DIVINE FACE OF BUDDHA

to bring to light the transition of Buddhism, over the last twenty five centuries, from the human Buddha to the divine Buddha.

2. Derivations and Developments

C. D. Sebastian DIVINE FACE OF BUDDHA: PASSAGE FROM THE HUMAN TO THE HOLY

1. Introduction Buddhism has often been held as an atheistic religion, for Buddha never gave emphasis on a supreme being, as he had himself advised his disciples: «Be a light unto yourself» (from «ParinibbÅna Sutta»). He dissuaded men and women from following any authority, whether oral or written, or even that of a supreme being. However, in due course of time, Buddhism conceived a transcendental concept of Buddha. The doctrines of TathatÅ, TathÅgata, TathÅgata-garbha, TrikÅya, Two-Truths, and YÅna-traya were firmly rooted in a profound metaphysics that transformed the original atheistic religion into a powerful theological/theistic religion, accompanied by all necessary elements of faith, devotion, prayer, worship, surrender and the consequent salvation by grace3. Faith (±raddhÅ) was of paramount importance in Buddhism. The believers in Buddha were faithful to the Buddha-vacana: «I am the all conqueror, I am omniscient, I am untouched by all worldly objects, I am perfect in this world, I am a teacher incomparable, I am the only enlightened, tranquilized, and have extinguished everything» (The «Majjhimanikaya» 26, «Ariyaparyesana Sutta»); «I am the self-born, Father of the World, Lord of all beings and Remover of ills» (The «SaddharmapuœØarikÅ» XV. 21). In this paper we try

Traditionally Buddhism is divided into TheravÅda (or despairingly called Hīnayāna) and Mahāyāna1. The origin of the term Mahāyāna may be traceable to an earlier school known as Mahāsānghikas. In the Council of Vai±Åli, a hundred years after the mahā-parinirvāœa of Buddha, the Sangha was divided into two opposing camps, the sthāviras (Pali – Thera) or the order of elders and the Mahāsānghaikas or the order of the majority. The elders (sthāviras) denounced the Mahāsānghikas as pāpa-bhik„us (sinful monks) and adharma-vādins (propagators of untruth). In turn, the MahāsÅnghikas called themselves as Mahāyāna (the Greater Vehicle) and named others as Hīnayāna (the Lesser Vehicle).

The word «Mahāyāna» is to be found in the «Mahayana-śraddhotpāda-śāstra» («Awakening of Faith») of Aśvagho„a. Aśvagho„a calls himself as a Mahayanist and he is known as the systematic expounder of the Mahāyāna School2. Mahāyāna comprises of the two main schools of Buddhism, namely, the Mādhyamika and the Yogācāra-Vijñānavāda. From Mahāyāna, later developed Tantrayāna. This branch of Buddhism was first sub-divided into Pāramitā-yāna and Mantra-yāna, and then into Vajra-yāna, Kāla-cakra-yāna, and Sahaja-yāna3. As days went by, Buddha’s life and teachings became the guiding principles for the Sangha, the Buddhist community. The three jewels of Buddhism prove this very fact that Buddha got a pre-eminence as we see every follower of Buddha had to take the three solemn refuges («Buddham ±raœam gaccÅmi, Dhammam ±raœam gaccÅmi, Sangham ±raœam gaccÅmi»).

3. Passage from the Human to the Holy: The Divine Face of Buddha H≠nayÅna was supposed to be based upon the teaching of a historical figure – Gautama Buddha, while in MahÅyÅna the importance of his historical image was of secondary import. According to MahÅyÅna the real Buddha is the TathatÅ, the DharmakÅya, which is not subject to birth and death. The historical Buddha was only a Râpa-kÅya (Sambhoga-kÅya and NirmÅœa-kÅya) of the real Buddha. Further, the teachings of Buddha were said to retain two-fold truth (doctrine of two truths). Thus, we find in due course of time Gautama Buddha who was revered in early Buddhism as a great human being going through a process of deification, and with innumerable Buddhas and Bodhisattvas4 a highly complex mythology and metaphysics were brought in to play.

3 Sebastian C. D. Buddhism: A Godless Religion? // Journal of Scared Scriptures. 2007. No 1 (1).

P. 7–32.

1 For a detailed account see: Sebastian C. D. Buddhist Philosophy: Its Three Distinct Phases and Basic Thematic Unity // The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies (2005). No X. Р. 1–16.

2 For further details see: Sebastian C. D. Buddhist Sacred Scriptures // Jnanatirtha: International Journal of Sacred Scriptures (2001). No 1. P. 80–83.

3 See for more details: Dasgupta S. B. An Introduction to Tantric Buddhism. Calcutta: Calcutta University Press, 1974. P. 5–77.

4 For details see: Sebastian C. D. The Bodhisattva Ideal in MahÅyÅna Buddhism // Jnanatirtha: International Journal of Sacred Scriptures (2004). No IV (2). P. 134–146.

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3.1. The Concepts of TathÅgata, TathatÅ and TathÅgata-garbha 1

The word TathÅgata stands for Buddha in Buddhist literature. It is an epithet for Buddha. The word may be construed as tathÅ-gata (meaning «gone thus, in that way») or tathÅ-Ågata (meaning, «come thus, in that way»). Thus it means «one who has thus gone in realization from samsÅra to nirvÅœa», and «one who thus has come from nirvÅœa to samsÅra» to work for the liberation of all sentient beings2. The learned scholar Th. Stcherbatsky is of the opinion that the term TathÅgata is used for those perfect beings whose footprints are untraceable3. TathÅgata as the Perfect Man («uttama puriso parama puriso», the «Samyutta-nikÅya» 4) is the ultimate essence of the universe4. His position is analogous to that of God in Rational Theology (ens realissimum)5. A. K. Chatterjee writes, «The TathÅgata occupies the same place in Buddhism as Ö±vara does in Advaita Vedanta. He is God of religion, an object of worship and veneration. He has also infinite compassion for the suffering mankind»6. TathÅgata is not merely man, but a cosmic principle as well. As the TathÅgata is really «devoid of nature» (svabhÅva-±ânya), he cannot be said to exist or become non-existent after death. Again the universe has only contingent and phenomenal existence, it cannot be said to be eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite. So the wise Buddhists maintain «the great silence»7.

In order to understand the term TathÅgata, we have to know what is meant by TathatÅ. TathatÅ is the word used for the Absolute in MahÅyÅna philosophy. It is Reality as it is. Candrakirti says, «The that-ness of Reality consists in its invariability, in its remaining for ever as it is»8. TathatÅ is the Truth, but it is impersonal. «PrajñÅ or ÷ânyatÅ is bhâtakoÊi or dharmatÅ, the intrinsic nature of things; it is TathatÅ – the That-ness»9. Though any ontological quality is not ascribed to it, «Thus-ness» (or «that-ness») refers to «how» something is, rather than «what» it is. It speaks of an adjectival quality of things rather than a nominative thing-ness as such. All it means is that things are «as they are». The word TathatÅ is not a term that has the qualities or attributes of being «this» or «that». It is a word by which words are undone, a word that points at our conceptual and verbal construction in language, and it indicates that it

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will not do1. In order to reveal itself, TathatÅ, which is impersonal, requires a medium.

«TathÅgata is that medium», says Stcherbatsky2.

TathÅgata-garbha is an important MahÅyÅna principle/doctrine which explains that all living beings possess the essence (garbha) of Buddha («sarva-sattvÅstathÅtagata-garbhÅæ»), though it may be in an obscured form, enabling all beings to attain Buddha-hood. TathÅgata-garbha theory is a teaching that gives great optimism for all living beings in the pursuit of Bodhi (Enlightenment) or Buddhatva (Buddhahood). Owing to the presence of TathÅgata-garbha in all, one perceives the equality of oneself with others, and works for the wellbeing of all living beings, as one’s entire life motif3.

When Buddha is called TathÅgata, his individual personality is ignored and he is treated as a «type» for he is the embodiment of TathatÅ. TathÅgata who has gone beyond all the plurality and categories of thought (sarva-prapañca-at≠ta) is neither permanent nor impermanent. He is untraceable. Permanence and impermanence belong to duality, not to the non-dual. TathatÅ is the same in all manifestations, and hence all beings are potential TathÅgatas, that is TathÅgata-garbha.

TathatÅ is the same in all manifestation, and this is why all are potential Buddhas or TathÅgata-garbha. ÷ânyatÅ (here ±ânyatÅ means PrajñÅ , the transcendental insight) and KaruœÅ are the essential characteristics of TathÅgata. TathÅgata is indeterminable, because in his ultimate nature, he is not conditionally born. The indeterminability of the ultimate nature really means «the inapplicability of the ways of concepts»4. TathatÅ or Reality is also called NirvÅœa or dharmatÅ or even dharma-dhÅtu (the word dhÅtu in this context means the inmost nature, the ultimate essence). TathatÅ or dharma-dhÅtu is both transcendent and immanent, it is transcendent as ultimate Reality, but it is present in every one as his inmost ground and essence. PrajñÅ-pÅramitÅ is equated with dharma-dhÅtu which is advaya, the non-dual and undivided.

3.2. The Tri-kÅya Doctrine: The Metaphysical Foundation The Tri-kÅya Doctrine of Buddhism is another step towards giving a divine face to Buddha. The Buddha-hood is to be comprehended as manifesting itself spontaneously and unceasingly in the three immaculate forms, namely, the SvabhÅva-kÅya (or

For a detailed study on the concept of TathÅgata see: Dutt N. Early Monastic Buddhism. Calcutta: Calcutta Oriental Book Agency, 1960. P. 295–304.

2 For details see: Sebastian C. D. The Buddhist Sacred Literature in Sanskrit // Jnanatirtha: International Journal of Sacred Scriptures (2003). No III (1). P. 105. Fn. 16.

3 For more detailed exposition on this, see: Stcherbatsky Th. The Conception of Buddhist Nirvana.

Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1970. P. 55–56.

4 In order to understand the nature of TathÅgata see: Harvey P. The Nature of TathÅgata // Buddhist Studies: Ancient Modern / Ed. by P. Denwood, A. Piatigorsky. London: Curzon Press, 1983. P. 35–52.

5 Murti T. R. V. The Central Philosophy of Buddhism. New Delhi: Harper Collins, 1998. P. 40.

6 Chatterjee A. K. The Yogācāra Idealism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1987. P. 169.

7 «ParamÅrtho hi ÅryÅœÅm tâ„œim bhÅvaæ» said Candrakirti.

8 «TathÅbhÅvo’ vikÅritvam sadaiva sthÅyitÅ. SarvadÅnutpÅda eva hy agnyÅdinÅm paranirapek„atvÅd akŸtrimatvÅt svabhÅva ity uccate». As quoted by Murti T. R. V. Op. cit. P. 276. Fn. 1.

9 Ibid. P. 276.

1 Nagao G. M. From Mādhyamika to Yogācāra: An Analysis of MMK, XXV. 18 and MV, 1. 1–2 // Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies. 1979. No 2 (1). P. 29.

2 Stcherbatsky Th. Op. cit. P. 55.

3 Sebastian C. D. Metaphysics and Mysticism in Mahayana Buddhism. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 2005. P. 99–162.

4 Nagarjuna puts it in this way: «Prapañcayanti ye Buddham prapañcÅt≠tam-avyayam, Te prapañcahatÅæ sarve na pa±yanti TathÅgatam» – «Mādhyamika KÅrikÅ» XXII. 15. («Those who describe Buddha who is transcendent to thought and word and is not subject to birth and death in terms of conceptual categories are all victims of prapañca (the verbalising mind) and are thus unable to see TathÅgata in his real nature»).

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Dharma-kÅya), the Sambhoga-kÅya and the NirmÅœa-kÅya, due to the eighteen aveœika-dharmas (special or extraordinary properties) of Buddha.

3. 2. 1. The Dharma-kÅya The nature of the Dharma-kÅya has been stated as the Dharma-dhÅtu. DharmadhÅtu is dharmatÅ or Essence of Dharmas (Elements of Existence). This is the noumenal ground of phenomena. This is synonymous with Dharma-kÅya, ÷ânyatÅ, TathatÅ and NirmalÅ TathatÅ. This is the first manifestation of the Bodhi, which has neither beginning, nor middle nor end and it is indivisible. It is devoid of two extreme notions (advayam) and free from three obscurations (tridhÅ vimuktam)1. It is immaculate and free non-conceptual, for Bodhi, not being an outer object, cannot be understood by discursive thought. The only possible way to comprehend it is through samÅdhi by the yogin2.

The Dharma-kÅya, which is also called the SvabhÅva-kÅya is unique and undifferentiated with all the Buddhas3. It should be stated here that if a Buddha’s real body is the Dharma-kÅya, the Cosmic Absolute, then it logically follows that all Buddhas are spiritually and essentially united in the Dharma-kÅya. There cannot be many Buddhas in reality4, for «all the Buddhas are one»5. Buddha-hood, which is anÅsrava-dhÅtu, unites them all, as they all have one Wisdom and Aim. Here it will be interesting to note that the conception of Buddha-hood was developed to its ultimate conclusion, «in universal pan-Buddhism (as distinct from Pantheism). The Buddhas were subjected to six-fold process of evolution: they were multiplied, immortalized, deified, spiritualized, universalized and unified»6. Hence, Buddha could rightly say, «I was that Buddha of the past, named Vipa±vi» («Ahameva sa tasminsamaye Vipa±vi samyaksambuddho’ bhâvamityavi±i„Êa-dharma-kÅyatvÅt»)7.

three pure bhâmis, and ordinary beings cannot perceive it1. There is a spontaneous outflow of сompassion (mahÅkaruœa) from the Sambhoga-kÅya for the welfare all the living beings. The Sambhoga-kÅya, endowed with the radiant Dharma, exerts itself for the liberation of all the living beings, and its acts are like those of the king of the wishfulfilling gems (cintÅmaœi-ratna-rÅja)2. The Sambhoga-kÅya is the source of Buddha’s activity. Even the activity of the NirmÅœa-kÅya springs from the сompassion of the Sambhoga-kÅya, which is the expression of the сompassion of the Dharma-kÅya.

3. 3. 3. The NirmÅœa-kÅya The NirmÅœa-kaya referred here is the supreme NirmÅœa-kÅya, which is the historical Buddha with thirty-two marks and eighty signs on his body and sixty different qualities of speech3. The reason for the existence, as well as the relevance, of the NirmÅœa-kÅya is that having seen the world through his Great Commiseration, and having known the need to help all living beings, Buddha, without departing from the Dharma-kÅya, helps the sentient beings through the NirmÅœa-kÅya4.

The NirmÅœa-kÅya, without moving from the Dharma-kÅya, takes birth in various forms. It performs twelve acts, namely, leaving the abode of Tu„ita; getting into mother’s womb; being born in this world; getting educated in the skills, arts and science of the day; enjoying life in the court and with wife; renouncing the world; practicing asceticism; sitting under the Bodhi tree; overcoming the Evil; attaining Enlightenment; teaching the Dharma to the wordlings; and departing into ParinirvÅœa. These twelve acts are mere manifestations of the NirmÅœa-kÅya. As long as samsÅra exists, the NirmÅœa-kÅya appears over and over again in the impure world5. SiddhÅrtha Gautama who appeared in this world some 25 centuries ago is NirmÅœa-kÅya.

4. The Guœas of Buddha

3.2. 2. The Sambhoga-kÅya The Sambhoga-kÅya is also called the «Body of Bliss» or the «Body of Enjoyment». The manifestation of the Sambhoga-kÅya is only to the Bodhisattvas in the

Buddha is primarily a fully enlightened being and the Bodhi is said to be beyond the categories of thought, as it could not be stated in definite terms. However, the characteristic attributes and qualities (guœas) of Buddha have been described and enumerated in many a definite formula. In the «AvadÅna-±atakÅ», (the most ancient avadÅna 6 and perhaps the most ancient text where we trace out the da±a-balÅni and vai±ÅradyÅni) we find that Buddha is said to possess ten рowers (da±a-balÅni) and

1 The three obscurations are the emotional, cognitive and meditational (kle±Åvaraœa, jñeyÅvaraœa, samapattyÅvaraœa).

2 «Uttaratantra» II. 38–48 (RatnagotravibhÅgo-MahÅyÅnottaratantra ÷Åstrа / Ed. by E. H. Johnston.

Patna: The Bihar Research Society, 1950.

3 It is said in the «Uttaratantra» II. 44 «tatra svabhÅvikaæ kÅyo buddhÅnÅm», and we see in Vasubandhu’s commentary on «MahÅyÅna-sâtrÅlamkÅra» IX. 62: «svÅbhÅvikaæ sarava-buddhÅnÅm samo nirvi±i„ÊatayÅ». Dharma-kÅya is also called the Saddharma-kÅya, Bodhi-kÅya, Buddha-kÅya, and PrajñÅ-kÅya.

4 The «MahÅyÅna-sâtrÅlamkÅra» IX. 85.

5 The Commentary on the «MahÅyÅna-sâtrÅlamakÅra» (IX. 77): «bahutvamapi ne±yate buddhÅnÅm».

6 Dayal H. Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1978. P. 27–28.

7 The Commentary on the «MahÅyÅna-sâtrÅlamkÅra» (XII. 18).

«NÅnÅlokadhÅtu„u dŸ±yamÅnatÅ nirmÅœakÅyen par„anmaœØale„vapi dŸ±yamÅnatÅ sambhogikena kÅyena» – Ibid. (XX (XXI). 61).

2 «Vicitra-saddharmam-ayukha-vigrahair-jagad-vimok„Årtha-samÅhŸtodyamaæ, KriyÅsu cintÅmaœi-rÅja-ratnavad-vicitra-bhÅvo na ca tat-svabhÅvavÅn» – The «Uttaratantra» (II. 40).

3 This is the Buddha whom we know as the Siddhartha Gautama, the Sakyamuni and the Buddha Maitreya, who will manifest in the future.

4 «MahÅkaruœayÅ kŸtsnam lokamÅlokya lokavit, DharmakÅyÅdaviralam nirmÅœai±citrarâpibhiæ» – The «Uttaratantra» (II. 53).

5 The «Uttaratantra» (II. 53–56).

6 Sebastian C. D. The Buddhist Sacred Literature in Sanskrit. P. 102–103.

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four grounds of self-confidence (vai±ÅradyÅni).1 In the «Uttaratantra» 2 we see that there are sixty-four guœas of Buddha (in the three kÅyas) explained. They are: the ten powers, the four forms of intrepidity or self-confidence, the eighteen great exclusive properties (Åveœika-dharmÅæ), and the thirty-two marks (characteristics) of the superman (mahÅpuru„a).

Buddha is said to possess ten powers (da±a-balÅni). The epithet da±a-balÅni generally denotes to a Perfect Buddha, as the older tradition maintained in literature. But the MahÅyÅna authors exalted and glorified the Bodhisattvas and accorded them a position and status of equal importance and dignity with the Buddhas. As the Buddhas possess ten powers, so also the Bodhisattvas in advanced bhâmis were supposed to have ten balas.

We find the ten balas of the Bodhisattvas explained in the «MahÅvyutpatti» and the «Dharmasamgraha». But the items in the ten balas of the Bodhisattvas are not the same in these texts, as both these texts give two different lists3.

There are four vai±Åradyas or the grounds of self-confidence explained in the «Uttaratantra» III. 8–10 and III. 32–35. The word vai±Åradya means «perfect selfconfidence» or «self-satisfaction». In PÅli it is called vessÅrajja4. It is also translated as the «four kinds of infallibility»5, the «four kinds of Intrepidity»6, and the «four kinds of fearlessness». Buddha has the four vai±Åradyas, on account of which he boldly preaches the Dharma and «utters a lion’s roar» (siÚha-nÅda). No one in the world can find fault with Buddha, and Buddha knows this fact that no one can justly reproach him. For this reason he is always serene, fearless and self-confident. The four vai±Åradyas are compared to a lion, as a lion that fears no one in the forest, so also Buddha fears no one in preaching the doctrine. The four vai±Åradyas of Buddha are self-reliant, firm and powerful like a lion7.

Buddha possesses eighteen special and exclusive qualities termed as his Åveœikadharmas8. The word Åveœika means «special, peculiar, extraordinary, exceptional».

These eighteen attributes distinguish Buddha from all other beings. Since no other beings can be compared with Buddha in perfection, his qualities are said to be exclusive to Buddha alone9.

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The «AvadÅna-±atakÅ» (I. 7. 5).

The «Uttaratantra» (III. 1–29).

3 For details see: Dayal H. Op. cit. P. 148–149.

4 The «Majjhima-nikÅya» (I. 7); and the «Anguttara-nikÅya» (II. 9).

5 Dutt N. Op. cit. P. 295.

6 Obermiller E. The Sublime Science of the Great Vehicle to Salvation Being a Manual of Buddhist Monism: The Work of Ärya Maitreya with Commentary by Asanga // Acta Orientalia. 1931. Vol. IX. P. 260.

7 «Nityam vanÅnte„u yathÅ mŸgendro nirbhiranuttrastagatirmŸgebhyaæ, Mun≠ndrasimho’ pi tathÅ gaœe„u svastho nirÅsthaæ sthiravikramasthaæ» – The «Uttaratantra» (III. 10). This same idea is seen in the «Uttaratantra» (III. 32–35).

8 In the «Abhidharmako±a» (VII. 28–39), we find a different set of items in the Åveœika-dharmas.

They include the da±a-balas, the four vai±Åradyas, the three smŸtyupasthÅnas (the three applications of mindfulness) and mahÅkaruœa.

9 The «Uttaratantra» (III. 11–16, 33).

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There are also thirty-two marks of super-man explained in the Buddhist texts.

They are known as mahÅpuru„a-lak„aœÅni1. They are called the beautiful marks or marks of excellence because they are special attributes of Buddha-hood.

5. Belief in the Land of Bliss after Death Although less known outside the Buddhist world in comparison to Zen and Tibetan Buddhism, «the Pure Land Buddhism» involves and absorbs the largest number of Buddhists in China, Vietnam, Korea, and Taiwan, and even in Japan, Tibet and Nepal. The distinctive characteristic of the Pure Land Buddhism is the belief in a transcendent celestial realm called «the Pure Land» or «the Land of Bliss» where spiritual seekers are born after death. According to the belief, this Pure Land lies to the west of our own existing world, a distant ideal world where Amitabha (AmitÅbha) Buddha, meaning – the Buddha of Infinite Light, and other Bodhisattvas teach those reborn there to continue their spiritual pursuit away from the toils and moils of this earthly life.

There are two texts known as the «Smaller» and «Larger» «SukhÅvat≠-vyâha Sâtras», which explain the «land of bliss» in Buddhist corpus. These two texts in all probability must have been composed in the northwest part of present India (present day Pakistan), a place where Buddhism and Buddhist scholars were so vibrant once upon a time. The date of composition must have been sometime in the third –fourth century AD, or prior to that. These sâtras formed the core of devotional practices in Buddhism, like the recitation of passages from them. They explain the conditions that lead to rebirth in the Pure Land or the Land of Bliss. They also explain the manner in which human beings are reborn there. The larger text tells the story of how Amitabha Buddha came to preside over the Land of Bliss. Thus the «SukhÅvat≠vyâha» brings before us one of the most popular Buddhist conceptions, namely, «the land of bliss» – the ideal world «beyond the grave». Each of the text makes clear the prerequisites that will lead us to the rebirth in the Pure Land2.

Pure Land Buddhism offers a number of parallel points with Christian teachings, like the existence of the transcendental spiritual being (in Buddhism Amitabha Buddha), the celestial Pure Land or Land of Bliss (heaven, paradise), the «grace»-like actions of Amitabha Buddha, and the emphasis on faith, grace, mercy or compassion, and human failings. Pure Land Buddhism emphasizes the spiritual foundation of pure faith. The longer sâtra takes us from ascetic Buddhism to devotional Buddhism. It speaks of the religious hope that is common in all the forms of Buddhism – whether the Mahayana or the non-Mahayana. Both the sâtras articulate the deep faith in salvation, and speak of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas as saviours. The TrikÅya 1 The thirty-two marks of Buddha are variously listed in the Buddhist texts. In the «AbhisamayÅlamkÅra» (VIII. 13–17), we see the thirty-two marks narrated as they are in the «Uttaratantra». See more details in: Hookham S. K. The Buddha Within. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1992.

P. 250–251. One could find similar items of marks of greatness in RÅma, as explained in Valmiki’s «Mâla-rÅmÅyaœam», first chapter named «BÅla-kÅœØam».

2 Sebastian C. D. Life after Death and the Land of Bliss in Pure Land Buddhism // Jnanatirtha: International Journal of Sacred scriptures. 2007. No VII (1). P. 42–52.

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doctrine, a vestige of the Mahayana in general, the YogÅcÅra in particular, places the religious devotionalism on a philosophical ground.

6. Findings and Conclusion There can be criticism on my attempt by the protest that I have only touched upon MahÅyÅna Buddhism, and have not paid enough attention to early Buddhism. I am aware of the fact that my focal point has been MahÅyÅna Buddhism. The bottom line is that Buddha’s special strategy of combining his theoretical skepticism about God with a practical subversion of the significance of the question of making the choice of good behaviour completely independent of God – real or imagined1 was rejected in a way, and an attributing of divinity to Buddha himself could be seen in Buddhism. It is because, from the very beginning Buddhism had to come to terms with the population’s belief in special beings and special powers, etc., which we call supernatural2. What I want to submit is that as time passed by, Buddhist philosophy and theology had been looking for metaphysical moorings that transformed the original atheistic religion into a powerful theological/theistic religion, accompanied by all necessary elements of faith, devotion, prayer, worship and life after death in a paradise (sukhÅvat≠-vyâha).

So far we have been engaging ourselves with the gradual development in the stature of Buddha towards a divinity – from the human Buddha to the divine Buddha. This is our submission that such a development is a natural part as it has been with most humanistic philosophies and aspirations. This happens due to the sense and idea of «the holy», firmly nestled on the human breast, which somehow necessitate this transition. Further, we can maintain that this transition is a positive turn as it can satisfy two contrary pairs of needs: it gives a solid intellectual edifice for the irreligious-cum-rational moral person (foundation for a rational moral project) and at the same time feed the religious-moral-person with a conservationist idea of the morals, possibly a god-assisted programme of morality.

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Sen A. The Argumentative Indian. London: Allen Lane, 2005. Р. 23.

Mabbett I. Early Indian Buddhism and the Supernatural // India and Indology: Professor Sukumari Bhattacharji Felicitation Volume / Ed. by D. Bhattacharya, M. Hassan and K. Ray. Kolkata: National Book Agency, 2004. P. 503.

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