhile, for Russia it is an issue of great importance. The areas with severe cold climate constitute about 80 percent of the total area of the country, where 67 cities are located and are populated by about 20 million people,

who produce about 80 percent of the annual Russian GDP. The specific features of climate in the Russian Far North together with particular urbanization processes and urban patterns make the conditions of the region unique. Major amount of cities were built during the Soviet period of mass industrialization in the 20th century. Planners and architects in Russia are well aware of the Soviet planning and building feature, because they are dealing with the consequences of it in their everyday work and life. As the Russian architect, the author has some doubts that the typical Soviet city perform sufficiently in terms of pedestrian comfort in the conditions of the cold northern climate. The aim of the thesis is the understanding of what are the living conditions in the northern cities and what were the processes which have led to the current situation and proposal of regulations, which should be used for planning in the northern cities according to their specificities. By providing testing with the Karalit SW of similar urban layouts in different climatic regions the evidence of their typical

character as well as the discrepancy to the climate will be shown. This kind of visual prove will exhibit the failure of the Soviet building codes to sustain livable conditions for the northern cities, which have their specific features. The first chapter examines the reasons for arisen of the cities in the Far North through telling the history of the urban development in the north of Russia starting from the amazing examples of traditional 17th century fortress cities aimed mainly for defense of the country and fur industry. It goes through the period of stagnation when the state strategic interests moved to the central and southern areas of the country. The new stage of development started for the north in the early 20th century with the establishment of the Soviet Union and implementation of the rapid industrialization program. The pace of this process required the achievement of highest amounts of natural recourses extraction with the lowest spending. The shift camps were new solution for this aim, which later have become towns and cities, and which in 40-50 years can not satisfy anymore the needs of people constantly leaving there. The chapter describes the planning practice in Siberia and the features of the typical buildings design and urban structure. The concept of micro district is presented as the base

unit of all Soviet cities and the building codes, which regulated the parameters of the residential zones. The current structure of building regulations in Russia is investigated in this chapter in order to investigate if there are specific climate-related rules already existing or they have to be introduced. The specificities of the northern climate are discussed in the second chapter. Here are the main factors, which have a very negative impact on the human body: the presence of polar day and night in the area of the subarctic lasts from 35 to 45 days, which leads to violations of existing biorhythms of the human body; extremely low winter temperatures and the difference between absolute temperature reaches 100 degrees, the duration of the winter period is 8-9 months. This factor leads to an increase of diseases; lack of vegetation, ultraviolet starvation and lack of solar radiation lead to a decrease in psychological tone of people; strong winds with extremely low winter temperatures and snowdrifts as a result cause sensation of cold and discomfort; the presence of permafrost throughout the far north does not directly affect the human body, but the feeling of responsibility for building on permafrost, especially in the first years of development, when there were many cases of collapse and cracking walls,

create a sense of psychological discomfort. The observations of climate change in Russia and its consequences are discussed to show the negative effect of it even in the cold climate. The third chapter regards the methodology of the research. First there is the need to select the case study cities and define the criteria of choice, which aim to select the cities built in the Soviet period with the industrial base and population above average. The second part is the comparative study of different cases morphology and the experimental part conducted in the special software. Comparative analysis of cases morphology is aimed to recognize visually and in numerical values the similarity of the built environment. Experimental set-up describes the steps made in different software. In order to proceed with the case studies analysis there is the need to prepare the input data in the proper way both for morphology estimation and for climate simulation from having only the satellite view of the city. Morphology analysis is conducted in the Matlab with the use of the scripts developed for this purpose. Climate simulations was intended to be done in the Envimet software but unfortunately they met some difficulties due to the software limitations. The new program Karalit provided by the developers for

the purposes of this thesis was able to make the simulation in the specific climate conditions of the northern cities. The forth chapter is a graphical representation of case studies. For each of them the specific profile is created which consist of the two main parts: urban profile and climate profile. Morphology of the site is presented by the help of maps and schemes representing the built-up areas, streets layout, functions, land use (built, permeable, impermeable areas and their share), DEM and perspective rendering. The climate data for input is represented by the graphs of monthly temperatures, wind speeds, precipitations, humidity and wind roses for each city. When the input profiles are ready we can proceed with the analysis of shadows and sky view factor, and then the CFD simulations, presented with the maps, produced in Karalit software. It is aimed to understand which particular problems occur in a specific urban layout at the pedestrian level in terms of wind speed, turbulence conditions and their consequent impact on the snow accumulation. In order to give guidelines for planning in the north of Russia there is the need to recognize how does the urban layout, namely streets grid and buildings morphology, influence the behavior of wind in the area.

Interpretations of the simulations results are given in the fifth chapter, where the similarities and problems of the case study samples are observed in terms of relation between built environment, buildings and streets orientation and the wind comfort together with snow accumulation specificities. The sixth chapter is about proposals of codes and guidelines aimed to decrease the negative influence of the climate. The sequential ENVI-met or Karalit testing and proving or denunciation of different combinations will lead to a number of most effective choices, considering such factors as: width and height of the buildings, buildings orientation, streets layout and the ratio, dimensions between the buildings, land use and zoning, vegetation, windows and glazing ratio, topography, walking distances, dwellings size and composition, color and lighting. Proposals are based on the laws of physics, climatic data as well as on the research works of scholars and case study cities where the projects for polar climate were successfully

implemented. As the result, the number of recommendations will be given. Under these conditions, analysis of the practice of the previous period of construction of towns and villages, resettlement issues in the High North, keeping positive and unsuccessful experiences in northern town planning, development of recommendations for further improvement of urban policy, and solving complex problems in the field of local housing and construction is extremely urgent. Urban planners have a curtail role in the process of rethinking northern cities and proposing new codes and guidelines to be followed by private investors and state authorities in new development projects and in requalification of existing ones. The professional knowledge and experience together with specialized methodologies and techniques owned by urban planners and architects are needed in order to avoid past mistakes in the future.

PLANNING ISSUES

ISTORY OF SIBERIAN URBANIZATION

he first wave of migration and development to the north-east of Russia occurred in the 16th century with the establishment of centralized state. There is a lot in common in derivation of Siberian settlements: first – wintering, than – burg and later – city with households and churches. Location of future cities in the north was a subject to tsar’s permission together with its size and architecture. The choice was predicted by the series of required preconditions: • the availability of water resources; • the beauty of the view and nature and the best possible location in terms of esthetic coherence with the landscape; • the presence of natural boundaries for the purposes of defense; • the availability of construction materials (forests in this case); • the presence of sable population. [27] Wood became the main building material in the north. None of the wooden fortresses remained till our days but careful reconstructions made by Rus-

sian historians and geographers give us an image of how these cities looked like. The two most well-known cities of that time were Mangazeya and Zashiversk. Established by Cossacks they attracted people from different parts of the country with the treasure they could propose, namely the so called ‘soft gold’ - sable fur. Sable fur coasted more than real gold and was exported to Europe by sea for the royal gowns and made 1/3 of the state income. During summer periods the population of Mangazeya (Figure 1) reached 2000 people who came from all over the world for fairs. New comers (citizens and workers) brought from the European part of Russia unknown for the local construction techniques and architectural styles which they tried to adapt to the severe climate conditions of the north. [6] For example in Zashiversk northern facades almost did not have windows and in other cities the general tendency to higher densities and walls to protect from snow and wind were noticeable. [30] What was fascinating in the northern wooden cities of 16th-17th centu-

Figure 1. Mangazeya, 16th century. Reconstruction. Source: V. Nikishin

ries is there unlikeness to each other. Even though they were all built of the same material and therefore were of the same color, the composition was different from city to city. It is impossible to find two similar churches of fortress walls. Each burg was the unique whole with the landscape and had an amazing appearance in its simplicity. Close connection between man and nature, careful relation to the nature and the ability to observe and admire its beauty gave particular solutions for the city builders. [19] The fate of the first northern and Siberian cities was predetermined first when the population of sables was exterminated and the economic significance was lost. During the 18th-19th centuries their strategic military importance was not crucial anymore, more than that, new trade routes and administra-

tive-cultural centers were established far to the west and south. All these factors made the growth of existing burgs and the birth of new ones unreasonable. Many cities began to shrink and gradually disappear. Wooden cities especially in the cold climate suffered from the fire and usually were restored until the period of decline started when there was no sense anymore to re-construct burnt-out settlements, which remain lost up to nowadays. Those few where stone construction had started, namely, ports - defense outposts Murmansk and Arkhangelsk as well as cities, which controlled vast territories and later became regional centers: Tyumen, Tobolsk, Yakutsk, Salekhard, Verhoyansk, Anadyr. [19] Nevertheless during the 19th century migration to Siberia continued but this time mainly with exile Decembrists and

other offenders, the death penalty was substituted with the deportation beyond the Ural Mountains where they lived in existing cities and declining settlements. The construction of TransSiberian Railway in the end of the 19th century, several expeditions organized to investigate the resources of the north and the new policy of exchanging military conscription for the settling in Siberia â&#x20AC;&#x201C; all these facts say that the north-east region still remained of a great importance for the State. The real mastering of the Siberian bowels began only in Soviet period. Russian geographer Nikolai Urvanzev and his expedition have found wide deposits

Figure 2. Norilsk. Masterplan, arch. G. Lomagin, A. Sharoyko, 1935. Source: Ogly B., Building cities in Siberia

of copper and nickel in the Taimyr Peninsula in 1919. At the beginning of the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945) these resources became of the major importance for the military equipment production. The decision was made from above to build Norilsk copper-nickel plant with the forces of GULAG prisoners (Figure 2, 3). That was the beginning of the unborn city Norilsk. [32] It is obvious that nobody at that time was thinking about specific planning system for the cold climate or about new construction technologies. In the hard times of rush and quest for the victory under fascism, the construction of the plant and city was conducted in an extensive way. 16 meters depth ditches

Figure 3. Norilsk built by GULAG prisoners, 1945. Source: http://norilsk. sutochno.ru/

in the permafrost were being dug for the foundations of buildings, which later had unexpected consequences in their decay and destruction. [23]

Analogously with Norilsk other cities in the severe climate of Siberia were built by GULAG prisoners: Dudinka, Vorkuta, Ukhta and so on. After the abolition of GULAG system in

1960 new cities were not built for several years but the numerous reconnaissance expeditions searching for the new predicted basins of natural resources continued to conquer endless vast of Siberia. Overcoming the impenetrable

taiga and tundra, staying in the leftover GULAG barracks and temporary houses, they were taking soil samples. Discoverings of natural gas and oil basins started to follow one by one: 1961, 1962, 1964, etc. In 1965 the biggest

Figure 4. Map of major Russian gas basins. Source: IEA

gas basin the world was discovered in Urengoy, it stretched almost 300 kilometers from north to south (Figure 4). In 1973 with the beginning of the world oil crisis Siberian land became again strategically needed. The new

wave of industrial invasion started. Example of the Novy Urengoy city can be seen as the typical Siberian city built in the Soviet period. [23] Important question came at the fore â&#x20AC;&#x201C; whether to built shift camp or a city. Proponents and opponents were from the both sides:

on the one hand, it was supposed that nobody would like to stay longer than 2 years in such extreme climate conditions and obviously nobody would bring oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wife or family with self, on the other hand â&#x20AC;&#x201C; unlivable conditions and lack of the simplest amenities in the shift camp were unbearable even for a single men. Despite of all the opinions the decisions were made based on the pragmatic side of the issue, namely the estimated amount of gas and years of extracting it (50-70 years). The unprecedented pace of construc-

tion was a distinctive feature of new industrial cities. The time was limited, 5-year plans (pyatiletka) of development were enormous. With the new piling technology developed by engineer Mikhail Kim in order to combat insidious frozen ground and with the introduction of panel building construction from pre-fabricated, pre-stressed concrete made the realization of the State emancipation of Siberian resources possible. [10] Similar residential buildings, schools, theaters were growing like mushrooms after the rain. Similar urban quarters and neighborhoods ap-

Figure 5. Novy Urengoy under construction. 1980s. Source: http://www.etoretro.ru/

peared in the far north and east of Soviet Union as the repetition of existing urban patterns in the European part of the country saving budget for the attraction of working force (Figure 5). Despite of the incredible cold tem-

peratures and bleak climate conditions during 1970-1980s people were literally seeking for the north. The competition among young specialists for the place and job was high as well as the northern salaries, which compensated the climate conditions.

One of the picturesque stories was about Norilsk citizens flying to Moscow for the weekend to have a beer. [17] The prosperity of the coldest Russian cities ended instantly with the crash of the Soviet Union. Centralized institutions, laboratories, facilities were closed. Newly established marked did not know what to do with the complex infrastructure of industry. Bit by bit industries were privatized and became well-known monopolies: Gazprom, Rosneft â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and big metal and diamond plants and industries. On the other side â&#x20AC;&#x201C; cities still exploit the declining housing heritage of the Soviet Union. In specific conditions of

north without stable centralized maintenance from the State living conditions become even more critical than they were ever before (Figure 6). In summary, it is noticeable that urbanization and development of Siberia in each time was dependent on the proportion of profitability of the region and possible profits from its resources to the spending needed for construction and maintenance of cities. Nevertheless, the fact is â&#x20AC;&#x201C; population of the region is growing with different trends in different times but steadily during the whole its history (Chart 1). Prisoners tended to stay in the north after amnesty, students and military voluntary

Figure 6. Norilsk. City view in 2000. Source: Denis Sinyakov, Reuters

construction teams settled there, temporary workers who used to come for a couple of years to earn money felt that the north has became their home, they got their families and children there. The fourth generation of the first soviet vanquishers of Siberia now grows lives, studies and works there. The lesson

learnt - there is nothing more constant than temporal. Next step is to make peoples life in the north comfortable.

Chart 1. Population Dynamics of the largest cities in Siberia. Source: Kosmos24, http://ru.wikipedia.org/

EATURES OF SOVIET HOUSING AND PLANNING

iggest industrial cities of Siberia were founded in the 20th century (see Table 1) and were the result of the mass urbanization waves all around the country and in the region. After the crash of the Soviet Union urban development in Russia was and is experiencing attenuation. Construction of new residential buildings is happening but only in the European part of Russia. New cities do not appear in the period of new market economy. Therefore, citizens of Siberian region live in the reality of the past and have to cope with the heritage of Soviet urban planning history. Thus, in order to understand these realities, an overview of the main strategies in residential development during 20th century is given below. The October Revolution of 1917 led, as is well known, not only for the nationalization of industrial, financial and other assets classified as “means of production”. Residential houses were also nationalized, i.e. housing became the property of the state. Big, rich apartments in the center turned into a communal, where workers were moved from the outskirts and poor

from the flophouses, which during the very short period of time led to a sharp drop in the quality of housing. The birthday of Soviet housing system should be considered on August 20, 1918 (new style), when a decree of the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee “On abolition of private ownership of real estate in cities” was published. [20] Initially new public apartment buildings were not run by anyone at all, and anyone could dwell in it, besides the rent was canceled. This situation obviously could not long be maintained, and later the management of the apartment building was given to special state bodies and local governments, the so called ZhEK (housing and communal services) and then to DEZ (directorate for building maintenance). During the NEP (New Economic Policy), when the state actually signed for the inefficiency of centralized housing and communal services, fundamentally different houses began to appear. It is about ZhSK, co-operative houses of collective ownership and

control, which after the violent break, which lasted until the end of the Stalin era, flourished in the 70s of the 20th century. This type of apartment building showed a higher degree of efficiency: cooperative home looked better and were better maintained than ordinary public houses, despite the fact that the ownership and management were severely limited. [20]

First communal houses In the 20-30s of the 20th century, when fundamental social transformation took place, there was a need in the massive construction of dwellings. It was necessary to learn how to build quickly and economically. In 1919, at the 8th Congress of the party, it embarked on a transformation

of life through the development of a network of public service that should minimize housekeeping, emancipate woman and create favorable conditions for the cultural growth of the family. So the question arose about the reorganization of the type of dwelling. There was an idea to make a number of functions beyond the residential apartments, socialize part of everyday processes, that is differently organized residential complexes. Practical implementation of this problem led to the creation of complexes, where residents could enjoy dining, laundry, showers, library, reading room, hall meetings and childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s institutions. This type of houses were implemented in Moscow, Saint Petersburg and Nizhny Novgorod (Figure 7). [14]

Figure 7. Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; communal house. Moscow, 1930. Arch. I. Nikolaev. Source: A. Ikonnikov, Artistic language of architecture, 1985

Communal apartments and Stalin’s houses (“Stalinka”) As was mentioned above, as a result of the nationalization of the housing stock in 1918 to the local councils managed all of the most valuable residential buildings (primarily with tenement houses apartment). From that moment began a mass migration of workers from the dilapidated houses and cellars in these house confiscated from the former owners. In 1918-1924 almost 500 thousand people have been resettled in comfortable apartments in Moscow and 300 thousand people in Petrograd. It was perceived then as a significant social achievement - living conditions of the poorest segments of the urban population have been significantly improved. Before everyone had that housing, which one could pay for, but now it was necessary to find a criterion for the dis-

tribution of property, regardless of economic status. Such a criterion became the biological needs of the organism in a certain space, the volume of air, clean, dry, etc., which were installed by specialists in social sanitation and hygiene. Thus, the “hygiene found that the minimum amount of air” for one adult must be 20 cubic meters. In 1931 the sanitary norm was reduced to 9 cubic meters. The apartments were divided into rooms as close in size to the regulations, to avoid the financial costs. During 30s functionalism and pure utility were criticized. At the meeting of the Creative Union of Soviet Architects, held in autumn 1933 in Moscow, constructivists forced not only to admit their mistakes, but also to advocate for a “renaissance heritage” (Figure 8, 9). Shortly before it introduced new rules for the construction of Moscow, in which the main emphasis is on improving the quality of new

Figure 8. “Stalinka”, Barnaul. Source: http://barneapol.ru/

Figure 9. “Stalinka”, Norilsk. Source:http://mingitau.livejournal.com/

housing. Now in apartments both residential and utility area was increased, ceiling reached 3.2 meters, baths became mandatory. Almost all Stalin’s houses building are piece goods. The original idea that no building will repeat another follows proletarian’s dream - to build their own palaces. Perhaps, all the mass Soviet series would be stylish and originate, but those plans were ruined by the war. One by one together with neo-classical buildings repetitions of individual buildings projects started to appear. Overall, however, the architects did not welcome the use of individual projects of apartment (5-8 storeys) houses for typical constructions. Architectural community had a negative attitude to those architects who allowed this. [14]

“Khrushchyovka” The history of the panel “Khrushchy-

Figure 10. “Khrushchyovka”, Vorkuta. Source: A. Obolensky

ovka” began in 1955, when there was a decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the USSR Council of Ministers “On elimination of excesses in design and construction”. This document has defined for many years the style of Soviet housing and our notions of home comfort. “Excesses” were attributed not only to Stalin’s arcades and towers, but also “unacceptably inflated halls, corridors and other ancillary facilities areas”. Decree enacted in September 1956 was aimed to develop typical projects designed to dramatically reduce the cost of housing - so that 1980 every Soviet family could meet at their own apartment (Figure 11). In common parlance “Khrushchyovka” is the name for five-story panel apartment building from pre-fabricated blocks built in 1950 - 60s (Figure 10). Such houses have several common characteristics. They do not have an

Figure 11. “Khrushchyovka’s” assembling. Source: http://mgsupgs. livejournal.com/

elevator and rubbish chute. They have very tiny kitchens and hallways. Meanwhile, all the technical and consumer properties of the first generation of industrial buildings were described in details in the building regulations of 1957. Even though the minimum characteristics of housing were set in building codes, real standards moved far from this “minimum”. Living area of the apartments was – for studio - 16 sq.m, one bedroom - 22 sq.m, two-bedroom - 30 sq.m, four-bedroom - 40 sq. m, the minimum kitchen area - 4.5 sq.m. [3] In 1956-1965 years in USSR more than 13.000 apartment buildings were built, and almost all of them - five-story buildings. This allowed each year to introduce 110 million square meters of housing.

Planning concepts By the mid-50s the Soviet leadership was able to finally tackle the difficult task of eliminating desperate housing crisis with the necessary scale. It immediately became clear that the city cannot be defined just as the sum of apartments or houses. Plurality of them needs to be streamlined in the most rational way. But how? Increasing social homogeneity of society, claimed as a principle, pushed to answer which seemed obvious. First, adopt the norm of living space per person - the so-

called hygienic minimum, which was defined at 9 sq.m per person. Second, consider all citizens in the way so that they were all naturally equal to each other. At the forefront of discussions came to the fore the word “needs”. From the height of today’s achievements and today’s discontent reached is difficult to assess how big was a step forward: the right of everyone to a minimum of comfort was enshrined first by government regulations, and then by the Law on housing. [3] But life is not limited to housing and work place. The need to take children to the kindergarten and then to school near home. The need to have a clinic not too far away and the need not to drive through the whole city to buy bread, milk and other products, the need to have an opportunity to buy a notebook and paper, toothpaste and thread near home. It turned out (or rather, it seemed) that the city can be calculated on a machine. The totality of everyday needs was collected including the need for safe traffic; the average number of adults, children and old people for every thousand inhabitants was calculated. Then the maximum allowable distance from the entrance to the apartment building to the kindergarten (150-200 meters), to school (200 - 300

meters), to the local shopping center, community services and to the health clinics (500 meters) was identified. All this was called Micro district, and it turned out that the main or base unit of the urban structure is a residential Micro district, which does not differ significantly from any other

Figure 12. Micro district “A” in Nikolaev, arch. V. Gurevich, 60s. Source: Alyoshin V., Kuhar-Onyshko N., Yarovoy V. Nikolayev. Architectural – historical essay

neighborhood (Figure 12, 13). Seemingly, the reason to recreate the former quarterly form of development disappeared, and therefore, within the area, delineated by highways for public and private transport, development can be carried out in a completely free manner. It has just to be complied with sanitary norms of apart-

Figure 13. Micro district #70 in Nikolaev, arch. A. Kavun, A. Samoylenko, 1978. Source: Alyoshin V., Kuhar-Onyshko N., Yarovoy V. Nikolayev. Architectural – historical essay

ments insolation through strict compliance with the distance between adjacent buildings, approximately equal to

ity about 1.5 kilometers (short transport trip) were gathered together. Accordingly, a group of Micro districts,

double height of the tallest of them.

which share a common service center is called “residential district”. [9]

All this together is what was called the principle of “free city planning.” Thus, solving the issue of city order unit, needs, called periodic, which are exhibited roughly once a week or so, were gathered together. Cinema, enlarged shop, service agencies and the like with a radius of accessibil-

Finally, episodic needs of a trip to the theater, concert hall or a zoo were identified, which allowed to calculate and design a citywide system of specialized centers with relative fairness for people of different residential areas. This system was called the “stage

maintenance system”, according to which the city could be considered as a kind of matryoshka doll, into which several smaller matryoshka dolls (residential districts) are embedded, and into each of them - some even smaller (Micro districts) (Scheme 1). The sys-

tem is coherent and at the first glance looks quite convincing. However, there was one vague flaw: the citizen turned out to be something “flat” – consumer who rationally and responsibly decides which class of needs he requires or wants at the moment.

Scheme 1. “Stage maintenance system”. Source: Author

This flaw was immediately noticed by the critics, but clarity of the scheme seemed very attractive and that ultimately determined its mass adoption. Mass trend for this planning system spread across the country and did not consider specificities of climate, except in the technical construction solutions. However, it seems really doubtful, that

Micro district scheme is suitable for the cold climate of Siberia. Even though the negative effects of the buildings layout on the human health and comfort there were not identified in the western part of the country, the microclimate of the residential district in the north and east are subject to simulation analysis.

LANNING PRACTICE IN SIBERIA

irst cities in the Far North have become experimental laboratory for the development of northern town planning principles. At the initial stage they did not differ from the methods characteristic of central Russia: small-blocks layout of lowrise buildings, with the dense street grid, built-up with detached residential, public and commercial buildings. This practice led to a sharp increase in urban areas, low-density development, and increase of the cost of laying down utilities. The emergence of 4-5 storey buildings and the transition to Micro districts structure did not make major changes in construction. [23] Architects searches were aimed at creating compact urban structures capable of protecting the person from adverse weather conditions. Norilsk was an example of such construction â&#x20AC;&#x201C; significant results had been achieved in the city in terms of the residential density for 1 person - 30-35 square meters (for comparison, in Yakutsk â&#x20AC;&#x201C; it is about 100 square meters per person, in Vorkuta - 60 square meters). [23]

Rigid system of building codes has not allowed the mass shift to the new principles of construction and the introduction of new types of buildings. Deviations were permitted only in the engineering and design decisions that determine the stability of buildings on permafrost. In fact, locally, as an experiment, new approaches to the creation of urban complexes were designed on budget funds. For the most part they have remained on paper, but allow sharing experiences, learning about new trends in the northern building, evaluating mistakes and not repeating them in their region. Thus in Yakutsk, Magadan and Norilsk constructive improvements in a series of residential buildings were being made, new types of public buildings were appearing, apartments premises were being expanded, quality of the roadways was being improved as well as engineering infrastructure. Construction base evolved in areas of intensive industrial building (Western Siberia, Mirny, Udachny, Neryungri, Bilibino, Magadan).

Industrial development of the richest hydrocarbon reserves in Western Siberia (oil, gas and gas condensate) led to, sometimes economically unreasonable, emergence of more than two dozen cities only in the Tyumen region. [29] However, this period was a landmark the construction of a town was based on the approved plans, in accordance with the project with a clear division of the city on a residential part, municipal and industrial zones (Nadym, Noyabrsk, Neriungri, etc.). [29] In 25 years these cities prove the appropriateness of general planning schemes - they took into account the direction of the prevailing winds, turning streets, which reduce wind pressure, the orientation of the main residential areas and neighborhoods to the south and southeast, compact and windproof construction of the city, with maximum preservation of existing green areas. Increase in the number of floors (to 9-12 floors) led to a significant increase in housing density (more than 10 square meters per hectare) and stabilized performance of residential buildings in the range of 25-30 %. However, the preparation of master plans for the cities of the North was based upon the city-forming factors

of the main industrial facilities. This practice led to errors in determining the number of the urban population to the current period and for the future (Mirny, Nadim, Novy Urengoy, Yakutsk, Noyabrsk). Complicating factors of this calculation were also high migration mobility of the population associated with the low level of cultural services, and dissatisfaction with wages paid and climatic conditions. Priority was given to the economic benefit from the products, which sidelined construction of decent housing and public services, which could not affect the psychological mood of residents (disadvantages of medical care, lack of places in kindergartens and schools, construction of which was constantly delayed). [29] The most common components of the city structure - the main street, around which usually community centers were formed (linear scheme) gradually exhausted. In these cities the main flows of residents dependent on places of employment, community center location and services. In cities with historic buildings (Yakutsk), where the percentage of wooden buildings was very high, new centers and areas with buildings of administrative management appeared; building density increased due to the demolition of low value dilapidated old houses.

Situation was more complicated in the already compact cities, with windproof planning principles (Norilsk). Increase of the city functions required construction and development of new areas that already were limited (administrative functions of managing the region appeared, and not just the city, the need for additional space for shift workers and their families, the organization of the transport system - city â&#x20AC;&#x201C; shift camp, expansion and construction of municipal warehouse base). Some spaces in the center had to be moved into the first floors of buildings

previously aligned, this changed the ratio between the area of the housing stock and public facilities. [23] In cities that have arisen in the early 40s - 50s , the presence of low-rise buildings (1 - 3 floors as in the western part of the country) with regular district plan (Vorkuta, Magadan, Norilsk) allowed to make decisions to improve their planning structure by enlargement of the residential neighborhood size towards Micro districts and create a holistic residential structures. Increasing the height of buildings to 5 - 9 floors, cre-

Figure 14. Vorkuta. Source: http://www.fototerra.ru/

ating an uninterrupted building front with minimal gaps between groups of residential buildings on the windward side prevented excessive penetration of snow on the city area and much extinguished hurricane wind force. Not only solid building front helped to fight the strongest snowdrifts - certain highways turning angle contributed significantly to the reduce of the wind flow up to 30% as well as reduce in the number of streets in the direction perpendicular to the main prevailing winds (increased size of residential groups) and of course, principles developed in snow removing, together with snow retention system on the main highways. [29] Though in Norilsk before other cities northern urban planning principles began to develop, in Vorkuta and Magadan these techniques did not find wide application up to the 60s of the last century. Innovative projects of young architects remained unclaimed, even though faced many problems and were designed for existed development base (Figure 14). Feature of these projects was scientifically based research of the northern region specifics. They took into account demographic and socio-economic conditions of construction conducted. Application of shelter homes with fundamentally new apartment layout, kindergartens

placement, nurseries, schools in the areas of wind shadow using the best (south and south-east) orientation of buildings, walkways connecting all major cities of the projected structural formations, leaving the main social center for water space - all remained on the shelves for wine college people used to think clichĂŠs â&#x20AC;&#x153;midlandâ&#x20AC;? forgetting of Northerners. [10] Departmental dissociation in the formation of the industry in the northern cities often did not take into account the prospects for the development of cities and led to mixing of housing and industry, sometimes taking the best plots of emerging residential areas (Ukhta, Sosnogorsk, Novy Urengoy, Surgut, Mirny, etc.), preventing clear functional zoning. Important transport waterways (Murmansk, Arkhangelsk, Lenek, Surgut, Nizhnevartovsk, Magadan) and railways (Vorkuta, Ukhta, Tommot) caused excessive stretching of urban land along the transport communications, unnecessary economic costs, dramatically reducing the effectiveness of capital investments. [2] Although the line type of settlement in southern Siberia along the transport arteries is a common and frequent phenomenon, the conditions of the

northern zone of such a principle of urban growth are unjustified. For example, the master plan of Nizhnevartovsk developed in 1970 for expected 150.000 inhabitants was amended in 1976 for the estimated population of 280.000, that was fully confirmed in practice in 2001. The number of inhabitants of Nizhnevartovsk was 279.000, once again proving the seriousness and integrity in the calculations. [24] Nizhnevartovsk passed all stages of pioneer development: from the village of oilmen and builders of single-storey houses in the first phase, followed by construction of residential areas in the 5 - 9 - 16 floors, located on flat terrain, acquired features of thoughtful com-

positional-spatial solutions through rhythmic repetition of 16-storey buildings on the waterfront (giving skyline character as viewed from the river) alternating repetitive residential groups, protected from the wind yard spaces and zones of silence interspersed with forests of the coastal park (Figure 15). Central square is fixed by the intersection of two major highways, one of which coincides with the linear development of the city along the river, and the other connects the embankment with the railway station. The total elongation of the center along the river highlights the nature of the linear structure of the master plan.

Figure 15. Nizhnevartovsk. Source: http://vskazku.com/

The rapid growth of the city is associated with its location on the main transport highways (river, railway, aviation) turning it into a base for further exploration of the rich resources of the Tyumen region. [29]

More compact could be Surgut, actually stretching for several kilometers along the Ob River in residential areas which alternate with industry, sometimes occurs in the free territories, located close to the water (Figure 16).

Figure 16. Surgut. Source: S. Anashkevitch

West Siberian Plain - the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s largest oil and gas province for hydrocarbon production, becomes, as already men-

in Western Siberia. Spraying funds on many sites and new cities simultaneously did not promote construction

tioned, the largest area in the world by number of newly established cities over the last 30 years of 20th century.

of cultural services (nurseries, kindergartens, schools, sports facilities, recreation) or elements of engineering improvement (storm drainage, landscaping, sidewalks, playgrounds). [29]

Rigid command-administrative system prevailing in the country, solving political and economic problems in the life of our nation, took not always correct and informed decisions about the placement of industrial facilities and cities

These errors are still felt by the residents of Nadym, Novy Urengoy, Muravlenko, Urai, Gubkinskoye and so on.

As before, when several departments were not interested in the investing in social arrangement of northern cities, and today, the new owners of enterprises, oil and gas companies, with a view to the rapid turnover of assets and profit, put them in the manufacturing sector only in areas cultivated or prepared to development still existed at the end of last century system of State planning and budgeting. Master plans for the northern towns which were created in the design organizations in Moscow, Leningrad, Novosibirsk, Krasnoyarsk, and Yakutsk were a final document, which controlled the local town planning processes; obliging city leaders take responsibility for their implementation and proper use of public funds. [23] Period of typical design solutions for housing, child care centers, schools, commercial and residential buildings and construction techniques led to uniformity where creativity of architects was narrowed forced up to rectangular shape planning solutions which contributed to an increase in snow scurf in cities. [21] State system of urban planning and regional planning disciplined urban planning practice, improved urban plans of the pioneer period of development, de-

veloped construction stages, envisaged sites for future development of settlements in areas of the North. Regional settlement system was theoretical justified and later summarized in the General Scheme of country resettlement made by governmental organizations and institutions of the USSR. After the crash of the Soviet Union the General Scheme of resettlement of the Russian Federation was developed, which was approved by the Government. General Scheme contains main directions in Russian settlement system for the foreseeable future, including areas of the North. Some fundamental issues that directly affect the general plans of cities and towns, causing at least the confusion in artificial division of people on “living” and “staying” in the North, on “indigenous” and “non-indigenous” people. [29] Naturally, this formulation gets positive response among the owners of industrial enterprises since it essentially allows them to invest minimum means into industrial and scientific human resources keep a minimum investment in the social sphere because temporary “stay” - within 3 - 5 years - a person can “endure” uncomfortable conditions.

Perestroika broke administrative command control system over urban development. The closure of many town enterprises, research institutes, and several industries led to a significant narrowing of the economic base of northern cities. Over a million people, usually the most qualified personnel, left Siberia, even though it is with them the sustainable development of urban structures, transport links between the regions of the North and the South was associated. Master plans for a number of cities have not reached planned population for 2000 (Nadym was designed for 75 thousand stopped at a population of 50 thousand, Novy Urengoy instead of 150 thousand in 2003, had a population of 100 thousand, as well as Noyabrsk; Norilsk and Yakutsk stabilized their performance in the range of 200 thousand inhabitants), which has resulted in increased migration of the population from the northern regions, a sharp fall in the standard of living in Siberia, unemployment, poor cultural and community service. [24] The market economy and the elimination of the urban planning administering bodies led to the neglect of many of the provisions conjugated in master plans: dramatically reduced housing, construction of new types

of experimental buildings stopped; many areas reserved for housing stock upgrade was occupied with banks, offices, commercial structures; construction of childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s institutions reduced as well as park areas, green spaces; transport provision of public recreation deteriorated; public malls were displaced with private commercial organizations and businesses; the terms laid down in the Master Plan for the implementation phases of construction, structural changes, functional zoning were not fulfilled. Sustainable development of northern cities is largely dependent on natural resources in the region. According to experts, oil reserves explored today will last for 100 years of mining , gas - 200 years (considering coastal shelf). But they are gradually depleting, while narrowing the raw traditional economic base of indigenous peoples of Siberia. [24] About Norilsk there were written many publications in our and foreign press. This is truly one of the most comfortable cities of the North, not only in our country but also abroad (Figure 17). Architect A. Kochar developed the first master plan of the city and laid there the principle of the main highways turn to reduce wind flows and snow drifts,

by changing the direction of the snow carrying wind streams at an angle of 30°. In the first drafts of the master plan Norilsk was presented as compact city with windproof building front. The mistakes were the ignorance of the features of permafrost (uneven thawing under the foundations of buildings and undeveloped territories) and the construction of the low-rise (2-3 storey) buildings buried in snow up to the windows of the second floor. Subsequently, the entire block of the first stage of development was completely disassembled because of catastrophic deformations of buildings. [21] The basis for the master plan was the principle of protection from the prevailing north-western, western and south-easterly winds by creating compact urban built environment. Solid 5-9-storey buildings of the western facade of the city, opened to the lake look like a fortress wall cutting off the city from the water surface. End of the 20th century made the city planners to go on increasing the height of residential buildings up to 12-16 floors due to limited territory suitable for housing and the need to maintain the integrity and compactness of built environment. Unfortunately, in many urban quarters apartments of northwestern and north-eastern orientation

have almost no sunlight (they were built as the typical projects in the western part of the country in 50s-60s). [29] Norilsk emerged as an industrial city for the extraction of copper-nickel ores and turned into a single municipality, peculiar aggregation of cities (Norilsk, Talnah, Kayerkan and settlement Snezhnogorsk) with the total number of 226 000 inhabitants. Such administrative association derived not only due to the discovery of new mineral deposits in the area of Norilsk, but also in attempt to improve the social sphere of the cities located 2030 kilometers from it and to provide a high level of social conditions. [10] Norilsk experience largely confirmed the conviction of architects, who have worked in the Siberia, the need to change perceptions of the scale, the natural environment and the built environment of the northern cities, which differ from the middle part of the country. Concepts of “residential building”, “city center”, “perception of scale”, “general facade” lost their original meaning. The concept of “habitability”, which includes the sum of human sensations in the built environment more suited to the northern complexes. Characteristics of cities and settlements of the European part of Rus-

Figure 17. Norilsk. Source: http://www.norilsk-wifi.com/

sia, and especially the Kola Peninsula is clear functional zoning - the location of industrial enterprises outside the city limits. Industry did not experienced difficulties with the implementation of its products, thanks to good transport links with major industrial and food centers in the country. [22] Absence of permafrost on the peninsula confronted the architects and builders with the task of residential areas planning, fitting them into the natural environment with maximum preservation of existing green areas, organization of convenient transport links between industrial enterprises and residential areas and the reduction of pedestrian linkages to services (kin-

dergartens and schools, shops, etc.). Murmansk, the largest city in the Polar region in the world, with its formidable land and sea connections to many centers in the country and abroad, stretched for more than 20 kilometers along the bay. It carries an idea of the master plan in its development - terraced arrangement of the three planning areas: on the lower terrace there is the industrial port area, the second and third terraces - residential areas (Figure 18). Only in the 80s of the 20th century interesting planning decisions for entire Micro districts emerged. Most importantly - the city, located on the hills, got warm indoor pedestrian streets and stairs combined with kiosks,

small shops and simple services. [22] Citizens appreciated the appearance of these innovations, especially in

the conditions of strong snowdrifts and long polar nights when glowing galleries not only shelter from the chilly winds, but also serve as bea-

Figure 18. Murmansk. Source: http://www.skyscrapercity.com/

cons for neighborhood residents. Considering the development of cities and settlements, it cannot be overlooked that for people living in the north and mastering his wealth, health becomes a category that defines the stability and sustainability of their lives and their migratory activity. In the transition to market mechanisms both visitors and natives of the northern re-

gions were protected less than others. After all, before many favorable conditions in the Far North were compensated directly by the State, who managed to “reconcile” with visitors with inconveniences of life and difficult living conditions by the “northern coefficients”, annual bonuses and free travel to the place of holiday (every 2 - 3 years). Market led to the cancellation of

privileges and outflow from the northern regions of Russia, according to various estimates, up to one million professionals has left. Collapse of the Soviet Union almost stopped conducting of the state public policy for the development of the northern territories. 1990 - 2000 were most severe years in the life of small towns and settlements. [29] In modern conditions, when the region, city or settlement could determine for themselves what to build in the first place, the most important issue is the question of funding.

The state should help to establish economic independence of the northern economy by careful fiscal policy, the recognition of the mixed economy (private-public funding), environmental restrictions on mining and strict observance of environmental protection measures. The meeting on the main issues of regional development and challenges in the area of urban development of Siberia conducted in April 2004 in Salekhard has developed a long-term priorities of state policy in the northern territories. [29}

OSITIVE ATTEMPTS IN NORTHERN PLANNING

are exceptions of the rule became individual successes in the implementation of northern atypical techniques in building (rounded corner section of an apartment house in the village Varga Shore near Vorkuta, a new house in Mirny by architect V. Zakharov - one corridor on three

floors with two level-apartments, residential micro-town â&#x20AC;&#x153;Aikhalâ&#x20AC;? on the Arctic Circle, warm pedestrian galleries on the slopes of Murmansk hills, wide section houses in Aeroportovskoye, winter gardens in new types of preschools and schools). [30] Nadim was built with an incredibly

Figure 19. Master plan for Nadym, 1970, arch. E. Putintsev. Source: Putintsev E., Concept of northern planning

fast pace (1970 – 1988) (Figure 19). It became one of the best cities in the north of Tyumen region, the base for the development of gas fields on the Yamal Peninsula. This city, whose prospect long existence and development is provided by 36 gas fields, proves that it is the only method of survival for centers that have arisen on the core of single industry. Master plan of Nadym was developed by the group of Leningrad architects (Kaplunova, Valkova, Moskalenko) and practically implemented without major changes. It replaced the general planning scheme of the Nadym village for 12 thousand inhabitants, designed in 1968 by GIPROGOR Institute. [30] Clear separation of the residential areas of the city from industrial areas, an elaborated system of residential structures organization, taking into account the flow of wind and snow during the long winter months, the central location of administrative buildings, the city park equidistant from the residential neighborhoods, the main facade of the town overlooking the large water mirror of Yantarnoe Lake on the south side - all this has become the hallmarks of Nadym. Young architects, headed by the chief architect of the city, made the only right

decision - does not matter for how long people are coming to the North - they should feel care and it is necessary by the means of architecture to improve the living environment of the northern city. New buildings developed locally on individual projects should be built in a typical gray building blocks surrounding, introducing color to the environment, new finishing materials cover many monotonous concrete mass structures, alternating 5 and 9-story buildings enriches the city’s skyline. To the honor of Nadym architects, the passion for high residential development has not touched them. Severe northerly winds create intolerable conditions for residence in “sails” of 12 – 16-storey buildings. Cold radiation of walls and windows (even at 18°C) forces to relocate tenants from northern hotel suites in the southern rooms. In 1980 SibZNIIEP Giprogor started to develop the Master Plan for Noyabrsk (architects A. Fomin, M. Dzyubenko, M. Kozlov, M. Cherepanov). Designing urban areas, architects carefully preserved green areas of pines and larches, giving the unique beauty and comfort of the city, located on the sandy “Siberian ridges”. Clear zoning in Noyabrsk, a division of residential and industrial zones, received the most complete expression: railroads, roads

and green strip of pines are the boundary of residential area of the city. [30]

mote from Magadan. Houses in Anadyr were built on the basis of this series.

The construction of arts schools, music schools, sports facilities, a new television center, dispensary, located in a pristine pine forest near the lake Hanto, makes this city one of the most comfortable and cozy in the North.

Development of new territories with the approach to the river Magadanka due to the desire to preserve the existing forest park and fit into the picturesque character of its banks to diversify residential development emphasize the originality of the northern city on the background hills. Ironically, until today, public buildings created by individual projects of previous years are examples of a good quality construction (Trade Union Palace with its beautiful, well-known in all northern regions by its winter garden with songbirds; Sports Palace, where you can spend the most major sporting events on game species). Long-term operation of the winter garden in Magadan virtually removed from the agenda of the real questions about the possibilities of design and construction of “green objects” in the confined spaces of public buildings of the Far North. Their appearance and function in Yakutsk, Mirny, Norilsk, Vorkuta, Novy Urengoy and other cities of the North is a visual confirmation. [30]

Magadan, in its central part, is reminiscent to the southern cities of the country with its balconies, turrets, moldings, residential districts – it does not remind about the northern climate. Bricklaying techniques allowed to replicate the planning and construction of 30 - 40s of Soviet era. In the center and in the new districts there are no wooden housing, so characteristic of many cities that erased in the second half of 20th century. Developed industry base provides construction of improved series of houses, industrial buildings, roads and quays for ships. Magadan architects did their best to get away from the temporary structures, erecting capital buildings landscape. They were one of the first in the North who created capacity to produce light structures with effective insulation, which were widely used in residential and industrial buildings. “Arctic” series technology allowed to create sustainable environment also in the regions re-

One of the good examples of attempts to implement solutions for urban planning problems in the cold continental climate and extremely low temperatures was the first project of

micro city for 4.500 residents-miners, which was developed in accordance with the Decree of the USSR Council of 03/01/61 and 02/02/61 CM RSFSR “On the construction of the diamond mining company in the field of the tube “Aikhal” (Figure 20). [28] Lack of demographic data, norms and rules of building the northern cities, meeting the conditions of the North, on the one hand allowed to develop individual projects, but on the other - complicated the design process significantly because the evaluation and analysis of projects by public bodies was based on the existing building codes and economic indicators for central Russia. [28] A careful study of long-term meteorological data and geological survey data were the basis of the development of the project in which the team of authors tried to find the most progressive principles for northern town planning in solving a number of problems in the area: • Social organization of northern micro city; • Functional structure of the residential complex; • Architectural and spatial composition of the complex in the Far North; • Establishment of microclimate within a limited space of the city one of the aspects of the establish-

ment of normal psycho-physical environment for communication and life in the conditions of long 8-month winter and extremely low winter temperatures of -68°C; • Internal and external transport of the city remote from the advanced industrial and transportation centers of the country; • Strong economic performance compared to all other variants of construction. Social organization Social and domestic organization of the future residential complex was based on the following principles: • Households based occupation of apartments tailored to the needs of all age categories of citizens and families (in accordance with the scientific evidence and the alleged hypotheses on the demographic composition of the population with predominant percentages of families of 2 - 3 members, an increased number of singles and a smaller number of families consisting of 4 - 5 persons); • Everyday service facilities for the population with the highest possible exemption of residents from economic and domestic worries (well-developed form of catering business, selling goods on sam-

ples, the system of pre-orders for the house, etc.); • Provision of diverse forms of recreation for different social groups, active and quiet recreation, sports, cultural and educational activities. Recreational area should be differentiated by location and purpose (lounges, lobbies in residential houses, places of public resort accompanied with sports and entertainment areas; • Provision of the conditions for the development of various forms of communication and public initiatives by creating a community center, bringing facilities closer to residential apartments and small walking radiuses. For singles (17% of the population) hotel type apartments without kitchens in the first floors of the buildings were designed, with the smallest radius of accessibility to rooms for cooking, buffets and cafes. Absence of kitchens in the apartments of hotel type is explained by the peculiarities of the demographic composition of this population group – young people, not burdened by economic ties, are the least stable in terms of quantitative change and has the greatest migration mobility; In the apartments for families of

two to four people kitchens with the second light with the area up to 4.5 meters are provided. The apartments for 4 -6 people (10% of the population) there are kitchens which have an area of 7 square meters and are illuminated with natural light. Differentiating types of kitchens, the authors deliberately stayed on the different options with partial socialization of household functions, due to the isolation of the complex from the major centers, the problems for the delivery of products and goods, with difficulty and inability to even approximately determine the “economic outlook” of the future tenants. During the creation of this project, a significant portion of the aligned housing did not have even the minimum necessary living conditions, developed service sector and childcare. To experiment with the socialization of household functions in the area of the circumpolar range of the authors do not consider it possible and appropriate, although in the 60s sounded insistent voices of many theorists of mass implementation of these principles. [28] Functional structure Functional structure of micro city was based on creating maximum comfort for residents by: • A clear articulation of the func-

tional areas of the residential complex (child care centers, residential zone, a community center, school zone, hospital zone, etc.); • Bringing closer everyday services to houses, locating them along the pedestrian galleries, concentrating periodic services in a single community center; minimizing wasteful transitions, exception within the apartment complex opposite flows of pedestrians, placing the entire complex of institutions and transport pavilions on the people movement tracks to work, to give a substantial saving of time; • The union of functionally related groups of institutions and enterprises directly in the public housing complex center (sports - entertaining area combined with winter garden, trade and catering, etc.). Specific conditions of the Far North extremely low winter temperatures, ultraviolet deficiency, accumulation of solar energy, concentrated exposure to the sun for a limited time in spring and summer, an unusually large temperature differences, negative influence on the human body (from -60°C outside to 24°C inside residential areas) - all this was the basis for the creation of new types of functionally viable structures and premises in a residential complex

(child care centers with their winter gardens, warm street galleries with services and shops, closets in apartments, new type of residential building with extended section width). [28] Architectural and spatial composition Architectural and spatial composition of the complex is partly determined by terrain features and rocky foundation. It consists of two identical groups of houses, adjacent with their ends to the street - covered gallery leading to the community center. Childcare buildings (square in plans) are located at the end of galleries and give a certain completeness to the total composition. Some geometricity and symmetry of residential buildings groups are not really felt there (Figure 21). This is due to terrain features and different height of the building (five-storey house, two-storey building childcare facilities, a three-storey school building, two-story building community centers and administrative building). [28] Microclimate Microclimate is understood by the authors as a part of the problem of creation normal living conditions in the Far North. Walk in the outside to buy food during the long winter months, visit to the gyms and cultural institu-

tions without having the need to endure 50 degree frost would enhance the overall tone of people, contribute to a significant reduction in diseases, since the existence of an intermediate zone between the temperature of the outer housing and the environment helps visitors to adapt easier to the harsh conditions of the North. According to the authors, such a construction principle of micro city will reduce psychophysiological disorders and mental depression in the long winter evenings. Together with a strong network of cultural and community service, an abundance of light and color in the streets, galleries, changing volumes and spaces of social center will help to recreate the complex of sensations and perceptions, which will have a positive impact on people (Figure 21-23). Estimated positive temperature of 8Â°C - 12Â°C inside the galleries will be that peculiar transition intermediate zone between extremely low temperatures in the street and positive temperatures in residential and public buildings. [28] Transport Public transport (housing - production â&#x20AC;&#x201C; housing) in the project was oriented to trolleybuses as the most profitable in terms of ecology and sys-

tem duplication (electric traction, the ability to move on diesel fuel during power outages). Deadlock system of driveways excluded transport routes through the residential area, landing of people is made at transport pavilions located at the end of the galleries before kindergartens, where children can be brought by parents in the indoor streets on their way to work. Inside the complex (for transporting goods and products) electric cars were provided, which have found wide application in many industrial enterprises across the country. Circular fire ring road was envisaged. Thus, the maximum isolation of traffic flows from human habitation was provided, taking full account of the requirements of a fullfledged public transport services. [28] Urban economy Urban economy was determined by provision of various design options. The following options have been developed: the main with 5-storey buildings, with housing of 5 and 8-9 floors, with housing of 12 floors and one with typical housing projects. Comparative analysis revealed the benefits of a 5-storey version (sharp reduction in the length of utilities, roads,

buildings reduce heat loss due to the width of the buildings and streets connecting them warm – galleries). [28] And, of course, an important condition of the building was a long struggle for the use of local natural limestone dumps

suitable for production of concrete heavy and light fractions. Creating own database of silicate concrete allowed not only to build houses on “Aikhal” but practically provided the construction of the whole city Udachny on the largest diamond mine in Yakutia. [28]

Figure 20. Project of Aikhal micro city for 4.500 residents, arch. E. Putintsev. Source: Putintsev E., Concept of northern planning

Figure 21. Plan of Aikhal micro city, arch. E. Putintsev. Source: Putintsev E., Concept of northern planning

Figure 22. Aikhal. Source: http://sakha.gov.ru/

Figure 23. Aikhal. Source: http://sakha.gov.ru/

UILDING CODES

he structure of Soviet and then Russian building codes and planning regulations is, to say the least, very complicated. Numerous documents supplemented by numerous of additional documents, which in their own refer to another various documentation. After the breakdown of Soviet Union, the system became so inextricable that it could take years to find the logic and the links. However, here is the attempt to understand the hierarchy and to distinguish which regulations should be taken as the guidelines for urban planning and architecture in terms of spatial regulation and morphology. The legal basis of the standardization and regulation in the construction is the law of the Russian Federation, which determines the relationship of investment activity participants, their rights, duties and responsibilities for the quality of products and services. Building codes, regulations and standards are one of the means of inter-sectorial regulation and control in designing and construction in order to implement the requirements of the legislation. The hierarchy of regulations has on its top the

Constitution of Russian Federation as the main State law, determining legal relations (Scheme 2). On the next level, there are laws and other legislative acts of the representative government of the Russian Federation, Decrees of the President of Russia and/or Presidents of Republics of Russian Federation. The subject of law determines the power of national over republican laws or otherwise, whether it is of national or local interest and concern (these subjects are mentioned in the Constitution). Lower on the hierarchy stairs stand decisions of the Council of Ministers and Russian Federation government (decisions of Republicsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; governments) and then Instructions of public authorities of Russian Federation or its Republics. The system of laws, legislative acts, decrees, decisions and instructions is the legal header for the system of technical regulations and standards. The last includes: Federal regulations (Building regulations (SNiP), State standards (GOST), Codes of practice for design and construction (SP), Guidelines systems regulations (RDS)); Regulations of subjects of Russian Federation (Territorial building codes (TSN));

Production and industry regulations (Standards of enterprises (STP), Standards of public associations (STO)). The main documents relevant for building, planning and architecture are Federal Laws. Town Planning Code, Federal Law about architectural activity in Russian Federation, Federal Law about the safety of buildings and structures, Federal Law about fire safety and the like. The Federal Laws define the rights, duties and responsibilities of citizens and legal persons engaged in architectural, planning and building work, as well as government bodies, local authorities, customers (developers), contractors, owners (or) architectural objects. They also indicates other regulatory documents (SNiP, GOST, SP, etc.), which should be used as the references. Since 2000s, the mandatory nature of SNiP, which was the main regulatory document in Soviet Union, started to be diminished and in the end eliminated. Now the new system of SNiP is under development but at this time they are considered prescriptive, legally it is not mandatory but recommended as a reference; however, in fact, it is the only standard for planning and design and is widely used by State Expertize Commission as the criteria for issuance of building permissions. Therefore, planners and architects still refer to these docu-

ments during the planning process. System of normative documents in construction (SNiP) is a collection of interconnected documents taken by the competent bodies of executive power and construction management, businesses and organizations to use in all phases of development and operation of construction products in order to protect the rights and legitimate interests of its customers, society and the state. The system, based on the common goals of standardization, should contribute to the solution of problems faced by the construction in order to ensure: • Conformity of construction products to their destination and the creation of favorable conditions of the population; • The safety of building products to the life and health of people in the process of production and operation; • Protection of construction products and people from the adverse effects of risk of emergencies; • Reliability and quality of structures and bases, systems engineering equipment, buildings and structures; • Compliance with environmental requirements, natural, material, fuel and labor; • Understanding the implementa-

Scheme 2. Hierarchy of regulations in Russian Federation. Source: Author

tion of all types of construction activities and the removal of technical barriers to international cooperation. Standardization and regulation of objects in the system are: organizational, methodological and general technical rules and regulations necessary for the development, production and use of construction products:

• Objects of urban development activities and building products buildings and structures and their complexes; • Industrial products used in construction and building products and materials, engineering equipment, tools equipment construction companies and construction enterprises; • Economic standards required to

determine the effectiveness of investment, construction costs, material and labor costs.

in the field of construction, building regulations and the standards technically advanced foreign countries. [75].

System is formed as an open for further developing a uniform system of state building codes, regulations and standards, as well as other normative documents in construction developed on a common methodological and scientific-technical basis.

SNiP were developed for different fields of building. The one, determining codes for urban planning is SNiP 30-01-2008 “Urban planning. Planning and development of urban and rural settlements”, which was introduced instead SNiP 2.07.01-89* of 1989 in order to match it with contemporary legislation of Russian Federation.

Greater independence and development initiatives of enterprises, organizations and specialists in economic and technical problems of design and construction is provided by the new system while reducing the number of mandatory requirements and increasing the proportion of the rules and regulations of a recommendatory nature. Should be mandatory requirements to ensure the safety of life and health, environmental protection, reliability, erected buildings and structures, compatibility and interchangeability of products used in construction and technical solutions. Development of normative documents in construction are implemented on the principles adopted state standardization system of the Russian Federation and international standardization organizations with the necessary harmonization and comparability with international standards

SNiP 30-01-2008 “Urban planning. Planning and development of urban and rural settlements”. Main issues. As part of SNiP 30-01-2008 along with the mandatory requirements of the planning and building of settlements included and recommended provisions in force before the adoption of building codes territorial subjects of the Russian Federation. Recommended positions are shown in the application and may be adjusted according to the specific climatic, socio-demographic and other features of urban development in the Russian Federation. It determines the ranges of cities according to the population, priority of planning, the perspectives of particular settlement develop-

ment, the zoning system, sanitary zones, specific planning in historical cities or seismic areas and so on. I will stop at the chapter “Residential zones” to discuss it more detailed. SNiP describes what should be included in residential zones (houses of different types (multi-storey apartment buildings, medium and low-rise buildings including private houses standing alone and/or blocked), free standing or built-in and attached objects of social and cultural and cultural-public services, garages and parking lots for cars belonging to citizens; cultural objects) and what should be excluded from it. The planning structure of residential areas should be consistent with the city structure, infrastructure, natural features of the territory, main services and so on. The size of the residential zone should be defined incrementally according to statistical data and estimations of population and auto mobilization, taking as a reference the norm of 20 square meters of dwelling per person. It describes the functional planning structure of residential areas, which was described before (see chapter “Features of Soviet Housing and Planning” of this paper) and is called “Stage maintenance system”.

Main planning elements of residential areas are: residential district and micro district. Micro districts usually have the size about 5 – 60 ha. The location of the object of city importance (i.e. railway station, city park, stadium, ect.) is not permitted within residential districts or micro districts, as well as the location of transit roads. The SNiP prescribes that planning process of residential zones development should include their differentiation by type of building, its height, and density, location, taking into account the historical, cultural, climatic and other local features. The type and number of storeys of residential development are determined in accordance with the socio-demographic, national and domestic, architectural and compositional, sanitary and other requirements for the formation of the living environment, as well as the possibility of development of engineering infrastructure and fire safety. However, it does not say how exactly these specific features should be considered, giving the complete freedom in defining what is right and wrong in these terms to local authorities. Since there are no criteria of what is proper planning in specific climate conditions, for example, the other criteria come to a fore (economic, sanitary, functional and so on) to judge the quality of the plan.

The SNiP determines the classes of houses in terms of comfort and induces planners to envisage all the types in the plan, the amount of each is given as a percentage share to the whole building stock. The distances between buildings should be estimated according to the SanPiN (Satinary Regulations) 26-0582 “Sanitary rules and regulations to ensure insolation of residential and public buildings and residential areas”. Population density of micro district should not exceed 450 persons per hectare. The area of green spaces in residential districts (except areas of schools and kindergartens) should be not less than 25% of the total area. The areas for recreation for different social groups including children playground should be located within the residential area and constitute not less than 10% of the total district area. The minimum distances from the residential building wall with windows to the recreational areas should be: • To the children playground 12 meters; • To the adults leisure area 10 meter; • To the sports ground (according to the noise level) from 10 to 40 meters; • To domestic use grounds (i.e.

waste collection ground) 20 meters; • To the dog walking area 40 meters; • To the parking lots (to be determined according to a specific table). Other chapters of the SNiP are dedicated to the minimal requirements and numbers with the same logic and structure as the described above, about industrial zones, infrastructure, sport and recreation, facilities and services, sanitary zones and distances, urban agriculture, public transport, engineering equipment, water supply and sewerage system, energy supply and communications, environment protection and historical heritage, noise, vibrations and lector-magnetic fields protection, fire safety and microclimate. The microclimate part states that planning and development of urban and rural areas should include measures to improve microclimatic conditions of settlements (windshield, providing ventilation areas, optimization of temperature and humidity by landscaping and irrigation, efficient use of solar radiation, etc.). Regional urban planning regulations establish specific requirements and parameters of development based on local climatic conditions. Placement and orientation of residen-

tial and public buildings must provide the duration of insolation premises and territories in accordance with the hygienic requirements for insolation residential and public buildings and areas. In the zone north of 58째 insolation duration should be at least 3 hours per day for the period from 22 April to 22 August, for the zone south of 58째 - not less than 2.5 hours per day for the period from March 22 to September 22. In terms of building houses of 9 floors and more disposable allowed discontinuity insolation premises subject to an increase of the total duration of insolation during the day at 0.5 hours, respectively, for each zone. In individual residential houses, apartment buildings of meridional type, where all the rooms of the apartments are insolated, as well as reconstruction or placement of buildings in particularly difficult urban conditions (historically valuable city environment, costly engineering training, social and business areas), shortening of insolation for 0.5 hours, respectively, for each zone is allowed. In areas north of 62.5째 these standards may decrease insolation premises of residential and public buildings, provided, that compensatory measures to increase the comfort of living of the population (increase site owner, artificial ultraviolet irradiation, treatment and

preventive maintenance) are taken. [76] Although, the SNiP states that the regional planning regulations should establish specific requirements according to their climate conditions, these codes do not yet exist. There is a number of Territorial building codes (TSN), developed by subjects of Russian Federation. Unfortunately, the system of TSN is not developed and, speaking about northern regions, the specific requirements and standards are provided only for energy performance of buildings and their technical features, i.e. foundations on permafrost. Thus, the aim of this study is to understand what could be the specific guidelines for urban planning in cold climate of northern regions of Russia, which should constitute future Territorial building codes.

CLIMATE ISSUES

LIMATE FEATURES OF RUSSIAN NORTH

irst, there is the need to describe briefly the specificities of temperature and climate across Russia. This will explain why and what is called the Far North or the cold regions.

Features of Russian climate Russian climate has a specific temperature distribution across the country. In our conventional impression the northern areas are colder than southern and

temperature increases or decreases respectively while moving along meridian. Looking at the map of temperature distribution in summer this trend is quite obvious (Figure 24). During winter period the situation is changing, due to the warmth of Atlantic Ocean coming from the west, lines connecting points on the map with similar temperatures (isotherms) rotate on 90 degrees compared to the summer. From November to April tempera-

Figure 24. Map of average air temperature in June. Source: A. Afonin, K. Lipiyaynen, V. Tzepelev

Figure 25. Map of average air temperature in January. Source: A. Afonin, K. Lipiyaynen, V. Tzepelev

ture decreases from west to south with no respect to the latitude (Figure 25).

only to the idea of Polar Regions but with the area of permafrost extension.

This phenomenon is responsible for the fact that at the same time the temperature in Norilsk (lat. 69°20′ long. 88°13′) can be higher than in Yakutsk (lat. 62°01′ long. 129°43′) although Norilsk is for 7° closer to the north. That is why there is a tendency to call the part of Russia to the east from Ural Mountains (Siberia) the North or Far North. In this case the North is not a geographical concept but climatic. Thus, when this term in mentioned in this work it should not be confused with the geographical north or narrowed

Features of climate and environment in the Far North All European North of Russia and the entire territory of Russia to the east from the Ural Mountains are characterized by either severe or extreme climatic conditions. First, this is due to extremely cold and long winter, which not only significantly complicates and raises the costs of economic development of these vast territories, but also has an extremely negative impact on the health and conditions of

Figure 26. Map of permafrost areas with different soul temperatures distribution. Source: protown.ru

human life. At high latitudes the consequences of long polar night in December and January and biological scrip preceding its onset and continuing for some time after its completion is added to this adverse impact. [33] Soviet building codes determined features of thermal calculations, structural parameters of the foundations, some differences in sanitary and fire regulations, but did not allow deviating from established for midland national regulations in square meters of living space per person, floor height, typical designs, window sizes, etc. despite that living conditions

in the North cannot be compared with conventional building codes. Far North, as was mentioned before, occupies about 60% of Russian territory, where more than 10 million people live and where up to 80% of its energy, the main reserves of coal, rare and precious metals, gold, wood, peat, diamonds, and many other minerals are concentrated. Russian North is diverse and unique. Arctic desert, tundra, forest-tundra, woodland, taiga forests and swamps, mountains and lowlands - this is an incomplete list of the landscape

characteristics

these

regions.

towns, villages and reindeer camps. [4]

Arctic region of the North, with its moss and shrub tundra is characterized by strong winds, heavy snowdrifts and prolonged cold period (275 - 315 days of the year). In this area the following cities are situated: Murmansk, Arkhangelsk, Vorkuta, Salekhard, Nadim, Norilsk, Tixi, Verkhoyansk, Bilibino, Anadyr, Magadan, many camps and small

Here are the main factors, which have a very negative impact on the human body: Sun and daylight The presence of polar day and night in the area of the subarctic lasts from 35 to 45 days, which leads to violations of existing biorhythms of the

Figure 27. Winter sun path in Polar region. Sourse: V. Yacht, Life Nature Libraries: The Poles

Figure 28. Murmansk at 3pm, December. Sourse:RIA Novosti

human body, the appearance of the syndrome of hypoxia (the concentration of oxygen in blood increases, increases ventilation and speed of

blood flow, which leads to chronic diseases of these body systems). [1] Ultraviolet deficiency throughout the

Far North is marked by uneven distribution of it throughout the year (Figure 27, 28). A significant proportion of the effective radiation falls on periods with negative temperatures or for a transitional period - from 0°C to 12°C (in some areas, this period coincides with the strongest winds) that almost eliminates the ability to per-

Figure 29. Clothing in Yakutsk. Source: V. Everstov, REUTERS

ter period is 8-9 months. This factor leads to an increase in colds, diseases of the ear, nose and throat, body hypothermia, reducing its resistance to the negative effects of the environment and, consequently, a decrease in productivity in the North (Figure 29, 30). On the official website of The Ministry of Emergency Situations (MChS or EMERCOM) one can usually find notifications of this kind: “In the situation of decreasing temperature and increasing frost General Directorate of the Russian Min-

ceive radiation outdoors for a long time in a relatively light clothing. [33] Low temperatures Extremely low winter temperatures, the difference between absolute winter and summer temperatures reaches 100 degrees, the duration of the win-

Figure 30. Yakutsk. Source: MChS Russia

istry of Emergency Situations in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) reminds residents and visitors of the Republic: IF YOU ARE IN THE STREET: Do not stand in one place, move. Put the headpiece (30% of the heat is lost when the head is uncovered). Hide from the wind. Use for selfwarming the nearest heating facilities: shops, houses and porches, etc. Do not drink alcohol: with the expansion of vessels the heat loss increases! Inform your relatives and emergency services about your location.

FOLLOW ads and recommendations of authorities and specialists. IF YOU ARE ON THE ROAD Make a stop on the road, beep the alarm, lift the hood or hang a bright cloth to the antenna, wait for help in the car. Motor should be left on, leave a little opening in the window to provide ventilation and prevent carbon monoxide poisoning.

If help does not arrive and you are not far from the village, it is better to reach it by foot. With the loss of orientation, moving under heavy frost outside of the village, go to the first house, ask about your location and, if possible, wait there until the blizzards and frost end. If you are out of the forces look for any shelter and stay thereâ&#x20AC;?. [84] Vegetation The lack of habitual vegetation, ultra-

Scheme 3. Trees comparison. Source: Putintsev E., Concept of northern planning, Author

violet starvation and lack of solar radiation - all these have different influences on visitors and citizens and leads to a decrease in psychological tone of people a sense of uncertainty and anxiety. The distinctive features of the Far North can be attributed to the growth of specific trees and shrubs on the frozen ground, which are not always taken into account when planning residential areas of cities and towns. The thickness of the active (thawing) layer varies - from a few dozen of centimeters - in the Arctic regions up to 1.6 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2 meters - in the areas of central Yakutia and taiga vegetation zones. The root system of the main tree and shrub species adapted to these features of the frozen ground, extending as far as possible in all directions from the trunk in the horizontal direction.

Diameter of some root systems (the northern birch) reaches 20 meters. Low height of trees with strong horizontal root system allows them not only to grow from year to year but also to resist high winds and hurricanes usual in the Far North (Scheme 3). Not deep, as in the middle Russia, but the horizontal position of the roots of trees complicates the creation of artificial (man planted) green areas in yards, front yards, in the houses adjoining areas, etc. After a year or two trees die due to the damage of roots during excavation and soil salinity, if planting is done without the parent soil, which for many years has created favorable conditions for water-salt metabolism. [31] Wind and snow Strong winds with extremely low win-

Figure 31. Snowdrifts in Norilsk. Source: http://trinixy.ru/

ter temperatures and snowdrifts have as a result frequent frostbites of people, increased radiation of cold walls and windows even at relatively high temperatures indoors, causing sensation of cold and discomfort (Figure 31). Rooms overlooking the northern facades of houses and hotels in newly built cities cause a lot of complaints from residents and visitors, due to the constant cold winter (Novy Urengoy,

Labytnangy, Talnah near Norilsk). Increased metabolism, as a response to the harsh living conditions, reflected in increased heat and gas exchange. According to various sources, this figure is 15-30% above the level characteristic of the inhabitants of central Russia. Existing apartments, built according to building codes with strictly limited floor areas and volumes, do not meet the needs of human life; more energy is

Scheme 4. Snow drifts types. Source: A. Dyunin, In the kingdom of snow

expended to ensure the normal state. Snowdrifts as a result of snow reallocation during strong winds depend on the speed of the wind flows: at speeds of 4 - 5 m/s blowing snow usually starts that moves previously fallen snow, at speeds of 10 - 15 m/s

Scheme 5. Katabatic wind. Source: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 Generic

packed snow starts to drift, and at speeds exceeding 20 m/s - already old packed snow is destroyed (Scheme 4). Rapid cooling of the air layers adjacent to the surface of the earth creates strong downdrafts heavy air masses along the slopes of the hilly

Scheme 6. Indoor temperature with different winds and outdoor temperatures. Source: Author

terrain. These streams, called katabatic winds, become even stronger over the snow-covered slopes that contribute to a stronger cooling (Scheme 5). [30]

buildings occurs at high wind speeds. The temperature of the outside air has less effect. In the relatively warm days, with higher wind speeds, temperature in apartments on the leeward

The cold night air stagnates in the valleys and hollows (in Mirny air temperature above the surface of the newly formed reservoir is at 4-6 degrees lower than the temperature of the air of the city, located only a few of meters above). It should be noted that in particularly windy areas with strong katabatic winds, the most intensive cooling space in residential and public

side of the building is lower than in apartments located on the windward side during colder days. Most buildings heat loss, as it turns out, does not take place at very low temperatures but at relatively low temperatures with stronger winds (Scheme 6). [30] Without wind heat loss of the massive walls occurs within several days,

the effect of wind flows reduces the heat transfer of the same wall in 5-6 times. Therefore, in the Subarctic neither lower space, not the tops of hills are the best place to build. Permafrost The presence of permafrost throughout the Far North does not directly affect the human body, but the feeling of responsibility for building on permafrost, especially in the first years of development (when there were many

Figure 32. Permafrost landslide. Source: Center FOBO

ure 32). Many objects in Dudinka, Salekhard, Mirny, Anadyr, etc. had to be strengthen, reconstructed and some completely disassembled, as their continued operation (35-40 years) led to catastrophic consequences (Figure 33). Permafrost – is the hallmark of all the territories referred in various studies as the Far North region. Temperature regime of frozen ground is very varied. Downstream the Kolyma River average age of permafrost is defined in 1 million years - with the lowest temperatures

cases of collapse, cracking walls), creates a sense of psychological discomfort. Recent discoveries made by our hydro-geologists, revealed a close relationship with permafrost flow filtration processes and spillway groundwater, bringing a different perspective on the “eternity” of permafrost. It has become clear already that the destruction of the foundations of many buildings and structures in Yakutsk and Norilsk - is the impact of external factors not only air pollution, but also the natural processes occurring in the frozen soil (Fig-

Figure 33. Kindergarten destruction in Chita. Source: www.time-innov.ru

occurring on the ground - 13-15°C below zero. But the greatest depth of permafrost found in the area Anabarsky Shield is 1.5 kilometers. Basic depth of permafrost is 200 - 500 meters, in the middle zone – 100 - 200 meters and in the southern taiga - from 25 - 100 meters. Icy inclusions, reaching 50% of top soil layer (50-100 meters), significantly complicates the calculations and require detailed geological surveys. Danger of ice inclusions are not yet fully understood, although the nature dic-

tates how unexpected the behavior of ground ice in the frozen soil may be: in 1938 Vasilevsky Island melted, and in 1956 - the Semyonov Island. Interestingly, the 11 million people of the Far North have 11 million square kilometers of frozen ground, i.e. 1 square kilometer for each inhabitant of the North!

And yet the name of “permafrost” is not permanent. In some places the boundary of its distribution begins to recede. In the European part of Russia, near the river Mezeni, its departure was almost 40 kilometers. Changes in the permafrost temperature occurs in major cities of the North: Vorkuta, Mirny,

Scheme 7. “Cooled” piles foundation on permafrost. Source: fundamentproekt.ru

Yakutsk, Norilsk, etc. In some places, permafrost temperature increased from -2°C to -1°C, and even up to -0.7°C. To prevent degradation of the permafrost the “cooled” piles, pile cage and composite piles were introduced in construction techniques, the meaning of which - to prevent penetration of the thermal radiation from a house in frozen soils (Scheme 7).

Permafrost combined with sparse vegetation promotes the formation of many swamps, creating favorable conditions for bloodsucking insects (mosquitoes, midges). In the short days of the northern summer areas of tundra are literally swarming with mosquitoes, which greatly complicate the presence of people in the open air, causing negative reactions of most of the residents of the North.

It should be noted, that permafrost has also the indirect influence on the sanitary conditions of the environment: the cooling of the upper layer of the ground, and especially ponds, rivers and lakes makes suburban areas of many cities unsuitable for the usual rest of people associated with sunbathing and swimming in the warm season. [29]

Climatic conditions in different regions However, climatic conditions in different regions of the Far North are not the same due to the great length from north to south and from west to east, difficult terrain and active circulation processes in the earth’s atmosphere. In sharp contrast to areas of the Arctic coast is the climate of the Yakut Republic where winter is usually a period of high pressure (in Yakutsk - 770775 mm) hindering the penetration of moist air from the coastal regions, here the temperature difference established is the highest in the northern zone from + 38° to -70°C - 108 degrees! To the all climatic and geographical characteristics of the Far North, which create specific conditions for urban development, areas with seismic intensity of 7 points or more must be added, these are areas of Tiksi, Oy-

myakon, Ust-Nera, Magadan, Anadyr and Okhotsk. Seismicity and permafrost temperature under -60°C - all of these factors require a precise calculation of structures and consideration of the physiological state of the human body in such unusual circumstances. Of particular note is the climatic feature of the Kola Peninsula - the “country of mountains and lakes” which is subject to the constant influence of the cold Arctic and the warm North Atlantic Gulf Stream. Extremely sparse vegetation in the northern part of the peninsula with steep cliffs and mountain tundra lowlands covered with tundra vegetation, with valleys of northern coniferous forests and large mountain ranges - in the southern part of the Kola Peninsula is changing, and the nature of the vegetation is very similar to the nature of the Karelian Republic. The warm stream predetermined specific climate of the region. Thus, on the coast, the average temperature in January is only 3°C below zero, in the central part - minus 11°C, and in the south - minus 8°C. High relative humidity (especially in winter) in conjunction with large wind speeds (winter and summer) cause discomfort, discrepant to climate conditions of the Siberian North. Conditions of solar and ultraviolet

deficit due to low standing sun, prolonged presence of polar night and polar day, is compounded by the frequent and prolonged mists, inversion phenomena, sudden changes in temperature and pressure - all significantly affects the health and psychological condition of the people. Another feature of the Far North is an anomalous phenomena in summer temperatures in June and August - though the radiation balance in June is twice higher than August and nonetheless August temperature is warmer than in June. The explanation is quite simple - in June, significant heat is lost to heat the excessively moist soil and moisture evaporation, which in August is much smaller. Surveys conducted in many northern cities by various organizations (Northeast KNII in Magadan Institute, Erisman Institute of Hygiene of Children and Adolescents USSR Ministry of Health, Institute of Hygiene and Occupational Diseases, Institute of Academy of Medical Sciences, Institute of General and Communal Hygiene and many others) revealed serious violations of calcium and phosphorus metabolism, which have the most serious affect on the health of children (clinic rickets), increased fragility of capillary vessels (lack of vitamins C

and P), higher level of the gastrointestinal tract diseases (physical inactivity, associated with short-term stay of people outdoors, especially during the polar night), increased exchange of all the inhabitants of the North. According to hygienists’ estimations, the average number of air per person in normal of central Russia equals 33 meters per hour. Considering that the northern peoples’ liberation of products of combustion, including carbon dioxide, and evaporation from the surface of the body are above average (also increased metabolism), it is necessary to increase cubic content of air at least up to 40 cubic meters per inhabitant. Final assessment must be given by hygienists. [28]

Climate comfort Long and harsh winter with extremely low temperatures causes the appearance and development of a number of natural phenomena, additionally complicating and high cost of human life and all kinds of the economic activity. These include: • Permafrost and large depth of seasonal soil freezing in areas of its absence; • Long- ice cover of rivers, lakes and marine waters surrounding the continent;

• Large and often disastrous spring and summer floods, inundating vast areas of Barking river valleys; • Increased waterlogging on all flat areas with cold, cool and short summer; • An abundance of rocks in the river subsiding floodplains; • Low power and poor soil chemical composition of soils; • Sparse vegetation cover in areas of extreme climate. The vastness of Northern European and all Eastern paradise of the Russian Federation, most of them stretches from west to east and from north to south, cause considerable diversity of climatic characteristics. In general, these differences are due to the greatest extent to:

• Latitude areas; • Proximity or remoteness from the Atlantic, Arctic and Pacific Oceans; • Orographic conditions. Vast areas of land in all the continents of our planet have a complex of climatic characteristics less favorable and unfavorable for human habitation. Climate of such areas is characterized as uncomfortable. Unease climatic conditions in Russia primarily determined by the duration of the winter season with the extreme winter in most parts of its territory. Most often in order to determine the degree of severity of climate the Bodman index (expressed in points) is used:

S = (1 – 0.04T)(1 + 0.272V)

Where: T - temperature (°C), V - wind speed over the cold season (m/s). S < 1 – mild climate; S = 1 - 2 – slightly harsh climate; S = 2 - 3 – moderately harsh climate; S = 3 - 4 – severe climate; S = 4 - 5 - very severe climate; S = 5 - 6 - rigidly severe climate; S > 6 - extremely severe climate. [33]

Stiffness weather conditions at temperatures below -7°C increases significantly due to wind. Each meter increase in wind speed is equivalent to a de-

crease in temperature of 2°C (Table 1). Climatic conditions with a high degree of severity of climate attributed to extreme conditions. Most often,

Table 1. Temperature persiveness at different wind speeds. Source: Author

these are areas with stiffness winter climatic conditions of 4 or more points on a Bodman index scale. [33] Generally, under extreme climatic conditions, climates which could negatively affect not only the working and living conditions, but also threaten the health and survival of human, are understood. Most important factor of the adverse climate impacts on human health and life in the Northern and Eastern regions of Russia is low winter temperatures. January temperatures across most of Siberia and the Far East are below -16Â°C, which corresponds to the second and third degree of severity of work outdoors in calm weather on Hygienic classification of labor. In North America above this isotherm the population density is usually less than 1 person per square kilometer, while in Russia in areas such severe broad front comes the main strip resettlement country with a millionairecities such as Omsk and Novosibirsk, as well as many other major cities. [33] Complex multifactorial approach to assess the impact of climate change on human living conditions was shown in the study of A. Martynov and V. Vinogradov. They evaluated the combined influence of these climatic characteristics: thermal balance of the ter-

ritory, contrast climate, duration of winter, the number of days with wind in winter. As the result of the study integrated assessment cartograms of climate discomfort and reflective index of unfavorable conditions for human life was developed. However, the procedure used multivariate statistical processing, it did not allow to assess adequately the impact of climate humidity in view of the nonlinear nature of its impact on peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s living conditions. In the range of comfortable temperatures, high humidity is favorable to humans. Although, at high and low temperatures, high humidity factor becomes extremely uncomfortable. [33] It is enough to compare the portability of frosts in the coastal areas (St. Petersburg, Murmansk, Vladivostok) and continental regions (Yakutsk). Accordingly, the maximum discomfort in the winter cold is felt in those days, and in those areas, where frost is combined with high humidity. Hygienic norm of relative humidity for a man is 30-60%. Air with relative humidity less than 30% is regarded as a dry, 71-85 % - moderately humid, more than 85% - highly humid. [33] To account for the combined effect of temperature, wind speed and relative humidity various bioclimatic in-

dexes are developed. As the basis for calculating these indices temperature and the effect of humidity and wind speed are taken and expressed in the temperature correction to the outdoor temperature. In accordance with the values of these indices, territories with comfortable and uncomfortable weather conditions are allocated.

1. Effective temperature (ET°)

ity observed in a rather narrow range oscillation values of these factors.

the effect of wind. Thus, increase in each meter of wind speed equates to a decrease in temperature by 2°C.

According to ET° of different seasons, the pensiveness of heat is classified as follows:

2. Equivalent effective temperature (EET°) in addition to the effects of temperature and humidity it takes into account

reflects the combined influence of temperature and humidity. It is noteworthy that the various combinations of these factors and heat pensiveness of human body may be the same. Thus, the effect of temperature and humidity is interchangeable to a certain extent. However, this interchangeabil-

Indices of cold stress 3. Siple - Passel wind cooling index (H, W/m2) H* = (10.45 + 10V0.5 - V) (33 - T°H) 4. Hill index of wind dry cooling (Hc, W/m2) Hc = (0.13 + 0.47V0.5)(36.6 - T°H),

Where: TH - outdoor temperature, °C V - wind speed, m/s. H*, Hc - characterize the heat loss of the exposed skin unit, when skin temperature Ts = 33°C or weighted body temperature Tb = 36.6°C and proportional difference between Ts, Tb and the outdoor temperature. According to H* results (W/ m2 per hour), the conditions are characterized as follows: H* < 0.7 – cool; H* = 1 – 2 – very cold; H* > 3 – extremely cold. According to Hc results (W/ m2 per hour), the conditions are characterized as follows: Hc < 0.35 – hot; Hc = 0.6 – 0.9 – comfortable; Hc = 1.7 – 2.3 – cold; Hc > 2.3 – extremely cold. Frostbites can occur at H* > 1.6 W/m2 or with Hc > 0.7 W/m2. 5. Hill index of wind wet cooling (Hv, W/m2) allows for an amendment to the index Hc by adding water vapor (e): Hv = Hc + (0.085 + 0.102V0.3)(61.1 - e)0.75 Hv characterizes the intensity of the heat loss in the wet moving air. For negative and positive extreme temperatures (over 24°C) wet wind flow strengthens state of discomfort. Hv = 4.5 – 5.5 – uncomfortable;

Hv > 8 – extremely uncomfortable. 6. Bodman stiffness index (S, points): S = (1 - 0.04T)(1 + 0.272V), Where: T – air temperature, °C; V - wind speed over the cold season, m/s. S < 1 – mild climate; S = 1 - 2 – slightly harsh climate; S = 2 - 3 – moderately harsh climate; S = 3 - 4 – severe climate; S = 4 - 5 - very severe climate; S = 5 - 6 - rigidly severe climate; S > 6 - extremely severe climate. All of these indices have a common drawback - they do not take into account the heating effect of solar radiation. It is considered in the Adamenko – Khairullina “reduced temperature” index. 7. Adamenko - Khairullina “reduced temperature” index (Tпр) Tпр = T – 8,2√V + 2.5B0)(0.04 + 3√e), Where: B0 - the radiation balance of the body surface, softening the cold discomfort when a certain quantity of heating the face and hands of man is achieved. If T = 0 and V = 0 m/s, Tпр = -10°C; V = 4 m/s, Tпр = -26.4°C; V = 9 m/s, Tпр = -34.6°C; V = 16 m/s, Tпр = -42.8°C. The most complete and detailed clas-

sification of ecological types of landscapes developed A. Isachenko Russia. He singled group landscapes on the ease of living with their unit on the plains and mountain areas. [33] These studies are widely recognized both in Russia and abroad. However, Western scholars have noted some bias in them. For example, O. Nazarevskiy and A. Isachenko attributed to favorable for living large areas of Siberia and the Far East, South, that is, the territory has a very harsh climate by world standards. This contradiction is explained by the fact that the Soviet government was not interested in the recognition of these regions unfavorable, and even more dangerous for human habitation because of dependent allowances to salary levels and other northern benefits, under which the full development of these territories became economically unprofitable. Particularly clear in this regard tendentious narrowing the range of the Far North and equated it territories, i.e. the areas in which legal norms on domestic rely special “northern” wage differentials and many other northern benefits. Climate component discomfort climatic conditions on the background

of all the components is prevalent not only because of the great intensity of its impact on the status of humans and animals, but also because of the scale of areas, covering the territories commensurate with continents and parts of the continent. Also important is the fact that along the southern borders of Eastern Siberia and the Far East is a powerful chain of mountain ranges and massifs. She goes down like a colossal amphitheater towards the seas of the Arctic Ocean, that is, from the south-east to north-west, and all of our isolates from the eastern regions of mitigating the climate impact of warm air masses formed over the waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. However, such obstacles for invading polar and arctic air masses are almost nonexistent. For this reason, the climate of our eastern districts much more severe than at the same latitudes of the northern hemisphere abroad. Since 1964, on the recommendation of the Geneva Conference, territories located north of 66°33’ north latitude are designated as “high latitudes”. For areas of high latitude characteristic sharp photoperiodicity. With the change in the height of the sun above the horizon changes the spectral composition of direct solar radiation. Based

on the active biological effect of ultraviolet radiation on human beings, it was proposed the concept of “biological darkness” where there is no erythema ultraviolet irradiation. The height of the sun above the horizon at 20° is the limit for the use of UV rays for therapeutic purposes. Between December and January belongs to the period of biological darkness, and from November to February - biological dusk. However, even during the polar day in the Arctic almost no conditions for the assimilation of solar radiation: low solstice heavy losses in the ultraviolet cloud and foggy days (up to 75-90 %). The climate of the area is characterized by a combination of three adverse fac-

tors: low temperatures, especially in winter, high relative humidity, amplifying the adverse effect of cold on the human body, as well as strong winds reaching speeds of 20-30 m/s, and sometimes 50 m/s. In addition, the sound effect caused by strong winds, leading to increased excitability of the central nervous system and creates a negative emotional background. [33] These climatic features create an additional burden on the human body, require more than in the middle lane, stress the body’s reserves, which in turn affects the life expectancy of the population and labor activity.

LIMATE CHANGE

limate change has already became a fact, a continuing process, which is represented by the increase of atmospheric temperature and has mainly anthropogenic reasons.

Climate change observations In order to understand the causes of climate change and develop measures of adaptation, it is necessary make coherent observations of climate parameters all over the world. National Hydro meteorological Service (RosHydroMet) conducts major observations in Russia. According to WMO Convention, RosHydroMet participates in the following observational programs: the World Weather Watch (WWW), Global Atmospheric Watch (GAW), Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), and Global Terrestrial Observing System (GTOS). (resume_en) There are 1627 stations of surface meteorological observations network, where 458 stations among them, which are reference stations and provide main data, they cannot be closed or replaced. Surface network is being temporary enhanced and extended,

although the possibilities of satellite technologies are applied more frequently in the last times. [72]

Climate change in Russia during the period of instrumental observations Surface air temperature. Observational data and model calculations show that the climate in Russia is more sensitive to global warming than the climate in many other regions of the globe. The following graphs shows that climate warming in Russia proved markedly more global. Swipe average temperature anomalies over the Russian territory reaches 3 - 4°C, while for the world it is only slightly higher than 1°C. Over the past 100 years (1907-2006) according to RosHydroMet observations, warming in Russia as a whole amounted to 1.29°C, when at the same time in average global warming, according to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC is 0.74°C. [73] During the period of 1976-2006 years the average warming in Russia reached 1.33°C (Chart 2). In most parts of Russia in this period of annual minima and

Chart 2. Changes in average annual surface air temperature (째C) in Russia in deviations from the average for 1961-1990. The thin line shows the results of observations at the stations, oily - smoothed changes in air temperature (11-year moving averages). With sustained increase in temperature over approximately the past 35 years have seen significant inter-annual variations in average temperature. Source: 4th AR on climate change and its consequences in Russian Federation, 2008

maxima of daily surface air temperature increased, the difference between them decreased (increased faster minima maxima), number of days with frost decreased. The greatest increase in the minimum and maximum daily temperature was observed in the cold season. [73] These increase may cause even more difficulties for northern citizens comfort because the human body will have to adapt to the sharp differences in temperature. Building codes will have to satisfy at the same time the required comfort during hot and cold seasons. Precipitation Due to the complex nature of the physical phenomena and the heterogeneity of instrumental observations,

changes in precipitation have been studied much less than the changes in surface temperature. Annual precipitation for the period of 1976-2006 on the whole territory of Russia increased (7.2 mm/10 years). However, in the nature of regional precipitation changes were significant differences. Most notable was the increase in spring precipitation (16.8 mm/10 years) in Western Siberia, north-east of Eastern Siberia, the Far East and in the European territory of Russia (ETR) and a decrease in winter in north-eastern Siberia, including in the Magadan region, north of Khabarovsk Territory and eastern Chukotka. Indicators characterizing the extreme rainfall, mainly indicate a weak increase of the frequency of intense precipitation and reducing the maxi-

mum duration sequences dry periods. Cloudiness In the second half of the 20th century in most parts of Russia there was an increase in share of vertical development of clouds (cumulus and cumulonimbus), and the decrease in the proportion of nimbostratus cloudiness, increased share of clouds in the upper tier. River runoff Analysis of annual runoff for the 1978 - 2005 years showed that, with respect to the drain region during the period 1946-1977, rivers of western ETP left bank tributary of the Volga

was an increase of annual runoff by 15-40%. It was above average (1015%) in the upper basin of the Northern Dvina, in the upper Dnieper, on the left-bank tributary of the Don. In Asian Russia (APR) increases in runoff (20-40%) were noted at the left tributaries of the Tobol and Irtysh. Increasing water content was also observed in the Yenisei basin (8%) and a significant part of the Lena basin, especially in the last decade of the twentieth century. Stock in the basins of northeast Asia-Pacific increased by 5-15% Snowpack Snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere, according to satellite measure-

Table 2. Climate Change impact on ecosystems in Russia. Source: Perelet et al., 2007 and IPCC, 2007

ments over the past 30 years has decreased significantly, especially in spring and summer. In the western regions of ETP in Transbaikalia and Chukotka there was a trend towards reducing the height of the snow cover. The main reason for these observed changes in recent decades has been the increased surface temperature. However, in some regions with very low temperatures, an increase in average snow depth occurred due to the higher rainfall. In most parts of Russia, the number of days with snow cover of 20 cm increased. All Arctic coast - from the Kola Peninsula to Taimyr inclusive -

the coefficients of the linear trend of the characteristics constituted 6 - 8 days/10 years. These same values are marked in the Urals, in the eastern regions of ETR and the south of Western Siberia and the Amur region. Permafrost In the second half of the 20th century, especially in the last quarter, in many areas of the permafrost zone the temperature of the upper layer of permafrost increased, in some regions showed an increase in the depth of seasonal thawing (Figure 34). The

Figure 34. Degradation of permafrost. In the light blue – permafrost thawing to 2025; in blue – permafrost thawing to 2050; in the dark blue – relatively stable permafrost. Source: 4th Annual Report on climate change and its consequences in Russian Federation, 2008, Roshydromet

temperature of the permafrost in the north of Western Siberia has increased by an average of 1°C in the northeast to the ETP by 0.8-1.0°C (ref 4th AR on climate change and its consequences in Russian Federation, 2008).

The thawing of permafrost may cause significant problems, especially for the areas of local and seasonal permafrost, where the depth of the frozen ground layer is not so deep. Since the permafrost is the solid and stable base for all the contractions and buildings’ foun-

Table 3. Recent trends in permafrost temperatures measured at different locations. Source: IPCC, 2007

dations, and even the buildings are elevated above the ground in order to prevent the transition of heat from the building to the soil, its thawing may cause emergencies and dangerous destructions of buildings. Due to the climate change and increase in the air temperatures, the thawing of the permafrost occurs unexpectedly and represent a ground subsidence, which can be several hundred meters long. No need to say that this may have harmful consequences not only for buildings and infrastructure elements but also for human health and life (Table 3). [73]

Russian policies on mitigation and adaptation of climate change Kyoto protocol Kyoto protocol is an international treaty that sets binding obligations on industrialized countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. The UNFCCC is an environmental treaty with the goal of preventing dangerous anthropogenic

interference of the climate system. The Kyoto Protocol was signed on Kyoto (Japan). The Protocol was adopted by Parties to the UNFCCC in 1997, and entered into force in16 February, 2005 following the ratification of the Protocol by Russia but without the United States. The first commitment period applies to emissions between 2008 2012, and the second commitment period applies to emissions between 2013 - 2020. However, in accordance with the statement of the ex-President of the Russian Federation D. Medvedev, in 2020 Russian Federation emissions can be reduced by 25% compared to 1990. Even if Russia is currently the third largest energy consumer and is also the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s third largest emitter of greenhouse gases in absolute terms (after US and China) 15, accounting for a share of around 6.2% of the global GHG emissions in 2004, according to EIA (2007) Russian Federation decided not to take part into the second commitment period. The main reason has been an-

nounced on December 2, 2003 by the RF President V. Putin talking about US and China which are not consider Kyoto Protocol’s binding targets. Regarding that, the global climate situation will not change drastically without US and China participation. In that case, it makes no sense for Russia to accept second commitment binding targets. From the Fifth National Communication (2010) submitted in accordance with the Articles 4 and 12 of the Framework Convention of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol Article 7, The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of The Russian Federation and Federal Service of Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring became evident that Russian Federation participates in the elaboration of collective actions with the international community to mitigate human impact for climate and has, together with other members of the international community assistance to developing countries, including most vulnerable to the adverse effects of changes climate in the implementation of measures to adapt to and mitigate the negative effects of climate change. Main objectives of the Russian climate policies are: • strengthening and development

of information and scientific basis for climate policies; • development and implementation of immediate and long-term actions called to protect from the negative consequences of the climate change; • development and implementation of immediate and long-term measures to mitigate human impact on climate • participation in the initiatives of the international community in addressing issues related to the climate change. Russian Federation focuses on the maximum reduction of the anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and increasing their absorption by special constructions and plants. In order to ensure that statements following actions are considered: improving energy efficiency in all sectors of the economy; development of the renewable and alternative sources of energy; reduce the market distortions, implementation of measures and financial tax policy incentives for reducing anthropogenic emissions greenhouse gases; protection and enhancement of forests and sustainable forest management. [82] Climate Doctrine Climate Doctrine of the Russian Fed-

eration (RF CD) developed in accordance with the request of the President of the Russian Federation from 09.04.2008, and the Prime Minister request dated 18.04.2008 On April 23, 2009 at the Government Presidium meeting presented CD project was approved by the Minister of Natural Resources and Environment Y.P. Trutnev, that have been prepared by the experts of Rosgidromet and RAN involving several interested ministries and departments. On December 17, 2009 The President of Russia signed CD of Russian Federation. CD â&#x20AC;&#x201C; is the founding document for adoption by domestic and foreign policy, economic decisions and planning for sustainable development in Russia. The signing of Climate Doctrine comes amid held in Copenhagen UN conference on climate change. Initially it was assumed that the negotiations will be completed by signing a new climate agreement, which will replace in 2012 the Kyoto Protocol. Meanwhile, during the conference were exposed contradictions between developed and developing countries, which cast doubt on the likelihood of the adoption of a post-Kyoto Protocol (Climate Doctrine of the RF).

Objective of Climate Doctrine of the Russian Federation Strategic goal of Russiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s policy in the field of climate change is to ensure safe and sustainable development of the country, including the institutional, economic, environmental and social (including demographic) aspects of development in a changing climate conditions and the emergence of relevant threats and challenges. The legal basis of this Doctrine is the Constitution of the Russian Federation, federal laws, normative legal acts of the President of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Russian Federation, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change on May 9, 1992, and other international treaties of the Russian Federation, including the Environment and Sustainable Development. [82] Main provisions Climate change is one of the most important international problems of the 21st century, which goes beyond the scientific problem and is a complex interdisciplinary problem, encompassing environmental, economic and social aspects of sustainable development of the Russian Federation. Of particular concern is the unprece-

dented high rate of global warming observed over the last decades. Modern science provides all the more compelling reasons to prove that human activities, primarily related to emissions of greenhouse gases from burning fossil fuels, has a significant impact on climate.

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• Climate changes are manifold and appear, in particular, in the frequency and intensity changes of climate anomalies and extreme weather phenomenon. There is a high probability of acceleration of the observed changes in climate during the 21st century.

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Expected climate changes will inevitably affect the lives of people on the state of flora and fauna in all regions of the planet, and some of them will become a tangible threat to the welfare of the population and sustainable development. [82] The priority directions in scientific support of strategies development for adaptation and mitigation of human impact on the climate include: • development and maintenance on the territory of the Russian Federation climate observing systems, including the factors reflecting the climate, and indicators of climate change; • development of criteria param-

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eters (thresholds), the security environment of the Russian Federation and its regions with regard to climate change; research and evaluation of potential future changes in global and regional climate and their impacts; development of measures to adapt the economy and society to climate change; development of methods for inventory of sources and sinks of greenhouse gases; development of measures to mitigate the human impact on climate primarily in the production and consumption of energy, including the organization of research and the development of appropriate mechanisms for the implementation of such innovative projects , as well as evaluation of the economic, social and environmental effects of the implementation of these measures; independent (including international) evaluation of research results in the field of climate and related fields. [82]

For the development of regional and municipal programs of sustainable development is necessary to provide the following tasks related to the climate change: • development and application of

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the legislation of the Russian Federation with regard to the impact of climate factor on the development of areas, economy and the social sphere; development and implementation of measures to adapt to climate change, including the integration of climate change factor in the medium and long term plans of socio-economic development of the regions and municipalities, as well as relevant sectors of economic activity; development and implementation of regional systems of an effective response to hazardous weather and climatic conditions; implementation of the legislative instrument regulating the inventory aspects of greenhouse gases emissions into the atmosphere; implementation of measures to mitigate the human impact on climate, including the introduction of technologies that help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the technology for absorption of greenhouse gases.

At the micro economic level, the tasks of adaptation and mitigation of human impact on the climate in production and in service sector provided by enterprises, by households - in everyday life by:

• improving the efficiency of heat and electricity production and consumption; • improving the fuel efficiency of vehicles; • development of energy saving at industrial and infrastructure purposes, including reducing energy loss during transportation; • improving energy efficiency of buildings and the development of energy saving in households; • using weather and climate forecasts to improve energy efficiency in the implementation of adaptation and mitigation of human impact on the climate; • increasing the proportion of the alternative (including a non-carbon) sources in the energy production; • managing use of forests and agricultural lands (Climate Doctrine of the RF). [82] Ecologic Doctrine The fundamental differences between the ED and CD is that everyone knows what is the reason water and air pollution, and no one doubts that it is bad and need to take action. However, with the climate is differ: neither society nor the media, nor the local authorities is no competent understanding of the causes of the current climate change

and what to do. That is why the climate doctrine important: it is a “bridge” between scientific knowledge and action. Doctrine : • recognizes the current anthropogenic climate change; • stated that the negative impact of changes much stronger than positive, especially in the future; • emphasizes that it is necessary not only to adapt to the new conditions, but also to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ; • points to important today in Russia means to reduce emissions - energy efficiency and conservation; • stressed that all should act as federal and regional authorities, the population , the public , need broad “ climate “ education and the efforts of all - and the media and universities, and schools. The doctrine does not replace or duplicate the scientific literature, there is no numerical parameters to reduce greenhouse gases. But it gives the formalization of scientific knowledge. Now it’s development stage and, most important, the implementation of appropriate education, energy and economic measures (Environmental Doctrine of the RF). [83]

The main programs, laws and regulations, and procedures to meet the obligations of the Russian Federation under the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol are: • Climate Doctrine of the Russian Federation. • A comprehensive action plan for implementation in the Russian Federation of the Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. • Decree of the President of the Russian Federation dated June 4, 2008 N 889 “On measures to improve the energy and environmental performance of the Russian economy.” • Federal Law of November 23, 2009 N 261 -FZ “ On energy saving and energy efficiency improvements and on Amendments to Certain Legislative Acts of the Russian Federation.” • The main directions of the state policy in the sphere of energy efficiency electricity using renewable energy sources for the period up to 2020 , approved by the Federal Government on January 8, 2009 N 1- p . • Order of the Government of the Russian Federation dated February 20, 2006 № 215- r “On the establishment in order to implement the obligations resulting from the

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Kyoto Protocol, the Russian registry of carbon units.” Order of the Government of the Russian Federation from March 1, 2006 № 278 - r “On the establishment in order to implement the obligations resulting from the Kyoto Protocol (Article 5 , paragraph 1) , the Russian system for estimating anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases not controlled by Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer . “ Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation dated May 28, 2007 № 332 “ On the Procedure for approval and verification of the implementation of projects in accordance with Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change” , as amended by the Government Decree of 14 February 2009 N 1087. Order of the Government of the Russian Federation dated June 27, 2009 № 884-r on the simplification of the approval procedure, enforcement and monitoring of projects implemented under Articles 6 and 17 of the Kyoto Protocol. Government Decree of October 28, 2009 № 843 “On Measures

for the implementation of Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.” Currently, the volume of greenhouse gas emissions in Russia is 2,200 Mt CO2e per year, less than 70% from that of 1990. That is why Russia has no obligation to take special measures to reduce emissions under the Kyoto Protocol. However, decisions made by other countries, and emissions of investments, including the creation of a system of emissions trading in the European Union in 2005, made greenhouse gases sphere of commercial activity. In the future of Russia can get a number of benefits. Apart of that, on the regional or local levels there is no interest or any real activities by the government towards policies regarding climate change or sustainable development. There are no normative documents, regulation acts or proposals for the urban planning activity in Russia related to the climate change. [83]

METHODOLOGY

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ETHODOLOGY OVERVIEW

he methodology consists of two basic parts: comparative study of different cases morphology and the experimental part conducted in the special software. Comparative analysis of cases morphology is aimed to recognize visually and in numerical values the similarity of the built environment. As was described before in the chapter Features of the Soviet housing and planning, the planning system in the 20th century did not make any difference in planning codes for different climate regions, as well as the mass construction phase spawned the duplication of the same building design all over the country. Thus, there is the need to acknowledge this issue by the numerical evidence of such parameters as building density, land uses share, built to volume ratio and the like. The same study is useful to depict the relation between density properties and the sky view factor. This part is represented in a way of tables to better illustrate the comparison of the samples, which are given in the Appendix. The second part is the experiment it-

self conducted in a simulation software, it is aimed to understand which particular problems occur in a specific urban layout at the pedestrian level in terms of wind speed, turbulence conditions and their consequent impact on the snow accumulation. In order to give guidelines for planning in the north of Russia there is the need to recognize how does the urban layout, namely streets grid and buildings morphology, influence the behavior of wind in the area (Scheme 8). Since the general structure of the practical part is understood, the next step is to select the case study cities and then the pattern samples of each city. This selection has to be done according some parameters of exclusiveness. The process of the case study selection is described in details in the following sub-chapter with the same name. Sub-chapter Experimental set-up describes the process of preconditioning the samples for the software calculation. The input data should be prepared carefully in order to get a proper result, thus, the specific attention is given to this part.

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The experiment itself and its interpretation is presented separately for each sample in the chapter Case studies analysis.

METHODOLOGY

CASE STUDIES SELECTION

ANALYSIS EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

MORPHOLOGY

MICROCLIMATE

COMPARISON

PROBLEMS RECOGNITION

PROPOSALS AND GUIDELINES

Scheme 8. Methodology overview. Source: Author

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AMPLES SELECTION

Figure 35. Map of cities on permafrost, Russia. Source: Author

he map above (Figure 35) shows the area of permafrost extension throughout territory of Russia together with cities and settlements on it. Cities are ranged in four categories: 1 – cities with population more than 100.000 people; 2 – cities with population between 50.000 and 100.000 people; 3 – cities with population between 5.000 – 50.000; 4 – cities and urban type

settlements with population less than 5.000. It should be mentioned here that the biggest city permafrost is Surgut with the population of more than 325.000 people and the smallest settlement with the permanent population of only 325 people is Verhnekolymsk. In order to choose case study cities there was the need to determine criteria of choice. As we understood from

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the history of Siberian urbanization, in 16th â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 19th centuries development of cities was incremental and conducted by locals who used extensively the experience of previous generations and their own conventional wisdom about the nature and climate of the region. Thus, the failures of planning this thesis is aimed to prove or refute should be searched for in the cities constructed under Soviet government. Thereby, the first criterion is the year of foundation or, probably, the year of town status assignment (the settlement could have been founded long before the October Revolution of 1917 but developed in a bigger scale during 20th century due to the recourses basins discovery). For this study cities founded or developed in 20th century are considered. The numerous researches in the field of urban microclimate seek to investigate the perfect conditions for human health and the factors of urban environment and morphology which influence it. Human being is at the core of these kinds of studies. Thus, the second criterion is population. Here both the population number and population density are considered. The reason for this is that in some cases population can be lower than average and only density is the evidence that the city attracts new citizens. This criterion does not mean that citizens of

smaller towns and settlements should be ignored and deprived of their right on comfortable living conditions; such selectivity is no more than a result of this particular study limitations. Here the cities with population more than 100.000 people or/and population density higher than 2.000 persons per square kilometer are considered. The third criterion is the main industry or cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s function. The reason for this is that the failures we are looking for with higher probability could have occurred in the period of rapid urbanization and mass construction, which were connected with Soviet industrialization after major discovering of metals, gold, coal, diamonds and oil basins. Fast pace of cities development was also connected with expansion of sea infrastructure and sea port establishment. Thus, for this study the cities with listed industries are considered

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Table 4. Data for the cities on permafrost. Source: ru.wikipedia.org

As the result of the data collection 11 cities, namely: Bratsk, Mirny, Murmansk, Nizhnevartovsk, Norilsk, Novy Urengoy, Noyabrsk, Surgut, Udachny, Vorkuta, Yakutsk â&#x20AC;&#x201C; meet all three criteria. From those 11 cities another 8 were chosen (Murmansk, Nizhnevartovsk, Norilsk, Novy Urengoy, Surgut, Udachny, Vorkuta, Yakutsk) for subsequent simulation and analysis. The criteria for this choice were the availability of information need to conduct the study and their relatively even distribution on the map, so that different climate conditions could be tested.

The aim is to analyze microclimatic conditions of the traditional Soviet urban pattern of residential neighborhood; therefore, the zoom-in has to be done within it. An appropriate sample size for simulations is 1.000 x 1.000 kilometers, which is enough to investigate the influence of the built environment at Micro district scale on the outdoor microclimate and pedestrian comfort. The patterns are similar to each other with the difference in the street angle and maximum height.

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Murmansk

Figure 36. Murmansk, city plan. Source: Google maps, author.

The city is located in the Atlantic-Arctic temperate climate zone. The climate of Murmansk is formed due to the proximity of the Barents Sea, which enhances the effect of the warm North Atlantic Stream. This factor contributes to the strong difference of Murmansk climate in comparison with most of the Polar cities. Unlike many northern cities in Murmansk winter temperatures are relatively high for North. Average temperature in January - February in Murmansk is about -10 - -11째C. Severe frosts are rare, and sometimes occasionally thaw occur. Due to the proximity of warm air masses carried by the Gulf Stream, the onset of cold weather in Murmansk usually occurs about one month later than in other northern ar-

eas. Wind in Murmansk is monsoonal - winter is dominated by southerly winds from the middle part of Russia, carrying dry frosty weather to the city, and in the summer - northern winds from Barents Sea bring to Murmansk increased humidity and fairly cool summer weather. Changing winds occurs around June and September. The average July temperature is about +12 +13째C, when two thirds of the month it is rainy and cloudy, and the air temperature is highly variable. However, from time to time warmer air mass reaches the city, and then the temperature rises to +25째C, very rarely - above +30째C. Most of the precipitation in Murmansk (about 500 mm annual) fall from June to September, the peak of cloudy days

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and days with precipitation occurs in August. Snow lies for 210 days in average and goes away completely by May (sometimes snow stays until June). Snowfalls in the first half of June are frequent. Minimum temperature of

-39.4°C was recorded in Murmansk on January 6, 1985 and January 27, 1999, the maximum temperature is +32,9°C July 9, 1972. Polar Night in Murmansk lasts from December 2 to January 11, the polar day - from May 22 to July 22.

Nizhnevartovsk

Figure 37. Nizhnevartovsk, city plan. Source: Google maps, author.

Nizhnevartovsk is located in a zone of moderate continental climate. The summer in short, just 70-80 days, and cool; winters are long with protracted frosts. Off-season are short. Average annual temperature value is -1°C. The location of the city affects the climate from the west winds are blocked by the Ural Mountains, but the city is completely open to the cold arctic masses – there are no obstacles for them because of the plain terrain. Weather conditions change rapidly in demi-sea-

son and during the day. For the winter a sustained deep snow for 200-210 days with depth of 50-80 mm and average temperature values for January about -22 - -24°C is typical. The absolute minimum temperature, though, was registered in December -55°C, however, January is the coldest month. In the period from October to April temperatures above zero are not observed. Winter winds blow from the south. Spring and fall are very short, spring has late frosts and autumn - early. Frosts with

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negative temperature may occur until mid-June. In October - early November a snow falls, which completely disappears in the second half of April and early May. Spring is usually colder than autumn. The warmest month of summer is July with an average temperature of 16 - 17째C with absolute maximum registered of 35.5째C. To this value summer temperature rises almost every year. This time of year is dominated by cold northerly wind. July has also the maximum amount of precipitations in the form of rain. In the last 25

years the average annual temperature has a slight tendency to decrease. For Nizhnevartovsk the high seasonal climate volatility is typical. Living conditions in the city are very uncomfortable due to the winter low temperatures and summer exposure to strong winds. Average humidity is 73%, and the average amount of precipitation varies from year to year the maximum value was reached in 2007, the minimum in 2003, rainfall is about 400-620 mm annually. Sunshine per year manifests itself in average of 1600-1900 hours.

Norilsk

Figure 38. Norilsk, city plan. Source: Google maps, author.

Harsh continental climate is driven primarily by the relative remoteness from the sea coast and the fact that it is located to the north from the Arctic Circle at 3째. The climate of the area is charac-

terized by a negative average annual air temperature, long winters with severe frosts and snowstorms, short rainy cold summer and the presence of frequent and abrupt changes of weather. Distin-

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guish between seasons (spring, summer, fall) is not possible, except in winter, which lasts here for eight months (from November to May). Air temperature regime is characterized by low temperature, long duration of the cold period and a big contrast between winter and summer temperatures. Difficult and rugged terrain, extensive hydrographic network and presence of permafrost considerably complicate microclimatic conditions. Meteorological stations often register quite disparate values of air temperature, wind direction and strength, thickness and density of the snow cover. Average annual air temperature is about -9.4°C. Within five months, the temperature is below minus -20°C, the number of days with frosts below -30°C range from 55 to 110. One of the features is a large contrast between winter and summer temperatures. Thus, the absolute maximum air temperature is 32°C, the absolute minimum temperature is 53.1°C. Amplitude limiting temperatures reaches nearly 90 degrees. Sharp change of temperature during the day in most cases depends on the change of the air mass. First resistant frost occurs in late September, ending in early June. Relative humidity can reach 100 % at any time of year. Average values are observed in its transition period from winter to summer and back. Long-term average relative humidity

is 75%. Wind flows do not meet significant obstacles for the movement through the plains terrain and in whole show constancy, obeying only the laws of the global circulation of surface layers of the atmosphere. Winter wind regime begins with the establishment of snow and ice cover. This is from November to March, during the months when the circulation of air masses is influenced by powerful Siberian anticyclone. From year to year at the meteorological station in the cold period the winds of southern and south-easterly direction prevail. Wind rose in this period is strongly asymmetric. During the winter months the speed increases, in the summer reduces. Change for the western wind often brings a large number of precipitation at low wind speeds. Wind activity has a significant impact on the redistribution of snow. Despite the persistence of global wind regime, the laws of the local plan is very complex and diverse. The snow cover is formed in the first half of October, and begins to disappear from the second decade of May. Snow cover lasts for an average of 250-260 days. On the exposed plain surface snow lays with uneven layers. Results of snow observations show considerable variation in its parameters over time, which is largely determined by the peculiarities of the wind regime. Distribution of rainfall in the territory during the year

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is uneven. Average long-term annual rainfall is about 688.8 mm. Duration of snow cover 285 days. An averages number of days with snow storms during the year is 205. Maximum num-

ber of days with snow storms falls in January and February. Duration of the snowstorms varies from several hours to 2-4 days and sometimes more.

Novy Urengoy

Figure 39. Novy Urengoy, city plan. Source: Google maps, author.

The climate of Novy Urengoy is close to moderate sharply continental but the area of the city is on its most northern part bordering subarctic climate. An average annual air temperature in the city ranges from -5.7°C, and the average annual humidity is equal to 78%. It is characterized by cold winters and hot summers. Winter is long and with strong frosts, it can last until the end of May. The lowest temperature is in January and February. However, in early June, the heat may come to 30°C. Sudden changes in temperature and strong

winds that lasts from mid-April to May are typical for the city. First snow falls in early October. The hottest month is July, the temperature often reaches the values of 40°C, but with the dry climate the heat is harder to endure and the cold is on opposite easier. January is the coldest month, the temperature often reaches -30°C and even -50°C as it was in 2006. As hard as severe cold, citizens endure short day length in the winter season, accounting in average 1.5-2 hours, while on the shortest day of the year - the Winter Solstice - the

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sun appears for only 1 hour and 5 min in Novy Urengoy. However, the winter in Novy Urengoy is still milder than in many other Siberian cities including Yakutsk, which is located to the south. Rainfall during the year is quite insig-

nificant and is not more than 400 mm. Another feature of the city are strong winds (10-15 m/s and even higher) and sudden changes in temperature, at which during the day the thermometer can change their rates for 15-20°C.

Surgut

Figure 40. Surgut, city plan. Source: Google maps, author.

According to climatic conditions the area of Surgut is equated to the Far North. The climate is continental. Winters are cold and long - from the second half of October to mid-April. The average January temperature is -20°C. The minimum temperature was registered in December and was -55°C. Steady snow cover stays from late October to early May. Rivers freeze and are covered with a layer of ice by the end of November. Spring is colder than autumn, frosts (up to -2°C) are possible in the

first week of June. Summer is moderately warm, the average temperature in July is +18.2°C. The maximum temperature was registered in July of 35.5°C. Autumn lasts from early September to mid-October. Summer here is pretty dry, the soil is sandy, so when strong winds blow, they spread sand everywhere. Heavy rains occur periodically.

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Udachny

Figure 41. Udachny, city plan. Source: Google maps, author.

The climate is determined by the remote of Udachny from the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The main feature of this climate is its continental character, large amplitude fluctuations of temperatures of winter and summer, between night and day. The weather in winter is clear, with low temperatures. Cloudless sky promotes cooling of the surface air layer, which as a consequence of this is being compacted and make cyclonic activity difficult. Since early April cloudiness and rainfallы start to increased, winds are intensified. Since mid-April the temperature rises sharply and the snow gradually begins to melt. Weather of summer period is characterized by frequent incursions of Arctic air masses. This phenomenon is accompanied by the es-

tablishment of a dry cool weather with high transparency of the atmosphere. Coming from the north dry air mass and increased transpiration by plants extremely strong dry out the soil. Such weather continues during June, July and August. Maximum temperature at this time reaches a significant magnitude (maximum was registered in July of 35.7°C). Precipitation in the area are minor and drained soil receives little water over the summer and freezes in late September, it goes under the snow in the dry state. Throughout the year, the area receives little moisture. The average monthly temperature in January in the city ranging from -28°C to -46°C, in July +16°C to +22°C. The lowest temperature registered in Udachny was -62.9°C in January.

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Vorkuta

Figure 42. Vorkuta, city plan. Source: Google maps, author.

The climate is continental, short summers and cold, snowy winters, which are long and severe (the duration of winter is about 8-9 months). Climate is formed under conditions of small amount of solar radiation in the winter, under the influence of the northern seas and intense western transfer of air masses. Removal of warm sea air is associated with the passage of Atlantic cyclones; frequent invasion of arctic air from the Arctic Ocean influence weather’s greater instability throughout the year. Annual amplitude of temperatures is about 32.7°C. The warmest month of the year is July (average monthly temperature is 13.2°C, maximum registered was 33.8°C), the coldest month - January (average is -19.5°C, minimum temperature was

-52°C). The average annual temperature according to meteorological station in Vorkuta is -6.0°C. The number of days with average daily air temperature above zero degrees is 125. Area belongs to the humid climate zone with a highly developed cyclonic activity. Especially abundant rainfall during cyclones comes from the regions of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. Atlantic cyclones bring rainfall less intense but more prolonged. The average annual rainfall in Vorkuta is 548 mm. Snow cover is a factor that has a significant influence on the climate in the winter, mainly due to the high reflectivity of the surface of the snow. At the same time the snow cover protects the soil from deep freezing. The most intensive growth of the snow cover oc-

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curs from November to January, during the months with the highest frequency of occurrence of cyclonic weather when basic snow reserves are stored. It reaches the highest value in the sec-

ond decade of March. An average snow depth in winter according to snowshooting in the field is 75 cm. The winds from the south prevail over the year. The average wind speed of 5.6 m/s.

Yakutsk

Figure 43. Yakutsk, city plan. Source: Google maps, author.

Yakutsk is the most contrast according to the temperature regime city in the world (annual amplitude is 102.7°C), as well as the largest city in the permafrost zone. Small amount of precipitations falls mainly during the warm period. The average annual precipitation in Yakutsk is about 238 mm. The air in the city is usually dry, especially in the summer. Average humidity for the year is about 68%. The average wind speed in the city is 1.8 m/s. Winter in Yakutsk is exceptionally severe, the average January temperature is about -40°C,

frost can sometimes cross the -60 degree mark (although such frost was for the last time more than 65 years ago, on January 2, 1951, -60.3°C). Precipitations are scarce. Weather is mostly clear, but during severe frosts one can often observe fog. Winter lasts from early October to late April. In early November the average daily temperature is below -20°C, and after the middle of November until the end of February, the temperature is below -30°C, virtually eliminating the possibility of outdoor exercise. In December, Janu-

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ary and February thaws are excluded. After mid-March the average daily temperature rises to -20°C and above. Spring comes in the last days of April. The average daily temperature passes the mark of 0°C usually on April 27, the level of 5°C on May 10, and the mark of 10°C on May 24. Summer weather comes around June 10, when the average daily temperature exceeds 15°C. In the summer there are abrupt changes in temperature and diurnal variations are very significant – it is cool during

night even in a hot day, although a day is dominated by warm or hot weather. In July daytime temperatures often exceed 30°C. Although, chance of frost persists throughout the summer. Autumn comes usually on August 18, when the temperature drops below 15°C. On September 5 the temperature drops below 10°C, on September 19 it falls below 5°C, and on September 30 - below 0°C. The first frosts occur usually in the early - mid-September.

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XPERIMENTAL SET-UP

n order to proceed with the case studies analysis there is the need to recognize the pattern samples for the analysis, prepare the input data in the proper way both for morphology estimation and for climate simulation. Morphology analysis together with the solar access indicators (shadows and sky view factor) are conducted in the Matlab with the use of the scripts developed for this purpose. Climate simulations was intended to be done in the Envi-met software but unfortunately they met some difficulties due to the software limitations. The new program Karalit provided by the developers for the purposes of this thesis was able to make the simulation in the specific climate conditions of the northern cities. In order to proceed with the microclimate simulation study a number of sequential operations need to be done with the use of different software and sources. The experimental set-up is shown on the example of Surgut case study city. The lack of database (especially geographical) for the Russian cities force researches to make a

greater amount of work to prepare the material for experimental part. The main steps of this process are: • Pattern recognition; • AutoCad drawing; • 3d Max DEM rendering; • Matlab morphology and solar access calculations; • Microclimate simulations.

Pattern recognition The first step is to select the pattern for analysis among the residential urban tissue. For doing this there is the need to distinguish between different functional zones of the city, which is quite easy, since all the case study cities were built in the Soviet period according to a strict zoning rules for industrial cities. In this study all eight cities occupy low amount of territory, the biggest is Nizhnevartovsk with urban area of 271.32 square kilometers and the smallest is Udachny with only 2 square kilometers area, about a half of which in all cases is dedicated to industrial function. Thus, it can be estimated that a pattern of 1 square kilometer dimension (as was chosen for this study) considers a formidable part of

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the residential city built environment. Once the residential area is distinguished, the next step to do is to recognize the typical Micro district layout with the presence of residential

buildings of the 20th century year of construction. The year of particular building construction is hard to estimate looking only at the Google Earth map, but we have to check the Google street view as well. Unfortunately, this

Figure 44. Patterns selection process, Surgut. Source: Google maps, openstreetmap, author

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Figure 45. 5-storey panel “Khrushchevka”, Surgut. Source: Google maps

option is available for two of eight case study cities only. For other cities built environment analysis the solution was to search for users pictures on web as well as in the various map databases’ photo galleries. The buildings constructed according typical projects are subject to analysis, their

specific architecture and outward was shown previously on the pictures in the chapter “Features of the Soviet housing and planning” (Figure 45).

AutoCad drawing In order to produce 3d model of the

Figure 46. AutoCad SW layout. Source: Author

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sample, the initial AutoCad drawing should be made in the .dwg format. This can be done by importing the Google map piece in .jpeg format into the AutoCad working area. With the help of ruler in the SASPlanet software (which is used for assembling high resolution maps from different sources, such as Google, Bing, wiki-

mapia, openstreetmap and so on, the reference distances can be measured, i.e. building’s length. This data is used to re-scale the image in AutoCad up to the proper size (1:1). Standard options of AutoCad, such as polyline, are used to outline the buildings’ contours. Different colors represent layers of

Figure 47. Building height estimation. Source: Google street view, author

buildings’ height (Figure 46). Height of the buildings can be estimated roughly by taking as a reference the floor height (which for the panel Soviet buildings is 2.7 meters, counting the ceiling; for the public services buildings – 3 meters) and multiplying it on the number of floors. Number of floors can be observed on the Google street view and for the cities, which do not have this option, by looking at the pictures of the city (Figure 47).

3d Max DEM rendering AutoCad drawing was used to produce 3-dimentional model in 3d Max software. Through the option of import, the .dwg file can be opened in 3d Max with the same height layers differentiation. The simple Extrude option creates the volumes of the buildings. The volumes are based on the plain terrain at zero height level and has the dimensions of 1000 meters x 1000 meters (1 km x 1 km), the same size as the sample pattern (Figure 48).

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Figure 48. 3d Max SW layout. Source: Author

DEM (Digital Elevation Model) â&#x20AC;&#x201C; is the so called 2.5d model, which represents height of the objects on the 2d image by grayscale tones distinction in the 8 bit .tiff file, which can be used for

Figure 49. 3d Max top render, Surgut. Source: Author

mathematical interpretation. DEM can be visualized (rendered) in 3d Max with the use of MentalRay Render (standard 3d Max render, integrated into the software) and the specific Render

Figure 50. 3d Max DEM render, Surgut. Source: Author

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Element of this Render, which is called the Z-Depth. To proceed with DEM render, there is the need to specify parameters of the Z maximum (the distance between the zero level and the render camera above) and the Z minimum (the distance between the top of the highest building and the render camera), as well as the resolution of the render image output in pixels. The resolution sufficient for the morphology and solar access analysis in the Matlab is 1000 x 1000 pixels (Figure 49, 50).

Matlab shadows and morphology calculation Raster City is the image processing technique for the analysis of 3-D urban models developed by professor of Politecnico di Milano Eugenio Morello. It allows to explore simultaneously various environmental aspects, such as solar access, cross ventilation, energy consumption, etc., in connection with the location of the urban fabric. Algorithms defined in Matlab and obtained from image processing, can handle very simple bitmaps urban texture stored in a raster format. Potential users can simply use the proposed toolset, or introduce new algorithms to meet their needs and compare their designs with ecological and morphological point of view. The instruments were originally created to compare the

environmental performance of different urban configurations. In fact, the technique may be desirable in comparative studies resulting environmental performance can be visualized and compared to various constructive project or existing models. [54] Matlab scripts provided by prof. Eugenio Morello are aimed to calculate selected indicators, which give numerical values to the morphological properties of the area, namely they are for solar access: shadows for each hour of the daily solar radiation for the specified date, mean shadow density map (MSD map), sky view factor on the whole site (SVF), SVF on the ground, SVF on the green areas, SVF on the streets and open spaces, SVF on the roofs; and for the morphology analysis the following parameters: areas in square meters of covered, green and other open areas (streets), their share percent of the total area, total built volume, mean height of the buildings, built perimeter, total floor area, areas of the vertical surfaces, exposed surfaces in square meters, surface to volume ratio and their relations to each other expressed as the morphology indicators. On the base of the DEM and the TIFF mask of the permeable areas (Figure 51) on the same sample, there is the possibility to estimate in square me-

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Figure 51. Green areas mask, Surgut. Source: Author

ters the built-up areas, green spaces permeable surfaces) and other open spaces, such as streets, parking lots or squares, which are paved (impermeable surfaces), therefore, their share percent of the total area. Knowing the maximum building height in the area the tree-dimensional indicators are also estimated, namely, built volume and its relation to the built-up area, total floor area, built perimeter and their interrelations. It is useful to analyze and distinguish which specific features of the urban structure has their impact on the wind and microclimate conditions. The comparative table of the case studies morphology is given in the table in the Appendix I. Special scripts are developed for the solar access analysis. Solar access includes shadows on the area generated from the DEM at the given date

and latitude. This is an important part in order to understand the distribution of shadows, especially permanent shadows, and if they have a negative impact on the open areas of the district. The shadows are visualized by the Matlab and are represented as the maps of the samples. Sky view factor (SVF) is another parameter of solar access, which represents the amount of sky view from the each point in the area. It influence directly the psychological comfort of a pedestrian and indirectly the temperature and the strength of the UHI effect in the way, that it can give an idea of how much solar radiation is reflected toward the sky and how much is bouncing in-between the surfaces until it is almost entirely absorbed and will be emitted as a long wave radiation from walls and surfaces during night, generating the UHI effect. SVF and shadows analysis is

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represented as a comparative table of case studies cities (see Appendix ). [54]

Microclimate simulations Now, when the impact of urban environment on the microclimate conditions is understood, the various software to access this research are being developed. Although, this field is under development and the research tools need feather improvement. The first attempt to proceed with the simulations was made in the Envi-met software. Envi-met Envi-met software is aimed to simulate 3-dimentional climate model with specific air, wind, soil and plant parameters. The program can be used only to load and run the simulation process and it is not possible to change the initial parameters within the software, therefore, it is crucial to prepare carefully incoming files (i.e. input file and configuration file). Envi-Met software has a possibility of creating a project model integrated within it, although it has a number of limitations and not user-friendly interface, for this reason the option for creating userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own input files with the use of DEM is available. Input file is a file with .in format, which can be created in the text editor, such as Notepad and saved with re-

quired .in format. The content (or, to be more precise, the Header for the file) is provided on the Envi-met Tutorial web page. The file Header contains the basic information about the model dimension and other metadata required to construct the computer model. File Header together with numerical matrix should be saved in .in format â&#x20AC;&#x201C; that is the input file. Input file opened in Envimet Editor represents the top view of the initial 3-dimentional model. The .CF file (Configuration File) defines the settings for the simulation to run, for example, the name for the area input file, the name for the output files and the meteorological settings. Each configuration file consists of a basic information block which must be included to run the model. It is a fixed structure, which is essential for each simulation. In addition to this basic information the number of optional sections can be added, each of them contain information about: buildings, clouds, source data, soil, solar radiation, timing and time steps, turbulence, receptors point (these are points inside the model with specific location coordinates), nesting area, plants and local database. Addition of every optional section complicates and extend significantly the simulation process. Envi-met generates heaps of data for every simulation. Some of the output files are simple ASCII-files, others are binary files which

126

must be read with the program XTract (ASCII-output) or LEONARDO software (graphical output). Output files generated can be separated in four groups: Main Data files, Receptor files, 1D Model files, BOT world files. Main data files are binary files using the .EDI/. EDT file extension. The .EDI-file is the information file of the corresponding .EDT-file which contains the data. Both files are needed to extract data successfully. There are three different .EDI/.EDT files written in the storage process. Each of them begins with the file name base specified in the .CF file under “Filebase name for Output”. All file generated by Envi-met during this simulation start with “Surgut”. The output files are organized in different sub-folders of the main output folder in order to have a better overview: Atmosphere: these files contain the state of 3-dimensional atmospheric model; Surface: contains the files with

2-dimensional field of surface parameters; Soil: holds the 3-dimensional soil model. The visualization of the results is made in the LEONARDO software, which is integrated within the Envi-met. The number of limitations made the samples analysis in this program not feasible for this study. Simulation process in Envi-met is very time consuming partly due to the wide range of parameters it calculates as the result, but mainly due to the grid, on which the domain is built and calculated. The grid is the regular mesh. Regular mesh is the isotropic triangular grid, which constitute the whole volume of the object or the simulation domain. The buildings themselves are the objects of the regular mesh and the space inbetween and above the buildings up to the domain (in Envi-met it is 250 x 250 x 30 pixels) borders are the same regular mesh (Figure 52). Thus, all the parame-

Figure 52. Regular mesh on the surface (left) and within the object (right). Source: Author

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ters of microclimate, i.e. temperature, pressure, wind velocity and so on are calculated for each cell of the mesh. On the one hand, with this algorithm, the section can be made everywhere within the domain and it will contain the proper results. On the other hand, the number of sections of the interest is usually limited to the horizontal at the pedestrian level and sometimes vertical sections of the street canyons, thus, this precision is useless and contribute to the extra time losses. Another limitation is more crucial for this study. The initial preconditions for the software to initialize the simulation are: the presence of solar radiation (it cannot generate results for the night time simulation); all the initial temperatures have to be above zero, since the Envi-met is a non-freezing program (i.e. temperature of the air, temperature indoors, temperature of the soil). Both preconditions are violated in this study. The intention is to made the analysis for the most severe month in terms

of weather, which is January, here the first assumption is violated because in the six of the eight case study cities January is the period of the polar night, when the sun does not rise more than 2 - 3째 (according to the latitude) above the horizon. The second assumption cannot be provided, since the temperatures of air and soil are far below zero.

Karalit Karalit is not the microclimate simulation software itself. It is the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model, which has the main aim of simulating the flow of a substance, whether it is liquid or gas (air for example). There are various CFD programs, one of them is developed by Autodesk, all of them are based on the regular mesh, therefore, the computation is time consuming and the process of input modelling is quite comprehensive. Karalit is different because it is based upon immersed boundary method

Figure 53. Cartesian mesh. Source: Author

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(IBM), where space is discretized by a Cartesian mesh (Figure 53). Cartesian mesh is anisotropic, the grid closer to the object of interest is smaller and it is increasing geometrically with the distance toward the boundary on the domain. This feature allow to simplify the process of input model preprocessing and to minimize the time of the simulation considerably. The input file is the .STL file format, which is the mesh. There are different methods to create it according to the userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s preferable software. In this study, since the 3-dimentional model in the 3d Max was already created, the

simplest way is to convert the buildings geometry into mesh directly in 3d Max. The meshes of all the buildings are attached to each other into one single mesh. The single mesh has to be exported into the .STL formal (Stereolito). It is important to avoid null faces (triangles of the mesh with zero surface area) and the empty faces (â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;holesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;) in order to eliminate the possibility of fluid penetration inside the buildings. The .STL file is imported then to the Karalit working area (Figure 54). The next step is extremely important, it is the Local Grid Refinement (LGR) of the model (Figure 55, 56). Refine the

Figure 54. Import of the .STL file into the Karalit working area. Source: Author

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grid near the STL geometry splits the cells cut by the STLs facets targeting the required normal and tangential resolutions on the body. The process has to be accurate because the maximum level difference in any direction is one

(i.e. any neighbor can be only one level coarser or one level finer); all faces associated with a given Cartesian direction must have the same level in both tangential directions; each face must completely span at least one of its two cells.

Figure 55. LGR of the model domain, Karalit layout. Source: Author

Figure 56. Result of the LGR, Surgut, Karalit layout. Source: Author

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There is the possibility to choose the application inside the software according to the specific need of the simulation (i.e. automotive flow, building flow, wind tunnel, internal flow, etc.). By choosing the Building flow application, there is now need to set-up the initial boundary conditions, such as roughness and flow properties, they are initialized by default. The user has to specify just the temperature of the atmospheric air, the wind velocity and direction and the atmospheric pressure (Figure 57). When these procedures are managed, the simulation process can be run. First,

the program analyses the geometry and then the solver starts to analyze the wind flow, starting from the initial velocity, it goes through the certain number of iterations until the convergence of the flow reaches the predetermined value (in this case converges of -3 is sufficient enough) at which the velocity magnitude became stable. Karalit visualize the results with the conventional graphics, it estimates the temperature alterations, pressure, density, turbulence, wind velocity in different dimensions (x, y, z) and the velocity magnitude change. The results

Figure 57. Climate data input, Surgut, Karalit. Source: Author

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can be shown for preferred section.

Cities profiles Since the aim is to understand the relation between urban parameters and climate issues and their mutual influence on the microclimate of the neighborhood, the general input for the analysis consists from two main parts: morphological and climate. Morphology of the site can be understood by the help of maps and schemes representing the built-up areas, streets layout, functions, land use (built, permeable, impermeable areas and their share), DEM and perspective rendering.

sented by the graphs of monthly temperatures, wind speeds, precipitations, humidity and wind roses for each city. The information was collected throwout various data bases and synthesized into feasible graphs. The month of interest is chosen as February, which is not the coldest one in the year (January), although due to the various SW limitations the smallest amount of sun is needed in order to proceed with calculations or shadow analysis; since in the six cities out of eight the February is the first month of the winter where sun comes above the horizon more than on 5 degrees (minimum height for calculation) it is taken as the reference month.

The climate data for input is repreINPUT SIMULATION Case study 1

Case study 2

CLIMATE PROFILE

INTERPRETATION INPUT

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP for KARALIT

URBAN PROFILE

SIMULATION INTERPRETATION

... Scheme 9. Experimental flow overview. Source: Author

URBAN PROFILE CLIMATE PROFILE

CASE STUDIES ANALYSIS

134

ROFILE

900

800

700

600

600 Y (meters)

1000

900

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700

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Figure 58. Satellite view of Murmansk. Source: Google maps

Figure 59. Map of services. Murmansk. Source: Open street map, author

1000

900

800

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600

medical

commertial

culture

sport

other

ground floor services

X (meters)

Figure 61. Streets layout map. Murmansk. Source: Open street map, author

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education

500

400

Figure 60. Buildings map. Murmansk. Source: Open street map, author

child care

100

500

Y (meters)

1000

600

X (meters)

Murmansk â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s features are: streets layout is subject to the terrain features. Built environment is characterized by open blocks and lone-standing buildings mainly parallel to the streets. Services are well distributed and varied. Commercial function is located at the groung floors of streets facing buildings. Buildings height varies from 3 meters for garages and maintenance buildings to 16 - 28 meters for 5 - 9-storey residential buildings.

Y (meters)

500

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URMANSK

1000

Y (meters)

135

Morphological properties 1000

dimensions of the site [mxm]

900

800

700

Y (meters)

600

500

area of the site [m2]

1.000.000

covered areas [m2]

171.223,0

green areas [m2]

408.898,0

areas of streets and other open spaces [m2]

419.879,0

% of covered (built) areas [%]

17,1

% of green areas [%]

40,9

% of streets and other open spaces [%]

42,0

total built volume [m3]

400

300

200

100

2.233.274,8

mean height of the buildings [m]

13,0

maximum height measured on the site [m]

28,0

total floor area [m2]

40.950,8

built perimeter [m]

697.898,3

exposed surfaces [m2]

527.505,3

surface to volume ratio (S/V) [1/m]

697.898,3

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1000 x 1000

X (meters)

Figure 62. Top view rendering. Murmansk. Source: Author

Density indicators built volume / total area of the site [m3/m2]

2,23

covered area / total area of the site [m2/

0,17

m2] total floor area / total area of the site [m2/

0,70

m2] total floor area / built area (FAR) [m2/m2]

4,08

Figure 63. 3d rendering. Murmansk. Source: Author 1000

900

800

700

500

400

300

built-up

200

impermeable surfaces (streets, parking, etc.)

100

permeable surfaces (ground, grass, etc.) 1000

900

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500

400

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100

0 0

Y (meters)

600

X (meters)

Figure 64. Land use map. Murmansk. Source: Author

Chart 3. Land use pie. Murmansk. Source: Author

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January N

April N

Chart 4. Monthly temperatures in Murmansk. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author E

July N

Chart 5. Monthly wind speeds in Murmansk. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author S

September N

Chart 6. Monthly air humidity in Murmansk. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author

Chart 7. Seasonal wind roses in Murmansk. Source: http://www. pogodaiklimat.ru/, author

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Shadows

900

800

700

600

polar night

500

Sky view factor

1000

Y (meters)

1000

500 13

400

300

200

100

X (meters)

900

1000

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600

X (meters)

Figure 65. Shadows on 21 December. Murmansk. Source: Author

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8 7

900

Figure 68. DEM. Murmansk. Source: Author 1000

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Figure 66. Shadows on 21 March. Murmansk. Source: Author

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Figure 69. SVF on the whole area. Murmansk. Source: Author

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0.1

16 800

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700

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500

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400

Y (meters)

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300

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100

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Figure 67. Shadows on 21 June. Murmansk. Source: Author

0 0

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Y (meters)

600

Figure 70. SVF on the open spaces. Murmansk. Source: Author

Sky view factor (SVF) indicators average SVF on the whole site [0-1]

0,82

average SVF on the ground [0-1]

0,77

average SVF on the green areas [0-1]

0,79

average SVF on the streets and other paved open spaces [0-1]

0,75

average SVF on the roofs [0-1]

0,99

average SVF on the open spaces of the area of interest [0-1]

0,77

average SVF on the roofs of the area of interest [0-1]

0.99

138

Karalit simulation results Murmansk. January

Density

Pressure

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 1.3 meters above the ground 1,34091

1100

101219

1100

1000

1,34087

101216

900

1,34082

800

700

1,34078

600

1,34073 500

Y (meters)

700

1,34069

400 300

101212

800

101208

600

101204 500

101200

400 300

1,34064

200

101196

200

1,3406 100

101192

100

1,34055

X (meters)

Figure 71. Source: Author

Figure 72. Source: Author

Temperature

Turbulence

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 5 meters above the ground 263,026

1100

1000

900

800

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600

500

400

300

200

100

101188 0

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

100

200

0,562334

1100

1000

263,022

0,492043

900

263,019

800

700

600

263,012 500

263,008

400 300

263,005

0,351459

600

0,281167 500

0,210875

400 300

0,140584

200

X (meters)

Figure 73. Source: Author

Figure 74. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

0 300

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

262,997

200

0,0702918

100

263,001

100

200

Y (meters)

263,015

Y (meters)

700

0,421751

800

1e-010

139

North direction

Temperature

North

Atmospheric pressure

263 K

Wind speed

Wind direction

1012 GPa

5.4 m/s

180째 South

X wind velocity

Y wind velocity

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 1.3 meters above the ground 4,27

1100

5,97

1100

1000

3,29

4,93

900

2,3

800

700

1,32

600

0,33 500

Y (meters)

700

-0,65

400 300

3,89

800

2,85

600

1,81 500

0,77

400 300

-1,63

200

-0,26

200

-2,62

-1,3

100

-3,6

-2,34

X (meters)

Figure 75. Source: Author

Figure 76. Source: Author

Z wind velocity

Velocity magnitude

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 1.3 meters above the ground 5,97

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

100

200

5,972

1100

1000

4,93

5,225

900

3,89

800

700

600

1,81 500

0,77

400 300

-0,26

200

Y (meters)

2,85

3,732

600

2,986 500

2,239

400 300

1,493

200

-1,3

0,747 100

X (meters)

Figure 77. Source: Author

Figure 78. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0,00011

0 100

-2,34

100

Y (meters)

700

4,479

800

140

URMANSK.

NTERPRETATIONS

or the Murmansk sample the weather parameters taken as the input are: air temperature -10.1째C (263K), wind speed 5.4 m/s with the southern direction, which are the average conditions for January. The urban pattern is represented by free-standing sectional apartment buildings with average height of 5-9 floors.

H/W ratio, the wind speed is lower for 3.16 m/s. Directions c and d shows the difference in the flow variety and wind speed due to the openness of the buildings front. Solid front provides wind shadow on the street (arrow c), whereas, if the buildings front has interruption, the wind flow is uneven with the higher wind speeds in the gaps (arrow d) (Figure 79).

Here one can notice the highest wind speed

Inside the micro districts the wind speed is con-

along the streets. The wind speed reaches its maximum in the street, which is almost parallel to the wind direction (arrow a). The two sections with different H/W ratio show different wind speed. In the section 1, where the H/w ratio is 0.52, the wind flow diverge to the speed even higher than initial for 0.57 m/s and reaches 5.97 m/s. When at the second section with the H/W ratio 0.29, the wind speed is lower. Turn of the street, especially if the street turns away from the prevailing wind, decreases the speed of the wind flow. On the Murmansk sample, the streets turn up for 50째 from the south direction (arrow b), where with relatively equal

siderably lower, than the initial one for about 3.9 to 5 m/s. This is due to the higher building density, it is noticeable that in the area C the flow speed and deviations are higher than in the area A and B, as well as the density is lower. Decrease in the wind speed is crucial for pedestrian comfort at low temperatures, since it decreases the perceived temperature at very low wind speed deviations. On the other hand, the areas of wind shadow are eventually exposed to snow accumulation, which may be nice in the open spaces for public winter leisure or winter sport and games and destructive on the streets, parking and 5,972

1100 1000

5,225 900

4,479

800

Y (meters)

700

3,732

600

2,986

500 400

2,239

300

1,493

100

a 1000

900

800

700

600

0,00011 500

300

200

100

0,747

1100

400

200

X (meters)

Figure 79. Velocity magnitude map. Streets orientation and wind speed. Murmansk. Source: Author

141

paths in terms of snow removal (Figure 80).

ows, where the thawing of the snow may be delayed until middle summer (Figure 81).

Another issue concerning snow accumulation is related to the permanent sun shad5,972

1100

1000

5,225 900

900

4,479

800

700

3,732

500

2,986

400

600

Y (meters)

600

500

2,239

300

400 300

1,493

200

0,747 100

100

0,00011 X (meters)

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

X (meters)

Figure 80. Areas of wind calm on the left. Snow accumulation on the right. Murmansk. Source: Author 1100

1000

900

800

700

600

X (meters)

Figure 81. Snow accumulation on the left. Areas of permanent shadows on the right. Murmansk. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

1100

1000

900

0 800

0 700

100

600

100

500

200

400

200

300

200

300

100

400

200

500

400

100

500

Y (meters)

1100

Y (meters)

700

800

142

ROFILE

900

800

700

600

600 Y (meters)

1000

Figure 82. Satellite view of Nizhnevartovsk. Source: Google maps

Figure 83. Map of services. Nizhnevartovsk. Source: Open street map, author

900

800

700

600

commercial

culture

sport

other

ground floor services

X (meters)

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

1000

900

0 800

0 700

100

600

100

500

200

400

200

300

200

300

100

400

X (meters)

medical

500

400

Figure 84. Buildings map. Nizhnevartovsk. Source: Open street map, author

education

100

500

Y (meters)

1000

child care

1000

900

800

700

X (meters)

1000

600

900

X (meters)

Built environment of Nizhnevartovsk is characterized by long multi-sectional buildings, which create big blocks closed from the streets with schools and nursery schools inside. Commercial facilities are gravitated toward the main streets . The pattern of streets is a regular grid with south-north orientation. The residential buildings are mainly of a height 15 - 27 meters (5-9-storey) with the presence of some tall buildings (14 floors).

Y (meters)

500

0 1000

0 800

100

700

100

600

200

500

200

400

300

200

400

100

400

500

300

500

200

100

IZHNEVARTOVSK

1000

Y (meters)

Figure 85. Streets layout map. Nizhnevartovsk. Source: Open street map, author

143

Morphological properties 1000

dimensions of the site [mxm]

900

800

700

Y (meters)

600

500

area of the site [m2]

1.000.000

covered areas [m2]

159.811,0

green areas [m2]

386.458,0

areas of streets and other open spaces [m2]

453.731,0

% of covered (built) areas [%]

16,0

% of green areas [%]

38,6

% of streets and other open spaces [%]

45,4

total built volume [m3]

400

300

200

100

2.173.454,4

mean height of the buildings [m]

13,6

maximum height measured on the site [m]

46,0

total floor area [m2]

28.270,0

built perimeter [m]

679.204,5

exposed surfaces [m2]

401.081,0

surface to volume ratio (S/V) [1/m]

679.204,5

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1000 x 1000

X (meters)

Figure 86. Top view rendering. Nizhnevartovsk. Source: Author

Density indicators built volume / total area of the site [m3/m2]

2,17

covered area / total area of the site [m2/

0,16

m2] total floor area / total area of the site [m2/

0,68

m2] total floor area / built area (FAR) [m2/m2]

4,25

Figure 87. 3d rendering. Nizhnevartovsk. Source: Author 1000

900

800

700

500

400

300

built-up

200

impermeable surfaces (streets, parking, etc.)

100

permeable surfaces (ground, grass, etc.) 1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 0

Y (meters)

600

X (meters)

Figure 88. Land use map. Nizhnevartovsk. Source: Author

Chart 8. Land use pie. Nizhnevartovsk. Source: Author

144

January N

April N

Chart 9. Monthly temperatures in Nizhnevartovsk. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author E

July N

Chart 10. Monthly wind speeds in Nizhnevartovsk. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author S

September N

Chart 11. Monthly air humidity in Nizhnevartovsk. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author

Chart 12. Seasonal wind roses in Nizhnevartovsk. Source: http://www. pogodaiklimat.ru/, author

145

Shadows

1000

Sky view factor

1000

900

900 2.5

800

700

700 2 600

500

1.5

Y (meters)

600

400

500 20 400

300

200

0.5 100

100

X (meters)

900

1000

800

700

600

X (meters)

Figure 89. Shadows on 21 December. Nizhnevartovsk. Source: Author

1000

500

400

300

200

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

Figure 92. DEM. Nizhnevartovsk. Source: Author

900

1000

900

0.9

800

0.8

700

0.7

600

0.6

500

0.5

400

0.4

300

0.3

200

0.2

100

0.1

800

700

7 6 500 5

Y (meters)

600

400 4

X (meters)

900

1000

800

700

600

X (meters)

Figure 90. Shadows on 21 March. Nizhnevartovsk. Source: Author

1000

500

0 0

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

400

100

300

200

100

300

Figure 93. SVF on the whole area. Nizhnevartovsk. Source: Author

1000

16 900

15 14

800

900

0.9

800

0.8

700

0.7

600

0.6

500

0.5

400

0.4

300

0.3

200

0.2

100

0.1

13 12

700

500

8 7

400

Y (meters)

6 300

5 4

200

3 2

100

X (meters)

Figure 91. Shadows on 21 June. Nizhnevartovsk. Source: Author

X (meters)

900

1000

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

0 100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

0 100

Y (meters)

600

Figure 94. SVF on the open spaces. Nizhnevartovsk. Source: Author

Sky view factor (SVF) indicators average SVF on the whole site [0-1]

0,84

average SVF on the ground [0-1]

0,81

average SVF on the green areas [0-1]

0,81

average SVF on the streets and other paved open spaces [0-1]

0,81

average SVF on the roofs [0-1]

0,98

average SVF on the open spaces of the area of interest [0-1]

0,81

average SVF on the roofs of the area of interest [0-1]

0,98

146

Karalit simulation results Nizhnevartovsk. January

Density

Pressure

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 1.3 meters above the ground 1,41449

1100

102711

1100

1000

102708

1,41445 900

900

1,41442

800

700

1,41439

600

1,41436 500

Y (meters)

700

1,41433

400 300

102705

800

102703

600

102700 500

102697

400 300

1,41429

200

102694

200

1,41426

102692

100

1,41423

102689

X (meters)

Figure 95. Source: Author

Figure 96. Source: Author

Temperature

Turbulence

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 5 meters above the ground 253,012

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

100

200

1100

1000

1,56259

1000

253,01

1,36726

900

253,008

800

700

600

253,004 500

253,002

400 300

253

0,976617

600

0,781293 500

0,58597

400 300

0,390647

200

X (meters)

Figure 97. Source: Author

Figure 98. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

1e-010 300

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 200

252,996

0,195323

100

252,998

100

200

Y (meters)

253,006

Y (meters)

700

1,17194

800

147

North direction

Temperature

North

Atmospheric pressure

253 K

Wind speed

Wind direction

1027 GPa

4.0 m/s

200째 South-west

X wind velocity

Y wind velocity

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 1.3 meters above the ground 3,14

1100

4,16

1100

1000

3,43

2,39 900

900

1,65

800

700

0,9

600

0,15 500

Y (meters)

-0,59

400 300

1,97

600

1,24 500

0,51

400 300

-1,34

200

-0,21

200

-2,09

-2,83

-1,67

X (meters)

Figure 99. Source: Author

Figure 100. Source: Author

Z wind velocity

Velocity magnitude

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 1.3 meters above the ground 4,16

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

100

200

-0,94

100

200

100

Y (meters)

700

2,7

800

4,476

1100

1000

3,43

3,917

900

2,7

800

700

600

1,24 500

0,51

400 300

-0,21

2,798

600

2,238 500

1,679

400 300

1,119

200

X (meters)

Figure 101. Source: Author

Figure 102. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0,00051

0 200

-1,67

0,56

100

-0,94

100

200

Y (meters)

1,97

Y (meters)

700

3,357

800

148

IZHNEVARTOVSK.

NTERPRETATIONS

The pattern of both districts A and B looks similar, although, the wind speed in the district A, the wind speed is more dispersed and for 1.12 m/s higher than in the district B. This could be due to the buildings type, which in the district A are freestanding buildings not forming solid fronts or closed blocks. If we look at the map of turbulence, the difference between A and B districts is obvious (Figure 104).

he initial weather parameters for Nizhnevartovsk in January are: air temperature -20째C (253K), wind speed is 4 m/s with south-west direction. Built environment is presented by multi-sectional apartment buildings, which constitute long buildings forming closed and semi-open blocks and solid buildings frond around the micro district. In this sample all of the streets are oriented with about 45째 toward prevailing south-west wind, thus the wind is converging along them from 1.5 m/s to almost 4 m/s. Although, the wind speed is different and higher in the central street (arrow a), where due to the absence of any physical obstacles on the wind flow. For other streets, the wind speed is slightly different from those inside the districts (arrows b, c, d). It represents both negative conditions as for the streets in terms of snow accumulation and for the open spaces inside the district in terms of wind comfort (Figure 103).

The difference in wind speed in district A and B constitute maximum 0.4 m/s, which is not significant for the pedestrian comfort, although it is crucial for the snow accumulation and thawing. The H/W ratio of the block B together with northsouth orientation of the buildings create the conditions for the long areas of permanent shadows, where the thawing of the snow is obstructed. In this case the layout of freestanding buildings and open blocks is preferable (Figure 105).

4,476

1100 1000

3,917 900 800

3,357

Y (meters)

700

2,798

600

2,238 500

1,679

400 300

1,119

200

100

0,56

0,00051 1100

1000

900

800

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 700

X (meters)

Figure 103. Velocity magnitude map. Streets orientation and wind speed. Nizhnevartovsk. Source: Author

149

4,476

1100

1000

1,56259

1000

3,917

1,36726

900

3,357

800

500

2,238

1,679

400 300

1,119

0,976617

600

500

0,781293

0,58597

400 300

0,390647

200

X (meters)

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

1e-010 0

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 300

0,00051

0,195323

100

200

0,56

100

200

Y (meters)

600

700

2,798

X (meters)

Figure 104. Areas of wind calm on the left. Turbulence on the right. Nizhnevartovsk. Source: Author 1100

1100

1000

900

900 800 700

600

X (meters)

Figure 105. Snow accumulation on the left. Areas of permanent shadows on the right. Nizhnevartovsk. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

1100

1000

0 900

0 800

100

700

100

600

200

500

200

400

300

200

400

100

400

200

500

100

500

Y (meters)

800 700

Y (meters)

700

1,17194

800

150

ROFILE

900

800

700

600

600 Y (meters)

1000

Figure 106. Satellite view of Norilsk. Source: Google maps

Figure 107. Map of services. Norilsk. Source: Open street map, author

900

800

700

600

commercial

culture

sport

other

ground floor services

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

0 1000

0 900

100

800

100

700

200

600

200

500

300

400

300

400

200

medical

500

400

100

education

100

500

Y (meters)

1000

child care

1000

900

800

700

X (meters)

1000

600

900

X (meters)

Specific feature of Norilsk is its homogeneity in built patterns and density. Streets layout represent regular grid, even the curved streets are symmetrical in a bigger scale of the city. Buildings form regular semi-closed blocks. Services are various but not evenly distributed; some big blocks are deprived from nursery schools. The heights of the buildings range from 3 to 46 meters. Average height of the residential buildings is 5-9 floors.

Y (meters)

500

0 1000

0 800

100

700

100

600

200

500

200

400

300

200

400

100

400

500

300

500

200

100

ORILSK

1000

Y (meters)

X (meters)

Figure 108. Buildings map. Norilsk. Source: Open street map, author

Figure 109. Streets layout map. Norilsk. Source: Open street map, author

151

Morphological properties 1000

dimensions of the site [mxm]

900

800

700

Y (meters)

600

500

area of the site [m2]

1.000.000

covered areas [m2]

180.862,0

green areas [m2]

84.015,0

areas of streets and other open spaces [m2]

735.123,0

% of covered (built) areas [%]

18,1

% of green areas [%]

8,4

% of streets and other open spaces [%]

73,5

total built volume [m3]

400

300

200

100

3.178.977,7

mean height of the buildings [m]

17,57

maximum height measured on the site [m]

46,0

total floor area [m2]

55.584,6

built perimeter [m]

993.430,5

exposed surfaces [m2]

992.508,3

surface to volume ratio (S/V) [1/m]

993.430,5

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1000 x 1000

X (meters)

Figure 110. Top view rendering. Norilsk. Source: Author

Density indicators built volume / total area of the site [m3/m2]

3,18

covered area / total area of the site [m2/

0,18

m2] total floor area / total area of the site [m2/

0,99

m2] total floor area / built area (FAR) [m2/m2]

5,49

Figure 111. 3d rendering. Norilsk. Source: Author 1000

900

800

700

500

400

300

built-up

200

impermeable surfaces (streets, parking, etc.)

100

permeable surfaces (ground, grass, etc.) 1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 0

Y (meters)

600

X (meters)

Figure 112. Land use map. Norilsk. Source: Author

Chart 13. Land use pie. Norilsk. Source: Author

152

January N

April N

Chart 14. Monthly temperatures in Norilsk. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author E

July N

Chart 15. Monthly wind speeds in Norilsk. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author S

September N

Chart 16. Monthly air humidity in Norilsk. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author

Chart 17. Seasonal wind roses in Norilsk. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author

153

Shadows

1000

Sky view factor

1000

900

800

700

600

Y (meters)

polar night

500

400

300

200

100

X (meters)

900

1000

800

700

600

X (meters)

Figure 113. Shadows on 21 December. Norilsk. Source: Author

1000

500

400

300

200

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

900

Figure 116. DEM. Norilsk. Source: Author 1000

900

0.9

800

0.8

700

0.7

600

0.6

500

0.5

400

0.4

300

0.3

200

0.2

100

0.1

800

700

7 6 500 5

Y (meters)

600

400 4

X (meters)

1000

900

1000

800

700

600

500

0 0

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

400

100

300

200

100

300

X (meters)

Figure 114. Shadows on 21 March. Norilsk. Source: Author

1000

Figure 117. SVF on the whole area. Norilsk. Source: Author

18 900

900

0.9

800

0.8

700

0.7

600

0.6

500

0.5

400

0.4

300

0.3

200

0.2

100

0.1

16 800

15 14

700

13 12

500

9 8

400

Y (meters)

7 6

300

5 4

200

3 2

100

X (meters)

Figure 115. Shadows on 21 June. Norilsk. Source: Author

X (meters)

900

1000

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

0 100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

0 100

Y (meters)

600

Figure 118. SVF on the open spaces. Norilsk. Source: Author

Sky view factor (SVF) indicators average SVF on the whole site [0-1]

0,80

average SVF on the ground [0-1]

0,75

average SVF on the green areas [0-1]

0,86

average SVF on the streets and other paved open spaces [0-1]

0,73

average SVF on the roofs [0-1]

0,99

average SVF on the open spaces of the area of interest [0-1]

0,75

average SVF on the roofs of the area of interest [0-1]

0,99

154

Karalit simulation results Norilsk. January

Density

Pressure

at 1.3 meters above the ground

1100

100059

1100

1,44032

1000

100045

1,44015 900

900

1,43997

800

700

1,4398

600

1,43963 500

Y (meters)

700

1,43945

400 300

100031

800

100017

600

100003 500

99989

400 300

1,43928

200

99975

200

1,43911 100

99961

100

1,43894

99947

X (meters)

Figure 119. Source: Author

Figure 120. Source: Author

Temperature

Turbulence

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 5 meters above the ground

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

100

200

1,1182

1100

242,129

1000

0,978426

242,12 900

900

242,102

800

700

600

242,065 500

242,047

400 300

242,029

0,698876

600

0,559101 500

0,419325

400 300

0,27955

200

1e-010

X (meters)

Figure 121. Source: Author

Figure 122. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

0 300

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

241,993

200

0,139775

100

242,011

100

200

Y (meters)

242,084

Y (meters)

700

0,838651

800

155

North direction

Temperature

North

Atmospheric pressure

242 K

Wind speed

Wind direction

1000 GPa

8.3 m/s

135째 South-east

X wind velocity

Y wind velocity

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 1.3 meters above the ground 4,41

1100

8,07

1100

1000

2,78

6,54

900

1,14

800

700

-0,49

600

-2,12 500

Y (meters)

-3,76

400 300

3,47

600

1,94 500

0,41

400 300

-5,39

200

-1,13

200

-7,02

-8,65

-4,19

X (meters)

Figure 123. Source: Author

Figure 124. Source: Author

Z wind velocity

Velocity magnitude

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 1.3 meters above the ground 8,07

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

100

200

-2,66

100

200

100

Y (meters)

700

800

9,147

1100

1000

6,54

8,004

900

800

700

600

1,94 500

0,41

400 300

-1,13

5,171

600

4,574 500

3,43

400 300

2,287

200

X (meters)

Figure 125. Source: Author

Figure 126. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0,00029

0 200

-4,19

1,144

100

-2,66

100

200

Y (meters)

3,47

Y (meters)

700

6,861

800

156

ORILSK.

NTERPRETATIONS

rection. The blocks of buildings can be opened on the sides of the district parallel to the wind flow, this openness does not cause wind penetration inside the residential area (Figure 128).

he weather input for Norilsk is average parameters in January. The air temperature is -28.1°C (242K). The prevailing wind direction is south-east with the average wind speed 8.3 m/s. Built environment is a homogeneous in terms of density and height tissue on regular grid. The pattern is formed by multi-sectional apartment buildings of an average height of 5 floors. Buildings form semi-open and closed blocks.

With the orientation of the buildings long side of 147° toward south, they create less amount of permanent shadows than the buildings with south-north orientation. The H/W ratio is small enough in order to restrict shadows to occupy the whole area of the inner open space of the blocks. Except, the L-shaped blocks, where the angle is oriented toward south. In this case the triangular permanent shadow is generated by both facades. In majority of these angles, the wind shadow is creating excessive snow accumulation. The difference can be seen in the angles a and b, where the inner space of the block is protected from the wind with the angle oriented toward east (Figure 129).

The main streets are oriented 12° clockwise in relation to the prevailing wind direction. Here, the trend for higher wind speed is noticeable (arrows a), compared to the streets with 100° and 140° clockwise orientation (arrows b and c respectively). Even the rotation on 12° causes the wind speed reduction twice, up to 4 m/s, which means that the temperature of -28.1°C is perceived about 8°C higher (Figure 127). Inside the districts we can see considerable wind convergence, which is due to the solid buildings front perpendicular to the wind di-

9,147

1100 1000

c 8,004

900

6,861

800

Y (meters)

700

5,171

600

4,574 500

3,43

400 300

2,287

200

1,144

100

1100

1000

900

0,00029 800

700

600

500

a 400

200

100

300

X (meters)

Figure 127. Velocity magnitude map. Streets orientation and wind speed. Norilsk. Source: Author

157

9,147

1100 1000

8,004 900

6,861

800

Y (meters)

700

5,171

600

4,574 500

3,43

400 300

2,287

200

1,144

100

0,00029 1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 X (meters)

900 800 700 600

600

500

400

300

200

1100

1000

0 900

0 800

100

700

100

600

200

500

200

400

300

200

400

100

400

X (meters)

500

100

500

600

Y (meters)

800 700

X (meters)

Figure 129. Snow accumulation on the left. Areas of permanent shadows on the right. Norilsk. Source: Author

1100

900

1000

900

1000

800

1100

700

1100

Y (meters)

Figure 128. Block openness and wind penetration. Norilsk. Source: Author

158

ROFILE

900

800

700

600

600 Y (meters)

1000

Figure 130. Satellite view of Novy Urengoy. Source: Google maps

Figure 131. Map of services. Novy Urengoy. Source: Open street map, author

900

800

700

600

commercial

culture

sport

other

ground floor services

X (meters)

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

1000

900

0 800

0 700

100

600

100

500

200

400

200

300

200

300

100

400

X (meters)

medical

500

400

Figure 132. Buildings map. Novy Urengoy. Source: Open street map, author

education

100

500

Y (meters)

1000

child care

1000

900

800

700

X (meters)

1000

600

X (meters)

Streets layout in Novy Urengoy is a combination of regular grid and free grid , which is subject to river front. Services and facilities are widely present and well distributed. Buildings form micro districts closed from the streets , which have their own nurseries and education facilities within. Buildingsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s stock is represented by the 5-9-storey residential buildings and lower service buildings.

Y (meters)

500

1000

0 900

0 800

100

700

100

600

200

500

200

400

300

200

400

100

400

500

300

500

200

100

OVY URENGOY

1000

Y (meters)

Figure 133. Streets layout map. Novy Urengoy. Source: Open street map, author

159

Morphological properties 1000

dimensions of the site [mxm]

900

800

700

Y (meters)

600

500

area of the site [m2]

1.000.000

covered areas [m2]

130.463,0

green areas [m2]

318.758,0

areas of streets and other open spaces [m2]

550.779,0

% of covered (built) areas [%]

13,0

% of green areas [%]

31,9

% of streets and other open spaces [%]

55,1

total built volume [m3]

400

300

200

100

2.143.535,4

mean height of the buildings [m]

16,4

maximum height measured on the site [m]

27,0

total floor area [m2]

36.215,4

built perimeter [m]

669.854,8

exposed surfaces [m2]

652.786,4

surface to volume ratio (S/V) [1/m]

669.854,8

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1000 x 1000

X (meters)

Figure 134. Top view rendering. Novy Urengoy. Source: Author

Density indicators built volume / total area of the site [m3/m2]

2,14

covered area / total area of the site [m2/

0,13

m2] total floor area / total area of the site [m2/

0,67

m2] total floor area / built area (FAR) [m2/m2]

5,13

Figure 135. 3d rendering. Novy Urengoy. Source: Author 1000

900

800

700

500

400

300

built-up

200

impermeable surfaces (streets, parking, etc.)

100

permeable surfaces (ground, grass, etc.) 1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 0

Y (meters)

600

X (meters)

Figure 136. Land use map. Novy Urengoy. Source: Author

Chart 18. Land use pie. Novy Urengoy. Source: Author

160

January N

April N

Chart 19. Monthly temperatures in Novy Urengoy. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author E

July N

Chart 20. Monthly wind speeds in Novy Urengoy. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author S

September N

Chart 21. Monthly air humidity in Novy Urengoy. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author

Chart 22. Seasonal wind roses in Novy Urengoy. Source: http://www. pogodaiklimat.ru/, author

161

Shadows

Sky view factor

1000

900

800

700

600

Y (meters)

900

polar night

500

500 12

400

300

200

100

X (meters)

900

1000

800

700

600

X (meters)

Figure 137. Shadows on 21 December. Novy Urengoy. Source: Author

1000

500

400

300

200

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

Y (meters)

1000

900

Figure 140. DEM. Novy Urengoy. Source: Author 1000

900

0.9

800

0.8

700

0.7

600

0.6

500

0.5

400

0.4

300

0.3

200

0.2

100

0.1

800

700

7 6 500 5

Y (meters)

600

400 4

X (meters)

900

1000

800

700

600

X (meters)

Figure 138. Shadows on 21 March. Novy Urengoy. Source: Author

1000

500

0 0

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

400

100

300

200

100

300

Figure 141. SVF on the whole area. Novy Urengoy. Source: Author

1000

18 900

900

0.9

800

0.8

700

0.7

600

0.6

500

0.5

400

0.4

300

0.3

200

0.2

100

0.1

16 800

15 14

700

13 12

500

9 8

400

Y (meters)

7 6

300

5 4

200

3 2

100

X (meters)

Figure 139. Shadows on 21 June. Novy Urengoy. Source: Author

X (meters)

900

1000

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

0 100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

0 100

Y (meters)

600

Figure 142. SVF on the open spaces. Novy Urengoy. Source: Author

Sky view factor (SVF) indicators average SVF on the whole site [0-1]

0,83

average SVF on the ground [0-1]

0,80

average SVF on the green areas [0-1]

0,86

average SVF on the streets and other paved open spaces [0-1]

0,76

average SVF on the roofs [0-1]

0,97

average SVF on the open spaces of the area of interest [0-1]

0,80

average SVF on the roofs of the area of interest [0-1]

0,97

162

Karalit simulation results Novy Urengoy. January

Density

Pressure

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 1.3 meters above the ground 1,45312

1100 1000

1000

1,45308

900

103011

900

1,45303

800 700

700

1,45299

600

1,45294 500

1,4529

400 300

103008

800

Y (meters)

103015

1100

103005

600

103001 500

102998

400 300

1,45286

200

102994

200

1,45281

102991

100

1,45277

102987

X (meters)

Figure 143. Source: Author

Figure 144. Source: Author

Temperature

Turbulence

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 5 meters above the ground 247,018

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

100

200

2,13926

1100

1000

247,016

1,87185

900

247,014

800

700

600

247,008 500

247,005

400 300

247,002

200

Y (meters)

247,011

1,33704

600

1,06963 500

0,802223

400 300

0,534815

200

246,999

0,267408

100

X (meters)

Figure 145. Source: Author

Figure 146. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1e-010

0 100

246,996

100

Y (meters)

700

1,60445

800

163

North direction

Temperature

North

Atmospheric pressure

247 K

Wind speed

Wind direction

1030 GPa

4.5 m/s

180째 South

X wind velocity

Y wind velocity

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 1.3 meters above the ground 3,8

1100

4,81

1100

1000

2,94

3,84

900

2,07

800

700

1,21

600

0,35 500

Y (meters)

-0,51

400 300

1,91

600

0,95 500

-0,02

400 300

-1,37

200

-0,98

200

-2,23

-3,09

-2,91

X (meters)

Figure 147. Source: Author

Figure 148. Source: Author

Z wind velocity

Velocity magnitude

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 1.3 meters above the ground 4,81

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

100

200

-1,95

100

200

100

Y (meters)

700

2,88

800

4,831

1100

1000

3,84

4,227

900

2,88

800

700

600

0,95 500

-0,02

400 300

-0,98

3,02

600

2,416 500

1,812

400 300

1,208

200

X (meters)

Figure 149. Source: Author

Figure 150. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

4,99345e-005

0 200

-2,91

0,604

100

-1,95

100

200

Y (meters)

1,91

Y (meters)

700

3,623

800

164

OVY URENGOY.

NTERPRETATIONS

The wind flow converge here due to the specific built layout. These can be seen in the velocity magnitude represented with lines. The flows goes inside the block instead (Figure 152).

he weather input corresponds to the average parameters for January. The average temperature is -23.2째C (248K), the average wind speed is 4.5 m/s, where the prevailing wind direction is south. The pattern is represented by multi-sectional apartment buildings, which form a front between street and micro district inner space. The heights of the residential buildings vary from 5 to 10 floors.

In the case of the street indicated with arrow c, the reason for lower wind speed is the chess order of street grid. Here, when wind flow reaches the street canyon it is already converged by the previous windward urban fabric (Figure 153).

In the sample of Novy Urengoy the relation between streets orientation and wind speed is not clear. The streets with orientation close to the parallel toward wind direction, in this case 11째, the wind should diverge, like it happens in the short narrow street (arrow a). Unlike, two other streets (arrows b and c) show opposite trend, the wind speed here is the same as in the streets with bigger angle toward wind direction (arrows d and e), but for different reasons (Figure 151).

Uneven distribution of snow, which causes the snow accumulation on the streets and impeding their maintenance happens due to the irregular wind speeds, unlike other case study cities, where the areas of higher wind speed along the streets and the areas of wind calm inside the districts are clearly differentiated. On its own side, the irregular wind speeds are caused by the effect of turbulence. Turbulence appear in Novy Urengoy sample because the heights of the buildings vary significantly (Figure 154).

Along the arrow b, the situation is particular.

4,831

1100 1000

4,227 900

800

3,623

Y (meters)

700

3,02

600

2,416

500

1,812

400 300

1,208

200

100

0,604

4,99345e-005 1100

1000

900

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 800

X (meters)

Figure 151. Velocity magnitude map. Streets orientation and wind speed. Novy Urengoy. Source: Author

165

Figure 152. Wind convergence in specific built layout. Novy Urengoy. Source: Author 4,831

1100 1000

4,227 900

3,623

800

Y (meters)

700

3,02

600

2,416 500

1,812

400 300

1,208

200

0,604

100

4,99345e-005 1100

900

1000

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 X (meters)

Figure 153. Wind convergence in the chess order of streets. Novy Urengoy. Source: Author 1100 1000 900 800

Y (meters)

700 600 500 400 300 200 100

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 X (meters)

Figure 154. Snow accumulation. Novy Urengoy. Source: Author

166

ROFILE

900

800

700

600

600 Y (meters)

1000

Figure 155. Satellite view of Surgut. Source: Google maps

Figure 156. Map of services. Surgut. Source: Open street map, author

900

800

700

600

commercial

culture

sport

other

ground floor services

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

0 1000

0 900

100

800

100

700

200

600

200

500

300

400

300

400

200

medical

500

400

100

education

100

500

Y (meters)

1000

child care

1000

900

800

700

X (meters)

1000

600

900

X (meters)

Surgut has a regular grid of streets with a combination of curved streets. Street layout forms the micro districts pattern, where buildings layout matches the grid and form closed blocks. Services are well distributed and presented by a big variety of them. Each micro district has a range of services. Commercial function is located at the ground floors of the streets facing buildings and in the lone-standing commercial centers.

Y (meters)

500

0 1000

0 800

100

700

100

600

200

500

200

400

300

200

400

100

400

500

300

500

200

100

URGUT

1000

Y (meters)

X (meters)

Figure 157. Buildings map. Surgut. Source: Open street map, author

Figure 158. Streets layout map. Surgut. Source: Open street map, author

167

Morphological properties 1000

dimensions of the site [mxm]

900

800

700

Y (meters)

600

500

area of the site [m2]

1.000.000

covered areas [m2]

163.379,0

green areas [m2]

299.508,0

areas of streets and other open spaces [m2]

537.113,0

% of covered (built) areas [%]

16,3

% of green areas [%]

30,0

% of streets and other open spaces [%]

53,7

total built volume [m3]

400

300

200

100

2.351.721,9

mean height of the buildings [m]

14,4

maximum height measured on the site [m]

46,0

total floor area [m2]

52.605,8

built perimeter [m]

734.913,1

exposed surfaces [m2]

753.246,3

surface to volume ratio (S/V) [1/m]

734.913,1

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1000 x 1000

X (meters)

Figure 159. Top view rendering. Surgut. Source: Author

Density indicators built volume / total area of the site [m3/m2]

2,35

covered area / total area of the site [m2/

0,16

m2] total floor area / total area of the site [m2/

0,73

m2] total floor area / built area (FAR) [m2/m2]

4,50

Figure 160. 3d rendering. Surgut. Source: Author 1000

900

800

700

500

400

300

built-up

200

impermeable surfaces (streets, parking, etc.)

100

permeable surfaces (ground, grass, etc.) 1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 0

Y (meters)

600

X (meters)

Figure 161. Land use map. Surgut. Source: Author

Chart 23. Land use pie. Surgut. Source: Author

168

January N

April N

Chart 24. Monthly temperatures in Surgut. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author E

July N

Chart 25. Monthly wind speeds in Surgut. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author S

September N

Chart 26. Monthly air humidity in Surgut. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author

Chart 27. Seasonal wind roses in Surgut. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author

169

Shadows

900

800

700

600

500

Sky view factor

1000

Y (meters)

1000

27 24

500

400

300

200

100

17 13 10 7 5 3

X (meters)

900

1000

800

700

600

X (meters)

Figure 162. Shadows on 21 December. Surgut. Source: Author

1000

500

400

300

200

100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

900

Figure 165. DEM. Surgut. Source: Author 1000

900

0.9

800

0.8

700

0.7

600

0.6

500

0.5

400

0.4

300

0.3

200

0.2

100

0.1

800

700

7 6 500 5

Y (meters)

600

400 4

X (meters)

1000

900

1000

800

700

600

500

0 0

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

400

100

300

200

100

300

X (meters)

Figure 163. Shadows on 21 March. Surgut. Source: Author

1000

Figure 166. SVF on the whole area. Surgut. Source: Author

16 900

15 14

800

900

0.9

800

0.8

700

0.7

600

0.6

500

0.5

400

0.4

300

0.3

200

0.2

100

0.1

13 12

700

500

8 7

400

Y (meters)

6 300

5 4

200

3 2

100

X (meters)

Figure 164. Shadows on 21 June. Surgut. Source: Author

X (meters)

900

1000

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

0 100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

0 100

Y (meters)

600

Figure 167. SVF on the open spaces. Surgut. Source: Author

Sky view factor (SVF) indicators average SVF on the whole site [0-1]

0,81

average SVF on the ground [0-1]

0,77

average SVF on the green areas [0-1]

0,81

average SVF on the streets and other paved open spaces [0-1]

0,75

average SVF on the roofs [0-1]

0,97

average SVF on the open spaces of the area of interest [0-1]

0,77

average SVF on the roofs of the area of interest [0-1]

0,97

170

Karalit simulation results Surgut. January

Density

Pressure

at 1.3 meters above the ground

1100

102715

1100

1,41452

1000

102710

1,41447 900

900

1,41441

800

700

1,41436

600

1,4143 500

Y (meters)

700

1,41425

400 300

102706

800

102701

600

102697 500

102692

400 300

1,41419

200

102688

200

1,41414 100

102683

100

1,41408

102679

X (meters)

Figure 168. Source: Author

Figure 169. Source: Author

Temperature

Turbulence

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 5 meters above the ground

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

100

200

0,560174

1100

253,021

1000

0,490152

253,019 900

900

253,016

800

700

600

253,009 500

253,006

400 300

253,003

0,350109

600

0,280087 500

0,210065

400 300

0,140044

200

X (meters)

Figure 170. Source: Author

Figure 171. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1e-010

0 200

252,996

0,0700218

100

253

100

200

Y (meters)

253,013

Y (meters)

700

0,420131

800

171

North direction

Temperature

North

Atmospheric pressure

253 K

Wind speed

Wind direction

1027 GPa

4.4 m/s

225째 South-west

X wind velocity

Y wind velocity

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 1.3 meters above the ground 4,44

1100

4,87

1100

1000

3,55

3,93

900

2,65

800

700

1,75

600

0,86 500

Y (meters)

-0,04

400 300

2,06

600

1,12 500

0,19

400 300

-0,94

200

-0,75

200

-1,83

-2,73

-2,62

X (meters)

Figure 172. Source: Author

Figure 173. Source: Author

Z wind velocity

Velocity magnitude

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 1.3 meters above the ground 4,87

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

100

200

-1,69

100

200

100

Y (meters)

700

2,99

800

5,256

1100

1000

3,93

4,599

900

2,99

800

700

600

1,12 500

0,19

400 300

-0,75

3,285

600

2,628 500

1,971

400 300

1,314

200

X (meters)

Figure 174. Source: Author

Figure 175. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

4,91285e-006

0 200

-2,62

0,66

100

-1,69

100

200

Y (meters)

2,06

Y (meters)

700

3,942

800

172

NTERPRETATIONS

this difference is the type of the building front. The solid front is associated with more regular wind flow (arrow b) than the street with uneven gaps between buildings and different distances of them from the red line (arrow a) (Figure 176).

eather parameters imported in the simulation of Surgut sample are: air temperature -20.0Â°C, wind speed 4.4 m/s, the wind direction â&#x20AC;&#x201C; south-west. These parameters are the average climate data for January. The pattern is the composition of multi-sectional apartment buildings. The ones, located on the edges of the district form a building frontage, closing the inner space of the district from

In terms of snow accumulation, the positive effect is the lack of snow on the streets, where the majority of it is accumulated inside the district, which could be a positive consequence

the streets. Others are freestanding buildings, located freely inside the district but subject to the orthogonal grid. The average height of the residential buildings is about 6 floors.

for winter games and leisure. On the map of mean shadow density, the areas of permanent shadows are observed. They are generated as in Norilsk sample by the angular buildings with the direction of the angle toward south, southeast and south-west. In the sample of Surgut, where prevailing wind direction is south-west, this solution is irrelevant. This can be seen in comparison between buildings a and building b. They both generate sufficient wind shadow, only the building b does not have the area of permanent shadow (Figure 177).

Higher wind speed is observed eventually along the streets (arrows a and b). The wind conditions along the street represented with arrow c, cannot be considered as the proper result because of the side effect (the part of the pattern is close to the border). Comparing wind flows in the streets a and b, one can see the difference in the regularity of the flow pattern. The reason for

5,256

1100 1000

4,599 900

3,942

800

Y (meters)

700

3,285

600

2,628 500

400

1,971

300

1,314

200

0,66

100

1100

700

600

500

4,91285e-006 400

200

100

300

1000

900

URGUT.

800

X (meters)

Figure 176. Velocity magnitude map. Streets orientation and wind speed. Surgut. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

600 500

X (meters)

Figure 177. Snow accumulation on the left. Areas of permanent shadows on the right. Surgut. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

0 300

0 200

200 100

100

200 100

500

300

400

300

400

200

400

X (meters)

100

500

Y (meters)

1100

Y (meters)

173

174

ROFILE

900

800

700

600

600 Y (meters)

1000

900

800

700

X (meters)

Figure 178. Satellite view of Udachny. Source: Google maps

Figure 179. Map of services. Udachny. Source: Open street map, author

1000

900

800

700

600

medical

commercial

culture

sport

other

ground floor services

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

0 1000

0 900

100

800

100

700

200

600

200

500

300

400

300

400

200

education

500

400

100

child care

100

500

Y (meters)

1000

600

900

X (meters)

Udachny is different from other case study cities. The urban pattern is similar to the settlement - lack of infrastructure and simple facilities, such as sport or nursery schools. The built environment is represented by lone-standing buildings on a relatively regular grid. The density and buildings height is much lower compared to other samples. The maximum height is only 11 meters and the residential buildings are mainly 2-storey.

Y (meters)

500

0 1000

0 800

100

700

100

600

200

500

200

400

300

200

400

100

400

500

300

500

200

100

DACHNY

1000

Y (meters)

X (meters)

Figure 180. Buildings map. Udachny. Source: Open street map, author

Figure 181. Streets layout map. Udachny. Source: Open street map, author

175

Morphological properties 1000

dimensions of the site [mxm]

900

800

700

Y (meters)

600

500

1000 x 1000

area of the site [m2]

1.000.000

covered areas [m2]

71.607,0

green areas [m2]

557.166,0

areas of streets and other open spaces [m2]

371.227,0

% of covered (built) areas [%]

7,2

% of green areas [%]

55,7

% of streets and other open spaces [%]

37,1

total built volume [m3]

400

300

200

100

mean height of the buildings [m]

7,9

maximum height measured on the site [m]

11,0

total floor area [m2]

16.481,0

built perimeter [m]

175.779,1

exposed surfaces [m2]

124.501,8

surface to volume ratio (S/V) [1/m]

175.779,1

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

562.493,2

X (meters)

Figure 182. Top view rendering. Udachny. Source: Author

Density indicators built volume / total area of the site [m3/m2]

0,56

covered area / total area of the site [m2/

0,07

m2] total floor area / total area of the site [m2/

0,18

m2] total floor area / built area (FAR) [m2/m2]

2,45

Figure 183. 3d rendering. Udachny. Source: Author 1000

900

800

700

500

400

300

built-up

200

impermeable surfaces (streets, parking, etc.)

100

permeable surfaces (ground, grass, etc.) 1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 0

Y (meters)

600

X (meters)

Figure 184. Land use map. Udachny. Source: Author

Chart 28. Land use pie. Udachny. Source: Author

176

January N

April N

Chart 29. Monthly temperatures in Udachny. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author E

July N

Chart 30. Monthly wind speeds in Udachny. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author S

September N

Chart 31. Monthly air humidity in Udachny. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author

Chart 32. Seasonal wind roses in Udachny. Source: http://www. pogodaiklimat.ru/, author

177

Shadows

900

800

700

600

600 Y (meters)

900

500 5

400

300

200

100

X (meters)

900

1000

800

700

600

X (meters)

Figure 185. Shadows on 21 December. Udachny. Source: Author

1000

500

400

300

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

0 100

200

100

polar night

500

Sky view factor

1000

Y (meters)

1000

900

Figure 188. DEM. Udachny. Source: Author 1000

900

0.9

800

0.8

700

0.7

600

0.6

500

0.5

400

0.4

300

0.3

200

0.2

100

0.1

800

700

7 6 500 5

Y (meters)

600

400 4

X (meters)

900

1000

800

700

600

X (meters)

Figure 186. Shadows on 21 March. Udachny. Source: Author

1000

500

0 0

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

400

100

300

200

100

300

Figure 189. SVF on the whole area. Udachny. Source: Author

1000

18 900

900

0.9

800

0.8

700

0.7

600

0.6

500

0.5

400

0.4

300

0.3

200

0.2

100

0.1

16 800

15 14

700

13 12

500

9 8

400

Y (meters)

7 6

300

5 4

200

3 2

100

1 0

X (meters)

Figure 187. Shadows on 21 June. Udachny. Source: Author

X (meters)

900

1000

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

0 100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

0 100

Y (meters)

600

Figure 190. SVF on the open spaces. Udachny. Source: Author

Sky view factor (SVF) indicators average SVF on the whole site [0-1]

0,95

average SVF on the ground [0-1]

0,94

average SVF on the green areas [0-1]

0,97

average SVF on the streets and other paved open spaces [0-1]

0,91

average SVF on the roofs [0-1]

1,00

average SVF on the open spaces of the area of interest [0-1]

0,94

average SVF on the roofs of the area of interest [0-1]

1,00

178

Karalit simulation results Udachny. January

Density

Pressure

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 1.3 meters above the ground 1,50989

1100

102702

1100

1000

102701

1,50989 900

900

1,50988

800

700

1,50987

600

1,50987 500

Y (meters)

700

1,50986

400 300

102701

800

102701

600

102700 500

102700

400 300

1,50986

200

102699

200

1,50985 100

102699

100

1,50984

102698

X (meters)

Figure 191. Source: Author

Figure 192. Source: Author

Temperature

Turbulence

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 5 meters above the ground

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

100

200

1100

237,002

1000

0,317502

1000

237,002

0,277814

900

237,002

800

700

600

237,001 500

237,001

400 300

237

0,198439

600

0,158751 500

0,119063

400 300

0,0793755

200

X (meters)

Figure 193. Source: Author

Figure 194. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

1e-010 300

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 200

237

0,0396878

100

237

100

200

Y (meters)

237,001

Y (meters)

700

0,238127

800

179

North direction

Temperature

North

Atmospheric pressure

237 K

Wind speed

1027 GPa

1.6 m/s

315째 North-west

X wind velocity

Y wind velocity

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 1.3 meters above the ground 1,46

1100 1000

0,56

1100 1000

1,22

900

0,31

900

0,99

800 700

700

0,76

600

0,53 500

0,3

400 300

0,06

800

Y (meters)

Wind direction

-0,19

600

-0,43 500

-0,68

400 300

0,07

200

-0,93

200

-0,16

-1,18

100

-0,39

-1,43

X (meters)

Figure 195. Source: Author

Figure 196. Source: Author

Z wind velocity

Velocity magnitude

at 1.3 meters above the ground

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

100

200

1100

0,56

1000

1,7

1000

1,49

0,31 900

900

0,06

800

700

600

-0,43 500

-0,68

400 300

-0,93

1,06

600

0,85 500

0,64

400 300

0,43

200

X (meters)

Figure 197. Source: Author

Figure 198. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

1,11509e-005 300

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

-1,43

200

0,21

100

-1,18

100

200

Y (meters)

-0,19

Y (meters)

700

1,28

800

180

DACHNY.

NTERPRETATIONS

floors, on the other hand, the building density is high, so the buildings of the block decrease the wind speed on the whole area if it and provide a wind shadow on the leeward areas (Figure 199).

he weather parameters used as an input for Udachny sample are: average air temperature in January is -36.1째C (237K), the wind speed is 1.6 m/s, the prevailing wind direction in Udachny is different from other samples and is north-west. The urban pattern is also different from the typical structure of micro district. Udachny was built as the shift camp and therefore, the low-rise

Due to the building orientation and the direction of prevailing winds, the areas of snow accumulation and permanent insolation of the ground match, making the fast thawing of the snow on the local roads possible (Figure 200).

(2 floors) freestanding wooden buildings of 8-12 apartments represent the built pattern. The buildings are located on the regular grid. In the specific built environment of this sample, it is hard to distinguish the streets in the conventional sense. There is no public transport and all the movements are made by car to the place of employment outside the city. Therefore, the areas of residential blocks are under consideration. The orientation of the buildings is 130째 toward prevailing wind, thus, the wind shadow is sufficient. The buildings are only of 2 1100

1,7

1000

1,49 900

1,28

800

Y (meters)

700

1,06

600

0,85 500

0,64

400 300

0,43

200

0,21

100 0 1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1,11509e-005 X (meters)

Figure 199. Velocity magnitude map. Decrease of the wind speed inside the blocks. Udachny. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

X (meters)

Figure 200. Snow accumulation on the left. Areas of shadows on the right. Udachny. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

0 300

0 200

200 100

100

200 100

600

300

500

300

400

300

400

200

500

100

500

Y (meters)

1100

Y (meters)

181

182

ROFILE

900

800

700

600

600 Y (meters)

1000

Figure 201. Satellite view of Vorkuta. Source: Google maps

Figure 202. Map of services. Vorkuta. Source: Open street map, author

900

800

700

600

commercial

culture

sport

other

ground floor services

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

0 1000

0 900

100

800

100

700

200

600

200

500

300

400

300

400

200

medical

500

400

100

education

100

500

Y (meters)

1000

child care

1000

900

800

700

X (meters)

1000

600

900

X (meters)

Vorkuta is separated in several zones by natural borders and the streets layout is dependent on the terrain. Streets layout in-between the barriers is regular. Services are well distributed and the wide range of different facilities is present, including sport and culture. Built pattern is formed by slab buildings, which form the closed blocks inside the micro district. Average height of the residential buildings is from 5 to 9 floors.

Y (meters)

500

0 1000

0 800

100

700

100

600

200

500

200

400

300

200

400

100

400

500

300

500

200

100

ORKUTA

1000

Y (meters)

X (meters)

Figure 203. Buildings map. Vorkuta. Source: Open street map, author

Figure 204. Streets layout map. Vorkuta. Source: Open street map, author

183

Morphological properties 1000

dimensions of the site [mxm]

900

800

700

Y (meters)

600

500

area of the site [m2]

1.000.000

covered areas [m2]

135.061,0

green areas [m2]

400.217,0

areas of streets and other open spaces [m2]

464.722,0

% of covered (built) areas [%]

13,5

% of green areas [%]

40,0

% of streets and other open spaces [%]

46,5

total built volume [m3]

400

300

200

100

1.963.909,9

mean height of the buildings [m]

14,5

maximum height measured on the site [m]

32,0

total floor area [m2]

27.236,3

built perimeter [m]

613.721,8

exposed surfaces [m2]

401.790,5

surface to volume ratio (S/V) [1/m]

613.721,8

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1000 x 1000

X (meters)

Figure 205. Top view rendering. Vorkuta. Source: Author

Density indicators built volume / total area of the site [m3/m2]

1,96

covered area / total area of the site [m2/

0,14

m2] total floor area / total area of the site [m2/

0,61

m2] total floor area / built area (FAR) [m2/m2]

4,54

Figure 206. 3d rendering. Vorkuta. Source: Author 1000

900

800

700

500

400

300

built-up

200

impermeable surfaces (streets, parking, etc.)

100

permeable surfaces (ground, grass, etc.) 1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 0

Y (meters)

600

X (meters)

Figure 207. Land use map. Vorkuta. Source: Author

Chart 33. Land use pie. Vorkuta. Source: Author

184

January N

April N

Chart 34. Monthly temperatures in Vorkuta. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author E

July N

Chart 35. Monthly wind speeds in Vorkuta. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author S

September N

Chart 36. Monthly air humidity in Vorkuta. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author

Chart 37. Seasonal wind roses in Vorkuta. Source: http://www. pogodaiklimat.ru/, author

185

Shadows

Sky view factor

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

Y (meters)

1000

polar night

500

X (meters)

900

1000

800

700

600

X (meters)

Figure 208. Shadows on 21 December. Vorkuta. Source: Author

1000

500

400

300

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

200

100

900

Figure 211. DEM. Vorkuta. Source: Author 1000

900

0.9

800

0.8

700

0.7

600

0.6

500

0.5

400

0.4

300

0.3

200

0.2

100

0.1

800

700

7 6 500 5

Y (meters)

600

400 4

X (meters)

1000

900

1000

800

700

600

500

0 0

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

400

100

300

200

100

300

X (meters)

Figure 209. Shadows on 21 March. Vorkuta. Source: Author

1000

Figure 212. SVF on the whole area. Vorkuta. Source: Author

18 900

900

0.9

800

0.8

700

0.7

600

0.6

500

0.5

400

0.4

300

0.3

200

0.2

100

0.1

16 800

15 14

700

13 12

500

9 8

400

Y (meters)

7 6

300

5 4

200

3 2

100

1 0

X (meters)

Figure 210. Shadows on 21 June. Vorkuta. Source: Author

X (meters)

900

1000

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

0 100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

0 100

Y (meters)

600

Figure 213. SVF on the open spaces. Vorkuta. Source: Author

Sky view factor (SVF) indicators average SVF on the whole site [0-1]

0,84

average SVF on the ground [0-1]

0,81

average SVF on the green areas [0-1]

0,91

average SVF on the streets and other paved open spaces [0-1]

0,73

average SVF on the roofs [0-1]

0,98

average SVF on the open spaces of the area of interest [0-1]

0,81

average SVF on the roofs of the area of interest [0-1]

0,98

186

Karalit simulation results Vorkuta. January

Density

Pressure

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 1.3 meters above the ground 1,41187

1100 1000

1000

1,41174

102520

900

1,4116

800 700

700

1,41147

600

1,41133 500

1,4112

400 300

102515

800

Y (meters)

102526

1100

102509

600

102503 500

102497

400 300

1,41107

200

102492

200

1,41093 100

102486

100

1,4108

102480

X (meters)

Figure 214. Source: Author

Figure 215. Source: Author

Temperature

Turbulence

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 5 meters above the ground

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

100

200

2,5

1100

253,142

1000

2,1875

253,124 900

900

253,106

800

700

600

253,069 500

253,051

400 300

253,032

1,5625

600

1,25 500

0,9375

400 300

0,625

200

1e-010

X (meters)

Figure 216. Source: Author

Figure 217. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

0 300

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

252,996

200

0,3125

100

253,014

100

200

Y (meters)

253,087

Y (meters)

700

1,875

800

187

North direction

Temperature

North

Atmospheric pressure

253 K

Wind speed

Wind direction

1025 GPa

6 m/s

180째 South

X wind velocity

Y wind velocity

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 1.3 meters above the ground 4,31

1100

6,56

1100

1000

5,3

3,18 900

900

2,05

800

700

0,91

600

-0,22 500

Y (meters)

-1,35

400 300

2,77

600

1,51 500

0,25

400 300

-2,48

200

-1,01

200

-3,61

-4,74

-3,53

X (meters)

Figure 218. Source: Author

Figure 219. Source: Author

Z wind velocity

Velocity magnitude

at 1.3 meters above the ground

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

100

200

-2,27

100

200

100

Y (meters)

700

4,04

800

6,63

1100

6,56

1000

5,81

5,3 900

900

4,04

800

700

600

1,51 500

0,25

400 300

-1,01

4,15

600

3,32 500

2,49

400 300

1,66

200

2,97999e-005

X (meters)

Figure 220. Source: Author

Figure 221. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

0 300

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

-3,53

200

0,83

100

-2,27

100

200

Y (meters)

2,77

Y (meters)

700

4,98

800

188

NTERPRETATIONS

arrow d shows the situation similar to Surgut sample, where due to the side effect the results cannot be considered realistic (Figure 222).

limate input for Vorkuta is the average weather parameters in January: air temperature is -19.5째C (254K), wind speed 6 m/s of southern direction. Freestanding multi-sectional apartment buildings form a homogeneous dense pattern of the micro district with the semisolid building front along the streets. The average height of the residential buildings is 5 floors.

The building front of the residential district provides the conditions of relative wind calm inside. In the case where there are openings in the solid buildings front on the windward side of the micro districts (areas A and B), the wind penetrates with higher speed inside the district and causes

The speed of the wind flow is higher in the streets with smaller deviations from the wind direction. In the sample of Vorkuta this should the street oriented 11째 clockwise from the southern wind direction (arrow a). Unlike, in the Vorkuta sample, the wind speed in this street is lower than initial for 3 m/s. This happens due to the opportunity for the wind flow to go directly with initial direction without obstacles (arrow b). Arrow c shows the street where, the wind speed is the lowest due to the blunt angle orientation of it toward prevailing wind. Here the flow diverges from 1.7 m/s to nearly zero. The

the irregular wind flows within it (Figure 223). In the sample of Vorkuta, the areas of main snow accumulation appear to be inside the micro district, which as was discussed before, can have a good effect on winter environment if the areas of snow do not match the areas of permanent sun shadows. On the mean shadow density map one can observe the strongest shadow in the pattern a, which is due to the orientation of the buildings (compare with the patterns b and c) and due to the dense surrounding (compare with the pattern d) (Figure 224). 6,63

1100 1000

5,81 900

4,98

800

Y (meters)

700

4,15

600

500

3,32

2,49

400

300

1,66

200

0,83

100

2,97999e-005 1100

900

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 1000

ORKUTA.

800

X (meters)

Figure 222. Velocity magnitude map. Street orientation and wind speed. Vorkuta. Source: Author

189

6,63

1100 1000

5,81 900

4,98

800

Y (meters)

700

4,15

600

3,32 500

2,49

400 300

1,66

200

0,83

100

2,97999e-005 1100

900

1000

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 X (meters)

1100

1000

900

900 800 700

600

600 500

X (meters)

Figure 224. Snow accumulation on the left. Areas of permanent shadows on the right. Vorkuta. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

d 200

1100

1000

0 900

0 800

100

700

100

600

200

500

200

400

300

100

400

200

400

100

500

Y (meters)

800 700

Y (meters)

Figure 223. Velocity magnitude map. Wind penetration inside the block. Vorkuta. Source: Author

190

ROFILE

900

800

700

600

600 Y (meters)

1000

Figure 225. Satellite view of Yakutsk. Source: Google maps

Figure 226. Map of services. Yakutsk. Source: Open street map, author

900

800

700

600

commercial

culture

sport

other

ground floor services

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

0 1000

0 900

100

800

100

700

200

600

200

500

300

400

300

400

200

medical

500

400

100

education

100

500

Y (meters)

1000

child care

1000

900

800

700

X (meters)

1000

600

900

X (meters)

Yakutsk was built not according to a master plan, therefore, the buildings layout is more chaotic than in other samples. Streets grid is regular, although, the position of the buildings inside the districts does not have a particular grid. Lone-standing buildings form open blocks. The supply of services is poor, lack of commercial and cultural function is obvious. Height of the buildings is in average from 3 to 5 floors with some exceptions of 9-storey buildings.

Y (meters)

500

0 1000

0 800

100

700

100

600

200

500

200

400

300

200

400

100

400

500

300

500

200

100

AKUTSK

1000

Y (meters)

X (meters)

Figure 227. Buildings map. Yakutsk. Source: Open street map, author

Figure 228. Streets layout map. Yakutsk. Source: Open street map, author

191

Morphological properties 1000

dimensions of the site [mxm]

900

800

700

Y (meters)

600

500

area of the site [m2]

1.000.000

covered areas [m2]

172.335,0

green areas [m2]

203.529,0

areas of streets and other open spaces [m2]

624.136,0

% of covered (built) areas [%]

17,2

% of green areas [%]

20,4

% of streets and other open spaces [%]

62,4

total built volume [m3]

400

300

200

100

2.334.363,1

mean height of the buildings [m]

13,5

maximum height measured on the site [m]

30,0

total floor area [m2]

40.525,2

built perimeter [m]

729.488,5

exposed surfaces [m2]

527.436,9

surface to volume ratio (S/V) [1/m]

729.488,5

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1000 x 1000

X (meters)

Figure 229. Top view rendering. Yakutsk. Source: Author

Density indicators built volume / total area of the site [m3/m2]

2,33

covered area / total area of the site [m2/

0,17

m2] total floor area / total area of the site [m2/

0,73

m2] total floor area / built area (FAR) [m2/m2]

4,23

Figure 230. 3d rendering. Yakutsk. Source: Author 1000

900

800

700

500

400

300

built-up

200

impermeable surfaces (streets, parking, etc.)

100

permeable surfaces (ground, grass, etc.) 1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 0

Y (meters)

600

X (meters)

Figure 231. Land use map. Yakutsk. Source: Author

Chart 38. Land use pie. Yakutsk. Source: Author

192

January N

April N

Chart 39. Monthly temperatures in Yakutsk. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author E

July N

Chart 40. Monthly wind speeds in Yakutsk. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author S

September N

Chart 41. Monthly air humidity in Yakutsk. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author

Chart 42. Seasonal wind roses in Yakutsk. Source: http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/, author

193

Shadows

1000

Sky view factor

1000

900

800

700

600

Y (meters)

polar night

500

16 500 14 12

400

300

200

100

X (meters)

900

1000

800

700

600

X (meters)

Figure 232. Shadows on 21 December. Yakutsk. Source: Author

1000

500

400

300

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

200

100

900

Figure 235. DEM. Yakutsk. Source: Author 1000

900

0.9

800

0.8

700

0.7

600

0.6

500

0.5

400

0.4

300

0.3

200

0.2

100

0.1

800

700

7 6 500 5

Y (meters)

600

400 4

X (meters)

1000

900

1000

800

700

600

500

0 0

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

400

100

300

200

100

300

X (meters)

Figure 233. Shadows on 21 March. Yakutsk. Source: Author

1000

Figure 236. SVF on the whole area. Yakutsk. Source: Author

16 900

15 14

800

900

0.9

800

0.8

700

0.7

600

0.6

500

0.5

400

0.4

300

0.3

200

0.2

100

0.1

13 12

700

500

8 7

400

Y (meters)

6 300

5 4

200

3 2

100

X (meters)

Figure 234. Shadows on 21 June. Yakutsk. Source: Author

X (meters)

900

1000

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

0 0

0 100

Y (meters)

600

Figure 237. SVF on the open spaces. Yakutsk. Source: Author

Sky view factor (SVF) indicators average SVF on the whole site [0-1]

0,85

average SVF on the ground [0-1]

0,81

average SVF on the green areas [0-1]

0,85

average SVF on the streets and other paved open spaces [0-1]

0,80

average SVF on the roofs [0-1]

0,99

average SVF on the open spaces of the area of interest [0-1]

0,81

average SVF on the roofs of the area of interest [0-1]

0,99

194

Karalit simulation results Yakutsk. January

Density

Pressure

at 1.3 meters above the ground

1100

1,52924

1000

102701

1000

1,52923

102701

900

1,52923

800

700

1,52923

600

1,52923 500

Y (meters)

700

1,52923

400 300

102700

800

102700

600

102700 500

102700

400 300

1,52922

200

102700

200

1,52922 100

102700

100

1,52922

X (meters)

Figure 238. Source: Author

Figure 239. Source: Author

Temperature

Turbulence

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 5 meters above the ground

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

102699 0

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

100

200

0,4182

1100

234,001

1000

0,3659

234,001 900

900

234

800

700

600

234 500

234

400 300

234

0,2614

600

0,2091 500

0,1568

400 300

0,1046

200

1e-010

X (meters)

Figure 240. Source: Author

Figure 241. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

0 300

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

234

200

0,0523

100

234

100

200

Y (meters)

234

Y (meters)

700

0,1337

800

195

North direction

Temperature

North

Atmospheric pressure

234 K

Wind speed

Wind direction

1027 GPa

0.8 m/s

0째 North

X wind velocity

Y wind velocity

at 1.3 meters above the ground

1100

0,62

1000

0,47

1000

0,46

0,28

900

0,31

800

700

0,15

600

-0,01 500

Y (meters)

-0,17

400 300

-0,09

600

-0,27 500

-0,46

400 300

-0,33

200

-0,64

200

-0,49

X (meters)

Figure 242. Source: Author

Figure 243. Source: Author

Z wind velocity

Velocity magnitude

at 1.3 meters above the ground

at 1.3 meters above the ground 0,47

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

-1,01 0

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

100

200

-0,65

300

-0,83

100

200

100

Y (meters)

700

0,1

800

1,03

1100

1000

0,28

0,9

900

0,1

800

700

600

-0,27 500

-0,46

400 300

-0,64

0,64

600

0,51 500

0,38

400 300

0,26

200

X (meters)

Figure 244. Source: Author

Figure 245. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0,000101431

0 200

-1,01

0,13

100

-0,83

100

200

Y (meters)

-0,09

Y (meters)

700

0,77

800

196

NTERPRETATIONS

tial one). With the distance the flow converge up to the speed of 0.5 m/s, which is still considerably higher than in the streets oriented 45째 toward the wind (arrows b, c, d) (Figure 246).

eather input data for Yakutsk are the following: average air temperature in January is -38.6째C (234K), the average wind speed is 0.8 m/s, the prevailing wind direction is north. Yakutsk is the oldest city among the case study samples. Its urban tissue is represented as a mixture of a shift camp layout (as was described in Udachny) of a low-rise freestanding wooden buildings and a micro district of multi-sectional

Looking at the velocity map, it is hard to distinguish different districts or streets from districts. Unlike other samples, the area of micro district here does not correspond to the areas of wind calm, distribution of different wind

apartment buildings, located freely within the borders of the district. The wooden residential buildings are 2 floors height, other residential buildings are of about 5-9 floors height.

velocities is relatively homogeneous. This happens due to the specific built pattern, which unlike other samples does not form the solid or relatively solid buildings front, separating the area of the residential district from the streets.

In terms of wind speed along the streets the sample of Yakutsk prove the effect of higher wind speeds in the streets with the closer axis direction to the wind direction. The street indicated with the arrow a has the orientation of 11째 clockwise in relation to the northern wind direction. At the beginning of the street the wind flow diverge up to 1 m/s (0.2 m/s higher than the ini-

Due to the small amount of the wind calm areas, the snow accumulation is not considerable, compared to other samples. At the same time the amount of permanent shadows is limited to the several minor angled buildings and courtyards oriented to the north. This solution is not efficient, since the prevailing wind here is from 1,03

1100 1000

0,9 900

0,77

800

Y (meters)

700 600

0,64

0,51 500

0,38

400 300

0,26

200

0,13

100

1100

700

600

500

0,000101431 400

200

100

300

1000

900

AKUTSK.

800

X (meters)

Figure 246. Velocity magnitude map. Street orientation and wind speed. Yakutsk. Source: Author

197

ings different from the north-south and the layout of open block have the positive impact on the shadowing of open spaces (Figure 247).

1100

1000

900

900 800 700

600

X (meters)

Figure 247. Snow accumulation on the left. Areas of permanent shadows on the right. Yakutsk. Source: Author

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

1100

1000

0 900

0 800

100

700

100

600

200

500

200

400

300

200

400

100

400

200

500

100

500

Y (meters)

800 700

Y (meters)

the north and there is no necessity to close the courtyards from the southern sun. Except this, in Yakutsk, the various orientations of the build-

198

NTERPRETATIONS

nterpretations are based on the observations of the simulation results’ maps. There is the number of trends observed on every sample, which are due to the similarities of urban fabric. It is important to take into account the ‘side effect’. This effect occurs because the simulation was made for a pattern, which is only the part of the city. In reality the wind flow coming from the open fields meets urban tissue before the sample of analysis,

a c

it generates dispersed flows and turbulences and converge. Thus, the real effect of the surroundings on the wind flow cannot be realistically represented, especially around the buildings standing first on the wind flow direction. Therefore, it is crucial to distinguish the effects generated by the built environment from those appearing on the edges of the simulation open fields. One of the observations regards the

b d

Figure 248. Street orientation and wind speed; a. Murmansk, b. Nizhnevartovsk, c. Norilsk, d. Surgut. Source: Author

199

Figure 249. Width to height ratio and wind speed, Vorkuta. Source: Author

wind speed along the streets according to their orientation toward wind direction. The heaviest winds occur in the streets parallel to the wind flow, which can be observed in all samples (Figure 226). This increase emerges up to the 30-35째 orientation in the relation to the wind direction. From 45째 to 90째 the considerable decrease of the wind speed and pressure is observed. More than that, it accelerates with the lower width-height ratio of the street section. In the situation when there are two parallel streets or gaps between buildings both with the orientation of the longitudinal axis equal to the wind

direction, the flow accelerates in the gap with the lower width to height ratio. This effect can be observed on the sample of Vorkuta together with DEM representing the relative heights of the buildings (Figure 227). Divergence of the wind speed occurs when the street makes a turn. In the straight streets parallel to the wind direction the flow does not meet any obstacles and intensifies with the distance. When the street makes the swerve, the flows faces the facades of the building front on the windward side of the street and is thus mitigated,

Figure 250. Angled streets and wind speed, Murmansk. Source: Author

200

as in Murmansk sample (Figure 228). Areas within the micro districts are the areas of a relative wind calm. This happens due to the presence of the building fronts perpendicular to the wind flow, which generate wind shadow inside the district. This effect is observed in all patterns (in some partially) (Figure 229). The condition of the wind calm in Surgut sample is reached with the chess order of the buildings on the layout. Chess order eliminates the

possibility of the high speed wind penetration inside the courtyards (Figure 230). In some cases the building front facing the wind has the gaps, where the flow can access into the block, causing the areas with higher wind pressure (Figure 231). This wind may generate the turbulence effect there, especially if the opposite side of the block does not have any gaps for the flow to exit; this is observed in the sample of Novy Urengoy (Figure 232).

Figure 251. Areas of wind calm inside the micro districts; a. Murmansk, b. Nizhnevartovsk. Source: Author

Figure 252. Chess order of buildings in Surgut. Source: Author

The position of the buildings facades with the gaps where the wind breaks appear can influence the flow speed.

Looking at the Novy Urengoy sample, one can notice the acceleration of the wind speed entering the gap between

201

Figure 253. Gaps and wind breaks; a. Murmansk, b. Norilsk. Source: Author

Figure 254. Wind breaks causing turbulence inside the district, Novy Urengoy. Source: Author

buildings staying on the line in relation to the wind direction. The parallel streets opens with the buildings, where one of them stands forehead the other; here the convergence of the wind flow is perceived (Figure 233). Turbulence is another effect, apart from the wind speed which has the negative impact on the human comfort at the pedestrian level. Turbulence or turbulent flow is a flow regime characterized by chaotic property changes. This includes low momentum diffusion, high momentum convection, and rapid variation of pressure and velocity

in space and time. It is quite complex phenomenon to predict or to understand the reasons for its appearance. The CFD methods in this case could be considerably helpful for urban planners in order to avoid it. Nevertheless, they are not always available, for this reason, some obvious conditions of urban patterns, generating the turbulence, should be understood in order to give some useful guidelines. According to the results of this study, the preconditions of the turbulence effect are: existence of the single buildings higher than the surrounding; high slab

202

Figure 255. Buildings position and wind flow, Novy Urengoy. Source: Author

buildings staying on the background of

mize the cold wind impact on the semi-

the open space; courtyards will small openings with inappropriate orientation toward wind direction; combination of the buildings of different heights in the relatively dense urban fabric. The first two reasons can be observed on the patterns of Murmansk, Nizhnevartovsk and Norilsk (Figure 234, 235).

closed yards, provided for the daytime outdoor games for children. The effect is the opposite due to the wrong orientation of the courtyards openings. If we look at the other typical nurseries in the sample, it is noticeable that this effect is present only in those, which has the openings oriented at 45째 toward the wind flow direction.

The appearance of turbuence inside the courtyards is observed in Murmansk, in the courtyards of nursery schools (Figure 236). What is important is that the floor plan of this typical nursery

The third reason, which regards the variations in buildings height, is better observed in a comparison of Norilsk and Novy Urengoy samples, which has

was designed exactly in order to mini-

respectively the lowest and highest tur-

Figure 256. Turbulence caused by the high buildings, Murmansk. Source: Author

203

Figure 257. Turbulence caused by the high buildings, Norilsk. Source: Author

Figure 258. Turbulence in the courtyards of the nursery schools, Murmansk. Source: Author

bulence effect. The DEM of these patterns prove the relation between these factors. In Norilsk, which was built almost simultaneously, all the buildings are almost of the same height, on the contrary, in Novy Urengoy the heights

ticular the accumulation of snow may occur in the area, the assumption is made. The assumption is that the snow is moved by the wind force (see chapter â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Climate issuesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;), eventually, in the areas with the low wind speed or wind

are varied. On the one hand this diversify the visual perception and was intended to open the view on the water of the Yantarnoe Lake, but on the other hand, complicates the wind flow, which is forced to face unexpected obstacles.

shadow from the buildings, the snow is not blown away with the wind and accumulates on the surface. According to this assumption, the maps of snow blankets can be produces by converting the dark blue color of the velocity magnitude maps into white for better visualization. The results state that snow covers the surface mainly inside the micro district areas, which is due

The snow and its accumulation is another crucial issue for the northern cities. In order to analyze where in par-

204

Figure 259. Turbulence and buildings heights variations, Novy Urengoy. Source: Author

to the wind calm conditions (Figure

smaller is the angle of buildings long

238). Whether, it has less effect on the streets, where speed of the wind flow is usually higher. Although, on the sample of Novy Urengoy the difference in snow accumulation between streets and districts is not observed, the snow appears irregularly on the area, which is due to the turbulence effect across the site, which was discussed before.

side deviation from the wind direction, the smaller area of wind shadow it generates and consequently, less snow is accumulated in this wind shadow and otherwise (Figure 239).

The feature that also has an effect on the snow accumulation is the orientation of the building toward the wind flow direction. On the sample of Norilsk this effect can be observed. The

The openness of the block has an impact on the issue of snow. Free-standing buildings and open blocks have less snow within their layout than the closed blocks and multi-section buildings with the long curved built perimeter. This trend is observed in the Nizhnevartovsk sample (Figure 240).

Figure 260. Snow accumulation in the areas of wind calm inside the districts; a. Murmansk, b. Surgut. Source: Author

205

Figure 261. Snow accumulation and buildings orientation, Norilsk. Source: Author

Figure 262. Snow accumulation and openness of the block, Nizhnevartovsk. Source: Author

Overall results stays that the built environment of the closed districts organized with 5 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 9-storey multi-sectional buildings are effective in providing the wind comfort zones in the public open spaces inside the districts. The

contradiction is that this type of pattern causes the occurrence of long shadows and permanent shadows, where the thawing of the snow is delayed considerably (sometimes till the middle of summer). For this purpose,

Figure 263. Compact low-rise pattern, wind calm and snow accumulation, Udachny. Source: Author

206

the alternative pattern of the Udachny case study is analyzed in this study. This example can prove that the lowrise free-standing buildings, forming the compact tissue and oriented in a

proper way (10-30째 degrees toward wind flow and south) can generate both wind calm conditions, minimizing the snow accumulation and shadowing at the same time (Figure 241).

207

PROPOSALS AND GUIDELINES

210

ROPOSALS AND

UIDELINES

nvironment is a complex issue and it appears almost impossible to predict or design perfect urban conditions in terms of microclimate and visual comfort. The difficulty is that many parameters are mutually dependent and at the same time mutually exclusive, for example, wind shadow of the building may have a good result for pedestrian comfort in minimizing strong cold winter winds but at the same time cause the lack of solar radiation. The solutions and guidelines should be therefore estimated and given very carefully with the attention to

as maximum parameters as possible.

Shape of the building and orientation Shape of the building and its orientation is of particular importance in terms of providing sufficient insolation to the apartments, which is curtail in the conditions of high latitudes, especially during winter. As is obvious from the shadow analysis, during winter months (from December to February) sun appears only for some hours in Surgut and Nizhnevartovsk and does not rise higher than for 3

Scheme 10. Azimuths of the sun day for the latitude of Surgut (61째N) and preferable orientation of the building. Source: Author

211

degrees above horizon in Murmansk, Norilsk and Novy Urengoy. The azimuths at the moments of sunrise and sunset constitute acute angle oriented towards the south (Scheme 10). On the contrary, to the hot southern climates, where one of the main aims

is to minimize the excess solar radiation in apartments, for the cold northern regions like Far North and Siberia in Russia, the loss of every minute of direct insolation is a crime. It has a specific psychological value and is appreciated beyond its energy contribution [12]. Thus, the most preferable orien-

Scheme 11. Loss of the sunlight for the latitude of Surgut (61째N) with the 45째 building orientation. Source: Author

Scheme 12. Loss of the sunlight for the latitude of Surgut (61째N) with the 90째 building orientation. Source: Author

212

tation is clear south – north with the maximum 15 degrees of rotation with respect to the south – north normal. The orientation of the building different to this may cause the loss of sun light during the period when it is facing the blank wall without windows. In these specific conditions, the conventionally preferable orientation for middle latitudes (east – west) would be the worst option, where maximum sunlight

meets the blank wall (Scheme 11, 12). The same stays at the background of the choice of preferable building shape. Buildings organizing courtyards of closed or semi-closed blocks have living rooms along more than one side of the building and therefore cannot be sufficiently insolated; at every moment the orientation of some walls would be not south (Scheme 13).

Scheme 13. Loss of the sunlight in the buildings with courtyards. Source: Author

When the sun angle is acute and the access of direct sunlight even with the best orientation may be provided only to the rooms on the southern side of the building. Thus, the question arises about the allocation of different do-

spend the major amount of time. For Russia these would be living rooms and bedrooms. In the residential building practice in Soviet Union and Russia it was always considered that kitchens are of less importance in the rou-

mestic functions on the floor plan. There is the need to provide direct sunlight to the rooms where people

tine day life (together with staircases). For that reason, kitchens constitute a smallest share in the apartment area

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and were allocated on the side of the building with the less insolation time. In the Soviet reality of mass and cheap construction, the number of prem-

ises was limited to the minimum (living room, kitchen, bathroom), due to this limitation, half of the premises including living rooms are located on the less insolated (and in winter –

Figure 264. Typical section of residential buildings of the second half of the 20th century. Source: kryaker.dwg.ru

non insolated) side of the building. In today’s conditions of market economy, the increasing demand for improved living conditions and higher competition among developers lead to the provision of additional premises, like second bathroom or toilet, dressing rooms, storerooms and laundries, which could and should take there place on the northern side, since the direct sunlight is not required for this type of premises. The special attention should be given to kitchens and their role in the daily life and indoor microclimate. The practice has shown that Russians tend to spend

most of the time at home in the kitchen where the guests are taken and all the family gathers. Furthermore, kitchen is the “hottest” place within an apartment, producing heat from cooking facilities, it warms the whole apartment on several degrees, which is crucial for the cold climate. Traditional location of the kitchen on the northern side of the building, not only deprive the sunlight the most usable room but also spend much of the heat for warming the northern wall, which is exposed from outside to the severe cold radiation. The solution might be in unconventional location of the kitchen in the central

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part of the section separated from the insolated southern rooms with transparent partition. All the rooms where daily life occurs are to be located on

the southern side living the colder part of the building with no insolation to the premises dedicated to the household and domestic facilities, technical

Scheme 14. Preferable functional zoning of residential section. Possible width of the section due to the sun height. Source: Author

rooms, stairs, elevators and the like. Higher indoor temperatures provided by the means of architecture can be a significant improvement in comfort of people. Wider section of the residential building is more efficient in terms of heat maintenance. Smaller surface area compared to the increased indoor volume lower heat transmission through the walls into the outdoor cold environment. The conventional maximum depth of the room (6 meters) prescribed by the SanPiN [78] about insolation of residential buildings is determined partly on the height of the sun above horizon and thus the distance on which it penetrates into the room with respect to the opening size and position. This parameter was measured for the middle latitudes and the height of the sun of 52째 was taken as

the reference for the room depth estimation. On the north the highest position of the sun in winter differs according to the latitude but for all the case studies is not more than 9째. The lower the sun is the deeper is the penetration of the direct sun light. Thus, for the northern cities, the depth of the room could be bigger than 6 meters and therefore, the section of the residential building could be wider, which at the same time will have a consequence in the heat saving (Scheme 14). For the same reason lone-standing buildings are the less efficient in terms of energy consumption. The proportion of the living volume to the surface area which emit long wave radiation to the sky cooling the indoor air temperature and demanding more heat-

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ing for square meter. Row or blocked buildings (1-2-storey houses attached to each other with one common wall) are more efficient in this case but economically this solution is still more costly than multi-apartment houses. Multi-apartment houses as the sufficient type of dwelling and oriented to the normal of south direction poses a significant contradiction between the required amount of insolation indoor and outdoor. Every building cast shadows and in the conditions of low winter northern sun the shadows are many

times length of the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s height. Thus, the tall buildings must be avoided in such conditions. If the long shadows of the building can be lowered by the lower height of the building and their consequences of the lack of solar insolation on the open spaces can be mitigated by the clever zoning of the neighborhood area, the issue of permanent shadows existence can be resolved by the proper shape of the building. The most obvious solution for minimizing the size of the permanent shadow is to decrease the size of the building,

Scheme 15. Permanent shadows of different buildingsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; configurations of 3-storey height. Source: Author

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facing the contradiction of low energy efficiency of the small and lonestanding building (Scheme 15). Another way to overcome or mitigate the problem of permanent shadows and at the same time preserve the dwelling density of the building and its energy performance is the composition of sections rotated on the angle equal to the sun azimuth at the first moment of effective insolation. In the case of Siberian cities the angle taken as the

reference is that one of the higher sun position of the last day of winter at the most southern latitude of the permafrost area and which is 35° clockwise or counterclockwise respective to the normal south – north orientation. Since this angle is the first moment when the sun is high enough (5°) to provide the insolation, the building’s wall can be rotated with no loss of direct sunlight in the apartments (Scheme 15). Not only is the buildings’ orientation

Scheme 16. Dependence of the building rotation angle toward the wind and the size of the snow blanket. Source: Author

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towards the position of the sun important for the planning in the Far North. Rotation angle of the building towards prevailing winds determine the size of the wind shadow and thus the size of the snow blankets (Scheme 16, 18). The rotation angle about 30° towards the wind seems to be the most effective in terms of the snow protection. [60] When the solar orientation of the building does not match the pref-

erable orientation towards the wind, the additional solution must be found to overcome this contradiction. If the wind roses in January of all the case study cities are combined, the trend of the southern prevailing winter winds is clear. For the whole area of Siberia the main prevailing winds are from the south as well the sun (Scheme 17). As was estimated before minimum permanent shadow size is achieved with the building oriented 30-35° towards the

Scheme 17. Combined wind roses of case study cities in January. Source: Author

south normal and the minimum snow blankets are achieved with the rotation of 30° towards the southern wind. Another parameter of building shape, which influence the microclimate conditions of indoor as well as outdoor spaces, is the height (i.e. the number of floors). In terms of providing solar radiation on the open spaces, the low-rise buildings would be preferable; on the contrary, lower buildings are less effective when it comes to the wind protection and snow shadow.

Thus, the first conclusion would be that the higher the building is the better microclimate conditions are near the ground at the pedestrian level. Although, it is true only to some extent. In urban environment due to the high complex roughness of the terrain, the character of the wind flow at the pedestrian level is hard to predict by the simple estimations. However, in the “urban dome”, wind flow becomes more homogeneous with the increase of the height above the ground lev-

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Scheme 18. Dependence of the width and height of the building and the length of the wind calm zone. Source: Author

el. Various studies (Chandler (1976), Munn (1970)) have experimentally established the exponential increase of the wind speed with the height (Scheme 19). [12] In the conditions of the complex urban terrain where all the buildings are of different heights, the complexity and the number of obstacles wind is facing is diminishing

with the height, and the wind speed is increasing flowing above the roofs with higher speeds and lower turbulence. Buildings of different heights face different winds (Scheme 20). Higher wind speeds meeting an obstacle (wall of the building) splits on smaller flows enveloping the solid surface and initiating

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Scheme 19. Mean velocity profiles over terrain with three different roughness characteristics. Source: Dalgliesh W.A., Boyd D.W., Wind on Buildings

Scheme 20. Wind flow over buildings of different heights. Source: Author

the downstream flow and turbulence at the pedestrian level on the windward side of the building. Turbulence near ground level cause pedestrian discomfort especially in combination with low

temperatures, which are felt lower with increasing wind speed. When low-rise buildings do not provide wind shadow and are not energy efficient, the preferable option for the cold climate is the

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medium building height (3-5 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; storey). In the cities where the conditions of permafrost do not allow to build the ground floor, which would emit radiation from the warm building to the frozen ground melting it and causing distractions in foundations. Until the new technical solution is found, the buildings are being constructed with the elevation above the ground. Study of Wu H. and Kriksic F. emphasizes the influence of the ground floor design of the building on the pedestrian comfort. Figure shows on the right a building, which has a large, stepped

podium around the tower (Scheme 21). This is a positive design feature in a cold climate, as it reduces the winds that are deflected down to grade level by the tower and therefore improves pedestrian comfort at the street level. On the left, it shows the base of a tall building, with a straight facade and an open base to promote air ventilation at the ground level in pedestrian areas on the leeward side of the building. This feature promotes airflow through the building to reach areas that would otherwise be sheltered by a solid building base. This strategy works well in gen-

Scheme 21. Wind strategies and building ground floor design. Source: Wu H., Kriksic F., Designing for pedestrian comfort in response to local climate

eral, due to the low wind speeds and high temperatures in a hot climate. [70] The contradiction in this this case is obvious. The first solution is preferable for cold climates to ensure pedestrian wind comfort but in some regions of Siberia not applicable due to the presence of permafrost, where

the second solution is implemented, making wind conditions even more discomfort for pedestrians (Scheme 22). The unpleasant winter winds blowing through the ground floor pillars must be blocked with walls or partitions, which should be supplied with small openings to provide the ventilation.

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Scheme 22. Blocking under-building winds with walls. Source: Author

Big amount of snow cause not only discomfort for the movement of vehicles and people on the prefabricated panels and blocks in the period of mass construction did not include sloped roofs, thus, the problem of snow pockets on the top of the buildings. The character of the wind flow over the flat roof provides the calm zone and the snow is not blown away from the roof surface but remains there. For this reason, the world practice in

northern climates is the implementation of sloped roofs so the snow is removed constantly under the influence of gravity. More than that the snow is not collected on the windward side of the slope due to the wind removing it upper and on the leeward side of the roof. This could be a simple solution for snow maintenance, although, in this case, the safety of pedestrians is the issue. It must be ensured by providing the distances of safety along

Scheme 23. Roof types and snow maintenance. Source: Author

the walls bordered with fences to exclude pedestrian access (Scheme 23).

Urban districts layout The shape and orientation of the build-

ings are of major importance in forming the microclimate of indoor and outdoor spaces. Although, their distribution on the site in relation to each other in terms of morphology and functions has not less impact on the

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climate comfort in the urban environment. When the climate is so severe as in the north and east of Russia, the most important objectives for planners, architects and authorities are: • Minimize the need to stay outside and walking distances; • Provide opportunities for comfortable leisure outside in winter; • Ensure maximum wind protection at pedestrian level: • Ensure minimum snow on the main vehicle and pedestrian flows; • Provide maximum solar insolation of open spaces. Not all the days are the same weather and of the same severity during the year and during winter season in the Far North. The days of strong winds and frizzing temperatures when even the short walk to the bus stop may cause frostbites and extreme discomfort alternate with the calm days of relatively mild temperatures (-10°C - -5°C), when the winter games and sports are the favorite engagement of the citizens. Thus, both needs must be satisfied in the plan of a district. Compactness of the district is crucial to set up the shortest distances from residential buildings to the main facilities, to kindergartens and schools in the first place, to the shops, post offices, public transport and so on. The structure of micro district, so widely implemented

in Soviet planning practice, seems to be very logical and appropriate planning unit in terms of public services accessibility (Scheme 24). Main facilities are located within the district and may be reached by the all residents of the micro district by foot in maximum 5 - 8 minutes. The whole idea of the micro district has at its core the pedestrian safety from traffic, short services accessibility and available public open spaces for different social groups. For the cold climate regions, this structural unit of urban development should be maintained and taken as a core of planning with some changes, which were not overseen by Soviet planners, namely, wind and snow protection, insolation of open spaces and better public transport supply. Usually, in the cold countries (Canada, Norway) the prevailing wind in winter are from the north. [12] Thus, the protection of the open space from the wind with the building does not come to the contradiction of the solar radiation at the same space (Scheme 25). The shadows on the open spaces can be decreased by lowering the height of the buildings bordering it from the south. This measure will cause the occurrence of turbulence, when the wind flow overcoming the lower buildings faces at the upward level the higher buildings on the northern

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Scheme 24. Concept of micro district with improved public transport supply. Source: Author

Scheme 25. Northern and southern wind protection and its consequences in insolation of open space. Source: Author

side of the open space. To certain extend (depending on the distance between buildings) this negative effect can be diminished by implementation of a certain roof shape. Sloped roof with the slope on the windward side redirect wind flow with the bigger angle to the ground level so it goes over the roof of the opposite building and not faces its faรงade (Scheme 26).

In the conditions of compact development, which is preferable in the cold climates, the provision of open spaces insolation is hard to reach ubiquitously. The contradiction here is the need to sacrifice sun conditions outdoors in favor of higher density (wind protection, better accessibility, energy efficiency). In this case the priority should be given to the open areas of schools, kin-

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Scheme 26. Wind protection and insolation of open space with southern wind. Source: Author

dergartens and children playgrounds. According to the particular social and economic need in a given city or settlement the better accessibility and minimized need to stay outside in the severe cold can be reached by designing mix-use complexes, where different functions are combined in one building (Scheme 27). First floors of the residential buildings, where insolation is not enough due to the low rise of the windows, should be occupied by services, where direct sunlight is not mandatory, i.e. shops, banks, beauty salons, etc., under condition that they do not exceed noise level and do not disturb residents of above apartments. The complex buildings combined of several sections with different degrees of orientation towards the south can be divide horizontally by functions, where sections with insolation insufficient for residential apartments are given to the

other functions, i.e. offices. Thus, the compactness and accessibility to the place of work is achieved by wise utilization of uninsulated volumes. The same idea can be used to combine in one build structure residential function and public services for child care and education. When the temperature outside is about -20Â°C and the wind speed is about 5 m/s, the temperature is felt like -30Â°C (Table 1). With this weather the usual morning procedure of dressing oneself and children in order to take them to the kindergarten even within 5 minutesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; walk away takes about 30 minutes for each in order to take on about 30 pieces of clothing. In some cases when the location of these services in one building with the apartments is not feasible due to other regulations (i.e. fire safety) or specific site conditions, the design and construction of covered pedestrian passages

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should be overseen. The temperature inside the covered and/or glazed passages is 10 - 15°C higher than outside even without heating provision but due to the simple physical barrier. Artificial lighting must be provided in the galleries since the polar night last for several months and during the year the light day is short. This lighting in addition will serve as the visual landmark for pedestrians and improve the visual and physiological comfort during the dark half

of the day. The Figure below shows a schematic example of possible functions organization in northern climate. The proposal is to design covered passages on the busy and short walkways, especially where the movement of children is highly feasible. Otherwise, the whole system of pedestrian paths should be organized in a specific way in order to minimize the influence of strong southern winter wind. Namely, east – west connections are allowed

Scheme 27. Options of compact development and improved accessibility. Source: Author

to be designed straight through the micro district, they are protected from the wind and snow by the build-

pollutants, moving the emissions and harmful urban gazes away from the ground level. Consequently, the rea-

ings. The pedestrian connections from north to south must be interrupted in order to avoid unobstructed wind flow causing pedestrian discomfort.

sonable way to organize the street pattern would be the differentiation between vehicular south – north streets, where regional strong winds blow away pollutants, and pedestrian friendly east – west streets, which are blocked from winds and snow. The certain angle of the street or curved streets can also mitigate the wind speed, although it should be considered by planners that

The same concept lies under the idea of streets layout (Scheme 28). High wind speeds have not only negative effects on pedestrian comfort but at the same time generates outer flow of vehicular

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Scheme 28. System of pedestrian paths within district. Source: Author

when the wind enters the curved street the zone of a high pressure occurs along the leeward side of the street. Street section of the east â&#x20AC;&#x201C; west streets are partially shaded due to their orientation. This feature should be taken in consideration in the street design (Scheme 29). It is reasonable to provide better pedestrian facilities on the insolated side of the street, i.e. wider sidewalks supported by shops, services and other public and commercial facilities, reserving shaded side to the movement and parking of vehicles.

Architects and planners in Siberia and other cold Russia regions designing the streets must avoid big differences in the height of the opposed buildings if the windward building is much lower than leeward. As was mentioned before, this difference cause the occurrence of turbulence at the pedestrian level due to the down ward flow of divided wind.

Zoning and transport-oriented development In the severe climate conditions, when walking by foot outside is not a pleas-

Scheme 29. Streets layout and design. Source: Author

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ant journey, the transport-oriented development comes at a fore, including public transportation system (Scheme 30). In order to make it profitable, the built environment should be dense enough and facilities are better to be concentrated. Stops of public transport must be provided on at least one street bordering the micro district but not more than 8 minutes away walking. Easy and comfort access must be provided to the stops and parking as well as to the facilities (i.e. high education, cultural and sport facilities, shopping malls, administration and so on) by the

means of public transport. Electricity driven transport such as trolley buses are more sustainable in terms of ecological impact and less dependent on the climate conditions (i.e. snow drifts). The majority of existing cities in the Far North of Russia and most likely the future cities are industry-oriented. Therefore, it is crucial to foresee the location and accessibility of industrial zone, which is the main place of employment for the population. There is no need to mention the necessity of high accessibility. Industries in Sibe-

Scheme 30. Scheme of transport-oriented development. Source: Author

rian region are mainly dirty production; enterprises are obliged to take measures for mitigation the harmful emissions into the air, soil and water and to take maximum measures for environment protection. Even so, the complete elimination of pollutants is not feasible in near future. Nevertheless, population must be protected

from this negative effect and one of the most effective measures is the simple proper zoning according to the prevailing wing direction. Location of the industrial zone to the north of the city will let the wind move the pollutants away from the city (Scheme 31).

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Scheme 31. Location of industrial zone in relation to the city and wind direction. Source: Author

Colors Colors have a significant impact not only on the human visual perception and psychological comfort but also on the microclimate of the city as well. Typical Soviet buildings were grey in their majority due to the color of concrete. The experience has shown that in the conditions of the lack of sun and vegetation, the grey colors of buildings on the grey background of asphalt and sky have a depressing effect on human psychology and visual comfort. The proposal is to use widely colors and light in architecture and street design. This will increase the positive preciseness of urban environment, local identity and sense of place. The street art and

wall paintings (i.e. good quality graffiti) should be also in favor to differentiate districts and cities with their own preferences and traditions. Street lighting here is of more importance than in the regions of middle latitudes and European part of Russia and the regulations of their supply must be revised by professionals with the special concern of the climate specificities. In addition, during long polar nights, artistic architectural lighting will entertain the visual sense, serve as the landmark and provide a feeling of safety for pedestrians. Another important role of colors in urban environment is the albedo of surfaces and consequently the temperature of the boundary layer. Part of the

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solar hits the roofs and part of the walls of higher buildings and thus does not have direct effect on the local ground, and the near-ground air, temperatures. The magnitude of the effect of the solar radiation striking the roofs and walls depends, on one hand, on the percentage of the urban area, which is covered by buildings, and, on the other hand, by the colors (albedo) of the roofs and walls. The amount of solar radiation, which is either absorbed in the roofs and walls or reflected off toward the sky, depends upon the color, and thus varies greatly. The reflected solar radiation can range from 80 percent in the case of white-painted surfaces, to only 20 percent in the case of black-tarred roofs and walls. [12] When in the hot climates the urban heat island (UNI) effect forces researches to think of whitecolored cities in order to mitigate the absorption of solar radiation by walls and roofs and its consequent emission during the night causing discomfort for citizens experiencing heat bites and overheating; in the cold climate con-

ditions such as in the north and east of Russia the UNI is considered to be a positive phenomenon. Especially, knowing the fact that the snow (which covers for more than half a year the surface of the roofs and ground) has the highest albedo among all the substances known on the planet, about 0.9 (90 percent of the total solar radiation which heat the surface of snow is reflected back toward the sky). The idea of increasing temperature of the air at pedestrian level only by the means of colors seems to be worth implementation. It does not mean of course that all the surfaces should be painted in black, during the polar night this would worsen the visual comfort. The use of bright warm colors from the spectrum of green to red and yellow with higher albedo than white or great will influence the increase of temperature and ensure the better perception of the place (Scheme 32). This solution is for the both new development and the retrofitting of the existing building stock.

Scheme 32. Coloration of buildings. Source: Author

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Vegetation Vegetation has a crucial role in microclimate formation. Its effect on CO2 mitigation, shadowing, wind and snow protection, increasing humidity and in general creating a healthy environment for people has been already proved by various studies. Ubiquitously the trend is to increase green areas and preserve the existing one in order to mitigate the UNI effect. For the Far North of Russia the situation is different in two ways. First, the significant part of the region is represented by tundra with almost complete absence of vegetation (see chapter Climate Issues). Second, in the zone of taiga, where coniferous trees predominate, some effects of vegetation still are in contradiction with the local climate (i.e. humidity is already above average and the temperatures are low, both factors together strengthen the feel of discomfort). Therefore, the design of green areas should find a balance between positive and negative effects of vegetation. For the areas of tundra the proposal is to design winter gardens as covered public green areas.

Terrain Specificities of the terrain together with storng winds and low temperatures have a considerable effect on the city climate, according to where it is lo-

cated in the relation with the terrain. Variety of climatic conditions in different regions of the Far North is due to the great length from north to south and from west to east, difficult terrain and active circulation processes in the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s atmosphere. Rapid cooling of the air layers adjacent to the surface create strong downdrafts heavy air masses along the slopes of the hilly terrain. These streams, called katabatic winds (see chapter Climate Issues) are even stronger over the slopes covered with snow that contribute to a stronger cooling. The cold night air stagnates in the valleys and hollows (Scheme 33). [59] Here it is necessary to note that in particularly windy areas with strong katabatic winds, the most intensive cooling in residential premises and public buildings occurs at high wind speeds. Temperature of the outside air has less effect. In the relatively warm days, with a higher wind velocity it is colder in the apartments on the leeward side than in the apartments located in the windward side of the building in colder days (Scheme 34). Main buildings heating demand, as it turns out, does not take place under the lower temperatures but at relatively low temperatures and most strong winds. If there is no wind, heat transfer occurs in the massive walls during days, the effect of wind flows reduces heat transfer of the same wall in 5 - 6 times. Therefore, nei-

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ther the tops of hills no the hollows are the best place for building a city. [59] Preferable option of the city location depends on the local wind and climate conditions. In the areas with prevailing northern winds, it would be the southern slope, thus the hill has its wind shadow, in which the city should be located, at the same time the southern slope gets main solar radiation. On the contrary, in the regions where southern winds prevail, the windward slope is not the best

option. Similarly with the building orientation proposals, the slopes with a certain angle of rotation toward sun and wind (up to 35°) is preferable.

-45°

+15°

winter

-50°

-60°

summer

+20°

+25°

Scheme 33. Temperature distribution along the slopes. Source: Author

summer +15°

winter

-30°

+10°

-25°

Scheme 34. Katabatic wind on the slopes and temperature in the city. Source: Author

CONCLUSION

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ONCLUSION

his study has discovered the lack of attentions from planners and authorities to the specific urban planning issues in the cold climate of the Russian Far North and as the result, the problems in forming the comfort micro climate conditions for the people who decided to live and stay there and who produce all together the largest share of the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s GDP.

the climate. Nowadays, people who live in the Far North have to deal with the heritage of this mass urbanization, overcoming the severe winds blowing inside the districts and extremely low temperatures in the same urban environment as in the middle latitudes of Russia, where the big blocks of buildings and wide open spaces with a big variety of vegetation can be enjoyed by residents all year round.

Starting from the history of the urbanization in Siberia, it was understood, what are the main reasons that people through the all times are migrating to the region, which is itself very unfriendly in terms of climate. The natural riches of the Far North remained undiscovered for centuries because they were guarded from human beings by the harsh climate, until the quest for the economic wealth and competition among countries overcame the unbearable living conditions. As the consequence, the areas were urbanized under the control of the state in the Soviet period. Only, the process of urbanization was so simultaneous, that there was neither time no need to pay attention to the specificities of

We have seen the features of the Soviet urbanization and how does the typical urban district look like, the structure of the micro district, its functional zoning and the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;stage maintenance systemâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Than the features of the northern climate, which differ considerably from the climate of the rest of the country and from those in other parts of the world. These are features, which pose crucial contradictions for planners, where by improving one parameter, another is worsen. Namely, what is different in the climate of the Far North, is the same direction of sun and wind appearance. Thus, the buildings aimed to provide the wind shadow cause the sun shadow on the same area and the show accumulation, thaw-

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ing of which is impeded by the presence of sun shadow. If in other cold regions, the wind speed can be mitigated by the use of vegetation, rows of trees and forests, in the Russian Far North, this cannot be the solution because of the presence of permafrost. The investigation of existing legislation and building codes for urban planning highlighted the absence of climate-related regulations in terms of building morphology, streets layout and land use, except the SaNPiN 2605-82, which regulates the hours of solar insolation, whether, for the high latitudes these norms are considerably lower. Thus, the strong need for development of specific regulations, which are aimed to give guidelines and numerical norms for northern urban planning is obvious. These guidelines must be developed to help planners and architects, who are commissioned for the design of urban environment in the cold climate, as well as authorities in order to evaluate the projects before their approval, if they satisfy the human comfort. Eight cities were chosen among 67 cities and settlements located in the Far North according to their population. The patterns represented the typical Soviet micro district structure were determined for the analysis and comparison. Eventually the results of the mor-

phological analysis and microclimate simulations show the similarity of the samples and their common problems. The wind and turbulence were investigated with the help of CFD method in the Karalit software. For the cold climate one of the main goals of urban design is the wind speed mitigation. In the chapter â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Climate issuesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; the relation between wind speed and the perceived temperature was highlighted, namely, the increase in wind speed of 1 m/s caused the decrease in the temperature felt by two degrees compared to the actual temperature on the thermometer. Thus, the wind analysis is crucial for pedestrian comfort assessment. The same effect is caused by the turbulence, so we tried to search for the reasons of its occurrence. The results of the simulation have shown that the orientation of the streets and buildings fronts in relation to the prevailing wind direction is crucial in the flow speed mitigation. The streets are canyons in the boundary layer climate compared to the chaotic and interrupted spaces within the districts. The chess order of the buildings has a good effect on the wind penetration to the open spaces within the blocks, whereas, the gaps in the solid built frontage may cause the leaks of wind and generate the turbulence

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inside the district, like in the bottle, where is the access but no exit for the flow. The analysis has investigated the importance of the buildings height on the turbulence. It is important to avoid a big variety in the heights and the design of the single high-rise buildings among the low-rise surroundings. In general, the patterns of the Soviet urban fabric proved to be wind safe for the residents due to the long structures of multi-section residential buildings. Although the solar access analysis has proved the negative impact of them on the SVF and shadowing of the open spaces. This is obvious in the comparison of seven patterns to one, which is different, pattern of Udachny. Udachny has the lower values in terms of density indicators and the table in Appendix shows that consequently it has the highest values of the SVF and less areas of shadows. Proposals and guidelines are based on the results of the simulations and on the general climate considerations, which should be taken into account to improve the physiological, visual and physiological comfort of the citizens. They are aimed to strengthen the emphasis on the orientation of buildings, street layout and design, services location, compact development, mixed-use complexes, trans-

port-oriented development, colors, vegetation and terrain considerations. The topic of climate-related urban planning and design is wide. The time and sources limitations restricted the research of this thesis. The issue is of particular importance and interest, thus, it should be further developed and extended in order to investigate deeper different climate conditions and patterns. The future work on this topic is going to be conducted by the author and hopefully by other students and researches in order to collaborate with public authorities and capture their attention to the well-being of people on more than a half area of Russia.

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238

EFERENCES

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APPENDIX

Morphological properties. Comparative table of case study cities CASE STUDY CITIES

Murmansk

Nizhnevartovsk

Norilsk

Novy Urengoy

Surgut

Udachny

Yakutsk

Vorkuta

morphological properties & indicators LAND USES PIE Legend: in black: built areas in gray: streets and other open spaces in white: green areas dimensions of the site [mxm]

1000 x 1000

area of the site [m2]

1 000 000,0

1 000 000,00

covered areas [m2]

171 223,0

159 811,00

180 862,00

130 463,00

163 379,00

71 607,00

135 061,00

172 335,00

green areas [m2]

408 898,0

386 458,00

84 015,00

318 758,00

299 508,00

557 166,00

400 217,00

203 529,00

areas of streets and other open spaces [m2]

419 879,0

453 731,00

735 123,00

550 779,00

537 113,00

371 227,00

464 722,00

624 136,00

unbuilt spaces (sum of green and paved areas) [m2]

828 777,0

840 189,00

819 138,00

869 537,00

836 621,00

928 393,00

864 939,00

827 665,00

% of covered (built) areas [%]

17,1

15,98

18,09

13,05

16,34

7,16

13,51

17,23

% of green areas [%]

40,9

38,65

8,40

31,88

29,95

55,72

40,02

20,35

% of streets and other open spaces [%]

42,0

45,37

73,51

55,08

53,71

37,12

46,47

62,41

total built volume [m3]

2 233 274,8

3 178 977,74

2 143 535,40

2 351 721,86

562 493,24

1 963 909,90

mean height of the buildings [m]

13,0

13,60

17,58

16,43

14,39

7,86

14,54

13,55

maximum height measured on the site [m]

28,0

46,00

27,00

46,00

11,00

32,00

30,00

built perimeter [m]

697 898,4

679 204,49

993 430,54

669 854,81

734 913,08

175 779,14

613 721,84

729 488,46

total floor area [m2]

40 950,8

28 269,97

55 584,58

36 215,42

52 605,75

16 481,04

27 236,34

40 525,23

areas of the vertical surfaces [m2]

697 898,4

679 204,49

993 430,54

669 854,81

734 913,08

175 779,14

613 721,84

729 488,46

exposed surfaces [m2]

527 505,3

401 080,98

992 508,27

652 786,39

753 246,30

124 501,81

401 790,53

527 436,95

surface to volume ratio (S/V) [1/m]

697 898,4

679 204,49

993 430,54

669 854,81

734 913,08

175 779,14

613 721,84

729 488,46

density indicators built volume / total area of the site [m3/m2]

2,23

2,17

3,18

2,14

2,35

0,56

1,96

2,33

covered area / total area of the site [m2/m2]

0,17

0,16

0,18

0,13

0,16

0,07

0,14

0,17

total floor area / total area of the site [m2/m2]

0,70

0,68

0,99

0,67

0,73

0,18

0,61

0,73

total floor area / built area (FAR) [m2/m2]

4,08

4,25

5,49

5,13

4,50

2,45

4,54

4,23

2 173 454,36

2 334 363,06

Solar access. Comparative table of case study cities case study cities

Murmansk

Nizhnevartovsk

Norilsk

Novy Urengoy

Surgut

Udachny

Vorkuta

Yakutsk

built areas map

SVF on the whole site

SVF on the ground

solar admittance indicators sky view factors indicators average SVF on the whole site [0-1] average SVF on the ground [0-1] average SVF on the green areas [0-1] average SVF on the streets and other paved open spaces [0-1] average SVF on the roofs [0-1] average SVF on the open spaces of the area of interest [0-1] average SVF on the roofs of the area of interest [0-1]

0,82 0,77 0,79 0,75 0,99 0,77 0,99

0,84 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,98 0,81 0,98

0,80 0,75 0,86 0,73 0,99 0,75 0,99

0,83 0,80 0,86 0,76 0,97 0,80 0,97

0,81 0,77 0,81 0,75 0,97 0,77 0,97

0,95 0,94 0,97 0,91 1,00 0,94 1,00

0,84 0,81 0,91 0,73 0,98 0,81 0,98

0,85 0,81 0,85 0,80 0,99 0,81 0,99

shadows polar night

21 February shadows

21 May shadows

21 July

polar night

SVF - morphology dependencies. Comparative table of case study cities

built volume / total area of the site [m3/m2]

total floor area [m2]

surface to volume ratio (S/V) [1/m]

total built volume [m3]

total floor area [m2]

% of covered (built) areas [%]

average SVF on the ground [0-1]

average SVF on the whole site [0-1]

covered area / total area of the site [m2/m2]

minimum value

maximum value

Murmansk

covered area / average SVF on average SVF on total area of the the whole site [0the ground [0-1] site [m2/m2] 1] 0,2 0,8 0,8

% of covered (built) areas [%]

total floor area [m2]

17,1

40950,8

2233274,8

697898,4

40950,8

built volume / total area of the site [m3/m2] 2,2

total built volume surface to volume [m3] ratio (S/V) [1/m]

total floor area [m2]

Nizhnevartovsk

0,2

0,8

16,0

28270,0

2173454,4

679204,5

28270,0

2,2

Norilsk

0,2

0,8

18,1

55584,6

3178977,7

993430,5

55584,6

3,2

Novy Urengoy

0,1

0,8

13,1

36215,4

2143535,4

669854,8

36215,4

2,1

Surgut

0,2

0,8

16,3

52605,8

2351721,9

734913,1

52605,8

2,4

Udachny

0,1

1,0

0,9

7,2

16481,0

562493,2

175779,1

16481,0

0,6

Vorkuta

0,1

0,8

13,5

27236,3

1963909,9

613721,8

27236,3

2,0

Yakutsk

0,2

0,9

0,8

17,2

40525,2

2334363,1

729488,5

40525,2

2,3

Density indicators and openness of the block in relation to snow accumulation and permanent shadowing Covered areas [m2]

200000,0 180000,0 160000,0 140000,0 120000,0 100000,0 80000,0 60000,0 40000,0 20000,0 0,0

Total built volume [m3]

3500000,0

Norilsk

Yakutsk

Murmansk

Surgut

Nizhnevartovsk

Vorkuta

Novy Urengoy

Udachny

Norilsk

Yakutsk

Murmansk

Surgut

Nizhnevartovsk

Vorkuta

Novy Urengoy

Udachny

Norilsk

Yakutsk

Murmansk

Surgut

Nizhnevartovsk

Vorkuta

Novy Urengoy

Udachny

Norilsk

Yakutsk

Murmansk

Surgut

Nizhnevartovsk

Vorkuta

Novy Urengoy

Udachny

Norilsk

Yakutsk

Murmansk

Surgut

Nizhnevartovsk

Vorkuta

Novy Urengoy

Udachny

Norilsk

Yakutsk

Murmansk

Surgut

Nizhnevartovsk

Vorkuta

Novy Urengoy

Udachny

Norilsk

Yakutsk

Murmansk

Surgut

Nizhnevartovsk

Vorkuta

Novy Urengoy

Udachny

closed

open

semi-open

open

Norilsk

Yakutsk

Murmansk

Surgut

Nizhnevartovsk

Vorkuta

Novy Urengoy

Udachny

closed

open

semi-open

open

Norilsk

Yakutsk

Murmansk

Surgut

Nizhnevartovsk

Vorkuta

Novy Urengoy

Udachny

3000000,0 2500000,0 2000000,0 1500000,0

Density indicators

1000000,0 500000,0 0,0

Total built volume / total area of the site [m3/m2]

3,5 3,0 2,5 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5 0,0

Area of permanent shadow on the ground [m2]

180000,0 160000,0 140000,0 120000,0 100000,0 80000,0 60000,0 40000,0 20000,0 0,0

Areas of snow accumulation [m2]

400000,0

Openness of the block

350000,0 300000,0 250000,0 200000,0 150000,0 100000,0

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rto va ne zh Ni

Vo r

k vs

ut rg

an m ur M

k ts ku Ya

ril

50000,0 0,0