Assad m arch

plín[θ]os

Aerial Sand Printing

Studio Robert Stuart-Smith Maria-Eleni Bali Raissa Carvalho Fonseca Assad Jaffer Khan Rithu Mathew Roy

Aerial Sand Printing

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plín[θ]os ( = πλίνθος )

SAND 3D PRINTING: AERIAL ROBOTIC CONSTRUCTION STUDIO Robert Stuart-Smith Assistants: Tyson Hosmer, Melhem Sfeir

Architectural Association School of Architecture Master of Architecture and Urbanism Design Research Laboratory AADRL 2016 PLINTHOS THESIS

A project by the team plinthos

Maria-Eleni Bali Raíssa Carvalho Fonseca Assad Jaffer Khan Rithu Mathew Roy

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Contents 7

Chapter 1: Project Proposal

1.1: Behavioural Complexity: Studio Agenda AADRL

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1.2: Behavioural Production: Investigations into Swarm Printing 1.3: Thesis Statement

Chapter 2: Initial Research: Aerial Robotic Construction

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Chapter 3: Material Research

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2.1: Aerial Robots’ potential for design and construction 2.2: 3d printing and additive layer manufacturing technologies 2.3: Autonomic flight systems in construction methodologies

3.1: Preliminary Material Explorations 3.2: Sand-Crystallized mixture 3.3: Sand-stabilizer compound

Chapter 4: Aerial Deposition

4.1: Aerial Maneuvers: flight tests 4.2: Printing Hardware 4.3: Aerial Printed Prototypes

Chapter 5: Flight Control

5.1: Off-board camera based responsive operations 5.2: on board flight vision based autonomous operations 5.3: Printing with the Erle-Copter Prototype

Chapter 6: Introduction to the UGVs

6.1: Operation sequences controlled by driver control board 6.2: Real-time testing 6.3: Envisioned Role

Chapter 7: Architectural Design Process

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7.1: Design Strategies-Swarm based simulations 7.2: Construction Sequence 7.3: Structural Integrity

Chapter 8: Research Application

8.1: Desertification and Desert-greening scenario 8.2: Architectural Design Prototype

References

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Behavioural Complexity Chapter 00.1

The DRL continues its exploration of prototypical design systems with its second phase of design research agenda, Behavioural Complexity v2, which investigates architecture as an instrument that engages material and social forms of interaction. Behavioural, parametric and generative methodologies of computational design are coupled with physical computing and analogue experiments to create dynamic and reflexive feedback processes. New forms of spatial organisation are explored that are neither type- nor site-dependent, but instead evolve as ecologies and environments seeking adaptive and hyper-specific features. This performance-driven approach seeks to develop novel design proposals concerned with the everyday. The iterative methodologies focus on investigations of spatial, structural and material organisation, engaging in contemporary discourses on computation and materialisation within architecture and urbanism.

AADRL Design Research Laboratory Architecture and Urbanism 2014-2016 Behavioural Complexity Theodore Spyropoulos Patrick Schumacher Robert Stuart-Smith Shajay Booshan STUDENT TEAM |Maria-Eleni Bali, Raissa Fonseca, Assad Khan, Rithu Mathew Roy

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Behavioural Production: Investigations into Swarm Printing Chapter 001.1

Behavioral production explores a robot swarm-constructed architecture, developed using a distributed team of “Situated” robots. The research speculated the use of flying multi-copters (UAV’s) and mobile ground-based robots to Additively Manufacture (3D print) buildings on site by layered deposition using bespoke 3D printing hardware attachments. The research aims to compress design and construction within a singular creative process that produces design affects intrinsic to the non-linear interactions of a large team of robots and their individual autonomous decision-making activities. Stigmergic and swarmbased processes seek to provide a locally adaptive and environmentally aware design and construction system that will be controlled through autonomous onboard computer hardware and remote real-time simulations developed within the studio.

This research is being implemented within design thesis projects that rethink on-site construction as adaptive, rapid and on demand. Architectural speculations address concerns such as material organization, life-cycle,space,form,structure, ornament and daylight while additionally responding to a range of problems and opportunities that arise from this technological shift in design and building operations. Responding to the DRL programme agenda “Behavioral Complexity, locally varied social, environmental or logistical concerns are addressed via an engagement with micro- and macro- design decisions that are to be integrated within a holistically managed production process. Design and production seek to engage with today;s complex, urban, rural, and natural environments with more intricacy and tailoring than what is possible through conventional architectural design. This involves physical demonstrations of robot engagement with people, the environment, other robots and their own construction activities in novel and profound ways that impact and are integral to architectural outcomes.

1THREAD Aerial robotics swarm construction AADRL | 2013-15 Students: Αlejandra rojas, karthikeyan arunachalam, Maria garcia , Melhem sfeir 2 Quadrant swarm printing temporal ice construction AADRL | 2013-15 Students: Doguscan Aladag Tahel Shaar Wei-Chen Ye Juan Montiel

Studio Brief 2015 Behavioural Production: Investigations into Swarm Printing Robert Stuart-Smith.

Assistants: Tyson Hosmer

3 SCL : Aerial robotics swarm printing AADRL | 2013-15 Students: Duo Chen Liu Xiao Sasila Krishnasreni Yiqiang Chen

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Aerial Swarm 3D Printing methodology

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Thesis

Research

Application

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Material Research

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Aerial Maneuvers: Flight Tests

Printing hardware

Aerial Printing

Aerial Deposition

Flight control

Aerial Printed Prototypes

Off board- camera based Responsive operations

On board flight vision based Autonomous operations

Swarm behaviours

Design Strategies

Construction Sequence

Structural Integrity

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Thesis

Research

Application

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Thesis arguments

Swarm printing

Real-time decision making Sustainable life-cycle

Robotic ecology

Design & Construction

Decentralized communication

Energy Efficiency

Material Availability Single creative Process

Environmental Sensitivity

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Thesis Chapter 001.4

Plinthos explores the use of autonomous distributed robots to fabricate temporal structures in a closed loop ecology where local material and energy harvesting ensure rapid, adaptable and environmentally sensitive design solutions are intrinsic to a algorithmic construction process. The research employs a swarm of autonomous multicopters (UAVs) in combination with autonomous rovers (UGVs) to 3D print structures utilising locally available resources as a deposition material and as a 3d printing sub-strate (support structure) to simplify construction while reducing waste and logistical complexities.

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The project employs this technology for the constant monitoring of desert regions where desert-greening initiatives can be autonomously identified and executed with frequency and urgency in the hope of reducing the increasingly serious adverse affects of climate change. Desert regions where water sources are identified are suggested as opportunistic locations for the autonomous construction of oasis irrigation, plantations and temporary accommodation shelters.

The locally available sand is utilised as a construction material, mixed only with a binder and water. Sand dunes are appropriated as a scaffolding for the 3d printing process. Architectural spaces are created to replace the volume of sand dunes through a iterative process of 3d printing on the surface of dunes, adding additional sand and 3d printing additional layers of structural surface on top of one another. The sand substrate is then excavated by UVGs to create architectural shelters. These temporal shelters are to eventially erode and re-integrate into their monolithic material environment with minimal environmental impact.

The research employs multi-agent stigmergic processes in both camera-vision autonomous UAV flight and in design simulations to enable previous building activity to inform subsequent building operations. In this way construction is able to emerge from the complex real-time interactions of an autonomous swarm of building robots that are capable of adapting a suitable design to varied, situated on-site environments. A comprehensive development of bespoke material mixtures, material deposition hardware suitable for UAV 3d printing and both on-board and off-board flight control programs have demonstrated the viability of the design proposition and clarify the necessary parallel development of these elements in relation to algorithmically controlled construction sequences.

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Project Description - arguments Chapter 001.3

The project explores a bottom up approach to merge design and construction into a single process by regulating the system as a whole, using local rules that explore the behaviour of different relations and scales within the system. A study was performed to determine ways to explore the material’s viability for 3d printing, setting up parameters such as ingredients proportion, structural performance, curing time and deposition rates and strategies, that are correlated through digital and physical simulation. In parallel, the research also focuses on the translation abilities of quad-copters and autonomous swarm robotics, working on acquiring the intelligence and the functionalities necessary to perform what is proposed.

The proposed architectural system works on a speculative prototypical manner based on environmental aspects as well as the material structural behaviour and its possibilities. The proposal is sited on a specific region of the world where the material is locally available and the climatic conditions are satisfiable to produce large-scale sand architecture. In contrast to the pre-designed traditional construction techniques, collaborative aerial robotic fabrication offers an opportunity to produce complex dynamic and adaptive systems that are emergent and time dependent.

In this way, our thesis explores the idea of using a semi-autonomous swarm system of multicopters and ground robots, forming a robotic ecology, to 3d print locally available material in remote areas, using the natural land formation as temporary scaffolding. Design and construction are merged in one single process, forming a closed loop adaptive system. The result is a sustainable life-cycle, that is sensitive to the environment uses locally sourced biodegradable materials,and solar power for energy efficiency.

Manually printed physical model (35 x 50 cm).

The image sequence (001-004) is indicative of the migratory logic of the desert environment, where the printed structure is uncovered after the sand dunes which are used as a scaffolding are blown away.

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Emergent robotic fabrication based on swarm intelligence Chapter 01.5.1

Swarm intelligence is the collective behaviour of decentralized individuals - natural or artificial - which are capable of self-organize into complex systems”1 In nature it is visible how such systems can achieve incredibly varied results.

Individuals with limited understanding of their surroundings are capable of arrange matter or themselves in a structurally stable and functional way. Amongst the most notorious examples of swarm intelligence are the termite mounds, beehives and coral reef formations. Computer scientists have searched for many years ways in which to describe such phenomenon in order to exploit it in the development of advanced robotics and artificial intelligence. The use of bottom up strategies based on local rules helps us understand complex systems.

In 1994, Craig Reynolds wrote the first flocking algorithm. By introducing simple rules in a system of autonomous agents, each individual is able to organize itself and create complex spatial arrangements through simple local interactions.

This has been one of many attempts at explaining natural occurring phenomena using mathematical calculations.

So realistic is the flocking of Reynolds’s simple algorithm that biologists have gone back to their hi-speed films and concluded that the flocking behaviour of real birds and fish must emerge from a similar set of simple rules. A flock was once thought to be a decisive sign of life, some noble formation only life could achieve. Via Reynolds’s algorithm it is now seen as an adaptive trick suitable for any distributed vivisystem, organic or made.

– Kevin Kelly”2 The research in swarm printing looks into prototypical forms of making, where matter and agency are introduced as the two main catalysers for the embodiment of territories. Physical and digital computing is used to recreate a possible scenario where architecture becomes an ecology between matter, time, space and fabrication. The research will look at the possibility of an architectural migratory system that is time and site dependent while still being infinitely adaptable. Coupling the ideas of swarm organization with robotic fabrication, our aim is to produce an architecture that emerges from the behaviours of matter, structure and time.

1. Beni, G., Wang, J., Swarm Intelligence in Cellular Robotic Systems, Proceed. NATO Advanced Workshop on Robots and Biological Systems, Tuscany, Italy, June 26-30 (1989).

2. Kelly, Kevin, Hive Mind, Out of Control, The New Biology of Machines, Social Systems and the Economic World, Reading, Mass.: Perseus Books, 1994, p. 13

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Collaborative design process An ecology of machines Chapter 01.5.2

Behavioral Production researches into the production advancements that were expressed by the agenda of Behavioral complexity, building on the behaviors that were exhibited by UAV’s, were based on rules of aggregation and mobility exhibited by complex natural systems such as swarms, shoals, clusters, flocking etc. Printing techniques that incorporated such natural systems can be re-animated by simple algorithmic rules and this possibility is further explored by building simple relationships that exhibit these kinds of systems.

These relationships are explored in tandem with UGV’s (Unmanned ground vehicles) and relationships similar to stigmergy in specific are of a particular interest because of the nature of the communication between the vehicles is largely based on trail identification and reaction. Therefore intelligent systems that are governed by local rules are given importance over a centralized system, which is also an acceptable solution.

The architectural thesis will revolve around using the printing techniques alongside the communication base established to provide solutions for urban or rural environments using locally prudent resources and production processes to look at customized solutions for typical architectural problems in these environments.

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Merging Design And Construction Chapter 01.5.3

PlĂ­nthos explores a bottom up approach to merge design and construction into a single process by regulating the system as a whole, using local rules that explore the behaviour of different relations and scales within the system and the environment,.

Architects traditionaly design the appearance of buildings according to their understandings of sites, contexts and their own related professional experiences. They sketch conceptual geometries, functions and spatial layouts, material arrangement and junction details accompanied by physical models. Contemporary software allows architects to communicate a method of achieving final geometries. To construction workers, they are more like reproductive machines, focusing on the imitation of the architects’ intentions, while construction companies execute the construction independently. Conception process is usually separated from construction process since architects design the buildings in a independent first step and the execution is a following independent step realized by a different part.

Comparatively, we are proposing the role of the architect as a mediator or negotiator, designing the behaviours of aerial construction workers, which make possible to build architecture cooperatively in a strategic manner. The construction process incorporates structural analysis, flight logistics and also material and site constrains. These are enabling a flexible dynamic design that can be achieved on-site. Conception and construction processes are addressed at the same time, while mediated at the beginning. Furthermore, the real-time changes of production process will produce various results over changes in the environment.

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Aerial - Non-Standard Production Process Chapter 01.5.4

The proposal is sited on a desert, where the material is locally available and the climatic conditions are satisfiable to produce large-scale sand structures. Due to the inaccessibility and remoteness of the site and the difficulty to work on loose sand using ground-based means, the aerial robots come as a good solution to the problem. The variable geometry of the site, as each dune has a unique form that is constantly changing, is another factor that is better addressed by aerial means, since the UAVs are capable of scanning the environment and adapting its behaviour to these changes in real time, responding to the shifting of the dunes, to what was already printed by other machines and to changes in environmental conditions like the wind.

The inaccuracy and unpredictability of the system, both during and post construction, are also taken into consideration. Natural factors like the wind can affect the precision of the production process, as well as unnatural factors like the assembly and performance of each robot, which cannot always be accounted to perform flawlessly. A third factor that we foresee as increasing the unpredictability created by the deployment of this system is the plurality of possible engagements between all the pre-programed factors and the user, as the later will not necessarily use and interact with the building as foreseen by the designer. Therefore the project will have a behaviour similar to the one of a living creature: intelligent, relatively unpredictable and highly adaptive.

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Design Strategies Chapter 01.5.5

The design strategy for the project has evolved from solely layering material to taking advantage of the desert’s sand dunes as natural scaffolding to quickly printing the main structural spine of the building, which helps when dealing with a harsh environment, and then remove the sand from underneath the structure and continue to work both on the outside as well as on the inside of the building. It’s also being considered as a possibility to create, add to or modify the mounds of sand as to design the basic form of this primary structure.

This methodology is beneficial, as it doesn’t rely as much in the precise positioning of one layer of material on top of the other, as well as it simplifies the construction of horizontal planes and also is a way of rapidly constructing an enclosed spaced than can be later further developed of modified. In that way the sequence of the construction would be to use the natural dunes for printing and then partially remove or add loose sand on top of the structure and continue to print as an engaging continuous process.

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From a design point of view, printing on top of dunes comes with the advantage of working in a 2 and a half D way. It’s almost a 2D simulation mapped onto a 3D shape by which makes it easier to see visual qualities in a 2D simulation rather then in a 3D one. Although evidently the architectural design must be a 3D proposal, taking in to consideration the material behaviour, organization and structure, the aerial flight constrains, and integrating a complex emergent swarm relationship between the constructor agents and the environment. The construction simulations are only as interesting as the architectural result so we couldn’t separate the two. What we are arguing for is taking advantage of these natural structures as a starting point and then pursuing a radically different architecture that is possible due to a radically different construction approach.

We are interested in exploring the time-based construction sequence. For example, if we are digging out material and moving it we need to be able to do that relatively easily. For instance, instead of having rovers going underneath the structure to move the loose sand out, they could drive over the top of what is already printed as it is much easier to move on the hard printed surfaces than on loose sand. Therefore the material already printed would become a highway for these excavation machines to use. The full sequence of construction events and design possibilities will be further examined and developed in the following chapters.

1Swarm-based simulation based on attracting angents on the peeks of a potential dune formation

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Project Lifecycle Chapter 0.1.5.6

A boundary 1 is defined as a line which marks the limits of an area, a dividing line.

Another definition can be a limit of something abstract, especially a subject or sphere of activity. [1] We usually think about boundaries as something that cannot be modified or manipulated, as a barrier that is somehow predefined in within a space or concept and its not adaptable. However, in this thesis we think about boundaries as something flexible, as a limit that can expand, contract or not exist.

We think about boundaries as a concept that is related to its context and, influenced by this context and its conditions, can be drastically changed and then can also go back to its starting point. For instance, nations have their boundaries within a political and geographical context. Each country has its land, its scope of influence and its people. However, the migratory and refugee crisis that is happening now in the world is an example of how these boundaries can be modified.

Countries are expanding their boundaries to accommodate thousands of refugees from conflict zones for an unknown period of time that can vary from months to decades. At the same time, in principle, when peace comes and the crisis is over these people will return to their nations and these boundaries can contract back to what they were before, or perhaps be again modified by a new condition.

On the same line of though, built matter can be seen as a boundary that is also flexible. The current notion of our built environment lifecycle is defined by a finite use of labour and material in its production, as well as a sole, pre-defined purpose that when reached cannot be modified, remaining the same until its manually removed. When treated as static notions, this constrains or boundaries retrain a building’s lifecycle as a static construct of limitations and predeterminations.

1. Oxford

Dictionaries, boundary

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Antagonizing this notion of static limitations, Plínthos proposes a continuous lifecycle, loosing the boundaries between built and unbuilt, environment and building, design and construction and between time and the building’s lifespan, producing complex dynamic and adaptive systems that are time dependent. As such our project argues for a migratory logic where the space crafted is the result of a confrontation between climatic conditions, structural forces and site topography. The robots would remain onsite for as long as the system is active, assuring its continuous self-evaluation and improvement, repairing and reorienting the project. The aimed result is an ephemeral structure that changes over time and, after its no longer in use, naturally degrades.

We are also taking into consideration the physical trace that the system will leave behind. After the building is degraded, the material taken from the site will return to it, while the remote materials that were added are biodegradable and will leave minimum environmental impact. Despite that, we do embrace the fact that the system will most likely leave a physical trace, as the various components of the structure will have different lifespans. For instance, a roof would probably be one of the parts with a shorter lifespan, while walls would probably take longer to degrade and compressed surfaces by the ground level would probably take an even longer time. As so, we argue that these low-impact ruins will become part of the environment and live their lifespans as a poetic trace of the system that once performed there.

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The intention of the project is to be able to create a deployable system. A system where the drone and the rover communicate towards being able to implement strategies that are able to use locally available materials and material understanding to inform a set of construction rules.

The behavior, so far is looked at in terms of minimized deposition movements that can be carried out by the drone that directly result into material behavior

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Dynamic engagement between the environ ment and the design: Site-to - Building Relation Chapter 01.5.7

The thesis is arguing for a dynamic engagement between the environment, the design and the construction process. According to this sense, the land and the building become part of a single cycle where they are almost indistinguishable. The architecture must be obviously structural, but we are also aiming for the exploration of lightning qualities and ventilation. This can be achieved through structural and environmental analysis, responding this way to the natural parameters of the site.

The basic geometry could be somewhat determined by the different types of the existing dunes, but we aim to push the design away from the purely hilly language, as we take advantage of the 3 dimensional aerial capabilities of the UAVs. Apart from additive techniques, digging and subtracting soil can add a potential interest to the result, as it could determine further printing positions. For instance if a negative of the mound is dig and the printed on top, we could get an inverse geometry. The design should not be positioned as just a form finding methodology based on the natural environment. It should be a combination of making use of the natural terrain as a formwork, terraforming the existing terrain as a moulded formwork and 3D printing without formwork.

As for the construction, locally available materials are going to be used and almost zero energy waste is the projected aim of the project, mainly through solar power. The architectural output will be a temporal structure with low environmental impact. The environment itself is migratory and therefore the building is as well. Simulations and physical models will be essential to prove this prospective.

From now on the design simulations need to be more sophisticated towards the architectural output, showing the structural logic and environmental optimizations.

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Thesis Development Process Chapter 001.6

The goals in terms of design include spatial sectional interest, elaborate spaces and sections that go beyond only roof drapes. The final architecture models include floor, columns, nested spaces and the topology of space both in plan and section to create porous topological spaces derived from section and stigmergy studies. The project has the prospective to articulate a logic for construction that doesn’t necessarily has to argue for independent buildings and pavilions, but could actually create a continuous micro-urban condition. There is a potential to propose a community that is connected through passageways, to create a whole network of these “protected streets” that are spatially characterized as different from their interior spaces and can create a complex and credible network, which could be an interesting design approach in an environmental and local perspective. Therefore, the main aims for the actual design are first to improve be structural performance as an intrigue to the design, then to achieve a passive natural day lighting and ventilation within a hostile environment and a third one could be a scale-ability approach both in terms of scale and spatial complexity [1].

The printing methodology encounters challenging factors, which need to be assessed. By intersecting layers of material we need less accuracy than simple layering which makes the printing easier. On the other hand the printing action itself becomes harder because it is crucial for the aerial copter to calculate the distance between the printer and the dune landscape. Trying to stay at an exact offset of a natural dune formation is more difficult than a simple horizontal deposition, but the reality is that we are printing in the desert, which in both cases demands some precision towards the offset height.

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Regarding the real-time intelligent process, it is the determinant factor of where the design research has reached the goals of the design research in terms of the architectural output. What has remained critical in this case is that the thesis is intelligent and that the design, which comes out of the process, supports the thesis. The result needs to verify that the thesis was not only important, but also crucial to a design potential. We have tried to Integrate dune migration into the way this construction process is taught of in order to realize a migratory logic of eventual growth into architectural volume.

This can possibly help us place the project as a land sprawling project that is trying to reach an urban scale, creating a migrating architectural space.

We did a physical demonstration model in 1:1 scale, using the Vicon cameras to 3D scan the topography and improve the accuracy of the location and positioning of the quadcopters. Our priority towards the physical model is to have the quadcopters fly around and on top of the sand dunes and 3D print in a choreographic disposition. As far as the rovers are concerned, since they are part of the procedure we demonstrated some of their autonomous functions in relation to the thesis and the aimed design.

Concerning the architectural proposal, it has a useful purpose so we are aiming for scenarios where this methodology can be beneficial. One option could be a nomadic scenario having to do with trades, maybe a commercial venture. Another could be a scenario of emergency situation, which requires the construction of an ephemeral space to accommodate the suffering population as a result of a crisis event - the current refugee crisis is a good example of that. We could therefore argue for temporal communities (villages-camps), which take advantage of the aerial 3D printing techniques that are autonomous, fast, immediate, potentially low cost, and can adapt to remote sites as well

[1] The design algorithm should be able to perform in different scales, beginning from a room to a building to a micro-urban environment. Also while an architectural element scales up different things should happen to make it work (structurally, environmentally).

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Initial Research: Aerial Robotic Construction Chapter 002

2.1: Aerial Robots’ potential for design and construction 2.2: 3d printing and additive layer manufacturing technologies 2.3: Autonomic flight systems in construction methodologies

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Parrot AR.DRONE II is used for lab tests

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Aerial Robots’ potential for design and construction Chapter 002.1

Multicopters are considered to have great potential for design and construction, as they offer free 3D flight mobility and range. These flying robots are already becoming important as tools, in numerous fields and are used in many different applications ,such as surveying and mapping , transportation of cargo and inspection. They are able to generate detailed and precise maps, orthomosaics and 3d models, operating in a flexible manner. In this research it is being argued that these flying copters could come as a solution for construction in remote areas with difficult access and terrains where ground-based machines wouldn’t be able to reach or would have limited performance.

Aerial Robots come in many sizes and shapes, which mainly affect their payload capacity and therefore their domain of application. Although constrained by battery life and lifting capacity, when used as distributed agents they have the ability to build architecture cooperatively, in a strategic manner (img5 chapter 002.2). A construction process incorporates structural analysis, flight logistics and also material and site constrains. The use of aerial copters as costractor agents, enables a flexible and dynamic production process that can be achieved on-site.

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1

2

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Initial Research: 3d printing and additive layer manufacturing technologies Chapter 002.2

Advancements in construction methodology have evolved since standardized construction techniques. which prints its own supports and SLS - powder bed printing. In construction, 3d printing (FDM, SLS-powder-bed additive manufacturing) , gives potential advantages, such as quicker output, lower labour costs, and less waste produced. However, the methods requires big infrastructures that are difficult to assemble and are not mobile, which limits their possibilities.

Robotic maneuverability, on the contrary, allows a greater degree of freedom for the designer to explore current advancements made by universities worldwide in additive manufacturing.

When combined with the advancements in automated systems of UAV’s and UGV’s these realms open an architectural system of exploration that is not restricted by the limitations of standardized construction techniques and methodologies.

In the current scenario typical methodologies in construction are examined using these construction techniques. The advancements done in terms of vehicular automation and the autonomy of construction mechanisms open a new realm of possibility to combine these two worlds with the 3D printing one.

Research into material study becomes very important in being able to integrate these systems as the specimen would have to integrate the flexibility necessary for three different operating constraints. A successful integration of this kind of a decentralised system with the built environment in an Urban scenario is the objective.

1 IAAC OTF project by Saša Jokić and Petr Novikov 2 3D Concrete Printing: an innovative construction process Skanska + Loughborough University (IMCRC) 3 Building Bytes 3D printed bricks by Brian Peters

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SLS [Selective Laser Sintering] Printing

CO2 Laser Scanner Process Chamber Recoater Powder Container Stage and removal Chamber

Model Material Support Material

SLS [Selective Laser Sintering] Printing Implementation in construction, D-shape

FDM [Fused Deposition Modelling] Printing

FDM Head Model Material Support Material Build Stage

FDM [Fused Deposition Modelling] Printing Implementation in construction, Lewis Grand Hotel, Manila

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4

4 Mini builders from IAAC Mini Builders

46

5 Flight Assembled Architecture, 2011-2012 FRAC Centre Orléans, Gramazio & Kohler and Raffaello D`Andrea in cooperation with ETH Zurich AERIAL SWARM 3D PRINTING: | ROBERT STUART SMITH STUDIO| AADRL 2014-2016 |THESIS

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Extensive work has been devoted recently to the development of 3D printing or additive layer manufacturing technologies, as well as to the field of flying robots.

Stone Spray is a robotic 3D printer that produces architecture out of soil and sand. The team’s research was focused on the field of additive manufacturing in architecture, finding means of proposing new eco-friendly, efficient and innovative systems to print architecture in 3D. The mechanized device collects dirt/ sand on site and then sprays it from a nozzle in combination with a binder component. When this mixture hits the surface it solidifies to create sculptural forms.

The Aerial Robotics Lab of Imperial College examine the feasibility of such a hybrid approach and present the design and characterization of an aerial 3D printer; a flying robot capable of depositing polyurethane expanding foam in mid-flight. Various printing materials were evaluated and described the design and integration of a lightweight printing module onto a quadcopter while discussing the limitations and opportunities for aerial construction with flying robots using the developed technologies. Potential applications include listed ad-hoc construction of first response structures in search and rescue scenarios, printing structures to bridge gaps in discontinuous terrain, and repairing damaged surfaces in areas that are inaccessible by ground-based robots.

6

6 Stone Spray Project by Anna Kulik, Inder Prakash Singh Shergill and Petr Novikov in the Institute for Advanced Architecture of Catalonia under the supervision of Marta Male-Alemany, January 2012 STUDENT TEAM |Maria-Eleni Bali, Raissa Fonseca, Assad Khan, Rithu Mathew Roy

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7

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In a world increasingly concerned with questions of energy production and raw material shortages, this project explores the potential of desert manufacturing, where energy and material occur in abundance.”

– Markus Kayser Solar Sinter 2011

In Solar-Sinter experiment sunlight and sand are used as raw energy and material to produce glass objects using a 3D printing process, that combines natural energy and material with high-tech production technology. Solar-sintering aims to raise questions about the future of manufacturing and triggers dreams of the full utilisation of the production potential of the world’s most efficient energy resource - the sun.

In terrrascapers , small robots traverse through a bed of on site material to build inhabitable structures. Solely for the purpose of reaching environments where technology is not easily accessible. Each member is scripted to unique goals while working with other bots. This project has the potential to be deployed in areas of hard accessibility such as a desert. The intention is to use on site material towards construction any admixtures are provided by the unmanned vehicles themselves.

7 This project was developed at the Royal College of Art during my MA studies in Design Products on Platform 13, by Marjus Kayser

8 Terrascapersby Clayton Muhleman, Alan Cation, Adithi Satish in the California Creative Machines under the supervision of Jason Kelly Johnson and Michael Shiloh, January 2014

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7

8

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Autonomic flight systems in construction methodologies Chapter 002.3

The printing technology is envisioned to work in nomic flight system and flight patterns, which will sults that would not have been possible by any ties like braiding construction material or payload start playing a major role towards the autonomy

tandem with the autoenable customized reother means, possibilibased deposition style of the project as well.

A scenario based construction methodology does well to inform the appropriate urban application of the proposed thesis, which the system is not restricted by a singular material. The flexibility of the system is such that it can be enabled in most environments based on previous tested studies and environments, namely the Quadrant from AADRL or the Rock printing project by IAAC. Robots that mimic these birds could have enormous benefits, helping humans in construction and in hazardous situations” – Dr Mirko Kovac Department of Aeronautics at Imperial College London The autonomy of the system is also designed to overcome the need to address a specific form of urban problem. The study is meant to be understood as a means to question standardized construction methodology and understand the limitations that they impose, and to try to address them through the means of a thesis.

7 The 3D-printing robotic quadcopter hovers over its target (Photo: Aerial Robotics Lab)The robot extrudes foam onto the target (Photo: Aerial Robotics Lab) Developed mainly by Graham Hunt and other members of a team led by Dr. Mirko Kovac, Imperial College London

8 ‘Muppette’ project, from Gensler architects in Los Angeles, MUPPette marries advanced consumer robotic technology with a 3D printer, enabling in-air extrusion of a thin line of PLA plastic filament in an outdoor environment.

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Thesis

Research

Application

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Material Research

Aerial Printing

Aerial Deposition

Flight control

Material Research Chapter 003

Initial Research Material Properties Behavioural matter Deposition styles

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Material Research Chapter 003

3.1: Preliminary material explorations 3.2: Sand-crystalized mixture 3.2.1:Sand-stabilizer compound properties 3.2.2:Behavioural matter 3.2.3: Material deposition styles 3.2.4:Structural Analysis of building Elements 3.3: Printing material: Sand Stabilizer Compound 3.3.1: Sand-stabilizer compound properties 3.3.2:Behavioural matter 3.3.3:Material deposition styles

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Preliminary material explorations: Material Behavior Chapter 003.1

The strategies started with a catalogue of materials that could exhibit a certain behavior. This resulted in narrowing down certain behaviors that could be advantageous to deploy on a drone. The narrowed down the behaviors: • • • •

Flow due to gravity Ability to activate easily after flow Ease of availability Re-usability.

The first material that was looked at in this terms was Kinetic sand. A material that is composed of 95% sand and 5% chemical additives that coagulated sand particles. This was very favorable and the research was successful on it until the payload capacity of the drone started becoming important. The density exhibited by Kinetic sand was nearly 2200Kg/m3. We needed a material that was able to show 1/10th of the density capacity, this altered our choice from using sand to saw-dust which showed 240Kg/m3 in terms of material density.

Thus we were able to make a saw-dust aggregate, that showed the same properties.

The act of being able to replicate the behavior of Kinetic Sand to Kinetic sawdust by using the same chemical additives (soap and starch) showed us that it was possible for a range of materials to exhibit the same behavior as well. This could be derived from any set of silicon/silicate based aggregate.

The other set of material test to experiment to implement vertical deposition strategies, displayed by materials that exhibited high molecule-molecule adhesive behavior, chemical additives used in the food industry informed us of methyl cellulose and xanthin gum that could be used as additives for vertical deposition.

There are specific crystal growing strategies that have to be looked at as potential to generate crystals after the material has been activated, this can be done out of any reaction with a crystal generating salt. These crystals have a potential to exhibit change in terms of color, and size and micro-scale behavior.

The intention to be able to build a crystal garden.

Multiple experiments were conducted adding other materials to the mixes, aiming to reach the then desired properties.

Finally, a sand-based material was selected as it responded well to the following criteria: Strength ,Preparation time, Drying time, Weight, Reusability, Recyclability, Availability in nature .

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Material Research Chapter 003.1

Material Properties Examined Strength Preparation Time Drying Time

56

Weight Reusability Recyclability Availability in nature

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58

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sand + corn flour + soap + water + heat Sand Mix

Sand

sand + corn flour + soap + water + glue + heat Sand Mix + Glue

Salt

paper + glue + water + heat

Paper

Paper Mache

sand + corn flour + soap + water + salt + heat Sand Mix + Salt

Water

sand + corn flour + soap + water + sugar + heat Glue

Sand Mix + Sugar sugar + albuman powder + water + heat

Soap

Meringue

expanding foam mix Heat

Expanding Foam saw dust + corn flour + soap + water + salt + heat

Corn flour

Saw Dust Mix + Salt

Sugar

Albulman powder (egg whites mix)

Expanding foam mix

Saw dust

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Crystallized sand mixture Chapter 003.2

In this phase of the material research we focused on the investigation of the selected material. Its composition is a mixture of the following: Sand – The main aggregate. Its advantages are that it’s locally sourced and its degradability.

Salt – Also locally sourced and responsible for the crystallization process that hardens the material. When liquid salt is heated a crystallization process of the salt particles is initialized. These crystals expand a merge to its neighbor particles, building a crystal garden inside the material section that hardens and makes it stronger.

Water – Locally sourced, add fluidity to the material.

Corn Starch – Lightweight material added to improve particle’s adhesion.

Liquid Soap – Improves particle’s cohesion and decreases surface tension.

Disadvantage of not being a sustainable material.

Crystallized sand proved to be a material that works well in compression, but not in tension. For that reason the construction technique utilized for printing, both manually and mechanically, was layering, which represented significant constrains to the design strategy.

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Crystallized sand mixture properties Chapter 03.2.1

Crystallized sand mixture properties

Sustainable - Low environmental impact Monolithic Strong to self-sustain Texture qualities Available in nature Phase changing

Salt Crystallization

HEAT

Liquid salt particles aggregated with the sand mixture

64

Salt crystallizes and expands coagulating and hardening sand particles

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Salt on re-crystallization with sand

Aerial Sand Printing

SAND

Local material Degradability

CHAPTER 03

35%

+ SALT

Local material Crystallization Strength

35%

+ CORN STARCH

Lightweight Particles adhesion

20%

+ WATER

Fluidity

5%

+ LIQUID SOAP

Particles cohesion Decreases surface tension

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5%

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Crystallized sand mixture Behavioural matter Chapter 03.2.2

Aimed properties When a large quantity of material is pushed through a small opening a unique behavior is generated by the extruded material, in that it utilizes the excess force to create micro behaviors in the extrusion. Since this process is repeated over a long period of time, it is termed as micro-cycles. The extrusion material ( a mixture of sand and brine) when subjected to an exothermic reaction is able to change its state to solid. Since the material is exhibiting these micro-cycles at the time and the fact that the material has some amount of shape retention ability they solidify while the material is undergoing a crystallization process due to heat.

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Behavioural matter Flow

Behaviour of Particles when phase changing

Nozzle Shape Memory

Nozzle Elevation

Nozzle Plan

Reflection of Flight Behaviour

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Crystallized sand mixture : Material Deposition styles Chapter 003.2.3

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Crystallized sand mixture: structural analy sis of building elements

Chapter 03.2.4

Structural Organization based on layering techinique, using the crystalized sand mixture.

Evaluation of mixture’s structural possibilities and its efficiency as a printing material.

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Structural analysis and digital tests for the crystallized sand mixture possibilities Chapter 3.3.4.1

a

Structural Analysis: Walls DANGER LEVEL

DOUBLE CURVATURE

CURVATURE Y

CURVATURE X

STRAIGHT WALL

TOTAL DISPLACEMENT

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CONSTRUCTION

Behavioural matter (empirical process) Self-structure walls

Columns Domes Double curvature forms

Structural Elements Analysis

b

Structural Analysis: Domes

DANGER LEVEL

DEFLECTION

DOME TYPE D

DOME TYPE C

DOME TYPE B

DOME TYPE A

TOTAL DISPLACEMENT

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Physical model: increasing radious column

H=15cm

R=7,6cm

R=7,6cm 27o 63o

Elevation

c

Top view

Structural Analysis: Columns DANGER LEVEL

DOUBLE CURVATURE

VAULT COLUMN

CONE COLUMN

STRAIGHT COLUMN

TOTAL DISPLACEMENT

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Physical model: Double curvature semi-closed form

d

Structural Analysis: Double curvature model

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Physical model 120 x 60 x 25 cm Material : crystallized sand mixture

Double-curved wall

Closed hemi-spherical spaces

d Semi-closed spaces

a b

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Structural Strategies

Swarm printing digital simulation indicating the structural matter

Potential Column

c

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Printing material: Sand Stabilizer Compound Chapter 003.3

As a way to respond to the issue of having a material that was very hard to prepare, we started to test new additives that could be combined with sand. Resifix is a biodegradable sand stabilizer compound that, when mixed with sand and activated by water, becomes a hard and strong material after dried. However the mix of these two aggregates with water didn’t generate a homogeneous mixture, which was a problem for the actual physical printing using extrusion mechanisms prototypes. After some research we added methylcellulose as an additive to the material, improving particle’s cohesion and decreasing surface tension within he mixture and at the same time remaining it sustainable and biodegradable.

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Sand stabilizer compound properties Chapter 03.3.1

Aimed characteristics

Sustainable - Low environmental impact Monolithic Strong to self-sustain Texture qualities Uses local materials Phase changing

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SAND

Local material Degradability

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50%

+ BINDER

Strength

35%

+ METHYLCELULOSE

Particles cohesion Decreases surface tension

5%

+ WATER

Fluidity

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10%

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Behavioural matter Chapter 003.3.2

Aimed properties

The research proposes the use of sand and water as locally sourced material to form a semi-liquid mixture with specific elastic properties .

Specifically we researched on a binder that was able to provide us with the ability to control the particle cohesion viscosity of the water at the same time and to be able to provide us with a sticky mixture, that activates in a short span of time.

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Material Research

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• • Mix 01 •

CHAPTER 03

200g 50% powder mix 55ml water 10ml MC gel

Observations: • Able to suck with the syringe • Too fluid • Still not completely homogeneous mix

Mix 02

• • •

200g 50% powder mix 2g MC powder 70 ml water

Observations: • Very thick and hard paste • Able to suck with the syringe • Homogenous Paste

Mix 03

• • •

200g 50% powder mix 2g MC powder 70 ml water

Observations: • Very thick and hard paste • Able to suck with the syringe • Homogenous Paste • Heated to decrease the drying time in local weather

Mix 04

• • •

200g 50% powder mix 1g MC powder 50 ml water

Observations: • Thick and hard paste • Able to suck with the syringe • Homogenous Paste

Mix 05

• • •

200g 50% powder mix 1g MC powder 50 ml water

Observations: • Thick and hard paste • Able to suck with the syringe • Homogenous Paste • Heated to decrease the drying time in local weather STUDENT TEAM |Maria-Eleni Bali, Raissa Fonseca, Assad Khan, Rithu Mathew Roy

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mix 01

PLIN[θ]OS

• • •

200g sand 600ml water 20 g binder

Sand:Water:Binder= 1:3:0.1

88

mix 02

• • •

200g sand 200ml water 15g binder

Sand:Water:Binder= 1:1:0.08

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Material Research

mix 03

• • •

200g sand 100ml water 200 g binder

Sand:Water:Binder= 2:1:2

mix 04

• • •

200g sand 400ml water 20 g binder

Sand:Water:Binder= 1:2:0.1

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Ingredients’ proportion charts and performance results of the 4 mixtures tested

Sand Mix 01

25

Water

50

Stabilizer

Sand Mix 02

25

0

Water

65

Stabilizer

Mix 03

Mix 04

Sand

33

Water

33

Stabilizer

33

Sand

48

Water

48

Stabilizer

90

35

4

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Material Research Evaluation of material properties A method was developed to evaluate specific material properties in order to control factors like kinematic viscosity, density, flow rate, mass per volume and the brittleness of the printed structure. The components are sand, methyl cellulose and a jointing compound (Resiblock - resifix)Â .

It was then important to be able to control some or all of these factors by creating a catalogue of admixtures by using the same materials but in different proportions and conditions of preparation.The means to control material viscosity was the main aim for arriving at a mixture that was able to be deployed by an UAV. The amount of viscosity is controlled by the cold water added to a composite mixture of the three ingredients. The jointing compound serves as a means to achieve particle adhesion and cohesion. Sand on the other hand serves to aid the strength of the mixture upon formation and increasing brittleness.

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Material Deposition styles in manually printed physical models Chapter 003.3

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The humidity in the local weather was responsible for prolonging the drying time of the material and therefore the material was fragile

Strength Preparation Time Drying Time

Additional heat was radiated which reduced the drying time and gave the material high compression strength.

Strength Preparation Time Drying Time

Using the same process, a linear approach beginning from two ends was considered.

The material requires supports when thin strands are constructed.

Strength Preparation Time Drying Time

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Physical model

Deposition Maneuver

Linear deposition Deposition style 1

Slow deposition Deposition style 2

Multiple layers deposition Deposition style 3

Fluid deposition Deposition style 4

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Thesis

Research

Application

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CHAPTER 04

Material Research Aerial Maneuvers: Flight Tests

Aerial Printing

Aerial Deposition

Printing hardware

Aerial Printed Prototypes

Flight control

Aerial Deposition Chapter 004

Aerial Maneuvers: Flight Tests

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Aerial maneuvers: flight tests Chapter 004

Flight movements and choreography are essential to understanding the limitations of using an aerial system in conjunction with additive manufacturing.

In this regard, the methodology firstly was focused on being able differentiate between different kinds of movements that were executed by the drone themselves namely flight cycles and deposition cycles.

Flight cycles focused on automated systems of aerial path styles that were constructed out of context based systems, For Example: In an environment where the height would be a limitation the drone would execute flight paths which would not exceed a certain height while executing a deposition movement.

Deposition cycles were created out of the necessity to execute material deposition in a particular style, In this way the flight system was executing a set of larger movements with regard to a set of customized or stylized conditions, Example: The movement of continuous rotation is physically only possible by a drone, hence a movement choreographed entirely out of rotation can be considered a deposition cycle Choreographing constraints: This method of flight tests would incorporate the flight and the deposition movements involved using simulations to establish a methodology. Upon arriving at a conclusive method of flight systems by the flight and deposition analysis the simulations help in arriving at a conclusion

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Quad-copter operation analysis Chapter 004.1

102

Equal thrust

Pitch

Roll

Yaw

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CHAPTER 04.1

Pitch, Roll and Yaw as the basic maneuvers around x,y, and z axes accordingly

The 3 diagrams are indicative of the basic operation maneuvers (pitch, roll, yaw) of the quad-copter Ar Drone Parrot 2 type, showing the relationship between given values of maneuvers (power) in the x-y-z axes, different timesleep values, and the distance or angle that the drone covers.

In all three diagrams as timesleep and power increase the distance or angle that the quadcopter covers increase accordingly.

For the drone to be able to deposit the material slowly and evenly, low values need to be given as inputs to the program.

However, it is considered essential not to decrease the values a lot because the drone tends to interfere with the air and as a result fluctuates around its initial position.

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Basic flight patterns: Macro-movements Chapter 004.1.2

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z pitch

x

y

Intended movement: Circular loop

Open diaphragm photo capture

Maneuver axis: y

z roll

pitch

x

y

Intended movement: ZigZag Spline

Open diaphragm photo cap-

Maneuver axis: x / y

z yaw x y

Intended movement: ZigZag Spline

Open diaphragm photo capture

Maneuver axis: z

z pitch

x

y

Intended movement: Circular loop by yawing

Maneuver axis: y

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CHAPTER 04.1 PLIN[Θ]OS

Intended movement: Vertical Circular loop

z

x

pitch y

Open diaphragm photo capture

z

x

pitch y

def verLoop(self): timeSleep = 0.6 self.drone.move(0.3 , 0 , 0.3 , 0) time.sleep(timeSleep) self.drone.move(-0.6 , 0 , 0.3 , 0) time.sleep(timeSleep) self.drone.move(-0.3 , 0 , -0.6 , 0) time.sleep(timeSleep) self.drone.move(0.6 , 0 , -0.3 , 0)

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Maneuver axis: y

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CHAPTER 04.1

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Intended movement: ZigZag Spline

z roll x

pitch y

Open diaphragm photo capture

z roll x def dCycle(self): timeSleep = 0.5 self.drone.move(0.3 , 0 , 0 , 0.5) time.sleep(timeSleep) self.drone.move(0.3 , 0 , 0 , 0.5) time.sleep(timeSleep) self.drone.move(0.3 , 0 , 0 , 0.5) time.sleep(timeSleep) self.drone.move(0.3 , 0 , 0 , 0.5) time.sleep(timeSleep) self.drone.move(0.3 , 0 , 0 , 0.5) time.sleep(timeSleep) self.drone.move(0.3 , 0 , 0 , 0.5) time.sleep(timeSleep) self.drone.hover() time.sleep(timeSleep)

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pitch y

Maneuver axis: x / y

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CHAPTER 04.1

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Intended movement: ZigZag Spline

z yaw x y Open diaphragm photo capture

z yaw x y Maneuver axis: z def yaw(self): timeSleep = 0.5 self.drone.move(0 , 0 , 0 , 0.5) time.sleep(timeSleep) self.drone.hover() time.sleep(timeSleep)

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CHAPTER 04.1 PLIN[Θ]OS

x

Intended movement: Circular loop by yawing

z

x

pitch y

Intended movement: Circular loop by yawing

z

x

pitch y

Maneuver axis: y def spiral (self):

f=0.2

for i in range (1,5):

i = i*f self.drone.move(i*2,0,0,i*2) time.sleep(i+0.25)

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113

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Deposition patterns: Micro-movements Chapter 04.1.3

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z thrust x y

Intended Movement: Movement within Min z and Max z

Maneuver : equal

z pitch

x

y

Intended movement: segmented forward movement (pitch)

Maneuver axis: y

z roll

pitch

x

y

Intended movement: ZigZag Polyline

Open diaphragm photo cap-

Maneuver axis: x/y

z yaw x

pitch y

Intended movement: directional forward and circular movements

Maneuver axis: z / y

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Intended Movement: Movement within Min z and

z thrust x y

Equal thrust

def altitude(self): altitude = self.drone.navdata.get(0, dict()).get(‘altitude’,0) return altitude def checkAltitude(self): th = 0 altitude = self.altitude()

if altitude > 500: th = -0.8

elif altitude<300: th = +0.8 return th

def upDwn(self): for i in range (0,20):

th = self.checkAltitude()

alt = self.altitude()

self.drone.move(0,0,th,0)

time.sleep(0.4)

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CHAPTER 04.1

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Intended movement: segmented forward movement

z

x

pitch y

Intended movement: segmented forward movement

z

x

pitch y

Maneuver axis: y

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CHAPTER 04.1

119

CHAPTER 04.1 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Intended movement: ZigZag Polyline

z roll x

pitch y

Open diaphragm photo capture

z

def zigZag(self): for j in range(0,1): roll = 0.5 for i in range(0,4): self.drone.move(roll, 0.25, 0 ,0) time.sleep(0.5) self.drone.hover() time.sleep(0.1) roll = -roll

roll x

pitch y

Maneuver axis: x / y

for i in range (0,4): self.drone.move(roll, -0.25, 0 ,0) time.sleep(0.5) self.drone.hover() time.sleep(0.1) roll = -roll

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CHAPTER 04.1

121

CHAPTER 04.1 PLIN[Θ]OS

Intended movement: directional f§orward and circular movements

Intended movement: directional f§orward and circular movements

z yaw x

pitch y

Maneuver axis: z / y

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CHAPTER 04.1

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CHAPTER 04.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Thesis

Research

Application

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CHAPTER 04.2

Material Research Aerial Maneuvers: Flight Tests

Aerial Printing

Aerial Deposition

Printing hardware

Aerial Printed Prototypes

Flight control

Printing Hardware Chapter 004.2

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CHAPTER 04.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

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CHAPTER 04.2

Material Deposition Systems

Chapter 04.2.1

The aim of the printing mechanism was to develop a method to collect and deploy printed matter and possibly to include any curing techniques which may be necessary. The success of the printing technology will depend on the amount of material carrried/printed per cycle of the process which needs to be repeated over a period of time. In finality a process that can incorporate the rate of flow of material with the speed of the wind generated by the ground effect from the propellers will be a successful outcome.

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CHAPTER 04.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

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Material Deposition Systems Chapter 04.2.1

The method used to deposit the material before thinking of using it on a drone was by using a piping bag (bakers tool). This allowed for a certain level of control over the amount of material deposited and the style of deposition of the mixture was entirely dependent on the experience one gained with the tool itself.

Three simple deposition strategies started becoming extremely relevant to the material deposition they are: â&#x20AC;˘ â&#x20AC;˘ â&#x20AC;˘

Pneumatic Tension Compression

All these strategies were able to exhibit a certain advantage in terms of the system as a whole, if the payload was seen as a replaceable canister that could be replenished if the system worked as a whole. But they lacked a simple advantage, the simple ability to control the flow of the material itself. That ability was unique to the human hand and the intention is to be able to adopt a similar strategy to develop a flow control system.

Currently, studies with an accordion bottle actuated with a proximity sensor have started to show some promise. An accordion bottle is used as an amateur baking tool as well so its use also became very clear if the actuation can be controlled by local rules and if the information relay could be fed back into the drone to be able to interact with multiple drones in terms of material quantity and appropriate swarm behavior based on such strategies.

The advantage with the accordion system is also that the drone starts becoming a part of the process in its entirety, there is no movement that is seen as unwanted, as they may also start playing a role in the picking up and depositing of material as well.

Why use an automated deposition mechanism ?

The amount of material deposited by the drone is a result of an automated deposition method decided out of environmental rules. The constraints posed by capacity and the drone allow very little material to be displaced at any given instant in time. Hence an intelligent system is able to more effectively decide on the use of the material placement.

Why use a linear system of actuation to deposit the material ?

A calculated volume of material is fed into forming paths which are then printed, this system so far is able to extrude a pressurised and calculated amount of material. In the future this may even be able to work vice-versa where it may be useful in siphoning construction material as well.

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CHAPTER 04.2 PLIN[Θ]OS

Limitations to be considered during deposition Chapter 04.2.2

The use of the multicopter as a material deposition mechanism encounters several limitations, which need to be considered during the printing procedure.

Some of them are entirely related to the use of the specific type of the drone (Ardrone Parrot 2), and therefore they are essential to be figured out ,to the degree that aerial 3d Construction based on drones , is affected by drones’ technical specifications. In the schematic diagram on the left it can be seen that the lifting capacity, the battery life, the cone of vision as well as the shape of the drone is limiting our options for the design of a printing mechanism and at the same time the construction of the attached-to -drone deposition system is based on the drone’s capabilities.

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CHAPTER 004.2

131

CHAPTER 004.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

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CHAPTER 004.2

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CHAPTER 04.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Preliminary deposition systems Chapter 04.2.3

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CHAPTER 04.2

Preliminary suspended deposition system Drawbacks: •

Instability of mechanism

•

Sensors’ interference-interruption

•

Uncontrollable system

Deposition system Test 2 Observations: •

Stability of drone and mechanism

•

Centrally balanced

•

Height prosthesis required for legs

•

Accuracy in terms of deposition (not flight accuracy)

Deposition System test 3

Observations: •

Ability to carry mor payload

•

No interference with sensors

•

Centrally balanced

•

Height prosthesis required for legs

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CHAPTER 04.2 PLIN[Θ]OS

Deposition Test 1

Test 1 Payload reduced to 50gms to secure stable flights.

Observations • •

Instable flights Weight of the material much lesser than the Payload Specifications yet unable to fly with the load.

[50gms]

Conclusion • •

136

High interfernece with the sensors and the centre of gravity of the drone.

A non-suspended system needs to be designed

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CHAPTER 04.2

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CHAPTER 04.2 PLIN[Θ]OS

Deposition Test 2

Test 2 The material deposition system at the bottom without interfering the sensors and a material storage at the top.

Observations • •

138

Tethering of the drone Centre of gravity issues with material storage on top.

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CHAPTER 04.2

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CHAPTER 04.2 PLIN[Θ]OS

Deposition Test 3

Test 3 Low consistent material for free flow.

Observations • • • •

140

Stability of drone and mechanism Centrally balanced Height prosthesis required for legs Inaccurate dripping of material

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CHAPTER 04.2

141

CHAPTER 04.2 PLIN[Θ]OS

Deposition Test 4

Test 4 Similar deposition System with legs introduced for comfortable take off and landing.

Observations • • •

Stability of drone and mechanism Centrally balanced.

Inaccurate dripping of the material

Conclusion •

142

Mechanical/ Electrical extrusion system to be designed for continuous deposition within the limitations created by the drone.

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CHAPTER 04.2

143

CHAPTER 04.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

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CHAPTER 04.2

145

CHAPTER 04.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Balance

Payload Capacity

No Torque should be generated

Light Weight System Drone : Material : Mechanism Ratio

Back Draft influencing Material Flow

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CHAPTER 04.2

Flight constraints which affect the material deposition system Chapter 04.2.4

Thesis position on the constraints Sand particles are intrinsically heavy and when combined with the total weight of the mixture it is able to increase the gross weight of the mixture itself. While this may seem as a disadvantage, it is able (to some degree) resist the backdraft generated by the propellers of the quad-rotor copter. If printing is possible with a material which is able to be controlled very little it does show the validity of the idea where these aspects are much more easier for lighter materials or aggregates.

Explanation behind the constraints The ideal weight for printing is sought to be not more than 1kg. This reduces the scope for a heavy mechanism and any aspect of using a heavy material is a disadvantage. A mechanism must therefore be able to coordinate between these constraints.

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CHAPTER 04.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Extrusion Mechanisms: Material Deposition prototypes Chapter 04.2.5

Tension Mechanism This mention uses a simple tension plate that when filled with material and a timed release pushes the material out of the canister. The advantage of the system is that it is autonomous and does not require any external power operation other than an operation switch. The disadvantages lied in the inability to control the flow of material so in cases of high pressure (at the release time) the amount of material leaving the mechanism is more than when the pressure is low. Reason for which this mechanism was discarded.

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CHAPTER 04.2

Extrusion Mechanism 1 Tension-based System

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CHAPTER 04.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Extrusion Mechanism 2 Compression-based system

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CHAPTER 04.2

Photo of the prototypical compression-based deposition system Materials used: Perspex 3mm, plastic 1,5 mm and compression metallic spring

Compression Mechanism This mechanism is similar to the tension mechanism in that it uses a similar principle to displace the material from the material canister, it faced similar problems and advantages as in the tension mechanism with the inability to control the amount of material dispensed from the canister. Apart from this it also faced issues of appropriate compression systems, they would also had to have been customized for specifications.

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CHAPTER 04.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

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CHAPTER 04.2

Extrusion prototypes based on Motors, servos and linear actuators Chapter 4.2.5.2

The method of deposition took into account factors like printing height, mass per volume and the ability to produce a single extruded line of material. We then arrived at the modified form of the prototype that allowed us to achieve a thick section of material and uniform behaviour on the UAV. Since accuracy was not the main concern it was up to flight behaviour to inform the printing which is the next step in the evolution of the prototype. All these factors combined are able to compensate for the static thrust produced by the propellers while printing as well as the necessity to refuel material upon flight path completion. This was achieved by economizing the payload capacity of the UAV to carry only the deposition system which was made fold able and activated in the air shadow area of the UAV.

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CHAPTER 04.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Extrusion Mechanism Prototypes

001

Technical Specifications

Dimensions

Prototype Weight Material capacity Energy (Amp/Servo) Nozzle Section Nozzle Diameter Effectiveness Drawback

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CHAPTER 04.2

Material Deposition Prototypes

002

003

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Extrusion Mechanism Prototype 001

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CHAPTER 04.2

DC motor - based extrusion mechanism This mechanism combines the use of the gear rack and pinion to move the mobile plate on the gear rack itself. The thrust created by the full volume of the material silo helps in creating a pressure to force the material out which is actuated by the rack .

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CHAPTER 04.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Extrusion Mechanism Prototype 2

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CHAPTER 04.2

Linear actuator Servo for RC This extrusion mechanism operates with an ultrasound switch, which is being actuated based on detection of the device from the height of the UAV on the floor.

The Linear Actuator is able to generate a behavior arising out of quantum needed to push material. At the same time, the difference in speed in flight paths results in various deposition styles.

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CHAPTER 04.2 PLIN[Θ]OS

Extrusion Mechanism Prototype 3

Ultrasonic sensor operates as a switch

1. The plastic container is being filled with material until the plunger tip.

160

2. The linear Servo is actuated by an ultrasound sensor when the UAV is 25cm above a surface.

Material is extruded during deposition

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3. Linear Servo length of extru material is fully de

2. The linear Servo is actuated by an ultrasound sensor when the UAV is 25cm above a surface.

Material is extruded during deposition

Aerial Sand Printing

CHAPTER 04.2

Linear actuator Servo for RC

3. Linear Servo on its full length of extrusion when material is fully deposited

4. The piston pulls the surfaces on their initial position , for the canister to be reďŹ lled with material.

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CNC Machinic Deposition Chapter 04.2.6

We used a CNC machine to simulate a machinic deposition of material that was closer to the one that would be performed by the UAVs and in this way investigate further the material behaviour. We built an extrusion mechanism that was attached to the CNC and used compressed air to extrude material. 3D geometries were modeled and then translated to the machine code (Gcode) that was then inputted to the machine to fabricate models. With these experiments we got a better understanding of the relation between printing speed, nozzle size, and offset distance from extruder to printing surface, learning how those affect the material behaviour and the printed result. This relation was later further explore through 3D simulations.

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CHAPTER 04.2

6mm plastic pipe Small air compressor 1/4â&#x20AC;? PT male thread 6mm push in join pneumatic connector Retainer cap with gasket 8oz (230ml) cartridge Adjustable pressure gauge 8oz (230ml) aluminum cartridge retainer Plastic male Luer lock 1/4â&#x20AC;? tip

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CHAPTER 04.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

AIR (IN) COMPRESSED

MATERIAL

EXTRUSION MECHANISM AIR COMPRESSOR

CNC MACHINE

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CHAPTER 04.2

step 01 G-CODE

step 02 PRINT

step 03 HEAT

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CHAPTER 04.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

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CHAPTER 04.2

Aerial 3D printing: Hardware development Chapter 04.2.7

Working unsupervised our uav’s required a 3d print hardware that enables them to autonomously print and refill their payload. We developed a bespoke hardware that utilizes a linear actuator to create a large scale syringe that can be electronically activated when attached to the UAV’s on board computer.

UAV’s come in a range of sizes (see chapter 2.1) each capable of carrying different payloads. Our project envisages using 800mm diameter UAV’s that carry payloads of 5.0 Kgs. Our research utilizes smaller UAV’s suitable for indoor flight that carry a much smaller payload.

We developed a large number of 3D print hardware prototypes suitable that were tested on UAV’s. Our initial tests in aerial printing proved that we had to solve the material and actuation system constraints that would hinder flight behaviour during printing. Uav’s must have their weight distributed along the two axes.

Our initial attempts at attaching 3D print hardware to a UAV were unsuccessful because their weight was not distributed evenly. This inhibited the UAV flight. (see diagram of hardwares based on constrains p168).

The UAV payload limitations provided a challenging constraint for the total weight of our 3d print material supply and hardware. This required us to find novel ways to reduce weight and maximise 3d print material payload. for our 3d print test we removed the battery and replaced it with a tethered power supply to increase our 3d print material payload.

Sand is heavy by particle weight and to provide feedback in terms of an elastic material behavior we test the printing system on a proxy material. This is able to perform aerial deposition. However the proxy was not elastic enough to reduce surface absorption. Once we optimized the mechanism we looked into material properties to achieve continuous flow. (see pages 89-91).

Continuous material flow is a specific problem to aerial deposition. Once we achieved an elastic material it was clear that the wind produced by the multicopter deviated the material flow. After positioning the actuation system on an air shadow area countering the “ground effect” we are able to achieve continuous aerial deposition.

Material properties of the binder allows us to control elasticity and viscosity.

A high- elasticity mix would produce specific material properties that have the potential to reflect flight behaviour. (see pages 89-91)

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CHAPTER 04.2

PLIN[θ]OS

Distribution of Weight

Center of Gravity

Light Weight

Untethered Flight

Flow

Broken Line

Air Shadow

Nozzle under ground effect

168

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Printing prototypes development based on constrains

Center of Gravity

Tethered Flight

Continuous Line

Nozzle on airshadow area

CHAPTER 04.2

PLIN[θ]OS

Parrot ardrone v.2 quadcopter with 20 ml material canister

v 1.1

Technical Specifications

Weight

180 g

Maximum material payload

20 ml

Flight stability Flight maneuverability Sensor interference Deposition-printing output Deposition height Ease of refilling

Non-continuous line

10 cm

Overall efficiency

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CHAPTER 04.2

Printing Hardware Prototypes

v 1.2

v 1.3

200 g

150 g

40 ml

20 ml

Double non-continuous line

20 cm

Dripping

25 cm

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Parrot ardrone v.2 quadcopter with 100 ml material canister

v 2.1

v 2.2

Technical Specifications

Weight

170 g

250 g

Maximum material payload

20 ml

5 ml

Flight stability Flight maneuverability Sensor interference Deposition-printing output Deposition height Ease of refilling

Non-continuous line

Non-continuous line

10 cm

25 cm

Overall efficiency

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Printing Hardware Prototypes

v 2.4

v 2.3

110 g

50 ml

Potentially 50 ml

Partly Continuous

25 cm

210 g

Partly Continuous

25 cm

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Deposition Mechanism 1 Since the development of the first mechanism it became apparent that the rate of flow of material was an important factor in determining the success of the printed geometry.

Micro-behaviours became very important in deciding the structural stability of the printed structure as a whole and while layering was used as a means to deploy this method of printing it was successful in being able to create a layered structure with micro-behaviours occuring in the printed matter. Two factors became very important in understanding the printing which would be necessary to deploy them on the aerial machine.

One was that layering as a process while successful as a printing technique will not be viable solution to printing on a quadcopter due to mechanical inaccuracies of the drone while printing itself. Secondly is the symbiotic relationship between the printed matter and the backdraft of the rotors on the aerial vehicle.

Deposition Mechanism 2 The evolution of the printer started when standard layering was looked at as a mechanical process, meaning the actual act of going layer over layer was controlled by an actuator, on the AV rather than by the AV itself. The role of the aerial vehicle was concentrated on only one function i.e. control of the height. The purpose of this was to reduce the variables necessary to achieve a layering strategy that would result in a morphology that could be used as a possible means of printing strategy.

Various limitations that were incurred, the weight of the mechanism proved excessively high for the Aerial Vehicle to execute any form of printing, although as a layering strategy on a larger machine could be a means to explore this method of printing.

It consists of a servo actuator attached to a Linear actuator that is used to operate a Catheter syringe. This assembly proved successful in being able to collect a significant amount of payload as well as induce a behaviour unique to the material properties of the system, generated by virtue of the system that is used to create the deposition.

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p1: Primary Pressure (outside)(kPa abs) p2: Secondary Pressure (kPa abs) (pressure generated at about 50 kPa by the linear actuator) do: Diameter of Orifice (mm) (to be determined) C: Discharge Coefficient (coefficient for sand and water mixture was appropriated, by taking into account the increase in coefficeint of viscosity of the mixture when sand was added to it, other additives were ignored, due to lesser volume) Qw: Sand and Water Flow Rate (m³/h) FL: Pressure recovery factor (=0.9) FF: Critical pressure ratio factor (Coefficient calculated for sand and water mixture) P: Absolute vapor pressure of the sand and water mixture at inlet temperature (kPa abs) FF: Critical pressure ratio factor (Coefficient calculated for sand and water mixture) P: Absolute vapor pressure of the sand and water mixture at inlet temperature (kPa abs) SG: Sand and Water gravity (kg/m³)

The formula was optimised for the diameter of the catheter syringe which was about 4mm.

The rate of flow of the material for dispensing was approximated at 4 Liters per minute.

The formula used to arrive at these figures is shown alongside.

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Extrusion Mechanism Prototype 3a

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CHAPTER 04.2

Material Deposition Systems Chapter 04.2.7

Mechanism 1.02

Deposition System 5 The system was designed in conjunction with the low payload capacity of the Aerial Vehicle as well as the minimum variables that are necessary for the system to operate. The maximum capacity of the UAV was about 250gms, at which point it was only possible for the drone to lift off. But for successful operation and control the acceptable limit was about 170 gms. The system employed the same operations as above arriving at a successful flow rate by discharge of the material from the canister as well as a safety limit of the entire system beyond which the UAV would not operate, i.e. 170gms.

At this point the mechanism was able to pickup and drop the material but what was not taken into account was the system needed to incorporate the backdraft added by the propellors which displaced any material printed deployed by the material. In order to incorporate a successful strategy this factor had to be addressed in the next iteration of the same mechanism.

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Extrusion Mechanism Prototype 5b

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Material Deposition Systems: Aerial Printing Efficiencies Chapter 04.2.7

Nano Arduino with 5v power supply

Deposition Mechanism 6

20ml syringe

This iteration of the Mechanism involved using an earlier version of deposition on a larger UAV. The additions were to deal with the changes outside the printing mechanism itself. This time the back-draft was taken into consideration. Thrust is provided by the action of four Quad-rotor motors on the UAV and this thrust acted on the centre of the frame of the quadcopter. This also is the Centre of gravity of the UAV itself.

Mechanism 1.02 So a parasol which prevented the thrust from acting on the mechanism enabled a continuous payload of material to be deposited by the quadcopter.

This option also allowed for a small amount of torque to be balanced by the UAV since the payload capacity was no longer a strict limit. But was within the range of one kilogram.

This model was also implemented on the previous version on the smaller quad-rotor UAV which was able to achieve successful results as well.

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CHAPTER 04.2

Extrusion Mechanism Prototype 6

Four Channel Radio receiver Linked to transmitter Total weight 30 gms MDF Frame : 14gms

Rubber Plunger Linear Actuator

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Extrusion Mechanism Prototype 6

Nano Arduino with 5v power supply Solderless Micro-breadboard Four Channel Radio receiver Linked to transmitter Total weight 30 gms MDF Frame @ 14gms 1.25mm Dia Snug for 20ml syringe Saddle for breadboard Free end frame for adjustability 5V @ 1.0Amp Power supply Epoxy sealant for pneumatic workability Plunger Iron-zinc coated tower bolt assembly for rigid frame 20ml Syringe Actuating Arm Orifice reducer for increase in flow rate Qw Pipe Pneumatic 6mm Dia pipe

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Extrusion mechanisms: Prototype’s Review Chapter 04.2.7.2

Observation The factors that were necessary for a successful printing methodology involved negating the impact of the backdraft and thrust of the quad-rotor copter itself.

While taking into account the rate of flow of the material, a constant low-altitude was always taken into consideration and this allowed uniform deposition of material in a manner which was able to inform printing methodology. Namely that additive manufacturing is not the best solution for an aerial form of deposition since the system in question is always offering a margin of error which cannot be compensated by the action of multiple variables on the flight path of the UAV’s

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CHAPTER 04.2

Extrusion Mechanism Prototype 1.3

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Printing Prototype v2.3 Specifications Arduino harware 21g Battery 9V 46g Linear Actuator 38g Steel frame 20g Syringe 100ml 27g Total Weight = 152g

Components

11.1 V power supply Rotating steel frame Tightening screws Iron-zinc coated tower bolt assembly for rigid frame 100 ml silicon-coated plastic syringe Firgelli micro linear actuator 50mm stroke Plunger tip Cathetic tip Orifice reducer for increase in flow rate Qw

Microcontroller 433 MHz four Channel Radio receiver Linked to transmitter Solderless Micro-breadboard Arduino UNO with 5v power supply

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Printing prototype in landed04.2 mode Aerial Sand Printingv2.3CHAPTER

Printing prototype v2.3 during material STUDENT TEAM |Maria-Eleni Bali, Raissa Fonseca, Assad Khan,deposition Rithu Mathew Roy 189

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CHAPTER 04.2

Printing Prototype v2.3 Axonometric view of prototypes components

3mm Perspex Frame -13gms

Carbon Fibre Propellers increases load capacity from 150 to 200gms

4mm dia Hexagonal zinc coated nuts x 14 -6gms Single direction locking 4mm dia Steel Threaded Rod Frame -18gms Firgelli L12 Linear Actuator / 5V, 1.0A, pulling 50Nm/s max 38gms

100ml Silicone coated catheter tip syringe 10gms

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CHAPTER 04.2

Aerial Printing System : Material, Hardware And Flight Control integration.

Chapter 4.2.8

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Three Types of Behaviours

Material Behaviour

End Effector Behaviour

Flight Behaviour

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Integration of material deposition systems with flying machines Chapter 4.2.8.2

What can be achieved by intergrating flights and deposition mechanism?

Economy of Movement: When the UAV is executing a series of movements or flight plans, it is essentially working through a limited time-frame. This is essential to the printing process itself. There is a multiple series of ratios that need to be maintained mainly the flight-time: material capacity: printing ecology and material behavior. The system is designed to give preference to the flight-time above all else.

Why using a heavy material is a proof of concept?

Any UAV is always constrained by limitations of weight and balance. These problems are irrelevant to the printing methodologies, unless integrated in a way that is able to directly influence the printing process. A printing technique which uses the advantages of a heavy material is able to showcase any intricacies of the process, if the printing/technique utilizes them well. The result is an interface that is able to use a heavy material that is able to reflect flight behavior. The density of the sand in this case makes up for the weight required to process this behavior in the mechanism and the autonomous flight system.

How is material behaviour able to compensate for the solid core?

The depositions created by the mechanism generate a series of dynamic behaviors that are congruent with the force acting on the material payload. Once a base is established with the first few layers, the material behavior starts to exhibit paeno curve properties as well, this ability starts becoming important in the additive manufacturing process, in that it is able to generate better structural properties as well.

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CHAPTER 04.2

UAV simulatneously flying micro movement and macro movement

UAV flying macro movement and the nozzle doing the micro movement

Heavy material behaviour change over different conditions

LOW LEVEL: A paeno curve behavior is generated over layers of deposition.

HIGH LEVEL: A curve starts changing from the paeno like behavior to a gravity influenced particle.

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Material extrusion nehaviour through nozzle deposition

Nozzle type Nozzle Φ 001

Small / 5mm

Speed Nozzle type Nozzle Φ

002

Small / 5mm

Speed Nozzle type Nozzle Φ

Medium/ 8mm

Speed 003

Comparison between mcro - behaviours of flights and material

Material deposition plays a major role in optimising the flight system. The weight constraints allow a certain payload of material per unit time and for the printing process this becomes essential in reducing the number of cycles it will take to print any given structure . Hence a flight path is better executed without any behaviour on the vehicle itself. The material deposition when executed are able to inform a unique behaviour to the deposited material irrespective of material property.A heavier material will exhibit these more effectively than a lighter one since it is an additive manufacturing process.

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CHAPTER 04.2

UAV flying with micro behaviours along with their macro movements.

Material creating micro behaviours along with UAVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s macro movements.

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Thesis

Research

Application

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Aerial Sand Printing

CHAPTER 04.3

Material Research Aerial Maneuvers: Flight Tests

Aerial Printing

Aerial Deposition

Printing hardware

Aerial Printed Prototypes

Flight control

Aerial Printed Prototypes Chapter 003

Printing attempts using command control operations

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Aerial Sand Printing

CHAPTER 04.3

Aerial - Non-Standard Production Process Chapter 0.4.3.1

The proposal is sited on a desert, where the material is locally available and the climatic conditions are satisfiable to produce large-scale sand structures. Due to the inaccessibility and remoteness of the site and the difficulty to work on loose sand using ground-based means, the aerial robots come as a good solution to the problem. The variable geometry of the site, as each dune has a unique form that is constantly changing, is another factor that is better addressed by aerial means, since the UAVs are capable of scanning the environment and adapting its behaviour to these changes in real time, responding to the shifting of the dunes, to what was already printed by other machines and to changes in environmental conditions like the wind.

The inaccuracy and unpredictability of the system, both during and post construction, are also taken into consideration. Natural factors like the wind can affect the precision of the production process, as well as unnatural factors like the assembly and performance of each robot, which cannot always be accounted to perform flawlessly. A third factor that we foresee as increasing the unpredictability created by the deployment of this system is the plurality of possible engagements between all the pre-programed factors and the user, as the later will not necessarily use and interact with the building as foreseen by the designer. Therefore the project will have a behaviour similar to the one of a living creature: intelligent, relatively unpredictable and highly adaptive.

Command Control printing tests using ArDrone parrot v2 Chapter 04.3.2

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Aerial Sand Printing

CHAPTER 04.3

Remote Controlled Printing: Attempt 01

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CHAPTER 04.3

Remote Controlled Printing: Prototype 01 Binder used: PVA GLUE (as a sand binder)

The intention of printing with a mixture that was lighter and more fluid than the proposed mixture was because the lightness of PVA and its closeness to the behaviour of water in terms of its density and particle behaviour. PVA also allow us flexibility to regulate the flow rate to compensate for the static thrust produced by the propellers which aid in keeping the quadcopter afloat. While this adversely affects the printing a fast flowing mixture will be able to compensate for the same. This step was essential in establishing the fact that aerial printing was possible if flow rate and material printing capacity were taken into account

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Remote Controlled Printing: Prototype 02

Binder used:CHAPTER Sand StabiAerial Sand Printing 04.3 lizer Compound

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Remote Controlled Printing: Prototype 02 Binder used: Sand Stabilizer Compound

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CHAPTER 04.3

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Aerial Sand Printing

CHAPTER 04.3

Remote Controlled Printing: Prototype 03 Binder used: Sand Stabilizer Compound

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Remote Controlled Printing: Prototype 03

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CHAPTER 04.3

Remote Controlled Printing: Prototype 03 Binder used: Sand Stabilizer Compound

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Remote Controlled Printing: Prototype 03

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CHAPTER 04.3

219

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Command Controlled Printing: Prototype 04

Binder used: sand stabilizer compound with Methocel

220

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CHAPTER 004.3

221

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223

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Command Controlled Printing: Prototype 05

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Comparative studies of aerial printing prototypical systems Chapter 04.3.3

The experiments above are being examined and compared in terms of material viscosity and flow rate, output strength, the overall drying time and the degree of material absorption by the sand surface. The two first studies used printing hardware v.1.3 while the next ones used v2.3 ( see also chapter 004.2.7).

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Printing with PVA Binder

Printing with Mix 01

Viscosity

Viscosity

Flow Rate

Flow Rate

Strength

Strength

Drying Time

Drying Time

Surface Absorption

Output :

CHAPTER 04.3

Surface Absorption

No Material Behaviour

Output :

Dripping Behaviour

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PLIN[θ]OS

Printing with Mix 02

Printing with Mix 03

Viscosity

Viscosity

Flow Rate

Flow Rate

Strength

Strength

Drying Time

Drying Time

Surface Absorption

Output :

228

Line like Behaviour

Surface Absorption

Output :

Line like Behaviour

AERIAL SWARM 3D PRINTING: | ROBERT STUART SMITH STUDIO| AADRL 2014-2016 |THESIS

Aerial Sand Printing

CHAPTER 04.3

Comparative study of aerial printing prototypes systems

Printing with Mix 04

Printing with Mix 05

Viscosity

Viscosity

Flow Rate

Flow Rate

Strength

Strength

Drying Time

Drying Time

Surface Absorption

Surface Absorption

Output : Discontinuous broken lines

Output :

Continuous Lines

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PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Thesis

Research

Application

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CHAPTER 05

Material Research

Aerial Printing

Aerial Deposition

off board- camera based responsive operations

Flight control on board flight vision based autonomous operations

Flight Control - camera based operations Chapter 005

Off board camera based responsive operations On-board flight vision-based autonomous operations

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Flight control

Off board- camera based Responsive operations

On board flight vision based Autonomous operations

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CHAPTER 05

Flight Control - camera based operations Chapter 005

Off board camera based responsive operations On-board flight vision-based autonomous operations

Computer controlled flight is essential for aerial 3D printing. IR cameras provide an off-board coordinate positioning system and additionally we have developed an algorithm that generates a design proposal through a simulated construction sequence. Additionally we have developed an algorithm that develops a design proposal through a simulated construction sequence.

In this responsive system the aerial robot is aware of material refilling and continues to execute printing from the last printed point upon printing the payload.

This system is able to play out swarm based rules of separation and cohesion that arise mainly out of off board computers.

In an on board system is based on visual tracking which uses open source vision tracking programs to communicate intelligence. From using slam to build a virtual environment it would be able to map its surroundings.

Object tracking programs are able to establish swarm-based rules of separation and cohesion. By using these visual tracking programs we are able to form stigmergic rules for aerial 3D printing which is able to form a closed loop system for construction.

Taking in consideration the material behavior hardware system, which gets the criteria and used in this environment. We introduce a responsive system which is able to configure flight paths that arise out of simulations of real time flight scenarios. The cyclic behavior of the print system. Finally as we argue for a system that can work in autonomous manner,we explored a basic function, which is the material refilling based on real-time scenario.

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CHAPTER 05.1

Off-board camera-based responsive operations Chapter 05.1

5.1.1 Basic Maneuvers using Vicon IR cameras : way- points

5.1.2 Multiple UaVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s choreographies: Cohesion and Separation 5.1.3 Autonomous printing : mission plan 5.1.4 Controlled printing using vicon printing system

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PLIN[θ]OS

UAV B UAV A

The ofboard computer remaps vicon_bridge data stream -Vicon_ stream_mode [data received via UDP] into mavros_mocap_pose in Mavros_extras [data received via WiFi]

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CHAPTER 05.1

Autonomous flights through a centralized communication system

Vision-based autonomous flights: Off- board camera vision Chapter 005.1.1

Environment Setup The cameras detect the drones with markers that are attached on to the drones, the positions of the drones are streamed to an offboard computer running Robot Operating System [ROS]. In ROS, the data from vicon_bridge is remapped to the onboard system of the UAVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. In this example, UAV A and UAV B are identifying local positions by employing temporary variables to the drone in the form of markers. This offers a degree of self awareness to the UAVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. Once the UAVs are aware of their local positions, they can be choreographed easily.

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CHAPTER 05.1

Autonomous flights through a centralized communication system

The Vicon motion capture system is a state-of-the-art infrared marker-tracking system that offers millimeter resolution of 3D spatial displacements. The Vicon tracker extracts the x,y,z position of the reflective marker and the data is streamed to a computer which uses the Vicon Tracker firmware The Cameras are detected as a system and then calibrated with a T-shaped wand which then calibrates the positions of the cameras.

The Markers detected The Object (A number of markers compiled together makes an object). In the first image one object is identified, while in the second one, two aerial copters are defined.

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Basic Maneuvers using Vicon IR cameras : 4 way points (Square)

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C2

C1

CHAPTER 05.1

C3

y

D (x3,y3,z3)

C4

B (x2,y2,z2)

Steer V2(x2,y2,z2)

Steer V1(x1,y1,z1)

C

Steer V3(x3,y3,z3)

(x2,y2,z2)

Intended position Actual position

20cm

Accuracy Stability

A

Vicon Camera Positions

Starting Point

C5

C5

y

x x

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Basic Maneuvers using Vicon IR cameras : 4 Waypoints [Zigzag]

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C2

C1

CHAPTER 05.1

C3

y

(x1,y1,z1)

B

C (x2,y2,z2)

Steer V2(x2,y2,z2)

e St

x3 3(

V er

St e

D (x3,y3,z3)

C4

er

,y

Intended position Actual position

3) 3,z

V1 (x 1 ,y

20cm 1,z 1

Accuracy

)

Stability

A

Vicon Camera Positions

Starting Point

C5

y

x x

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C5

CHAPTER 05.1 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Basic Maneuvers using Vicon IR cameras : zigzag

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C2

C1

CHAPTER 05.1

C3

y D

(x3,y3,z3)

E (x4,y4,z4)

F

C (x2,y2,z2)

B

G (x6,y6,z6)

(x5,y5,z5)

(x1,y1,z1)

Intended position Actual position

10cm

Accuracy B

(x7,y7,z7)

Stability

A

Vicon Camera Positions

Starting Point

C4

C5

y

x x

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C5

CHAPTER 05.1 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Basic Maneuvers using Vicon IR cameras : 3 WayPoints

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C2

C1

CHAPTER 05.1

C3

y

e St

er

1 (x V1

B

Intended position Actual position

Steer V2(x2,y2,z2)

(x1,y1,z1)

) ,z1 ,y1

10cm A

Starting Point

Steer

3,z3) V3(x3,y

C(x2,y2,z2)

Stability

D (x3,y3,z3)

C4

Accuracy Vicon Camera Positions

C5

C5

y

x x

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CHAPTER 05.1 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

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CHAPTER 05.1

Multiple UAVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Choreography using Vicon IR cameras: Separation and Cohesion Chapter 5.1.2

y

(-1.8, 1.8)

(1.8, 1.8)

(-1.2, 1.2)

(1.2, 1.2)

x

x

(1.2, -1.2)

(-1.2, -1.2)

(-1.8, -1.8)

(1.8, -1.8)

Separation Cohesion Neutral y

y x

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CHAPTER 05.1 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

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CHAPTER 05.1

UAV Choreography using Vicon IR cameras: Responsive printing Chapter 05.1.3

C1

C2

C3

Responsive printing

P1

Material deposition Linear actuator ON Amount of material emitted

Position stored after deposition

Ptemp

Material tracking

Quad 1- quad 2 t,z

t)

Swarm printing based on separation cohesion alignment to what is already deposited.

t,y t(x rV ee St

Quad 1

e

St

1

,y

x1

1(

V er

)

1 ,z

Quad 2

s,y

s(x

rV

ee St

)

s s,z

rV

Stee

2)

2,z 2(x2,y

P2 Construction area

Material refillment point Linear actuator ON

IR CAMERA SETTING SYSTEM Semi-autonomous System

C4

C

IR Vicon Camera Position Ptemp, is a potential position where a canister of material will be emptied and from where the Uav needs to return to the material refillment point.

The coordinates of Ptemp(xt,yt,zt), are stored locally in the system, so the Uav can steer towards this way point to continue the printing.

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C5

CHAPTER 05.1 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

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Extrusion

CHAPTER 05.1

Refilling

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CHAPTER 05.1 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Controlled printing using vicon tracking System Chapter 05.1.4

Single point: The IR camera is also relatively more accurate when it comes to establishing a single way point. The position of the UAV is still effected by the noise produced by the sand and the added inertia due the weight of the printing mechanism. But is more accurate as compared to a series of way points.

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CHAPTER 05.1

Controlled Printing using Vicon Tracking System: Prototype 01

multiple points: The IR cameras were used in order to establish a series of way points that the UAV would trace in order to simulate aerial printing behaviour. The sever inaccuracy of the drone while printing was limited to a value of 20cms. It was because the noise of the sand on the printing surface would increase the instability of the UAV because the ultrasonic sensors are more accurate on a plain smooth surface. The added weight of the printing hardware would also aid in increasing the thrust needed to keep the UAV airborne. This would also add to the factors effecting the droneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s stability.

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CHAPTER 05.1 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

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CHAPTER 05.1

Way Points from a simulated environment The IR cameras were used in order to execute a series of way points. The points were given as inputs P(x,y,z) from a simulated environment.

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CHAPTER 05.1 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

P1

P1

P1

P1

258

P1

P1

P1

P1

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Aerial Sand Printing

P1

P1

P1

P1

P1

P1

P1

P1

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CHAPTER 05.1 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Controlled Flight Behaviour

Real Time WayPoints

Simulated Flight Path

P1 P0

Plan

Elevation

260

P0

UAV position

P1

Position derived from Simulation

AERIAL SWARM 3D PRINTING: | ROBERT STUART SMITH STUDIO| AADRL 2014-2016 |THESIS

Aerial Sand Printing

CHAPTER 05.1

Merging:

Controlled Flight Behaviour

Material Behaviour

Printing hardware Efficiencies

Material Behaviour After increasing the material mixtureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s viscosity to achieve continuous lines, the aim was to increase its thickness.

The waypoints methodology gave us the opportunity to repeat the same trajectory multiple times, in order to increase the deposited crossection.

P1 P0

1 pass

2-3 passes

aimed increased crossection

Refill Point

Printing hardware Efficiencies

P1

On emptying the material,responding to the actuator, the UAVs go to the nearest refill point to refill the material.

P1 becomes the nearest Refill Point and activates the actuator to refill at this point.

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CHAPTER 05.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Thesis

Research

Application

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CHAPTER 05.2

On board flight vision-based autonomous operations Chapter 006.2

Material Research

Aerial Printing

Aerial Deposition

off board- camera based responsive operations

Flight control

on board flight vision based autonomous operations

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CHAPTER 05.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Vision-based autonomous flights: On board camera vision Chapter 005.2

Before beginning the autonomous printing, the aerial robots scan the environment and does a 3d mapping with kinect and finds highest points in the geographical area which uses triangulation to decide the construction site.

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CHAPTER 05.2

The UAV agents 3D scans the environment and finds the highest points to find a potential site

The geographical site is calculated through triangulation

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CHAPTER 05.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

AUTONOMOUS VISION BASED FLIGHTS: Tracking & Following

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CHAPTER 05.2

Follower UAV

s Follow

t h e t ra

il

Leading UAV

Parrot following the UAV based on the onboard vision. The parrot using the vision to follow the trail made by the leading UAV

Follower UAV

Leading UAV

This experiment was to e use the functionality of the UAV to try to emulate the different roles established to them in the simulations the path seeker and the follower. The objective was first and foremost establish a mode of tracking. This was achieved by a image filter program called TLD: • • • •

There is a classifier that looks at each region of the image and outputs a simple yes/no answer.

The “tracker” is an image registration algorithm that follows the object as it moves small distances per frame. The subimage at the new location/scale that it it predicts is fed into the classifier as a positive example.

For each frame, every region of the image (at multiple scales) is tested by the classifier. The best match (if the confidence is high enough) is output as the current location.

All matches in the frame other than the best one are fed into the classifier as negative examples.

• This is used to track a region on the leader UAV which is identifiable poly-directionally while the tracker is running on the UAV.

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CHAPTER 05.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

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CHAPTER 05.2

AUTONOMOUS VISION BASED FLIGHTS: Separation

Follower UAV

<M

in D

nc ista

Moves ba

e

ck ward

Leading UAV

Moves forw ard

> Min D

Follower UAV

istance

Leading UAV

The Parrot tracks and detects the object using its onboard vision. The size of the rectangle decides the position of the drone. Once the object moves back, the size of the rectangle decreases and the drone is programmed to move ahead following the object. Similarly, the size of the rectangle increases if the object moves closer to the drone. and the drone moves away from the object forcing the drone stay always in a minimum distance from the object. Also, certain manoeuvers are programmed to act upon the certain size of the rectangle.

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PLIN[θ]OS

Follower UAV’s Onboard Camera View

Follower UAV Leader UAV

Leader UAV Follower UAV’s Onboard Camera View Follower UAV

Leader UAV Follower UAV’s Onboard Camera View

Follower UAV

Leader UAV

AV

Follower U

Follower UAV’s Onboard Camera View

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CHAPTER 05.2

Leader UAV Follower UAV

Follower UAV’s Onboard Camera View

Leader UAV

Follower UAV

Follower UAV’s Onboard Camera View

Leader UAV

AV

Follower U

Follower UAV’s Onboard Camera View

Leader UAV Follower UAV

Follower UAV’s Onboard Camera View This sequence shows the movement of drone detecting its target and following the quad ahead of it.

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CHAPTER 05.2

272

PLIN[θ]OS

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Aerial Sand Printing

CHAPTER 05.2

Autonomous flight based on local positioning One of the ways of using Local Positioning of a UAV is by using the onboard computer vision through SLAM. The main disadvantage of using the onboard vision is that it is only aware of what is seen immediately in front of it [even though ideally a 360 degree camera can be used on board, the openCV based colour/ object detection is not reliable].

The movement of the UAV in Plan The camera detects stationary points as slam points for the computer vision

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CHAPTER 05.2

PLIN[θ]OS

Stigmergic printing test : Material deposition based on existing trail.

Chapter 05.2..2

Printing UAV

Following UAV : Alignment

Following UAV : Separation

Following UAV : Cohesion

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Printed Matter Following UAV path

Aerial Sand Printing

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CHAPTER 05.2

275

CHAPTER 05.2

PLIN[θ]OS

Object tracking programs are able to establish swarm based rules of separation and cohesion. And by using these visual tracking programs, the stigmergic rules for aerial 3D printing was created which is able to form a closed loop system for construction.

Printing UAV

Printed Matter Following UAV

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Following UAV path

Aerial Sand Printing

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CHAPTER 05.2

277

CHAPTER 05.3 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Printing attempt using the erle-copter as an Aerial 3d printer Chapter 005.3

4.1 introduction to the Erle-Copter 4.2 APM planner 4.3 Erle copter printing Prototype 4.4 Command control operation printing attempts

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CHAPTER 05.3

Introduction to Erle-copters Chapter 005.3.1

All the previous flight tests as well as material deposition techniques were developed based on the use of the Ar.Drone Parrot 2 quad- copter. However, it is important in this place to introduce the Erle- type copters as scaled up prototypical versions of aerial material deposition systems. Erle Robotics intelligent systems offers possibilities of environmental sensing, stability and accuracy of control and better lifting capacities. The use of a parrot drone rested a practical and useful tool for preliminary explorations and lab tests, although, its limitations make unavoidable, for our thesis to be actually implemented, the shift to a more capable UAV system.

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CHAPTER 05.3 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Parrot AR.Drone 2.0 tech specs weight | ~ 420 grams batery | ~ 15 minmotors | 28,500 rpm max payload | 0,250 kg OS | none embeded sensors accelerometer, gyroscope, HD camera, pressure sensor, ultrasound sensors, vertical QVGA camera

Vertical QVGA camera

HD camera

Ultrasound sensors

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Aerial Sand Printing

CHAPTER 05.3

Erle-Copter tech specs weight | ~ 878 grams batery | ~ 15 minutes motors | 920 rpm/V max payload | 2 kg OS | linux (ubuntu) embeded sensors | accelerometer, gyroscope

Pros: • • • •

Power: These models have higher speeds and more power due to the power motors included.

Height: Fly higher in the air than ever before. A Quadcopter reaches higher elevations with ease compared to its counterpart.

Great control and flight speed.

Open Source. Therefore access to all necessary information.

Cons: • • • •

Autonomy needs to be programmed.

Priced higher than a Parrot.

Larger in size, making the copter harder to fly in tight spaces.

Motor parts are more expensive if they need to be replaced.

Erle Brain

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CHAPTER 05.3 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Remote controlled operations

Flight Modes:

Flight Modes using GPS:

Stabilize Alt Hold Loiter RTL (Return-to-Launch) Auto

Loiter RTL (Return-to-Launch) Auto Guided Drift PosHold Follow Me Circle

Remote controlled flights The 6/9 channel RC Transmitter transmits signals via radio links to the RC receiver on the erle copter. Majority of the flight modes seems to work on RC transmitter. While a few others needs the GPS data to function. The Autonomous flights with APM Planner, through waypoints which takes latitude and longitude data through GPS Module.

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CHAPTER 05.3

5.3.1.2 APM Planner

The Parameters are set and the remote control and other controls are callibrated first using the APM Planner. Following which the ESC callibration is done on the quadcopter. This callibrates all the ESCs together and with the remote control. The Quadcopter receives the signal from the remote controller through a receiver. The different modes of flying can be set manually through the channels on the Remote controller or via the APM Planner.

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CHAPTER 05.3

PLIN[θ]OS

GPS Module WiFi Module Screws Erle Brain Case

Pixhawk FireCape

Beaglebone Black Bumpers [Anti Vibration System]

Erle-copter Printing Prototype Chapter 05.3.2

Based on the printing limitations mentioned in the previous chapter an extrusion mechanism of type 3 was attached to the erle-copter. Linear actuators are extruding the mixture to be deposited to the ground. The aerial 3d printing prototype consists of two deposition canisters which helps the printer keep its balance. The exploded 3d model on the right, documents the components that are attached to the copter with which it is able not obly to operate, but percive the sourounding environment and print in an autonomous way.

Top Plate Propeller Head Propeller Brushless Motor Legs

Electronic Speed Controller Battery Battery Case Bottom Plate [Protoboard]

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CHAPTER 05.3

Plastic Cannister Cap Plastic Cylindrical Cannister Linear Actuator Rubber Planger Tip

Radio Transmitter Telemetry

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CHAPTER 05.3 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Erle-copter printing prototype The printing mechanism worked on using an ultrasonic sensor as a switch. The sesor was attached to the bottom of the drone and a suitable was selected for operation. Upon reaching the height , the mechanism would activate causing the material to flow through the cilo.

The first printing experiment, which can be seen alongside, helped us formulate the flow rate calculation in order to allow the mechanism to not only deposit, but to suck material as well.

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001

002

003

004

CHAPTER 05.3

PLIN[θ]OS

5.3.3 Printing attempt with remote control operations

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Intended Movement: Straight Line

CHAPTER 05.3

Observations: • • • •

Lesser accuracy Very sensitive Controls on RC Controller Precise Controlling Required Low height Flights for Printing

Intended Movement: Circle Observations: • • • •

Lesser accuracy Very sensitive Controls on RC Controller Precise Controlling Required Low height Flights for Printing

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CHAPTER 05.3

290

PLIN[θ]OS

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Aerial Sand Printing

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CHAPTER 05.3

291

CHAPTER 06

292

PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

AERIAL SWARM 3D PRINTING: | ROBERT STUART SMITH STUDIO| AADRL 2014-2016 | THESIS

Aerial Sand Printing

CHAPTER 06

Introducing the Unmaned-Ground-Vehicles Operation sequences controlled by driver control board.

Chapter 007

UGVs were first explored for the purposes of refilling and heating the deposited material, after which they starter playing a more active role by incorporating construction strategies to the projectsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; advantage.

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CHAPTER 06

294

PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

AERIAL SWARM 3D PRINTING: | ROBERT STUART SMITH STUDIO| AADRL 2014-2016 | THESIS

Aerial Sand Printing

CHAPTER 06

UGV Prototype Version 1

7.4V Lithium Polymer Battery @ 2200mAh 6 Channel Driver Control Board 5..0V Power Bank at 1.0 Ah Micro Usb Power Connection 30C Electronic Speed Controller with PWM signal wire to MCB Micro Servo to MCB restricted to turning radius of Rover

Rover Operating Strategy The UGV is not pre-programmed as a an available ready to use system but was developed for specific use of being able to employ robot detection strategies like object, image and tag detection scripts that are readily available online. The purpose of using a unprogrammed system is to be able to build its dependencies from ground up. The strategy is split into two parts, firstly is to be able to identify movements and actions that are easily configurable on the rover and to build a catalogue of movements that can be used to complete the roles that the rovers are to play in construction strategy.

Secondly to use these strategies in conjunction with systems like image and object detection on an onboard computer that is able to establish self awareness by systems of identification. Rules can be written as before to selectively allocate functions for the purpose of choreography which will be seen as the second phase of development of the UGV.

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CHAPTER 06

296

PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

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Aerial Sand Printing

CHAPTER 06

Circular Movement As a study in identifying movements that will help in sequence of construction will help us to define specific movements with the construction itself is seen here. When construction systems operate in conjunction with the UGV a successful strategy is achieved. This is seen as a part one to the two part process.

Intended movement: Circular loop

Towards a collaborative construction process The second part of the system is the employment of using an on board system to establish a degree of self awareness to the system of the rover. This involves using an am processor to drive the connection between the motor control board and the sensors that are used to collect the data to establish the forms of operation based on a system of learning.

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CHAPTER 006 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Real Time Testing 0.6.2 In lab conditions we are able to narrow down the most important functions that it would have to establish as a ground based robot and we aimed at fulfilling those tests that would establish its functionality in terms of real-time production.

We aimed at making the UGV semi-autonomous by virtue of enabling visual stigmergic function to the rovers. By making a rover detect a certain colour and establishing movement based on detection it would allow it to be able to move based on local information. The information can be: Rover to Rover - It is meant to act based on movements made by one machine to be duplicated by its counterparts.

Rover to Environment - Information For example: The colour of the Construction material is identified and a construction site is established as a home coordinate and this can assist in the material manufacturing process.

Rover to Aerial Robot - This can be used to establish Charging scenarios where the rovers would park directly below the UAV to be able to assist in unmanned aerial docking. This test was tested as the most crucial test to establish the UGV operation.

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CHAPTER 06

UGV Prototype Version 2

5mp onboard Camera 7.4V Lithium Polymer Battery @ 5500mAh Servo Microcontroller (Pololu Hacked to control 25C esc and 180 servo 1.5V Power Bank at 3000mAh Micro Usb Hub( 4 ports) Beaglebone Black (Flashed with Debian 7.5 running opencv2 and python 2.7)

To Test Rover to Aerial bot communication: OnBoard Computer: We used a small onboard computer called the Beagle Bone Black. This computer utilises an am335x processor running Beagle Bone Compatible version Debian Wheezy 7.8 an open source operating system to connect to a host computer via wireless Wi-Fi module. via an unpowered USB hub.

The connection is made using the standard UNIX based SSH (Secure Socket Shell) access protocol via Wi-Fi. All access protocols are further downloaded using a common Wi-Fi network between the host computer and the micro computer. All control to the rover is established by controlling it using the on board computer.

A 720p 5.0MP camera with a predetermined screen size is used to establish visual stigmergic rules based on object detection, motion, detection and colour detection.

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PLIN[Θ]OS

The micro controller (Pololu 6-Channel, maestro) was then modified in the code to be able to incorporate readings from two channel types, typically it would be able to connect to only servo based signals which would read in outputs of degrees. For Example it would read values from 0- 360 values in terms of rotation. This was hacked to be able to incorporate values written for a Electronic Speed Controller, which accepted values written as machine values example: 1500 - 10000 was set as the base and maximum value limit for our machine.

This setup was then connected to the ESC on the electric 4 wheel rotation rover and then used to control the movements of the rover based on the position of the coloured objects on the position of the screen. The Logic was if the coloured object was on the right half of the screen the rover would move right, and the opposite if it were on the left.

The rate and position of movement was controlled by a different code based on the percentage of the colour on the screen. For example: If the percentage of colour was less than 5cm2 of area on the screen the rover would not move. If the area of colour was between 5cm2 and 10cm2 the rover would move slow. If it was greater than that are on the screen it wouldn’t move.

This part of the code also allowed directed the on board computer to prevent the rover from colliding onto the object that it is tracking.

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Envisioned Role 6.3 The UGV’s are meant to assist in the construction process.

They are categorised based on their function:

On board Camera

Traction Tyres Camera Rails

Excavator

Lateral camera

Construction: These rovers will form a major part in the construction process.

The rover will be equipped with a miniaturised version of the large scale dry sand pump which is able to displace sand the about 50 cm3/s at optimum operation. Their role in the construction process is to form intermediate levels of sand dunes between layers of constructed/deposited material. This is done by displacing the sand from redundant portions of the dune to the construction site.

Excavation: The main role of the ground based robots will be in excavating the scaffolding in order to unearth the structure. The rover previously used in construction will again be utilised to server as excavation rovers in this process.

Loose sand is displaced from the bottom portion of the construction site as the structure emerges out of the large sand dune that had the construction aggregate deposited on the surface of the dune.

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Material Preparation: This role is a very immediate and complicated one as a process. The role of the rovers is to channel water from the water source to the material preparation sites near the construction site. The locations of these sites are pre-determined by the surveying aerial vehicles. They form pits by displacing loose sand and ground them by mixing binder along with the displaced water to form a pit with a hard base which will be used by the aerial vehicles during construction sites. The role of these pits after construction will be in extending the surface area of the oases and the surface area of the green portion in question.

Apart from these main roles the UGVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s are proposed to fulfil a range of functions such as charging points for the aerial robots and serve more actively in the construction process as mobile solar charging units for the construction robots as a whole.

On board Camera Dry Sand Pump Camera Rails On Board Computer Housing Pump Outlet

Traction Tyres

Lateral camera Camera

Pump Inlet Pump Outlet

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Thesis

Research

Application

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Swarm behaviours

Design Strategies

Construction Sequence

Structural Integrity

Architectural Design Process Chapter 007

7.0: Design Process 7.1: Swarm Simulation : A bottom-up design process 7.2: Construction Sequence 7.3. Structural Integrity

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Introduction to the design process.

Chapter 007.0

The design methodology based on the studio brief on swarm aerial 3d printing and the AADRL’s agenda of behavioural complexity is a result of the integration of three main factors: Behavioural matter Swarm intelligence Environmental integrity The printing material is informing the construction which is merged into a singular logic with the design on site.

As far as the material behaviour is concerned we will looked into digital tectonics and layering techniques .The printing constrains which occur are affecting the design methodology at the same time. Digital Simulation and real time optimization techniques contributed to the architectural prototype proposed by the end of the Research.

1.

Christo Obrero Church in Atlantida Uruguay, 2 Pelvic bone structure of a bird, Cholla cactus. Doubly-curved shell lattice, Fibrous structure, “Digital tectonics structural patterning of surface morphology”

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Swarm Simulations : A bottom-up design process Chapter 00.7.1

In an initial approach to engage the 3d terrain to the digital simulations static agents were uses to determine the peeks of a dune formation. The relationships between static and dynamic agents were examined through one-one local rules.

Based on this logic the simulations are a combination of swarm interaction s(agent to agent communication) and environmental engagement (agent to environment ) . The static agents are programmed to be digitaly dynamic to interact with the swarm. In the simulations which follow they have attracting and repelling behaviours towards the moving agents.

From the simulations we aimed to get a completely bottom-up approach to the design,which further needed to be tested in parallel with the construction sequence to prove a design intelligence.

The construction simulations are only as interesting as the architectural result so we couldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t separate the two. What we are arguing for is taking advantage of these natural structures as a starting point and then pursuing a radically different architecture that is possible due to a radically different construction approach.

1 Swarm-based simulation based on attracting angents on the peeks of a potential dune formation

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Behavioral analysis based on bottom up local rules and swarm relationships Chapter 007.1

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Agent-to-agent relationships:

Self-organization and choreographic disposition

Chapter 07.1.2

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Diagrammatic schemes of Local Behaviours

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Agent-to-material relationships: Stigmergic rules

Chapter 7.1.2.2

Diagrammatic schemes of Local Behaviours

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Material deposition in a continuous circular movement

int mVel=2; for (int i = 0; i<5;i++) { Vec3D p = new Vec3D(700, 100, 100); Vec3D v = new Vec3D(1, 1,0 ); kAgent a = new kAgent ( p, v, mVel, 3.5);} rangeOfVis = 100; Vec3D coh = new Vec3D(1, 2, 1); if(neighborList.size() < 25) vel = rotateVector(vel,4, new Vec3D(0,0,1)); strength = strength - 2;!

!

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Helix

int NA=2; float mVel=2; for (int i = 0; i<NA;i++) { Vec3D p = new Vec3D(700, 200, 10); Vec3D v = new Vec3D(1, -1,1 ); kAgent a = new kAgent ( p, v, mVel, 3.5);} rangeOfVis = 100; Vec3D coh = new Vec3D(1, 2, 1); Vec3D grav = new Vec3D(0, 0, -0.1); grav.scaleSelf(-2);

if(neighborList.size() < 25) vel = rotateVector(vel,4, new Vec3D(0,0,1)); Particle (Vec3D loc) { super(loc); r = 5; physics.addParticle(this); physics.addBehavior(new AttractionBehavior (this, r*2, -0.4)); } if (counter>20) {frozen=1;} Particle stroke=2 strength = strength - 2;!

Cylinder

int NA=2; float mVel=2; for (int i = 0; i<NA;i++) { Vec3D p = new Vec3D(700, 200, 10); Vec3D v = new Vec3D(1, -1,1 ); kAgent a = new kAgent ( p, v, mVel, 3.5);} rangeOfVis = 100; Vec3D coh = new Vec3D(1, 2, 1); Vec3D grav = new Vec3D(0, 0, -0.09); grav.scaleSelf(-1.8); if(neighborList.size() < 25) vel = rotateVector(vel,4, new Vec3D(0,0,1)); Particle (Vec3D loc) { super(loc); r = 5; physics.addParticle(this); physics.addBehavior(new AttractionBehavior(this, r*2, -0.4)); } if (counter>20) {frozen=1;} strength = strength - 3;!

!

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CHAPTER 07.1

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CHAPTER 07.1 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

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CHAPTER 07.1

319

CHAPTER 07.1 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Potential micro-behaviours based on vertical material deposition Chapter 07.1.2.3

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Angle of Vision !

322

Rotation Vector (1,0,0) 3D Rotation3D Vector (1,0,0)

Rotation Vector (0,0,1) 3D Rotation3D Vector (0,0,1) ! !

AERIAL SWARM 3D PRINTING: | ROBERT STUART SMITH STUDIO| AADRL 2014-2016 | THESIS

!

2

0)

Aerial Sand Printing

CHAPTER 07.1

Potential micro-behaviours based on vertical material deposition 2 x 4 Agents/ 3D 3D Rotation Rotation Vector Vector (x,y.z) (0,0,1) ! !

2 x 4 Agents/ 3D Rotation Vector (x,y.z) !

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Simulating robots printing efficiencies Chapter 07.1.3

Battery Life

(Figure 7.1.1)

(Figure 7.1.2)

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Figure 7.1.1

Figure 7.1.2

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Material Refillment Process

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Figure 7.1.3

Figure 7.1.4

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Heating material process

Rovers’ simulation Observations: The functions of the rovers to seek for the closest particle of material emitted or follow the nearest aerial robotic agent, are based on the notions of stigmergy and machinic collaboration.

The simulations are actually indicative of the amount of energy and time that is wasted while rovers need to always follow the procedure both for material re-fillment and heating process. In this sense, the material as a compound and the printing process were reviewed so that rovers will contribute in a more active way throughout the construction. The deposition system has been designed in order to work as a syringe which can suck material in an autonomous way. The material has been changed to a compound which can actually solidify while getting dried.

Taking everything into consideration, rovers’ maneuvers are planned to change, so that they will be able to serve their new role as excavating machines. Some of the local behaviours can be maintained in the framework of a collaborative design process in a machines’ ecology. What remains important is that the implementation of physical world’s constrains in a digital simulation can change the design itself. The basic intention of these simulations is to achieve an emergent design result. The examples which follows serve best as exercises and tests of potential outcomes.

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Figure 7.2.4

Figure 7.1.5

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Number of operating agents optimization

It can be observed from the above simulationsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; catalogs that a rule based swarm simulation is actually an infinite process. Layering as a construction methodolgy is itself a time-consuming process. Merging these two factors and in the sense that the 3D construction needs to be as efficient as possible, a simple dome was simulated to check the optimum amount of aerial printers collaborating in the process.

Keeping the exact same rules, a dome was simulated using 4,8,12,16 agents accordingly. The diagrammatic scemes below are indicative of the agent circulation results as far as time efficiency is concerned.

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CHAPTER 07.1

Simulating potential spatial organization strategies Chapter 07.1.4

7.1.4.1: Nested Aggregation 7.1.4.2: Cluster-based organization

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Nested aggregation as a design strategy in 2D studies

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Figure 7.1.3

Figure 7.1.4

Figure 7.1.5

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Figure 7.2.4

Figure 7.1.5 NUavs Cnstruction Time Enclosed Spaces Efficiency

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Figure 7.1.3

Figure 7.1.4

Figure 7.1.5

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Figure 7.2.4

Figure 7.1.5 NUavs Cnstruction Time Enclosed Spaces Efficiency

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NUavs

20

Cnstruction Time Enclosed Spaces Efficiency

Figure 7.1.3

NUavs

25

Cnstruction Time Enclosed Spaces Efficiency

Figure 7.1.4

NUavs Cnstruction Time Enclosed Spaces Efficiency

Figure 7.1.5

340

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20

Aerial Sand Printing

CHAPTER 07.1

50

NUavs Cnstruction Time Enclosed Spaces Efficiency

Figure 7.2.4

50

NUavs Cnstruction Time Enclosed Spaces Efficiency

Figure 7.1.5

NUavs

33

Cnstruction Time Enclosed Spaces Efficiency

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Local behaviour in cluster based organization strategies Chapter 7.1.4.2

a

342

Agents Types

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b

CHAPTER 07.1

Local Behaviours

Type 1 agents are distributed in two opposing zones (boarders of construction site) and meet with type 2, which will help them reach higher levels of construction.

Type 1 agents are then meeting with type 3 and local behaviour (see agent-agent rules) start to emerge.

c

Construction Strategy

Agent move in a linear way and as they reach higher levels they emit particles closer to each other to make dome-like shelters

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Figure 7.1.3

Figure 7.1.4

Figure 7.1.5

344

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CHAPTER 07.1

Cluster based organization studies

Figure 7.2.4

Figure 7.1.5

Figure 7.1.6 STUDENT TEAM |Maria-Eleni Bali, Raissa Fonseca, Assad Khan, Rithu Mathew Roy

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346

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CHAPTER 07.1

Cluster-based organization around dunes based on topographic countours

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CHAPTER 007.1 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

348

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CHAPTER 07.1

Material Deposition Strategies on a single dune-like surface Chapter 007.1.5

CONSTRUCTION SIMULATIONS In digital simulations multicopters are controlled by an agent-based logic that controls their position by vector calculations. They also look after material and battery refilling (printing efficiencies).

In our simulations we investigated three types of relationships: copter to copter; copter to material, which is the perception the copter has of trail and stigmergy; and copter to landscape, which are the desertâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sand dunes.

The development was based on the logic of different patterns of potential material depositions over the sand dunes. After the simulation was generated and the sand is removed from the structure , the remaining shell can be evaluated based on structural analysis by digital calculations. For this reason we tested different patterns of material deposition over dune-like surfaces, deposited by a different number of agents (UAVs) and tested their efficiency and overall structural integrity.

In this part a single layer surface was used and we concluded that different patterns performed better than others, but a single layer of material was not enough for structural stability.

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350

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CHAPTER 007.1

351

CHAPTER 07.1

352

PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

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CHAPTER 07.1

353

CHAPTER 07.1 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

354

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CHAPTER 07.1

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Field 001

356

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CHAPTER 07.1

Simulation mapped on a rounded dune based swarm rules// random weaving pattern

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Field 004

358

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CHAPTER 07.1

Simulation mapped on a rounded dune based on log equation patterns and branching

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CHAPTER 07.1 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

360

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CHAPTER 07.1

361

CHAPTER 07.1 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

362

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CHAPTER 07.1

Material refilling and battery charging in a simulated environment

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CHAPTER 07.1 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

364

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Local rules applied in a simulated environment of a potential printing fieldbranching

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365

CHAPTER 07.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Thesis

Research

Application

366

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CHAPTER 07.2

Swarm behaviours

Design Strategies

Construction Sequence

Structural Integrity

Construction Sequence Chapter 07.2

Construction Sequence tested in manually printed physical models

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PLIN[θ]OS

During the first experiments, a monolithic sand mixture was used, as a construction material. Apart from its essential characteristics and efficiencies as a printing material, its basic disadvantage was that it could only perform unDuring the first experiments, a monolithic sand mixture was used, as construca conder compression forces. This guided as through a basic layering struction material.

Apart from its essential characteristics and efficiencies as to tion methodology. Multiple physical models gave as an empirical approach a printing material, its basic disadvantage was that it could only perform unthe material potentials. As we didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t want to include additives to increase its dertensional compression forces.because This guided as unsustainable through a basic layering construccapabilities of their characteristics, we tried tiontomethodology.

Multiple physical models gave as an empirical approach to integrate the initial material attributes to a form- finding process.

Structural theanalysis materialand potentials.

As we didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t want to include additives to increase its digital tests were used to simulate along with the physical model tensional capabilities because of their unsustainable tried an the basic construction element that someone couldcharacteristics, use in order towe design to integrate the initial material attributes to a formfinding process.

Structural intelligent 3d layering based form. analysis and digital tests were used to simulate along with the physical model the basic construction element that someone could use in order to design an intelligent 3d layering based form.

Moving to the sand compound as a construction material, physical models started to play their role as form-finding procedures. The strength of the material is being examined after the compound is dried and the loose sand is removed from beneath. Crossing layers of the compound form a network of lines which make the structure self-sustain, as well as interesting result in tectonics and lighting effects.

Testing the general principle in a simple compression-only structure such as a dome, we developed a series of prototypical patterning logics and we analysed their structure (show structural catalogue with domes, no columns).

53- By introducing a column into the patterns analysis we were able to alleviate the compression stress in the structure (simulation of construction sequence with column).

54- Columns can be achieved by using a simple layering technique. After they are done the dunes around them can be expanded and the structural shell printed on top of them, connecting the columns (show columns construction sequence and model).

55- But even with the column the structure would still be fragile due to the small thickness of the cross section (catalogue of structure analysis with columns).

So the idea is to repeat the construction sequence, printing multiple layers to get a good structural depth (simple and big diagram, single dune, print, add sand, print second layer, remove sand, structure).

We investigated this process through physical models of different construction sequences. (show pictures of the models side by side) The idea is that by adding small portions of sand and printing multiple interconnected layers, we create a spatial frame that improves the structure integrity (drone printed model).

The same principle was tested in a section model, using small columns in between the layers.

To improve even more the structure, layers should be thicker at the base and thinner at the top 368

AERIAL SWARM 3D PRINTING: | ROBERT STUART SMITH STUDIO| AADRL 2014-2016 |THESIS

Aerial Sand Printing

CHAPTER 07.2

Building strategies and Construction se quence based on material behaviour

Chapter 07.2.1

Moving to the sand compound as a construction material, physical models started to play their role as form-finding procedures. The strength of the material is being examined after the compound is dried and the loose sand is removed from beneath. Crossing layers of the compound form a network of lines which make the structure self-sustain, as well as interesting result in tectonics and lighting effects.

Testing the general principle in a simple compression-only structure such as a dome, we developed a series of prototypical patterning logics and we analysed their structure (show structural catalogue with domes, no columns).

By introducing a column into the patterns analysis we were able to alleviate the compression stress in the structure (simulation of construction sequence with column).

Columns can be achieved by using a simple layering technique. After they are done the dunes around them can be expanded and the structural shell printed on top of them, connecting the columns (show columns construction sequence and model).But even with the column the structure would still be fragile due to the small thickness of the cross section (catalogue of structure analysis with columns).

The main idea is to repeat the construction sequence, printing multiple layers to get a good structural depth. We examined this process through physical models of different construction sequences. By adding small portions of sand and printing multiple interconnected layers, we create a spatial frame that improves the structural integrity.

The same principle was tested in a section model, using small columns in between the layers. To improve even more the structure, layers should be thicker at the base and thinner at the top.

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369

CHAPTER 07.2

1a

PLIN[θ]OS

Single dune is used as a primary temporary scaffolding for the deposition of traversing layers of the sand compound

1b

3

2 370

As in 1a to sets of aerial printers deposit material over two or more continuous dunes. After the material is hardened enough, the rovers can start removing the loose sand to form inhabitable spaces.

UAVs begin the construction simultaneously from opposite sites to meet in the centre .

According to these scheme after one part of the first dune is used, construction begins on a second one to connect the designed shelter.

AERIAL SWARM 3D PRINTING: | ROBERT STUART SMITH STUDIO| AADRL 2014-2016 |THESIS

Aerial Sand Printing

CHAPTER 07.2

Building strategies and construction sequences diagrammatic schemes

UAVS start to print the initial geometry over a dune which they us a scaffolding.

At the same time another set of UAVs are printing a self- structure column using a layering technique.

4

After the column is ready to receive the cantilever of cell A and the amount loose sand is partially removed to form a space underneath, a second mound is used as a scaffolding. Uavs can potentially start depositing the the sand compound in the intersection of the collumn and the dune.

After loose sand is again removed a second space is formed under the same shelter.

Phase 1

Phase 2

Phase 3

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Robotic Collaboration between UAVS and UGVS - Space Frame

1

A multicopter deposits the first Layer of material on top of the dune’s surface

2

A rover collects sand and terraforms the existing dune’s surface

3

Multicopters print the second layer

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Building strategy and construction sequence diagrammatic scheme

Freshly Printed Matter Printed Matter UAV/UGV Path Sand Terraformed

Freshly Printed Matter Printed Matter UAV/UGV Path Sand 4 Terraformed

Freshly Printed Matter Printed Matter UAV/UGV Path Sand Terraformed

UGVs collects sand and distributes on top of the printed layer

5

UAV prints third layer

6

Freshly Printed Matter Printed Matter UAV/UGV Path

UGV excavates sand and the structure remains

Sand Terraformed

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During Construction: With sand dune as scaffolding

After Construction: After Sand dune has been blown away

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CHAPTER 07.2

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CHAPTER 07.2 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

step 01.

step 03.

step 02.

steps 04 & 05.

step 06.

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Construction sequence Columns model Step 01: Print columns

Step 02: Add sand dunes

Step 03: Print first layer

Step 04: Add sand dunes on top of columns

Step 05: Print second layer

Step 06: Remove loose sand

Deposition pattern - continuous loop

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Simulated construction sequence of a basic pavilion: The columns are the first to be constructed, then material is deposited on top of the above dunes and then the ground level is built

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step 01.

step 03.

step 02.

steps 04 & 05.

step 06.

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Construction sequence Section model Step 01: Sand dune

Step 04: Add sand on top of columns

Step 02: Print first layer

Step 05: Print second layer

Step 03: Print small columns

Step 06: Remove sand â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Spatial frame

Deposition pattern - continuous loop

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step 03.

step 05

step 05.

step 06.

step 07

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Construction sequence UAV-printed model

Step 01: Foam base (lightweight)

Step 05: Print second layer

Step 02: Sand dune

Step 06: Add flat layer of sand on top

Step 03: Print first layer

Step 07: Print third layer

Step 04: Add small dunes on top of printed layer

Step 08: Remove sand â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Spatial frame

Deposition pattern - random

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CHAPTER 07.3 PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Thesis

Research

Application

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Swarm behaviours

Design Strategies

Construction Sequence

Structural Integrity

Structural Integrity Chapter 007.3

Structural Analysis of dome-like formations

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CHAPTER 07.3

Structural Analysis Tests Chapter 07.3

Plinthos project thesis is arguing for a dynamic engagement between the environment, the design and the construction process. According to this sense, the land and the building become part of a single cycle where they are almost inseparable.

Testing the general principle in a simple compression-only structure such as a dome, we developed a series of prototypical patterning logics and we analyzed their structure (show structural catalogue with domes, no columns).

By introducing a column into the patterns analysis we were able to alleviate the compression stress in the structure (simulation of construction sequence with column).

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PLIN[Î&#x2DC;]OS

Thesis

Research

Application

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Research Application Chapter 008.0

008.1: Desertification and desert greening senario 008.1.2: Desert Topography - Sand dunes formations 008.1.3: Project Location - Site topography

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Degree and risk of desertification map Existing desert Moderate High Risk

in perc Arid areas

3.4%

North-Eastern Brazil, South-Western Argentina, the Southern Sahel, Zambia, Sub-Himalayan India and North Eastern China were identified as regions prone to desertification, due to spatial changes in climate indicators over the last 60 years

Surface area

0

Population

0 in perc

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Geographic regions as prone to desertification

Dryland comprise 41,3% of the global terrestrial area in 2000

cent of the global terrestrial area 10

20

10 20 cent of the global population

30

40

44%

Drylands are home to 34,7% of the global population in the same year 30

40

Figure 008.1

44%

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Satelite image of lake Chad in the Sahara Desert-shrunk by 94% in 50 years Figure 008.2

Figure 008.3

Aerial Sand Printing

CHAPTER 08

Desertification and Desert-greening scenario Chapter 08.1

Due to climate changes, the world has been going through a process of desertification. It is an issue that threatens more than one billion people in more than 100 countries (figure 008.1). The phenomenon of desertification is occurring fast. The projection is that by 2050, arid areas will represent more than 20% of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s land (figure 008.2,3).

To help reversing this situation there is a technique called Desert Greening, which is the process of man-made reclamation of deserts. It is most commonly implemented for ecological reasons (biodiversity), farming and forestry, and also for reclamation of natural water systems. Desert greening is more or less a function of water availability. Oases, isolated areas of vegetation in a desert, surrounding a water source that is formed from underground rivers could play a key role in the hydration of the site (figure 008.4).

Figure 008.4

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Desert areas Potential construction site

Taking into consideration the above facts, and since the project is implemented in harsh desert environments near water sources for material to be locally sourced, an opportunity for desert greening can be further considered.

According to project research, it can be argued that there is the ability to employ robotic technology for the constant monitoring of desert regions where desert-greening initiatives can be autonomously identified and executed with frequency and urgency in the hope of reducing the increasingly serious adverse affects of climate change. Desert regions where water sources are identified are suggested as opportunistic locations for the autonomous construction of oasis irrigation, plantations and temporary accommodation shelters.

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CHAPTER 08

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Desert topography - Sand Dunes formations Chapter 08.1

Sand dunes play a key role in our strategy as they serve as natural scaffolding for construction. In a desert there are actually many different sand dune geometries. They are affected mainly by the windâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s direction and speed. Most sand dunes are stable, but if the wind is strong enough the phenomenon of the traveling sand dunes appears.

The smaller the dune is the faster it migrates. Large sand dunes can move 4 to 15 meters per year, which means it can completely turnover in between 6 and 25 years.

Based on the fact that the design is emergent and affected by the terrain itself as well as the swarm behaviours examined in the previous chapter, we could argue that aerial sand printing thesis frames an adaptive process able to be implemented in different dune formations. At the same time, during a migratory desert phenomenon on-board and vision calculations of the multicopters, the design proposal could migrate as well, being able to adjust in relation to the environment. (see diagram of burchan dune transformation).

For the purposes of this design research we accessed a certain kind of dunesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; typologies based on space and structural criteria as well as aesthetic perception.

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Population of rovers = 50

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Project location - site topography Chapter 08.1

Large Sand dunes Formaations sand

space 1

space 2

space 3

A combination of transverse dunes was selected as a basis for our design application. These typologies are common in desert environments. In terms of space formation it has been â&#x20AC;&#x153;dividedâ&#x20AC;? into three interior shell structures. The S shape dune will be firstly excavated to form 2 smaller dunes, while the barchan dune will be connected to the S shape one gradually, as material and sand are deposited, in the construction process.

oasis

water

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CHAPTER 008.2

Architectural Design Prototype Chapter 008.2

08.2.1: Swarm Behaviour - Emergent Design Process 08.2.2: Structural integrity 08.2.3: Desert -greening process 08.2.4: Project lifecycle 08.2.5: Rendered views of the design prototypes in sand remote sites.

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Local Rules based on Stigmergy

Alignment to previous trail (material deposition)

After material is being deposited from a UAV, based on camera vision, the following is able to align to its trail. An angle of vision of 30o has been used to simulate the agents range of vision.

Agentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; self-organization around the construction area

(in this case the first set (type 1) is organized around the higher dune

Uavs are self organizing on the lowest points of the existing topography

410

zmax

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Allignment to the topographic contours of the dune and wind as a parameter affects the UAVs direction

field 001 wind=0m/s

field 002 wind=2m/s

field 003 wind=15m/s

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Multilayered deposition strategy

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Top View

Perspective View

Elevation Displacement analysis

Stress Analysis

Stress Distribution

WIND DIRECTION TENTACLES

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Structural analysis of the proposed shell

indicative double layer section

Exterior Top Level 6.0m

Interior Top Level

3.6m

Ground Level Upper Ground Level Lower Ground Level

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Desert greening through water channels Chapter 08.1

Vegetation along pathways Pathway Sand compound-printing material Upper sand suface

Oasis water channel along the pathway

underground water

Excavation and material deposition by the ground and aerial vehicles respectively, enables desert greening through water canals

Section 1-1

Oasis water channel along the pathway

Sand compound-printing material

Oasis

underground water

Section 2-2

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S2

Aerial Sand Printing

S1

S1 Pathway Sand compound-printing material

After the site and the appropriate sand dunes are selected based on size, shape, proximity from the water source, possibility to re-green based on current site condition. the work begins when the rovers start excavating material construction pits along points (most suitable for aerial refilling ) around the dune, which becomes the main focus for all the robotic behaviour. When the pits are constructed the rover begin to turn the pits into hard rock beds by using the construction material to line the sides of the material construction vat.

Channels are dug out and lined the same way and the construction material is made in these large vats.Â

S2

Oasis

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CHAPTER 008.2

Identification of potential construction sites and deployment of the robotic machines Chapter 08.1

The construction process begins with identifying water sources on locations in a desert environment, those areas which show potential for desert re-greening are chose and selected. Since these locations are not easily identified by any other means other than a satellite system that is able to monitor weather conditions, surface conditions, geological status for construction Aerial and ground robots are deployed to these spots that are able to support the re-greening procedure that we envision. Â After the aerial robots are deployed they being by scanning the area until they come into contact with this predetermined site condition, i.e. water source.

In the next step they start establishing fitness criteria for sand dunes near the water source and scan dunes that are able to establish suitable criteria for construction these are: Size, shape, proximity from the water source, possibility to re-green based on current site condition. This information is again redistributed along the construction rules, For Example: to be able to calculate the necessary contents necessary for the construction process, like amount of print material needed, number of robots required for the process, construction time and the amount of sand displaced in order to establish the structure and operate based on conditions given but the satellite about weather and site conditions.

After the pits are constructed the rover begin to turn the pits into pathways,the aerial robots being to self organise around the sand dune and start to collect the construction material that is manufactured in these large ground vats,to start aerial robotic printing.Â

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CHAPTER 08.2

The printing process is a result of local rules that arise between the quad-copters these are rules that arise of swarm behaviour systems. They incorporate cohesion and separation conditions, printing conditions, material deposition behaviours start effecting the printing and flight behaviour. For example: Some printing conditions are to print as close to the previously printed line or material. The construction sequence arises out of creating layers of printed material in particular formations, forming a space frame arising from the slump behaviour of the printing material and the way the scaffolding is displaced to create intermediate sand layers between construction material. The rovers aid in this regard as a particular volume of sand is displaced to create these intermediate layers of sand.

After the construction is completed the excavation of the sand dune starts from lowermost portion of the dune, the sand is displaced from the bottom of the dune and this way large volume of sand is easily displaced as the structure emerges from the shape of the sand dune itself.

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424

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427

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428

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Plintos project argues for a migratory logic where the space crafted is the result of a confrontation between climatic conditions, structural forces and site topography. The aimed result is an ephemeral structure that changes over time and, after its no longer in use, naturally degrades. The system would then become a truly sustainable form of architecture, creating a closed loop that uses on-site, widely available materials to construct buildings that are reintroduced into the natural landscape once their lifespan has been reached.

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Acknowledgments

STUDIO MASTERS Theodore Spyropoulos (Director) Robert Stuart-Smith (Studio Supervisor) Patrik Schumacher Shajay Bhooshan TUTOR ASSISTANTS Tyson Hosmer Melhem Sfeir TECHNICAL CONSULTANTS AKT II design-led structural and civil engineering consultancy Erle Robotics S.L. Vicon Motion Systems Animation Industry SPECIAL THNKS Dr.Shaheena Bannu \ Christina Bali \ Vinay Shekhar \ Francesca Zanetti \ Pavlina Vardoulaki \ AA Security and Maintenance Phase 1

Yuhan Li

Aya Riad

Sujitha Sundraraj

CHAPTER 08.2

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