aviNews International March 2023

THE MOST COMPACT THIGH DEBONER ON THE MARKET.

PEOPLE EVERYWHERE

As an editor of international agriculture trade journals, I have been in the favorite position of traveling to many places around the globe. Like recently, when I paid a short visit to India. Earlier I had been there and I was struck again by the population density in this country. Everywhere around you will see people, out in the streets, in the parks, everywhere! And you will see poverty as well, particularly in the outskirts of the major cities.

Up till today, China with a population of 1.4 billion, was and still is the country with the highest population in the world. However, according to calculations and predictions of the United Nations, the population of India will surpass China “officially” this coming April up to an expected 1.6 billion in 2040. Compare this to the USA with a population of “only” 340 million and the EU with 446 million citizens. Currently, economic growth in India reaches about 6 to 8 percent annually with a relatively young population. And what about the African continent? Its population is growing exponentially with about 2.5 percent per year and currently also reaches over 1.4 billion citizens. In short, both India (and other countries in Asia) and the African continent are major players in the world economy.

Given these figures, it doesn’t need much explanation that concurrently with the growing world population, there is a growing demand for nutritious food in the world.

Since August last year, Dr. Michèle Tixier-Boichard from France serves in the position as global president of the World’s Poultry Science Association (WPSA). In an exclusive interview with Dr. Tixier-Boichard in this edition of aviNews, she shares her views on how the international poultry business may contribute to feeding the ever growing

world population, particularly in developing countries. After all, apart from the vegetarian way of life, poultry products and eggs are widely accepted across the globe, as these have no religious limitations and chickens have the most favorable feed conversation of all animal species.

“Both poultry meat and eggs are nutritious and affordable food, so making this accessible to the world population is essential. A commitment for WPSA and for me as current president, is to contribute to that goal”, she says.

To this end, Dr. Tixier-Boichard aims to extend the influence of WPSA institutions from across the world in scientific research, rather than just from just Europe and North America, which has long been the case. And search for the possibilities to sharing knowledge on a global scale.

“After all, for example, some issues simply don’t stop at the border”, she says. Think of Avian Influenza which is truly a global disease and needs to be tackled on a global scale. Also, there may be a limit in ever increasing poultry performance. “We must find an optimal balance between production, animal welfare and environmental impact. Better optimize than maximize”, Dr. Tixier-Boichard states.

And this is as true as it can be. Read the interview with Dr. Tixier Boichard in this issue of aviNews International, as well as other useful and in-depth articles on professional poultry production. All with the aim to produce affordable and nutritious food across the world, now and in the future!

Enjoy and learn!

Ad Bal

EDITOR

GRUPO DE COMUNICACIÓN AGRINEWS LLC

ADVERTISING

Luis Carrasco +34 605 09 05 13 lc@agrinews.es

Maria Camila Alfaro +57 323 4376572 aviglobal@grupoagrinews.com

CUSTOMER SUPPORT

Mercé Soler

EDITORIAL STAFF

Ad Bal

José Luis Valls

Osmayra Cabrera

Daniela Morales

Maria de los Angeles Gutiérrez

Maria Camila Alfaro

Gustavo Quintana

TECHNICAL DIRECTION

Edgar Oviedo

Eduardo Cervantes

The objective of any poultry operation is to be productive. This can only be achieved with healthy flocks, whether these produce meat or eggs. A clean farm with a comprehensive biosecurity program is a prerequisite for achieving that goal. Stick to the rules for cleanness, starting at the gate already!

Good production practices appropriately implemented in the rearing phase are crucial for the maximum genetic expression of breeding hens, being a facilitator and inducer so that the birds can express the highest degree of health and animal welfare when interacting with the environment.

When consumers buy chicken meat, price, and quality are important to their decisions. However, an increasing number of consumers are also considering the health implications associated with their consumption.

Through genetic improvement, a broiler’s growth rate and target body weight has accelerated over the years, which requires a regular review of nutritional formulations. Moreover, research is providing more information regarding the complex interactions of feed components at the macro and molecular level in the gastrointestinal tract.

With the constant genetic improvement and the increasingly frequent housing of heavy turkey lines, the incubation process must go through reviews of all its stages, adapting or correcting its process and procedures

Kali Simioni Agricultural Engineer, F&S Consulting Ad Bal Editor at aviNews International

Alfredo Corujo Fernández Manager R&D/Quality, GRUPO SADA, P.A S.A Food Research Center

Vitor Hugo Nutritionist, World Technical Services-Cobb Vantress

Luis F. Klein Technical Consultant at Hybrid Turkeys Brazil

Quail egg production systems 38

Antonio Gilberto Bertechini1

Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón2

1Federal University of Lavras

2North Carolina State University

Quails ranked second in the average share of domestic birds slaughtered annually worldwide, according to FAOSTAT (2018), after chickens. Almost 10% of all table egg numbers worldwide come from quail, while they contribute almost 0.2% of global poultry meat, which is between 200,000 and 240,000 tonnes.

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Avian Chlamydiosis

Avian Chlamydiosis is a zoonotic infectious disease caused by the bacterium Chlamydia psittaci and is also known as Psittacosis or Ornithosis. It produces a systemic infection, mainly respiratory, and is occasionally fatal in birds and mammals, including humans.

Interview Dr. Jesse Campbell

Jesse Campbell Professor at Auburn University

In this opportunity, Dr. Jesse Campbell, Professor at Auburn University and member of the National Poultry Technology Center, shared his experiences in training personnel for the poultry industry. This is a very critical aspect of any production sector, but especially in agriculture.

Interview Dr. Michèle TixierBoichard

WPSA President

In August last year, the four-yearly world congress of WPSA took place in Paris, France. As the chair of the congress, Dr. Michèle Tixier-Boichard was elected to serve in the position as WPSA president for the next four years, taking over from Professor Dr Ning Yang from China.

Farm report: Chicks hatch on the floor of the broiler house

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Salmonella Infantis: An emerging serotype that became resident? Part II

Some Salmonella spp serotypes can survive after heat treatment of feed and litter. The survival of S. infantis after heat treatment of feed is not very clear. However, some studies have demonstrated its presence in finished feed for broilers, but it is possible that this is due to post-treatment recontamination, rather than the heat resistance characteristic.

Mycotoxins: Small in size, big in damage,

Diogo Ito

Nutritionist Hendrix Genetics Layers

The genetic improvement of laying hens has provided a constant increase in the quantity and quality of eggs and helps egg producers to obtain better economic profitability flock after flock. Factors such as rising production costs, new animal welfare requirements and increased consumer demand, make producers pay attention to flock productivity.

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Research Highlights: International Poultry Scientific Forum 2023

Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón

North Carolina State University, Prestage Department of Poultry Science, Raleigh, NC

The International Poultry Scientific Forum (IPSF) 2023 was held between January 23 and 24 in Atlanta, GA, right before the International Production and Processing Expo (IPPE). More than 1,300 attendees participated in this meeting, making it again one of the biggest annual poultry scientific gatherings worldwide.

TECHNICAL direction

EDITOR

Edgar Oviedo

Professor, Extension poultry specialist

TECHNICAL partner

Juan Carlos Morales Luna DVM at UNAM

Martha Pulido Landinez DVM, MS, PhD, DACPV. Associate Clinical Professor. Poultry Diagnosis and Research Laboratory (PRDL). College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University.

KEEP THE FARM CLEAN FOR PRODUCTIVE FLOCKS

The objective of any poultry operation is to be productive. This can only be achieved with healthy flocks, whether these produce meat or eggs. A clean farm with a comprehensive biosecurity program is a prerequisite for achieving that goal. Stick to the rules for cleanness, starting at the gate already!

It is well known that poultry is highly susceptible to diseases. If an infection arises, it never is limited to one single bird, but will hit the entire flock. A dreaded example is highly contagious avian flu, officially named avian influenza, which strikes the poultry business across the globe time and time again.

An outbreak of avian flu or any other contagious disease can happen quite easily. Some of these have a period to survive of just hours to days, other may last much longer, up to even months.

An infectious and disease is not just harming poultry. It may also seriously impact human health. After all, poultry and poultry products end up in the food chain and thus may seriously impact the health status of food products from this origin.

In the event of a highly contagious disease, there is no alternative but culling flocks and taking measures to get the disease under control again. This usually happens.

Such a measure, like in The Netherlands, is a ban on transporting poultry and poultry products, initiated by the government, in the area where a disease outbreak had happened.

Preventive measures of course are the best way to prevent such a disease outbreak. That’s not always possible however, as wild birds can be disease transmitters. They may convey an infection through their droppings.

Also there are other transmitters like small animals (rats and mice in particular), who can easily find their way inside poultry houses.

And one should not forget vehicles and who may carry pathogens with them onto a poultry farm and on these premises from house to house.

STRICT STANDARDS

At the end, it is all about reducing pathogens on the farm as good as possible. The best would be down to zero, or at least as close to be as possible. That means: keeping strong standards in terms of farm lay-out and design, a clean environment, discipline among farm staff and being very critical in allowing visitors to enter the premises.

First of all, a good fence around the entire farming operation should keep every “non wanted visitor” away. After all, there is no reason for them to enter the site. All gates at all farm sites should be kept locked at all time (Photo 1 and 2)

Even if visitors do have permission, every vehicle should pass through a sanitation gate, including cleaning and showering the entire vehicle (Photo 3).

Photo 1. It is advisable to surround the entire farm by a fence, thus preventing unwanted visitors to enter the premises

Photo 2. In rural areas usually fences are not available. In such circumstances a clear sign should keep visitors away

Photo 3. When entering the yard of a poultry farm, all vehicles that are entering must pass through a sanitation gate

Visitors and personnel must wear proper and clean company clothing and shoes. Before entering the houses, shoe disinfection at the entrance should be mandatory

(Photo 4).

DECONTAMINATION

Furthermore it doesn’t need much explanation that cleaning and disinfection are key elements in biosecurity on poultry farms. Applying both these two measures adequately will lead to proper “decontamination”.

Then there is the lay-out of the site. The less obstacles, the better. A house which is surrounded by nothing, is far better than trees or bushes around. This discourages rodents and other small animals to roaming around. Hence they will stay away. And if yet any rodents are present, traps are advisable (Photo 5).

Put them in strategic spots, such as alongside the walls of a poultry house. And make sure that all the vegetation around the house is permanently kept as short as possible.

First of all a poultry house needs to thoroughly be cleaned after each production cycle (Photo 6).

That starts with dry cleaning, thereby removing all dust and organic material.

Wet cleaning with the use of detergents is the next step.

Proper cleaning will remove 80 percent of all disease agents already.

Once everything is clean, applying a disinfectant will finish the job.

Photo 4. Protective clothing, as well as boots or shoe covers are recommended when entering a farming operation. Farm staff is supposed to wear company clothing

Photo 5. A clean yard is the basis for keeping rodents and other unwanted animals to staying away. Wire netting must keep wild birds outside the poultry house

It is important to realize that disinfectants will lose effectiveness during contact with disease agents. Organic materials such as manure, blood, dust or dirt absorb disinfectants and makes them less effective. Hence, adequate cleaning is essential before disinfection.

Adequate protection of skin, mouth and eyes is therefore of great importance to not get exposed to disinfectants.

It should also be known that disinfectants are dangerous, as these are poisonous and therefore can be harmful to humans.

Acute (fast) toxicity with certain disinfectants may cause dizziness, nausea and itchy eyes or skin.

Chronic (slow) toxicity will occur gradually over many years and may cause permanent disability because the body has become very sensitive.

Keep the farm clean for productive flocks DOWNLOAD

Photo 6. Thorough cleaning of poultry house and all removable inventory must be carried out after each round

QUALITY CONTROL OF

CHICKEN MEAT THROUGH NIRS TECHNOLOGY

Alfredo Corujo Fernández Manager R&D/Quality,

Food Research Center

When consumers buy chicken meat, price, and quality are important to their decisions. However, an increasing number of consumers are also considering the health implications associated with their consumption.

This demand has led to a greater need to ensure quality in production. New quality control methods are required to meet this demand since traditional analysis methods are lengthy, require toxic solvents and reagents, and can be expensive.

For these reasons, developing rapid, environmentally friendly, and noninvasive methods for meat quality prediction or authentication of valueadded meat products has become a priority in recent years.

GRUPO SADA, P.A S.A

In this sense, nearinfrared spectroscopy (NIRS) could be considered a fast and cost-effective alternative.

Fundamentals of Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)

Although NIRS is known as a new technology, it was discovered in the 1800s when Herschel found that the scattering of electromagnetic waves beyond the visible range of the spectrum could be observed by using an array of blackened bulb thermometers. However, it was not until the 1960s that significant developments in NIRS technology occurred.

Near-infrared spectroscopy measures the absorption of electromagnetic radiation, including wavelengths from 750 to 2,500 nm.

The absorptions measured by NIRS correspond mainly to overtones and combinations of vibrational modes involving C-H, O-H, and N-H chemical bonds.

The electromagnetic radiation absorbed from these molecular bonds at NIRS wavelengths produces spectra unique to a sample acting as a “fingerprint.”

Figure 1: Classification of rays according to their wavelength

Advantages and limitations of NIRS technology

Among the advantages of the application of NIRS technology concerning traditional methods of analysis, we can mention the following:

The speed of the method. Once the instrument has been correctly calibrated, it allows a speed of response for decision-making.

Possibility of carrying out several determinations on the same sample.

The non-destructive procedure is very important, mainly if a small sample is available or it is of high value.

Environmentally friendly technique since it does not require reagents when making the determinations, it does not generate any waste.

It has a low cost per sample.

No or little sample preparation is necessary.

Ease of use in routine analysis.

It has a precision close to reference methods.

On the other hand, as with all technology, it also has limitations. The main ones are:

The complexity of the NIRS signal makes it necessary to apply chemometric techniques that allow modeling the data and quantifying problem samples.

The preparation of the calibration is difficult since it is necessary to have samples to widen the concentration range of the test samples (usually, they represent too narrow a concentration range). In addition, they must represent physical and chemical characteristics similar to the real ones.

It is not possible to analyze test samples that present a variability (physical or chemical) not considered in the calibration.

The technique is not very sensitive, especially in diffuse reflectance measurements, making it generally impossible to analyze minority components.

It presents difficulties in transferring different instruments’ calibrations since minor differences can lead to errors in the results. Therefore, it is necessary to prepare a calibration for each instrument to analyze the same test sample.

Types of analysis with NIRS technology

The application of this technology can be approached from two methods:

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

In the quantitative analysis, the most widespread within the applications of NIRS technology, the concentration of an analyte in a given sample is estimated.

To do so, the relationship (mathematical equation) between the absorbance values in the NIRS region and the concentration of said analyte, determined by a reference method in samples of known composition, must be established.

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

The qualitative analysis compares unknown samples’ spectra with groups of NIRS spectra of samples with known characteristics (Mark, 1992).

These characteristics or attributes, categorical and non-continuous variables, can be, for example:

geographic origin

Variety

Type of product

Power type, etc.

This process is known as the calibration stage, the mathematical relationship developed is called the calibration equation, and the group of composition samples is designated as the calibration group

Once the calibration equation is established, it predicts the content of other samples similar in characteristics to those included in the calibration group.

It should be noted that the main difference between the qualitative with the quantitative analysis is that, in this case, it is not necessary to have any additional chemical data to the NIRS data, so the learning set is only made up of NIR spectral information. Hence it can be called spectral analysis per se

Potential NIRS applications in chicken

meat quality:

Based on different published studies on the application of NIRS technology in chicken meat, it has been reported that it could be applied, among others, to:

1. The classification of chicken meat into quality grades such as pale, soft, and exudative (PSE); dark, firm, and dry (DFD); and normal (N) or pale (P) samples by determining physical and chemical parameters such as color, water holding capacity, and pH.

2. Online detection of “wooden breast” by measuring moisture, fat, and protein content.

3. Detection of chicken meat that has been frozen repeatedly.

4. Prediction of the life span of packaged chicken cut ups related to the increase of altering flora on the product’s surface.

Advances, challenges & future possibilities

One of the most important advances in the application of NIRS technology is its online application.

Online NIRS analysis has exhibited rapid development in the last decade, but several obstacles and possible solutions have been detected during that development.

One of the main obstacles while performing the NIRS analysis was the low separation distances in the range of millimeters between the probe and the product.

This problem has been overcome with direct sample illumination by a halogen light source, which allows high probe separation distances in the range of 30 cm or more.

Still, on the other hand, the amount of thermal energy produced by the halogen source would not be feasible in products susceptible to heat sources.

Another major obstacle is the inaccurate representation of the composition of highly heterogeneous samples such as meat when single-point NIRS is used.

Multipoint NIRS illustrates the potential to provide a better representation of these samples.

When performing NIRs analysis online, there are motion artifacts (MA) produced by vibrations, movement between probes and sample, and sudden changes in effective path length.

Spectroscopic observations depend on the clean observation window (clean probe tips). Therefore, if fouling occurs at the probe tip, it will eventually lead to poor analysis.

Developments are aimed at designing fibers that are easy to clean or selfcleaning.

In an industrial environment, NIRS measurements are sensitive to various external factors, such as:

Environment temperature

Spectrophotometer temperature

Submitting samples to NIRS probes

Wavelength changes and others

CONCLUSIONS

NIRS has experienced massive growth as a popular and reliable analytical tool for online monitoring of meat and meat products for various reasons, such as speed and non-destructive nature.

High yields have been achieved in studies aimed at predicting the chemical composition of various meat products using online NIRS. In addition, good or reasonable predictions for sensory characteristics, such as color, tenderness, etc., and pH, have illustrated high potential for NIRS. However, advances in technology and design can be necessary to meet the desired performance under industrial conditions.

On the other hand, continuous developments in computer technology and chemometrics allow high precision in measurements. Furthermore, the growing

Quality control of chicken meat through NIRS technology

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CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS A NECESSARY BALANCE

IN BROILER DIETS

INTRODUCTION

Through genetic improvement , a broiler’s growth rate and target body weight has accelerated over the years, which requires a regular review of nutritional formulations.

Moreover, research is providing more information regarding the complex interactions of feed components at the macro and molecular level in the gastrointestinal tract.

When formulating feed, considering the synergistic and antagonistic interactions of ingredients can optimize formulations to promote performance and support animal health and welfare.

Nutritionist, World Technical Services-Cobb Vantress

Five of the minerals:

Calcium

Phosphorus

Sodium

Chloride and Potassium

That are supplemented in broiler diets are important regulators of homeostasis and involved in cell signaling.

Calcium and phosphorus are also important in skeletal development, strength, and maintenance

FUNCTIONS OF Ca AND P

In the body, 99% of Ca and 80% of P is stored in the bones as hydroxyapatite. The remaining 1% is in cell organelles and extracellular fluid.

Calcium functions outside the bones

Required for muscle contraction

Regulating heartbeat

Nerve conduction

Blood coagulation

Regulates cellular osmotic pressure

Organic Phosphorus bound to proteins and blood cells encompasses 70 % of phosphorus. Inorganic Phosphorus (Pi) can be ionized (Phosphates), complexed with cations (Na+, Ca++, Mg++), or bound to proteins.

Ca and P are largely located in the bones and two of the most abundant minerals in the body. Consequences of imbalanced ratios or deficiencies of Ca or P in broiler diets include reduced growth performance, increased feed efficiency, poor bone mineralization, or, in severe cases, death.

Amino acid digestibility and P availability can also decrease when an excess of Ca is present in the diet.

Phosphorus / Phosphate functions outside the bones

Nucleic acid (DNA and RNA) backbones

Cell signaling

Gene transcription

Energy compounds (ATP) founded on P

Enzyme activity

Proteins, carbohydrates, fat metabolism

EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

During embryo development, P is mainly stored in the yolk while Ca is stored in the yolk and eggshell.

It was reported that P concentrations in the yolk at Day 0 are reduced by half at Day 17. Conversely, Ca concentrations in the yolk nearly double over the same time.

The increase in Ca occurs because it is absorbed from the eggshell into the embryonic circulatory system and then deposited in the yolk (Figure 1). However, P is limited to the amount that was deposited in the yolk from the hen.

The embryo uses the Ca and P stores for bone construction during incubation. At hatch, only yolk sac stores of these minerals are available. In addition to bone mineralization, Ca and P are also needed for other cellular and metabolic processes.

Figure 1. The allantoic membrane fuses with the chorion to form the chorioallanotic membrane. This highly vascular membrane develops around day 5 to 6 and adheres to the inner shell membrane. The chorioallanotic membrane functions in gas exchange and, at about day 10, begins absorbing and actively transporting calcium from the shell to the embryonic vascular system. The calcium is then deposited and stored in the yolk. This process continues until day 17.

GROWTH

During incubation, the long skeletal bones rapidly grow in width and length. (The

After hatch, the leg bones lengthen and expand radially very rapidly. The cortex (compact outer bone) becomes porous because the deposition of collagen outpaces the rate of mineralization. However, the cortex thickness and mineralization reach a maximum at about 4 to 5 weeks of age.

Bones continue to grow throughout the life of the broiler and require a steady supply of dietary Ca and P. However, the rate of growth and requirement of Ca and P at different stages should be considered.

For good skeletal foundation and development, nutritionists agree that Ca and P should be the highest in pre-starter and starter feeds.

BONE GROWTH : MODELING AND REMODELING

Both modeling and remodeling require Ca and P to mineralize and harden the bones.

Without sufficienwt levels of Ca and P, bones will not harden!

Chronic deficiency of P and / or Ca causes impaired skeletal mineralization, a common characteristic of Rickets.

Bone modeling is the physiological process of bone growth in shape and size. Bone modeling is predominant in developing and young birds. Bones grow both longitudinally and radially. Bone modeling occurs in response to mechanical or physiological impacts, such as weight gain.

Bone remodeling occurs throughout life and is the replacement or renewal of old bone (Figure 2). The process is necessary so that bones can maintain strength and repair microfractures.

Moreover, remodeling is required to release Ca and P stores when blood levels are low and these minerals are needed for other cellular functions.

Figure 2. In bone remodeling, osteoclasts absorb bone tissue and Ca and P are released. Macrophages support the osteoblast formation of bone and engulf any osteoblasts that die and do not become embedded in the new bone. To create new bone, osteoblasts first secrete osteoid, a collagen matrix. Some osteoblasts will become embedded in the matrix. The osteoid matrix is then calcified by the addition of Ca and P.

ABSORPTION, SECRETION, AND REGULATION

Calcium and phosphate levels in the body are controlled by balancing intestinal absorption with renal excretion. Both are absorbed in the intestinal tract. However, availability is also regulated by reabsorption and excretion in the kidneys.

Figure 3. Center diagram: Calcium blood levels are controlled by hormones (Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) and Calcitonin). When blood Ca levels are low, PTH simulates the absorption via the kidney and bone stores are also released. When blood Ca levels are high, calcitonin is produced. The kidneys reduce reabsorption and excrete excess.

Calcium can also be stored in the bones. Vitamin D, ingested with feed, can be processed through the liver and kidneys to the active form D3 . The activation of Vitamin D requires Magnesium. Vitamin D3 increases gastrointestinal absorption of calcium.

Inset top left: Calcitonin increases the uptake of magnesium.

Inset bottom right: Vitamin D3 increases the renal sorption of phosphorus, while parathyroid hormone decreases renal reabsorption.

When body stores are low, gastrointestinal absorption, bone resorption, and renal reabsorption increase. Conversely, excreting and decreasing gastrointestinal absorption can reduce levels.

GASTROINTESTINAL ABSORPTION CALCIUM

Factors favoring Calcium absorption

Correct Ca to P ratio (no more than 2:1)

Healthy intestinal tract

Acidic pH (prevents complex formations and precipitation)

Presence of organic acids

High protein diet (Lysine and Arginine promote absorption)

Presence of vitamin D

Factors inhibiting Calcium absorption

Incorrect Ca to P ratio (1:2 inhibits Ca uptake)

Poor intestinal health

Alkaline pH (Ca will complex and precipitate)

High dietary fat intake (forms calcium soaps that are excreted)

PHOSPHATE

The kidneys are the major regulator of phosphate blood concentrations, although regulation is also adjusted by intestinal absorption. Phosphorus is both actively transported and freely diffuses across the cells in the small intestines. For active transport, a sodium-coupled co-transporter is the major pathway. Expression and activity of this co-transporter is regulated by the availability of phosphorus. When phosphorus is restricted, there is an increase in activity and prevalence of transporters on the apical membrane of small intestine cells. If the demand for Pi decreases, excess is removed by the kidneys.

SCIENCE BASED RECOMMENDATIONS

Calcium and Phosphorus

The nutritional needs of a bird are dynamic and, as such, feed formulations can either over or under supply some feed components depending on the bird’s age and needs.

Figure 4. The kidneys are a major regulator of phosphorus by increasing or decreasing renal uptake. Intestinal absorption can be increased or decreased through the expression and activity of the active transporter NaPi-2b. Parathyroid hormone decreases renal absorption by decreasing the abundance of active transporters in the renal tubules.

One solution is to use multiphase feeding so that, as the number of feed formulations increases, the ability to precisely provide the correct nutritional requirements also increases

Our 2022 Cobb500 broiler supplement provides 5 different diet recommendations (starter, grower 1, grower 2, finisher 1, finisher 2) to target aged-based nutritional needs more precisely.

SUMMARY

Through genetic selection, the Cobb broiler’s growth and target body weight has accelerated during recent years.

Moreover, research has provided further insight into the interactions of calcium and phosphorus and their impact on performance. For these reasons, Cobb has published new guidelines for dietary inclusion of these feed components.

Compared to amino acid and energy nutrition research, there is considerably less information about mineral nutrition. Moreover, most nutritionists acknowledge that there are opportunities and needs for a better understanding of the effect of Ca and P on broilers performance.

Cobb Vantress has been actively researching the requirements of these minerals in broilers. Based on these research studies, in 2022, we published new recommendations of Ca and Available P for our Cobb500 Broilers.

It is important to note that good nutrition is one part of being able to attain the full genetic potential of the Cobb broiler. A good management program must be in place. Our Cobb broiler supplement provides all the nutrition and performance guidelines.

The Cobb Broiler Management Guide is also available, which is designed to assist you in developing your management program.

References upon request

REARING: “THE RIGHT BEGINNING” FOR AN EXCELLENT EGG PRODUCTION

Kali Simioni Agricultural Engineer, F&S Consulting

Tproduction in breeder farms is undoubtedly the rearing phase, which can be subdivided into three phases:

“Starter” phase (0 days to 4 weeks)

“Grower” phase (From 4 to 14 weeks approximately).

“Pre-breeder” phase (From 14 weeks to transfer to egg production).

The focus here is quality progeny! For this, it is important to have uniform breeder flocks (In body weight and carcass size), healthy flocks with a high degree of animal welfare, which will produce fertile eggs of the ideal quality and size to shape uniform and healthy broiler flocks.

And yes, you are right if you think the first “door” leading to successful breeding could be even before the birds (male and female parent stock) arrive at the rearing farms.

Preparation of facilities and equipment,

Many factors interfere, such as:

Nutrition

Parent stock origin (Male and female)

Genetic line Light Health, etc.

These factors influence both productivity and the quality of fertile egg production. However, we know that good production practices appropriately implemented in the rearing phase are crucial for the maximum genetic expression of breeding hens, being a facilitator and inducer so that the birds can express the highest degree of health and animal welfare when interacting with the environment. The result of this is always expressed in increased productivity and quality!

Adequate environment,

Litter quality, Space that allows an adequate density for the well-being of the birds,

Space for separation according to the size of the birds (in situations where the composition of the flock has different ages),

Quality diet and adequate feed intake,

Availability of quality water, Light program to use, Vaccination program, Biosecurity, etc.

These essential factors must be present even before the birds arrive on the farm.

For each phase, a different management! This is the motto for a “good start.” If we do not keep the ideal conditions for the bird in each phase of its life, we lose its productive quality second by second. Knowing the physiology, health, and well-being of the birds at each phase is undoubtedly the key that opens the first “door” to expressing the highest degree of uniformity and viability in rearing breeders for production.

STARTER PHASE

The starter phase constitutes the first “rearing phase” (from 0 days to 4 weeks) and is also known as the “initial management phase.” In this period, the skeletal development of birds occurs.

Thinking of high-performance breeders, this development is directly related to the expression of the ideal uniformity of the carcass throughout the life of the birds. Therefore, this is the motto of this phase: Skeletal development!

A golden tip for this phase is the importance of checking the composition of the flock! If there are birds hatched of different ages, they need to be housed separately, which means grouped by close weights so that the desired uniformity is achieved from the first day of the life of the broiler breeders. Believe it!

It is possible to achieve better weight gain in younger birds if they are kept separated during the first days. Adjustment of equipment, availability of feed and water, and competition/voracity for feeding are some factors that justify this initial management.

Other important tips are to carry out the first selection at this phase (generally between 7 to 10 days) and guarantee an initial feeding managed daily by the birds’ grams bird per day (g/bird/day).

broiler breeders

GROWER PHASE

In the grower phase (approximately 4-14 weeks), the main objective is to ensure uniform weight and sexual maturity of birds within a flock until they reach the “Prebreeder” phase.

Controlling body weight according to the growth curve established by the genetic line should be the focus of this phase. The low uniformity is not an indicator of quality and high performance in the parent stock. Both body weight and carcass size will determine the uniformity and size of hatching eggs produced and, consequently, the quality of the progeny. This is the motto of this phase: Uniformity!

While in males, it is also recommended to schedule a final selection before the transfer, close to 20/21 weeks, in the “Pre-breeder” phase.

The handling during selection is another important piece of advice; an experienced professional must carry it out in such a way that the animal welfare of the birds is always taken care of.

“PRE-BREEDER” PHASE

The golden tips for this phase are:

Manage the transition to feeders gradually, always ensuring that all birds have access to feed consumption at the same time;

Keep the lighting program adjusted;

Plan the vaccination program strategically (containment method and route of application) and keep, in a disciplined way, the next recommended selections - generally carried out at weeks 4, 8, 12, and 16, both in males and females.

The “Pre-breeder” phase (from week 14 to transfer) is one that, as its name suggests, is the phase in which the birds prepare for laying. Here, the body weight gain for the formation of the nutrient reserve for the beginning of the production phase is essential and must also be followed according to the standard weight curve of the genetic line.

The management of this body weight must always be uniform within the flock and controlled according to the year’s season and the bird’s physiology, seeking a synchronized start of production. This is the motto of this phase: Synchronized Production!

In all phases, the flock’s health is fundamental, both for its expression of health and animal welfare and for future progeny; it means for the quality of the progeny that, consequently, allows it to reach its maximum genetics production expression, quality, health, and sustainability of the broiler production chain.

Vaccination programs are required by law, yes! These are specific to each epidemiological situation. The vaccines must respond to the seriousness of the challenges and comply with the current regulations of the Official Animal Health Service of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Supply (MAPA) of Brazil in the country’s different regions. Their effectiveness is directly related to the measures of biosecurity adopted.

However, birds that are well protected immunologically and managed without stress (good animal welfare practices) will have a better response in body development. In this item, the door to success is the methods and form of vaccination, either through containment or the application route itself. This phase’s motto: “Doing it right” guarantees the breeders’ health, animal welfare, and productivity.

broiler breeders

Knowing each rearing phase in detail guides us in defining the integrated strategies of good production practices. Furthermore, good production practices can be translated into the farm’s language as the management carried out daily throughout the life of a flock. In other words, the daily routine of the farm. Many management practices are standardized on broiler breeder production and rearing farms. Each company, agroindustry, farms, genetic material suppliers, etc., define their standard operating procedures (POE) and OT (Technical Guidelines) generally based on the genetic patterns of the line that will be in production, on its studies and historical results, and always taking into account the conditions and physiological and reproductive knowledge of birds.

This is correct, and what brought us here with such quality. Behind these managements, there is a lot of study and consistency built into it!

But do not forget that there are such relevant management details. They are only known when we dedicate our time to genuinely learn about the work of the farmers who are a reference in day-to-day results. This success tip is part of work focused on reducing variability. In other words, learn from those who perform daily with consistent results. Just remember to group; that is, never compare different systems to have replicable best practice information. Beware of outliers!

Some factors go beyond the rearing phase and these also directly impact the production and quality of hatching eggs, but the motto here is: “Do our part well throughout the entire production chain of the broiler chicken”

Finally, keep in mind that all this must be under focused, efficient, and functional management for the day-to-day of the farms. That is, make a schedule of daily activities, what to do, and when. And have a constant visualization of mean indicators (e.g., g/bird/day, daily mortality, body weight performance curve x standard body weight of the genetic line, feed intake, water intake, bird behavior, health monitoring results, etc.), final indicators (for example, viability and uniformity, etc.) and most importantly, never forget that a good breeder is made second by second!

Rearing: “The right beginning” for an excellent egg production

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broiler breeders

KEY POINTS IN THE BROILER TURKEY HATCHERY PROCESS

Luis F. Klein Technical Consultant at Hybrid Turkeys Brazil

With the constant genetic improvement and the increasingly frequent housing of heavy turkey lines, the incubation process must go through reviews of all its stages, adapting or correcting its process and procedures to these changes. Then it is possible to achieve the best hatching rates and quality of day-old birds allowing a good performance and reducing the cost of production.

The hatchery is a crucial part of the turkey production chain, which processes the “raw material” from the breeder farm. It will be transformed into a bird with characteristics that will define a large part of its productive potential in the field, where most of the cost share of the chain.

The main quality characteristics of this “raw material” are:

Pollution degree; Eggshell quality;

Flawless eggs;

Fertility;

Embryonic development;

Storage and transportation.

Quality of the received eggs

Degree of contamination – The eggs are expected to arrive at the hatchery free of contamination. But the real situation is only perceived during the incubation process, with the appearance of “popped eggs,” bad odor in the rooms and inside the machines, in the candling analysis, at the time of birth, or mortality in the field.

The degree of contamination within the hatchery is directly related to the level of contamination in these eggs. On the other hand, the hatchery also must not increase the degree of contamination received and, above all, not pass this contamination on to another flock or another source.

Situations of egg flocks with a high degree of contamination coming from specific farms can compromise the entire hatchery production. For this reason, the need for immediate communication with the farm about the perceived status.

The main procedures for a farm to have a low rate of egg contamination:

Clean nest; Egg collection per hour;

Immediate disinfection after collection;

Avoid water condensation on the eggs (thermal shock from cold to hot).

On-farm egg storage - The ideal procedure for egg storage is that after laying, the egg is subjected to a gradual reduction in temperature to 25°C for approximately 6 hours and then stored in a room with a constant temperature below 21°C.

In summer, where many facilities at room temperature during times of peak egg production are above 30°C, it is necessary to use a room with a medium temperature until the eggs reach this temperature.

In winter, where temperatures are lower, the cooling of these embryos is naturally faster, thus stopping embryonic development. On the other hand, at night in cold climate regions, the lack of air conditioning can lead the embryos to reach temperatures below 13°C (exposure for more than 6 hours causes tissue damage).

Shell quality – poor shell quality is only visually identified when it has a severe degree of deficiency. In some situations, mild cases may go unnoticed at the incubation. However, at the time of candling (ovoscopy) or at hatch, a high rate of unhatched is perceived due to a high degree of dehydration or small fissures.

In some cases, to be sure, it is necessary to investigate further with shell density analysis. Microcracks can appear as part of the handling process, such as shaky movements when placing the eggs in the plastic trays and transporting them.

Non-standard eggs (small, deformed, with two yolks, and dirty) – the presence of these (Photo 1) can occur due to the classifier’s inattention or an attempt to misuse the eggs. Therefore, frequent evaluation of a sample of eggs per farm is necessary to ensure the quality received and constant feedback to the supplier.

These indices, of course, are directly influenced by the laying age of the breeders, the time, and the storage conditions of the eggs.

There are particular situations, especially at the beginning of lay or in the case of a sick flock, where it is necessary to carry out extraordinary incubations of egg samples for 72 hours, with the breaking and total analysis of these, quickly identifying the real fertility rates. The results must be discussed with the supplying farm in all the cases described above.

Fertility – in this case, there are 2 indicators

The most commonly used is the “real fertility,” obtained from candling at 14 days when the clear eggs are removed. Later, their analysis is carried out to identify the eggs and mortality rates by phase of embryonic development. In this way, to determine the total actual fertility, which is expected to be between 94.5% and 98%.

“Fertility candling” takes into account only live embryos identified by candling (it is not performed on broken clear eggs), with an expected rate of 93% to 95.5%.

Photo 1: Non-standard eggs

Candling at 14 days of age – The clear eggs can be infertile or with early mortality. While the dark eggs could be viable embryos

Embryonic Development – It is important to understand that most turkey eggs, at the time of laying, are around stage VI or VII of embryonic development, and the stage that is most competent to withstand prolonged storage is stage XI.

Therefore, to obtain the best survival condition, bringing all the embryos to this stage would be important. The problem is that the hatchery often has no knowledge of the actual conditions of handling the eggs on the farm and has no idea what stage the embryo is at when the eggs are received.

We must observe the season of the year, average temperatures of this period, location of the farm, and its structural conditions, to describe the specific patterns of handling the eggs.

Egg transport conditions – are often overlooked but can damage eggshells, especially when transported in plastic hatching trays and on bumpy roads. However, this damage usually is only noticeable when analyzing the incubation residue.

Egg size

The size of the egg has an important impact in two aspects. One of them refers to the direct relationship with the size of the poult: the larger the egg, the larger the newly hatched bird.

Another aspect is that the large size of the egg, added to the high fertility rates, results in a “mass of live embryos” that produces a lot of heat, and some machines cannot cool them down adequately (due to poor installations) or from the machine itself).

In these cases, we can carry out some palliative actions:

Reduction of the temperature of the air entering the machine (22°C to 25°C);

Increased volume of air entering the machine;

Reduction in the number of eggs per tray and the volume of eggs inside the machine.

The minimum size indicated for use is from 70 grams. At the end of production, the eggs can reach up to 120 grams (Photo 2)

Photo 2: Observation of the egg size

Egg storage in the hatchery and embryo preservation factors

The ideal egg storage time for best results, both in terms of hatchability and bird quality, is 2-7 days.

The longer storage time of eggs:

Greater is the possibility of a drop in hatching rates due to the increase in embryonic mortality in stage #1 and the increase in the index of birds discarded at hatch (2nd category birds).

Some actions that can be taken to reduce the negative effect of storage:

Consider that storage is essential to establish actions that ensure the best viability of the embryos. Therefore, it is necessary to have a detailed knowledge of the conditions to which these embryos were subjected until they arrived at the incubator. Lack of knowledge can lead to big mistakes.

Storage temperature - the longer the estimated storage time of the eggs, the lower the average temperature of the cold room should be, up to the minimum limit of 13°C.

Egg packaging - plasticizing the egg load after cooling, the level of CO2 and humidity are increased, creating a favorable environment for embryo maintenance.

Turning the eggs– perform at least twice a day.

Pre-warming the eggs once they arrive at the hatchery - Warm the eggs (up to 99.5°F) for 12 hours to bring the embryo to stage XI. Significant advantages are only perceived for prolonged storage periods (greater than 14 days).

Key points in the broiler turkey hatchery process

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QUAIL EGG PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Antonio Gilberto Bertechini1 and Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón2

1Federal University of Lavras

2North Carolina State University

Quails ranked second in the average share of domestic birds slaughtered annually worldwide, according to FAOSTAT (2018), after chickens. Almost 10% of all table egg numbers worldwide come from quail, while they contribute almost 0.2% of global poultry meat, which is between 200,000 and 240,000 tonnes

The total population of quails accounts for 11.8% of all domestic birds globally.

Quails produce 1.3 million tons of eggs, while chicken layer hens lay 72 million tons.

Quail farming for meat and eggs is more common in Asia, with almost 38% of the total global production in China.

The top ten country producers of quail eggs are listed in Table 1. China produces 4.9 metric tons, or 184 billion eggs annually. There are regions with fast growth in quail egg production.

At the same time, the COVID-19 pandemic affected some markets due to its effects on restaurants and fast-food systems, which are one of the most common marketing channels in several countries.

In the European Union, France, Italy, and Spain are the largest producers, but the number of eggs produced is small compared to Asian countries, and the primary purpose generally is meat.

Ukraine and Russia could produce between 400 and 600 million quail eggs annually.

On the other hand, the USA dominates meat-type quail production with almost 19 million birds per year, and egg production is not a significant sector.

In the USA, only one company, Quail International, produces almost 17 million units under their brand Plantation Quail. However, other species, like the bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus), are preferred for meat production.

Production systems

The breeding and production systems of Japanese quails (Coturnix japonica domestica) for eggs are similar to the ones observed in laying hens.

The rearing phase can occur in floor systems or battery cages. This phase is divided into:

the brooding phase from 1 to 21 days and

the rearing phase from 22 to 42 days of age.

Table 1. Top ten country quail egg producers.

Japanese quails can start laying at 42 days of age. At that age, females can weigh 175 to 200 grams with a height between 27 and 29 cm.

By eight weeks, daily egg production can easily be at 50%. Nowadays, egg weights range between 11 and 13 grams.

The persistence in lay depends on the quality of the bird at the beginning of egg production and handling. Usually, quails can remain laying eggs for up to 60 weeks. Some of the zootechnical parameters are described in Table 2.

Housing and environment

Despite their excellent productive characteristics, quails are susceptible to any stress factor. Housing plays an essential role in maintaining good productivity and health.

The temperature and relative humidity of the breeding and production environments are critical factors in the livability of these birds.

The day-old quail with only 7 to 9 grams needs an environment with a temperature of 38°C during the initial seven days of brooding.

These tiny birds are sensitive to variations of only 0.5°C.

Later, the temperature should decrease to 34°C and 28°C in the following two weeks of age as the bird grows.

The relative humidity should not exceed 60% in these early rearing stages.

During the laying phase, the maintenance of environmental comfort related to the combination of temperature, RH and ventilation, and low external noise are determining factors for optimum egg production.

Automated cage systems have been implemented mainly in the laying phase in houses of up to 100 to 150 thousand birds.

In these systems, the entire feeding and egg collection process is automatic.

As a result, it has been possible to maximize performance, mainly due to less human contact with the birds.

Despite domestication, quails retain wild characteristics, and human presence is stressful to affect their zootechnical performance

On the other hand, in closed dark systems with a controlled environment, within the recommended thermal, acoustic, and lighting comfort, quails become very well adapted to the rearing environment, with excellent egg production.

Typically, these houses are darker than chickens, with only one lux as average light intensity. In this system, quails can: reach egg production for up to 12 months,

egg production peaks above 95%, final egg production of 80%, and livability above 90%, among other excellent parameters.

Quails versus leghorn hens

From a biological point of view, both species, Gallus domesticus and Coturnix japonica domestica can be considered efficient egg producers for human consumption. However, there are several differences between the two species. In general:

The egg production of leghorn-laying hens appears to be better than that observed in quails. Because more genetic selection has been applied to leghorn hens in past decades.

However, quails reach a daily production equivalent to 6.5% of their live weight, while chickens produce 4% of their body weight in eggs.

The equipment industry has been developing new production technologies, with a trend toward total farm automation. Raising and rearing systems in cages and pyramidal or vertical farms have been used, with improved production efficiency and reduced production costs.

Table 2 displays comparative data for laying hens and quails related to parameters during the rearing and laying phases.

Table 2. Comparison between leghorn hens and eggproducing Japanese quails on rearing and egg production.

Productivity and profitability

In total egg production, quails lay eggs for 60 weeks and produce more eggs than hens due to their precocity during the rearing phase (Table 2).

The lower livability observed in some quail flocks during the production phase affects the number of eggs per housed bird, with a more significant reduction concerning bird/day production.

Many factors can affect productivity, but inbreeding is a frequent cause of low productivity, livability, and resilience to diseases.

The advantage of quails over leghorn hens in the laying phase is the slight drop in production that occurs throughout the production phase.

Quails maintain high levels of production (more than 90%) for longer than hens.

Regarding feed conversion (Table 3), laying hens are more efficient than quails, influencing the cost of production per kilogram of the egg mass.

On the other hand, the sale price of a dozen quail eggs and the cost of production result in a more significant advantage than Leghorn hens.

Other factors also influence the financial results (Table 3) in the production of quail eggs, such as:

high precocity with a short period of raising the quails,

good resilience to the environment and diseases (Takahashi et al., 1984; Koyama et al., 2005),

smaller land use in the farms for housing, the lower relative cost of starting farms, rapid economic returns and evolution in knowledge about poultry nutrition, results in research, development of egg processing technology, among others.

Quail eggs can have a return on investment 2.57 times higher than leghorn hen egg production.

Health

A few diseases affect quails. These diseases include:

avian cholera, brooder pneumonia, omphalitis, coccidiosis, ulcerative enteritis, mycoplasmosis, pasteurellosis, newcastle disease, and mycotoxicosis.

However, they occur mainly due to management and housing problems from placement.

Vaccination for quails is not well standardized, with a need for further research in the area.

Most vaccines used for chickens do not produce antibodies in quail. Thus, it would be necessary to develop specific vaccines to be effective.

Table 3. Comparison between leghorn hens and egg-producing Japanese quails on productivity and economic parameters.

1Kato (2007), 2Avimig (2021).

Egg quality

When comparing some nutrients in quail egg composition and laying hens, such as cholesterol and fatty acid contents, it can be observed that they are similar in yolk composition in terms of cholesterol content (Table 4).

On the other hand, the more significant percentage of yolk in quail eggs results in a greater amount of this nutrient per gram of egg.

In terms of essential fatty acid content, chicken eggs have higher levels of linoleic acid per yolk but with similar amounts of linolenic acid per egg between the two species.

Instead, quail eggs have more than twice as much docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) as chicken eggs.

Also, the total ratio of Ω6/Ω3 is more favorable for quail eggs, approaching the ideal ratio for

Coturniculture is a profitable activity with good prospects to grow over the next ten years. However, more studies are needed in all areas of quail farming, particularly regarding genetic improvement, health, and nutrition, to support field needs. We will continue presenting more information about quail egg production in the different media channels of AviNews International.

Table 4. Comparison between leghorn hens and eggproducing Japanese quails on egg traits

Quail egg production systems

1Bragagnolo; Rodriguez-Amaya (2003), 2Kazmierka et al. (2005).

Polígono Morea Nor te, Calle C - Nº 2 31191 Beriáin, Navarra (Spain)

AVIAN CHLAMYDIOSIS

Avian Chlamydiosis is a zoonotic infectious disease caused by the bacterium Chlamydia psittaci and is also known as Psittacosis or Ornithosis. It produces a systemic infection, mainly respiratory, and is occasionally fatal in birds and mammals, including humans.

Juan Carlos Morales Luna DVM at UNAM

In poultry farming, Avian Chlamydiosis manifests itself with a greater susceptibility in turkeys than in broiler chickens, causing critical economic losses in commercially raised turkeys.

For the first time, a disease similar to Avian Chlamydiosis was described in Germany in 1879, and several subsequent outbreaks were reported in Europe, the most important being in France.

In 1895 Morange coined the term psittacosis for this disease from the Greek Φιτταχοζ from which the word psittacine comes.

In 1929, the first report of avian chlamydiosis or psittacosis was detected.

In 1930, the disease spread to Austria, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Iceland, Italy, Norway, Poland, Spain, Switzerland, and Sweden in Europe, Algeria, and Egypt in North Africa; Mexico, Canada and the US in North America; Japan and Australia in the Western Pacific.

From 1988 to 1998, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) received 813 records of psittacosis, considered a conservative number since this disease is challenging to diagnose and rarely reported (Johnston et al., 2000).

During the 1980s, in approximately 70% of human cases, the source of infection was exposure to caged birds; 43% corresponded to bird fans and pet store owners, who were considered the most affected group.

Other at-risk people include veterinarians, customs agents, laboratory technicians, farmers, and zoo workers (Johnston et al., 2000).

In each case, epidemiological monitoring determined that humans had contact with different types of birds, including Australian parakeets, parrots, and poultry.

Populations of birds that live in the same cage present a greater risk of contagion than those caged individually. Birds confined in closed places experience a very high rate of infection that can reach 100%.

ETIOLOGY

C. psittaci is an obligate intracellular parasitic organism. It is a spherical, Gram-negative bacterium of 0.3 to 1.5 µm in diameter that contains DNA and RNA. It has a rudimentary cell wall made up of lipopolysaccharides.

Strains of C. psittaci isolated from different avian species consist of different serotypes, which can be differentiated by the host and its ability to cause disease. C. psittaci presents different serotypes: Psittacino, Pichon I, Pichon II, Duck, and Turkey.

Currently, there are eight serotypes, which are mentioned below:

Organism observation

The organism is observable as intracytoplasmic inclusions at magnifications of 800x or greater under phase contrast, dark field, or electron microscopes.

The organism is susceptible to agents that affect the lipid content of the cell wall, such as quaternary ammonium compounds, alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, and silver nitrate.

SEROTYPE COMMENTS/ DISTRIBUTION

A Psittacine birds; endemic; almost always systemic, but may be inapparent; sporadic zoonotic disease in humans.

B Pigeons; endemic; also in turkeys; causes absorption in dairy cows.

C Ducks, seagulls, quail; unidentified specific avian host; zoonotic risk to poultry slaughterhouse workers and people in contact.

D Turkeys, seagulls, parakeets, humans; zoonotic risk to poultry slaughterhouse workers and people in contact.

E Ducks, pigeons, ostriches, and rheas; unidentified avian reservoir; first isolates of pneumonia cases in humans.

F Parakeets, one single isolate in this serotype.

G It was isolated from an outbreak in muskrats and hares.

H Isolated from enteritis in cattle.

Table 1. Different serotypes of C. psittaci (Andersen, 1997)

DEVELOPMENT CYCLE

The development cycle of C. psittaci of 5 phases:

Adhesion and penetration of the cell by the Elementary Bodies (EBs)

EBs are the non-propagative infectious form of the bacterium. They measure approximately 0.3μm.

Transition from metabolically inert EB to Reticular Bodies (RBs)

The RB is larger (0.5-1.5μm), metabolically active, fragile, and of low density.

Growth and binary fission of RBs

1 2 3 4 5

Due to this fission, microcolonies are produced containing 100 to 500 chlamydial organisms per cell.

This involves the restoration of the membrane surface and its toxicity.

Release of infectious EBs

Infectious EBs are released by lysis of the host cell caused by parasite enzymes.

DISTRIBUTION

This disease is distributed worldwide. However, In Mexico, until a few years ago, it was considered “exotic” by the animal health authorities (SAGARPA).

SUSCEPTIBLE SPECIES

Production birds, wild birds, goats, sheep, cows, pigs, mice, hares, and cats are the most susceptible species in addition to humans.

PATHOGENY SIGNS

The pathogenicity and virulence of C. psittaci vary depending on the strain, host conditions, degree of exposure, and environmental factors.

The form of transmission is also determined by the following:

Strain virulence

Host susceptibility.

Transmission is carried out by direct contact with the animal or through aerosols, feces, tears, ocular exudates, and wounds. The new host is infected via the respiratory or digestive epithelium.

The infection in birds can be acute, sub-acute, or chronic. In most birds infected with C. psittaci, no clinical signs of disease are observed.

These asymptomatic birds can transmit the infection intermittently, and the risk of transmission increases when stressful situations occur.

Young birds exposed to virulent strains frequently develop lethal systemic infections.

Clinical signs (Photos 1 and 2) include:

Ruffled feathers, low temperature, tremors, lethargy, conjunctivitis, dyspnea, sneezing, coryza (in nestlings), and sinusitis (Australian parakeets).

Emaciation, dehydration, and diarrhea of a characteristic lime green or gray color, watery diarrhea may also be observed. Death occurs within 8 to 14 days. Spontaneous recovery is rare.

The subacute disease is typical of all avian species with low susceptibility.

Drowsiness, ruffled feathers, conjunctivitis, pharyngitis, keratitis, serous or mucopurulent nasal discharge, dyspnea, loss of appetite, polyuria.

Studies in turkeys have revealed that the microorganism reproduces in the lungs, air sacs, and pericardial membrane within 24 hours. It is found in the bloodstream within 48 hours and can be transmitted within 72 hours of exposure.

Photo 1. Amazon Parrot (Amazona aestiva). Signs: Conjunctivitis, epiphora (lacrimation), and dyspnea.

MACROSCOPIC LESIONS

The necropsy findings (Photo 3) are not pathognomonic, mainly presenting:

Conjunctivitis, Fibrinous peritonitis, Perihepatitis, Enteritis, Nephrosis pneumonia, Airsacculitis, Splenomegaly, and Hepatomegaly

MICROSCOPIC LESIONS

Histopathological lesions are not specific, except for intracellular “inclusions.”

These inclusion bodies (Photo 4) can be found in various organs. However, they are persistent in serous membranes.

Photo 2. Biliverdinuria is observed in urine

Photo 3. The necropsy findings are appreciated, as they are; perihepatitis, air sacculitis, peritonitis, and pericarditis.

observed inside the cell.

DIAGNOSTIC TESTS FOR C. PSITTACI IN BIRDS

CELL CULTURE:

This is done with McCoy cell lines or chicken or mouse fibroblasts. This test detects small amounts of the organism in two or three counts. The disadvantages of this test are cost, technical difficulty, and time. The first count takes six days; the second and third counts require three days each, so all three counts require approximately two weeks.

ENZYME-LINKED IMMUNOABSORBENT ASSAY (ELISA) TEST:

This test detects IgG serum immunoglobulins and specific IgA antibodies. However, although the system is highly sensitive and easy to operate, sometimes there are false-negative results due to the action of inhibitory drugs such as chloramphenicol, penicillins, tetracyclines, etc., that may have been administered shortly before the test.

INDIRECT IMMUNOFLUORESCENCE TEST:

This technique is best for demonstrating group-specific antigens with the disadvantage that non-specific fluorescence sometimes occurs, complicating interpretation.

HISTOPATHOLOGY:

This technique allows the observation of intracytoplasmic inclusions once the suspicious tissues to be sectioned are fixed in Zenker’s solution and stained with Gimenez’s or Macchiavelo’s solution.

COMPLEMENT FIXATION TEST:

A complement (usually guinea pig) is necessary to bind antigens and antibodies. This system is similar to ELISA. However, the latter is more sensitive. On the other hand, the commercial guinea pig supplement is inappropriate for most avian species due to its incompatibility.

MICROIMMUNOFLUORESCENCE (MIF) TEST:

This is the most sensitive of the serologic tests for chlamydial species and is the only one that detects species-specific responses. It is based on visualizing elementary and reticulate bodies instead of intact inclusions. This assay can measure IgM, IgA, and IgG subclass responses However, experience and training are required.

POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR):

It allows the detection of a fragment of the pathogen’s genetic material. Currently, the most common techniques for C. psittaci detection are:

Conventional polymerase chain reaction.

PCR in real-time. DNA microchips.

DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS TREATMENT PREVENTION AND CONTROL

The differential diagnosis in birds is made against Pasteurellosis, Salmonellosis, Colibacillosis, Mycoplasmosis, Avian Influenza, and Newcastle Disease.

IMPORTANCE IN POULTRY

The economic importance on the poultry industry is based on the low performance of the birds, as well as;

Growth retardation,

Weightloss,

In farmed birds, the treatment is not economically viable. For domestic birds, the treatment is based on Doxycycline: 25-50 mg/kg orally twice a day or 200-800 mg/L of drinking water.

Depression and Cessation of the laying.

In turkeys, egg production can drop by up to 60%.

Biosecurity: Cleaning and disinfection of establishments and equipment, ventilation, reduction of gas accumulation, all-in-allout handling, new and exhibited birds, quarantine for a minimum of 30 days, control of wild birds and rodents, control of mechanical vectors, use of gloves, masks, and goggles when handling suspicious birds.

There are no commercially available vaccines; some experimental immunizations have been carried out in turkeys with mixed results.

Since the pathogen is a bacterium, it is difficult to have complete immunity after an episode of illness. The exact risk of reinfection occurring is still unknown.

CONCLUSION

The routine detection of Chlamydia psittaci from bird samples is critical to control the infection in poultry farms and to carry out prevention measures and campaigns aimed at informing the population that may be affected by that disease

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SALMONELLA INFANTIS:

AN EMERGING SEROTYPE PART II

THAT BECAME RESIDENT?

Martha Pulido Landinez, DVM, MS, PhD, DACPV. Associate Clinical Professor. Poultry Diagnosis and Research Laboratory (PRDL). College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University.

3 S. Infantis can survive under adverse environmental conditions.

High temperature resistance.

Some Salmonella spp serotypes can survive after heat treatment of feed and litter. The survival of S. infantis after heat treatment of feed is not very clear.

However, some studies have demonstrated its presence in finished feed for broilers, but it is possible that this is due to post-treatment recontamination, rather than the heat resistance characteristic (Pulido, 2019).

Survival in conditions of low humidity, low water activity.

Outbreaks of S. infantis that occurred in the United States in 2012 were associated with dry pet food (CDC, 2012).

In this outbreak, it brought the attention that this bacterium could survive under low humidity conditions.

It has also been shown that S. infantis can survive on dry food (pasta) for up to 12 months (Finn et al., 2013; Burgess et al., 2016 ).

Resistance to low humidity conditions has been studied in detail for the Tennessee and Typhimurium serotypes, finding that they use a cell contraction strategy (going from a rod shape to a coccoid shape) that gives them a strong resistance to desiccation (greater in S. Tennessee than in S. Typhimurium LT2). (Grusdev et al., 2011 ).

S. infantis may be able to survive on dry food, use these and other strategies to survive in environments with low water activity.

Another aspect worth noting is that Salmonella spp serotypes that are resistant to desiccation may exhibit cross-tolerance to other unfavorable conditions.

The studies carried out by Grusdev et al. in 2011 showed that S. Typhimurium, S. Newport, S. Enteritidis and S. Infantis could survive the presence of NACL in bile salts, ethanol (30%, 5 min), dry heat (100°C, 1h) and UV irradiation (125 W/cm2, 25 min).

Additionally, dried cells of all these serotypes survived exposure to sodium hypochlorite (100 ppm, 5 min) and hydrogen peroxide (2%, 5 min), with 4 to 6 log reductions in CFU, while non-dried cells reached undetectable levels.

4

S. infantis can behave differently depending on the time and temperature to which it is subjected.

Unpublished studies carried out in Chile showed how the treatment for the inactivation of S. infantis present in litter of broiler houses depended on both temperature, pH and time. S. infantis survived when litter samples were treated at 50°C and 60°C for three days.

In contrast, it was possible to eliminate 100% of this bacterium when the time was increased to 4 days at temperatures of 60°C. This bacterium was only eliminated when the temperature was increased to 70°C and sustained for three consecutive days.

Adaptation of S. Infantis to different pHs.

Some serotypes of Salmonella spp. have developed mechanisms to survive under acidic conditions (Álvarez-Ordóñez et al., 2009; 2012 ). If salmonella present on a farm exhibit this characteristic, control with some acids may not be effective.

Although this behavior has not been extensively studied for S. infantis, this characteristic implies that interventions using acids must be constantly analyzed to find the product that is truly effective.

In contrast, S. infantis did not show growth when it was inoculated in mediums with a fairly basic pH (equal to or greater than 10), but it did in controls at pH 7 (Study in Chile, unpublished results).

Production of biofilms (“biofilm”).

This is the most common tool used by Salmonella spp to avoid the action of disinfectants.

Given this characteristic, a good cleaning, even using pressurized hot water, is necessary to effectively eliminate biofilms before carrying out the disinfection processes (Schonewille et al., 2012).

However, recent studies by Pate et al., (2019), showed that some clones of S.infantis produce low levels of biofilms. Overall, this feature was rated as “weak”.

Average biofilm formation for persistent strains (resident serotypes) was higher than for presumed non-persistent ones. However, the difference was not significant.

These results suggest that the persistence of S. infantis in broiler farms may be more related to its widespread presence (high bacterial loads) and ineffective cleaning and disinfection protocols than to its ability to form biofilms.

These studies suggest identifying whether or not S. infantis present in a poultry farm forms biofilms. This could contribute to the decision on what would be the best control strategy.

This characteristic has also been mentioned for S.Infantis resistant to desiccation in studies carried out for the food industry, where the identification and deep cleaning of areas that are difficult to access for cleaning could be considered more important than the formation of biofilms.

This comment is widely applicable to cleaning and disinfection processes in poultry houses (Pate et al., 2019; Newton et al., 2020).

6 Vectors – Carriers

The most important carrier of S. infantis is the chicken itself. However, pests such as mice, flies, and bed beetles (Alphitobius diaperinus) can also act as vectors or mechanical transporters of this bacterium.

It has been proved that in broiler farms S. Infantis can repeat in consecutive cycles due to the presence of bed beetles acting as a reservoir (Skov et al, 2004). These beetles can be inside or outside the poultry house.

The type of feeder used in poultry houses may be highly related to the presence of desiccation-resistant S.infantis and low biofilm production.

The accumulation of organic matter and feed leftover under the chains in drag feeders must be carefully analyzed.

On the other hand, in automatic hopper feeders, thorough cleaning of all crevices where dust can accumulate and all feed distribution lines must be carried out.

On the other hand, although there are not many studies that prove the constant replication and persistence of S. infantis in pests; it has been demonstrated that these might be important sources of this bacterium in consecutive flocks on a farm.

Several studies have reported that other serotypes of Salmonella spp are capable of multiplying efficiently in the intestine of flies and mice.

INTERVENTIONS IN PRIMARY PRODUCTION THAT COULD CONTRIBUTE TO THE DECLINE OF S.INFANTIS IN POULTRY PRODUCTS.

In the past it was thought that reducing the presence of Salmonella spp in chicken meat was the sole responsibility of the processing plant.

This has drastically changed in the last two decades and today it is recognized that this is a problem that involves the entire production and marketing chain.

Pests that come and leave during house preparation can act as a source of S. infantis. Strict monitoring of the cleaning and disinfection processes must be carried out both inside and outside the houses.

A key aspect to reduce the presence of S. infantis in broilers is to avoid recontamination of a house once it is already cleaned and disinfected.

Therefore, the control of S. infantis in primary production is vital if the objective is to reduce the presence in chicken meat and eggs. Each integration sector should develop its control interventions considering the effect that can be achieved in subsequent sectors.

In order to respond to consumer demand for a highly nutritional product, without chemical and/or antibiotic residues and without bacteria that could have an impact in terms of public health and AMR, each sector in poultry production must identify its critical points, its risk factors and conditions that contribute to the persistence of S. infantis

In this way, it will be possible to establish the controls that are necessary to reduce their presence in chicken meat, eggs and their by-products to minimum levels.

Five interventions that could contribute to the control of this bacterium are highlighted below.

It is essential to keep the numbers of S. infantis low inside and outside the houses during the preparation process. For effective control of this bacterium it is necessary to identify and eliminate possible sources of recontamination.

Cleaning and disinfection of external areas should be done during farm set-up/downtime. The surroundings of the houses should be part of a farm’s preparation checklist.

The effectiveness of cleaning and disinfection protocols must be constantly evaluated. Are the interventions being carried out especially effective in controlling S. infantis? Standard cleaning and disinfection protocols often do not eliminate this serotype.

The method used to clean and sanitize feed and water distribution systems must be constantly evaluated. Given the versatility in adaptation to avian environments exhibited by S. infantis, feeders and drinkers can act as disseminators and reservoirs. Then, it is essential to establish strict cleaning processes.

It is necessary to identify which pests appear and disappear during the preparation period. When the house is empty, the pests take refuge in burrows and/or nests near the houses. Integrated pest management should include identifying and eliminating places on the farm where pests can hide when houses are unoccupied.

Breeders and the hatchery must be free of S. infantis: eliminating vertical transmission and egg transmission is truly important for the control of this bacterium. Grandparents and breeders must be free of S. infantis.

In breeders, vaccination programs directed at S.infantis can contribute to reducing its excretion and dissemination.

Both the day-old chicks and the facilities (houses) where they are placed must be free of S. infantis. The first 48 hours of the chick in the house are crucial, since during this period there is a high probability that they will acquire the bacteria from the environment.

The condition of the nest and fecal contamination of the hatching egg can be a source of S. infantis for the hatchery. To avoid the presence of floor eggs, pullets must be trained from the rearing in the use of the nests. The incubation of eggs that are dirty on the floor and/or contaminated with fecal matter should be avoided.

The hatchery must have an efficient biosecurity plan for the control of S. infantis. Ongoing evaluation of this plan is required to identify early a possible adaptation of this serotype to the hatchery environment.

Gut Health: Is the bird gut acting as a ‘Bad Bacteria Factory’?

Several bacteria with importance for public health or animal health multiply in the intestine and are eliminated through the feces (Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., Enteroccoccus cecorum, Clostridium spp., among others).

Well-planned intestinal health maintenance programs contribute a high percentage to the control of S.infantis and other “bad” bacteria.

The litter ecosystem: multiplication and storage of S. infantis? Proper management of the “litter ecosystem” is vital for control.

The pests that live in the litter ecosystem must be controlled as they are potential sources of this bacterium diaperinus to the presence of its control and elimination should be considered as an important objective in the integrated pest control program.

Litter conditions

presence of feed waste, and excessive drying, causing dusty environments, constantly checked

The first 48 hours of the chicks in a house are crucial for the acquisition of pathogens present in this environment. Especially for those that can be acquired through the air or by the consumption of feces. The effective control of S. infantis must guarantee that the day-old chick free of this bacterium is being placed in a house that is also free.

To obtain adequate results with litter treatment in broiler houses, the downtime between flocks should be a minimum of two weeks.

Litter management after chick placement is key. Conditions of high humidity, caking (compaction), presence of pests, and waste of feed must be avoided.

Vaccination: a tool for the control of S.infantis?

The use of vaccines for the control of Salmonella spp should be considered as part of a comprehensive or holistic control program that seeks a general improvement in the health of the birds.

Thus, the implementation of excellent biosecurity programs, the proper functioning of the respiratory, immune and digestive systems (preservation of intestinal integrity), added to the supply of excellent water and feed quality, with substantial improvements in the welfare of the birds will provide the essential basis for the vaccines used to stimulate a better response in the immune system. Everything must be perfectly meshed! (Figure 1).

Excellent biosecurity programs

Adequate functioning of the immune and respiratory systems

Preservation of intestinal health

Substantial improvements in animal welfare and poultry management

Among the available vaccines for the control of Salmonella spp in birds are live attenuated vaccines, inactivated vaccines and subunit vaccines. However, for the control of S. infantis, currently only inactivated vaccines (bacterins or killed vaccines) are available.

These vaccines are indicated for use in long-lived birds (breeders and commercial layers), not in broilers.

The Salmonella spp serotype included in a bacterin has usually been inactivated and suspended in an emulsion. Most of these vaccines are administered intramuscularly or subcutaneously and stimulate high levels of circulating antibodies.

Salmonella Infantis: an emerging serotype that became resident? Part II

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Some studies have demonstrated the efficacy of bacterins in the significant reduction of the fecal excretion of S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium, as well as the decrease in the persistence of these serotypes in the organs of birds and eggs, demonstrating that the administration of inactivated products contributes to the reduction of systemic infection.

Recent work using bacterins made with three different serotypes (enteritidis, typhimuirum and infantis) have shown that vaccinated birds can produce a marked systemic antibody response against each of the vaccine component antigens and that it is possible to observe significant reductions in both colonization of the intestinal tract as well as invasion of internal organs.

These findings are promising and suggest that protection against S. infantis could be achieved through the use of these vaccines (Crouch et al., 2020).

Figure 1. Everything must be perfectly meshed!

MYCOTOXINS: SMALL IN SIZE, BIG IN DAMAGE

The genetic improvement of laying hens has provided a constant increase in the quantity and quality of eggs and helps egg producers to obtain better economic profitability flock after flock. Factors such as rising production costs, new animal welfare requirements and increased consumer demand, make producers pay attention to flock productivity and loss reduction throughout the production process. Poultry flocks that suffer from low egg production and/or high mortality result in less profitable flocks.

Nutritionist Hendrix Genetics Layers

Poultry nutrition plays an important role in conjunction with other areas of knowledge, such as:

flock management, chicken health, farm environment.

In addition to knowing and meeting nutritional requirements of the chickens, it is important to protect flocks from anti-nutritional factors that reduce the chickens’ nutrient utilization and from substances that harm the chickens’ general metabolism.

FROM PLANT ORIGIN

Mycotoxins are compounds produced by different types of fungi (such as fungi of the genus Aspergillus and Fusarium) that grow on ingredients of plant origin such as:

corn, wheat, barley oats, triticale, soya,

rice, sunflower, rapeseed, peanut, etc.

In both cases we have flock performance losses. In this sense, mycotoxins are important to be studied, avoided and controlled because they are substances that can cause technical and economic losses in poultry flocks.

These ingredients are important sources of energy and protein for poultry and demand a large storage and processing structure for the production of feed. Thus, the care in the prevention and control of mycotoxins goes through the acquisition of raw materials, storage and processing of grains until the feed that will be consumed by birds.

Interesting to know that most mycotoxins are stored in the outer layers of the grains.

Bran rich materials therefore often contain higher levels of mycotoxins, for example wheat bran can contains 6 times higher levels compared to whole wheat.

mycotoxins

The production of mycotoxins occurs as a defense mechanism of the fungi against invaders and/or when the fungi find optimal conditions for multiplication.

Therefore, mycotoxin contamination can start in the field, before the grain is harvested.

However, it can also happen after harvesting or during storage or transport.

This is mainly influenced by the presence of insects and the climate conditions. Therefore, inadequate and poorly controlled grain sourcing and storage methods generate the first phase of attention.

Among the best known mycotoxins are: Aflatoxin, Trichothecene, Ochratoxin, Fumonisin, Zearalenone, Cyclopiazonic acid, and Fusaric acid.

Each of these mycotoxins has different effects on poultry:

presence of thrush in the beak and under the tongue (usually unilateral)

darkening of the tip of the tongue (may result in necrosis)

ulcerations and abrasions on the gizzard

interdigital skin lesions

livers yellowish, friable, with color variation and rounded edges

accumulation of urates in the kidneys

bleeding points in muscles (chest and inner thighs)

drop in egg production and egg quality reduced feed digestion (presence of undigested particles in the feces)

de-standardization of ovarian development (failure to lay and/or 2-3 buds developing simultaneously)

reduced breeder male fertility

reduction in hatchability and chick quality of 1-day-old chicks

mycotoxins

YOUNGER CHICKENS MORE SENSITIVE

In addition to these visual changes, the following are also reported: lower pullets’ weight gain, worsening feed conversion, immunosuppression with reduced immune response (impaired vaccine response), reduced medication action time, more severe cases of respiratory problems, Salmonella. 1) 2) 3)

These changes are usually more easily seen in chickens that are actively laying eggs and sometimes we are influenced by ourselves to think that rearing chickens are not suffering from the same problem because we don’t see these changes so clearly.

However, it is worth remembering that the inputs that both chickens consume are the same, and that younger chickens tend to be more sensitive to mycotoxin contamination.

In table 1 are listed some reference values for the tolerance of chickens to different types of mycotoxins.

It is worth noting that:

these values were determined individually challenges in the field do not always happen in isolation/individually

there is synergistic action between mycotoxins

Table 1. Upper limits for different mycotoxins

Source: https://www.lamic.ufsm.br/site/

FREQUENT MONITORING HELPFUL

It is not always possible to perform detailed mycotoxin analysis, laboratory analysis is not cheap and not always available. However, frequent monitoring of the quality of the grains (broken grains, out of standard, excessive humidity) helps in this first control.

Additional cares during the receiving and storage of the grains are important, such as the use of pre-cleaning, use of organic acids in grains that will be stored for long periods.

Another point to consider is that the grain that goes into the silo and that stays at the base of the silo, is the first to enter and the last to leave, and this can cause variation in the level of feed contamination. The correct aeration of the silos is also important to avoid moisture condensation points inside the silos.

Detection of the presence of mycotoxins is dependent on sampling. Furthermore, mycotoxins are often not nicely spread, but occur in specific spots. The right sampling of raw materials is useful for identifying the initial source of contamination. But barn feed sampling is important to evaluate the amount of mycotoxins the birds are consuming.

Histopathological analysis of the birds is a useful tool in closing the diagnosis of mycotoxin problems.

The contamination identified in the feeders indicates that there may be points of fungal proliferation along the feed production chain:

Receiving contaminated raw materials

Storage faults with infiltration points and condensation of humidity in the silos

Rainwater infiltration at grain transportation points (conveyors, elevators)

Infiltrations in storage silos for finished feed and bulk trucks

Points of accumulation of old feed inside the feed mill, on the feed distribution trucks and in the silos of the barns

Incidence of rainfall at the feeders (especially in houses with side curtains

mycotoxins

DURATION AND EXPOSURE

At the end, the level and duration of mycotoxin exposure is determining the toxicity. Eliminating mycotoxins from feed is not feasible nowadays.

An effective method is cleaning and sorting of the grains. As mycotoxins are extremely heat stable, a heat treatment will not be effective.

AVOIDING MYCOTOXIN-RELATED PROBLEMS IS POSSIBLE

Monitoring the quality of the raw materials purchased

Fortunately, there are substances that help reduce the intoxication of poultry. Mycotoxin binders are additives that can reduce the rate at which mycotoxins are absorbed and have different compositions and inclusion rates.

The type and intensity of contamination is a determining factor in the choice of product and rate of inclusion in the feed.

The additional use of probiotics, vitamins and amino acids also help to reduce the negative effects of mycotoxins.

Checking and correcting noncompliance points in the feed production process (from storage to the shed)

Strategic use of the different additives available in the market

Monitoring flock performance, egg quality and the health status of the birds

Source: https://layinghens.hendrix-genetics.com

Mycotoxins: Small in size, big in damage

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mycotoxins

EXPERIENCES IN TRAINING PERSONNEL FOR THE POULTRY INDUSTRY

In this opportunity, Dr. Jesse Campbell, Professor at Auburn University and member of the National Poultry Technology Center, shared his experiences in training personnel for the poultry industry. This is a very critical aspect of any production sector, but especially in agriculture. In the integrated poultry industry is necessary to deal with different groups that may have slightly different interests but all work together to provide the best protein product that we can offer to the public.

What type of training programs do you offer to the poultry service technicians?

Sometimes I look at training a little differently than the traditional methods. For example, we typically try to train our poultry growers and our poultry technicians on the farm with birds.

Typically, what we try to do is to conduct these type of trainings in seminars in the field, in operating poultry houses at their poultry company or the poultry growers’ actual facilities. This is a big challenge these days, especially with birds.

It works best with birds for unexperienced people. Still, we try to do farm training also without birds so that service technicians and poultry growers can learn how to diagnose and adjust:

ventilation systems,

heating systems, and

electrical plumbing systems

We host international programs, but we will also do that for company-specific training so that companies do not have to worry about competing company representatives or anything like that.

However, if anybody wants it, we have found that the farm training works the best, whether on the company farms or in our demonstration facility.

How do you do the training programs for poultry growers? Since they are already very familiar with some of their equipment. How do you address that? And what are the differences in those trainings?

Twenty years ago, we used to host regional meetings where we would find a farm that was out of birds and maybe that was going to have some equipment upgrades that would have extended downtime.

At that time, we could host 40 or 50 growers and train on a farm like that. But today, usually, those training seminars are on one particular farm without other growers.

All this to see the actual equipment, how to measure the performance of that equipment, and how to adjust without birds in the farm too. So, they are comfortable without damaging the birds and without exposing them to any potential pathogens.

Usually, that is with company oversight, and we will troubleshoot on the farm if there is a problem.

Additionally, we do some virtual training, but for most poultry growers today, it is difficult to get them with the techno; with the internet availability and the technical expertise that it takes.

Virtual training is sometimes difficult, not so much for newer growers, but we do have growers that will attend open grower meetings in our demonstration facility at Auburn University, so it kind of varies.

It is very difficult to do one on one training for every grower, but sometimes the companies will invite us and try to help get us to train and troubleshoot some of those problems.

What is the knowledge that would poultry service technicians and the growers benefit the most to be successful in their jobs?

I would say probably math skills. If I have to pick a few topics, math, science, and economics would probably be my top three. Sometimes, I find that to be a challenge for the younger generations, even any generation, myself included.

Hence, it is more difficult to do grower training. I would say the majority of grower training we do today is in a classroom or in a convention center somewhere. Unfortunately, you know it is a PowerPoint presentation or, well, sit down with a whiteboard or a chalkboard.

I try to learn something every time, a new way to calculate, but math, science, and economics, mixing chemicals, understanding bird physiology, and sometimes maybe cutting a corner on heating or ventilation and how important it is to understand that you can’t lower the temperature. You can’t lower ventilation rates without a negative effect on the bird’s physiology, health, and environment.

There is another area where most of the time we are seeing a more difficult issue on the personal relations that is dealing with the real life, dealing with differences in the age and the constant change that you will find in any part of the world but also is more common in agriculture where we deal with weather, and animals.

that requires what we call non-technical skills or soft skills!

It is difficult for a young college graduate that understands some of the basics and foundations to go to a poultry farm and manage a producer who is been growing chickens for longer than that service technician has been alive, you know, 30 or 40 or 50 years more experience.

You have to be dedicated to verbal and written communication, and often that miscommunication is basically the root of the problem. Misunderstandings happen a lot!

Many producers and older growers do not use text messaging, and then from a college graduate, that is probably the primary method of communication.

My top one would be communication skills. The communication between the producer and the company is often written, but it is more of a checklist or a form with blanks filled out.

I often find many problems, conflict resolution, or problems arising from

Therefore, I would say keeping an open mind and being able to communicate verbally, in written text, and smartphone and being able to understand that, maybe when there is a change from a company, and it has to be translated to the grower base their needs to be several forms of

In your experience, what type of soft skills have you seen that poultry growers and service technicians could improve?

Number two, I would say documentation

The companies do a very good job documenting things, but sometimes producers do not take the time to document, let’s say, maintenance, for example, on equipment:

They have a lot of details, they have to manage a lot of equipment, and I feel like sometimes having checklists, documented, you know where fans have been maintained, heaters, drinkers, all of the equipment, the structures, anything to do with the farm.

Another skill would be probably being able to research and solve problems by themselves. Maybe from a company standpoint younger technicians and younger growers can be within the same category.

I find that often, when I get a call or when I am training, the younger generations want to have the answers given to them instead of they taking a look at the issue, or research for it or study to find the solution.

I sometimes think they would benefit if they had some help from having better documentation on the farm.

So, I feel like being able to learn how to be more self-directed learning taking the initiative, and taking ownership of where they see the problem.

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DR. MICHÈLE TIXIER-BOICHARD WPSA PRESIDENT

by Ad Bal

INTERVIEW

“Better optimize than maximize”

“Scientific research in poultry is of great value”, says Dr. Michele Tixier-Boichard from France, current President of the World’s Poultry Science Association (WPSA).

“It strongly contributes to feeding the ever growing world population. But at some point, there may be a limit in ever increasing performance. We must find an optimal balance between production, animal welfare and environmental impact .”

President

Michèle Tixier-Boichard , WPSA

In August last year, the four-yearly world congress of WPSA took place in Paris, France. As the chair of the congress, Dr. Michèle Tixier-Boichard was elected to serve in the position as WPSA president for the next four years, taking over from Professor Dr Ning Yang from China.

Members of WPSA are scientists from universities or research institutes, As well as members of R&D divisions of private companies.

Indeed, poultry production has strongly increased in Asia. Of course, countries differ from each other. Hence, there’s not one solution for all.

But there many similarities as well. That’s why sharing scientific knowledge is very useful for all countries, justifying the existence of WPSA.

It is a challenge for scientific research to find the right combination of approaches and disciplines to conduct trials and tackle problems like for infectious diseases.

Think of avian flu, which is threatening the poultry business on a global scale. There’s not one solution to eradicate the disease.

“The strength of WPSA is to be the oldest scientific society in the livestock sector”, says Dr. Tixier-Boichard. “Created in 1912, WPSA celebrated the 100th anniversary of its world’s congress in 2021, which was quite a milestone. And we keep moving on.

Instead, we must look at all factors and viewing problems from different angles.

The approach for every issue should be a balance between environmental, social and economic factors.

Literally all continents are participating nowadays. Originally, mainly North America and European countries played the strongest part in WPSA. Over the years all other continents joined, which makes WPSA truly a pluriform and global organization.

And what about poultry nutrition? I see a task for national branches of WPSA to find ways to diversify feed sources and increase the inclusion of locally grown feed ingredients, rather than sourcing these from far away.

Particularly for developing countries this is of relevant importance, as it makes them less depending on the world commodity markets.

All with the objective to further improve and increase poultry production around the world.

Michèle Tixier-Boichard , WPSA President

On the genetic side, much progress has been made to further increase productivity. In this context, slow growing broiler breeds represented an alternative, initially proposed in France in the sixties, and now proposed to answer new societal demands in some countries.

Indeed, bigger and bigger broilers are reaching some physiological limits. We must think of optimization rather than maximization.

And let’s not underestimate the value of dual purpose breeds. These can be a good solution for certain production systems.

Given the fact that the African population is growing substantially (yearly increase > 2,5%, ed.), there’s a growing need for food on this continent.

It was decided to relaunch it during the world’s congress last August in Paris. The second Pan-African Poultry Conference (PPC) to be held this coming May, again in Lomé, Togo, will provide a good meeting place for the Network.

This is a joint initiative of WPSA-Togo and the CERSA research centre, for which the World Bank is providing support.

All with the goal to conduct good quality research under African circumstances.

Africa has a young population and motivated young researchers.

It is a challenge to achieve sustainable continuation of research, with the major goal to make Africa selfsufficient in food supply.”

Both poultry meat and eggs are nutritious and affordable food, so making this accessible to the African population is essential. A commitment for WPSA and for me as current president, is to contribute to that goal for the coming four years.

To this end, the initiative for the African Poultry Network (WPSA-APN) was taken already in 2010 in France following the European Poultry Conference.

A committee was then appointed to manage the Network. However, due to unforeseen circumstances and lastly to the unfolding worldwide COVID-19 pandemic, this network did not take off.

“Research is developing in around the world”, Dr. Tixier-Boichard continues. “China is acting on a high level, like Europe, with much knowledge on biotechnology and collecting big data. And not to forget India, where like in Africa there are many young scientists and good research institutes.

All in all, despite its 100 years, WPSA is an active organization with a promising future.

The objective of WPSA is and will remain to facilitate interaction between poultry research, industry and society around the world.

My objective as president is to serve WPSA to my utmost and contribute to achieving that goal for the years to come.”

Michèle Tixier-Boichard , WPSA President

Biography Dr. Michèle Tixier-Boichard International collaborations

Dr. Michèle Tixier-Boichard, PhD, DVM, is a senior scientist at INRAE (the French National Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment) where she has been working in animal genetics since 1985, mainly on chickens.

She is a staff member of the Animal Genetics and Integrative Biology research unit (GABI) since 2009. She was promoted at the highest grade of research director in 2018.

Her research topics include:

Genetics of egg production traits;

Molecular characterisation of major genes and particularly feather colour genes;

Molecular assessment of genetic diversity in chickens;

Characterisation and conservation of local breeds;

Biobanking and Research infrastructures;

She published 140 papers in peer-reviewed journals and supervised 12 PhD theses.

Being a partner in European projects, she has a dense scientific network across Europe and has been an invited expert of FAO for genetic resources and for agroecology. She has co-supervised 1 PhD Thesis with Uppsala University and 2 PhD Theses with National Chung Hsing University in Taiwan.

She regularly collaborates with tropical countries for the characterization and management of chicken genetic resources: Cameroun, Benin, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Taiwan, Morocco, Algeria, Vietnam.

Scientific societies

World’s Poultry Science Association:

Chair of Working Group 3 ‘Breeding and Genetics’ 1994-2002.

Elected Vice-president of the World Federation from 2004 to 2016.

Chair of the 26th World’s Poultry Congress organised in Paris, 7-11 August 2022.

Elected President of the WPSA from 2022 to 2026.

Member of the International Society of Animal Genetics “ISAG” since 1992.

Distinctions

2011: knight of the French national order of agricultural merit

Interview with Dr. Michèle Tixier-Boichard, WPSA President

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2022: gold medal of the French Academy of Agriculture, for her work on animal genetic resources

with Dr. Michèle Tixier-Boichard , WPSA President

CHICKS HATCH ON THE FLOOR OF THE BROILER HOUSE

True to tradition, hatching is a process to usually take place in a conventional hatchery. An alternative however, is hatching preincubated eggs in a preheated broiler house, thus allowing newly born chicks immediate & uninterrupted access to feed and water.

Furthermore, on-farm hatching eliminates all stress related to hatchery handling of day-old chicks, and there is no transport of day-old chicks.

This is in line with the most recent EFSA recommendation, assessing the welfare of day-old chicks. With the NestBorn system, the eggs are put on a bed of woodchips or straw on the floor. Once they are hatched, the chicks immediately find their way in the house. Broiler grower Albert Sanders has been using it for 5 years now. He is satisfied with the system.

A truck, carrying a, 50.00O pre-incubated eggs arrives at the farm. First, a futuristic high-tech machine is unloaded (Photo 1), the NestBorn egg placing machine (available in a regular or compact version, can be customized for all types of setter trays).

Powered by a high capacity battery, this self-propelled machine is moved into the preheated broiler house by the operator.

Then the trollies with setter trays with 17 tot- 19 day pre-incubated eggs are unloaded from that same truck and taken into the house.

The operator positions the machine over the 2 meter wide bedding strip, which is covered with woodchips.

Onwards the trays with the preincubated eggs are put on the “feeding sled” of the machine one by one, after which the eggs are automatically & gently transferred onto the bedding strip (Photo 2).

Photo 1. The self-propelled egg placing machine is unloaded from the truck

Photo 2. Onwards, pre-incubated eggs are unloaded from the truckP

The machine moves forward a little and the next 300 eggs put in. Meanwhile, the emptied trays are sliding out of the machine and taken away by another person. It all happens very quietly and smoothly (Photo 3)

Step by step all the trollies and setter trays are emptied until all the eggs have been laid down smoothly on the floor (Photo 4).

The machine, with 2 operators, has a 60,000 eggs per hour capacity (battery capacity is a, 250.000 eggs for the regular edition).

Photo 3. Setter trays with pre-incubated eggs are put in the placing machine after which these are transferred onto the woodchips bedding

Photo 4. The woodchips bedding is 2 meters wide and runs in the length direction through the house

A special egg shell monitoring tool has been developed for the system.

Battery powered “Ovoscans” are placed between the eggs to measure the egg shell and air temperature, relative humidity and CO2 concentration .

These data can be displayed on a PC or smartphone, allowing the farmer and hatchery personnel to monitor the correct hatching conditions in the broiler house (Photo 5).

By around day 20 of incubation, the first chicks will start hatching, after which by the end of day 21, around 98 –99% of eggs are hatched. Immediately thereafter the non-hatched eggs must be removed and disposed of (Photo 6).

Photo 5. Battery powered “Ovoscans” measure egg shell - and air temperature, relative humidity and CO2 concentration. These data are displayed on PC or smartphone, allowing the farmer and hatchery personnel to monitor the correct hatching conditions

Photo 6. Immediately after hatch, the newly born chicks have direct & uninterrupted access to feed and water

UNCOMPLICATED SYSTEM

“We have developed this system from our own point of view”, says Erik Hoeven of HFHC from Belgium, the holding company of NestBorn (Photo 7). “Next to other systems on the market nowadays, this is our vision on how to effectively apply more than early feeding of newly hatched chicks. It is an uncomplicated system, which is a great advantage for the farmer.

He must prepare and preheat the house like he did before and does not have to make additional investments or modifications to his broiler houses, making onfarm hatching very accessible.

The high-tech egg placement machine is owned by the hatchery and can be used – after a good cleaning & disinfection protocol – on multiple farms per day. “

From experience and extensive scientific research, the advantages of on-farm hatching have been proved in recent years. Also chicks in the NestBorn system can make a flying start.

There’s no stress, caused by all the normal handling activities in a hatchery or from transportation.

From the moment of first feed intake, their gut development is activated.

With that, also their immune system is triggered, and that immune system will also be 100% targeted to the broiler house and potentially present challenges present there.

As a result, the birds are much stronger and healthier and with that, they are living under better welfare conditions.

“We measure 50 percent less food pad lesions”, says Erik Hoeven. “Moreover, the flock is much more uniform and less antibiotics are needed. The birds reach their target weight one day earlier in time. We monitor up to 2 percent better growth.

And last but not least, healthier birds also gain a better feed conversion ratio. Furthermore, we see now also that retailers are embracing the system and are including it in their standards, such as Belgian retailer Colruyt.”

ADDITIONAL INCUBATION CAPACITY

The advantage of NestBorn for a commercial hatchery, is that it is much more hygienic”, Erik continues. “You don’t have all the debris like dust and egg shells, carrying loads of microbial and fungal spores in the hatchers anymore.

All eggs can also be disinfected before they are taken to the farms.

Since the entire hatchery, trucks, trays and trolleys are not polluted by live animals, all these elements are much easier to clean and disinfect.

Apart from that, the hatchery will gain incubation capacity, as not many hatchers are needed anymore.

At the end of the day, we believe that NestBorn is a profitable solution, both for the hatchery as well as for the farmer. But also for the slaughter house / poultry processor, as on-farm hatching makes hatching 24/7 possible.

Various hatcheries have entered into a licensing agreement with HFHC and they lease the egg placing machines from them; about 3 million eggs are placed weekly in broiler farms in various European countries.”

Photo 7. Erik Hoeven: “NestBorn is a profitable solution, both for the hatchery as well as for the farmer”

“SATISFYING RESULTS WITH NESTBORN”

Albert Sanders is broiler grower in Sint Oedenrode, The Netherlands (Photo 8). He owns two grower houses for, a 25.000 birds each and has been using the NestBorn system without interruption for 5 years now. He is satisfied about the system.

“I can only see advantages”, Albert says. “Healthy birds, low mortality and good growth. It’s a somewhat different way of working however. We are producing broilers at our own risk, without being part of an integration. If we were unsatisfied, we would never have continued with NestBorn.

Three days after placement of the eggs, we must collect and dispose all the non-hatched eggs.

Of course the growth period is theoretically 3 days longer compared to the regular system with chicks which are sourced from a commercial hatchery, as hatching takes place in the house. That’s a theoretical disadvantage. Logically we must speed up in cleaning the house to shorten the down time period. That’s a new discipline however, but we manage.

Moreover we have additional heating costs. This will be compensated however, by better growth figures and by heathier birds that reach slaughter weight at an earlier stage.

We only pay for those chicks to the hatchery (in this case Belgabroed), which have been hatched and are present in the broiler house, 7 days after hatch. That’s a fair deal. It’s a good basis to run our business. “

Chicks hatch on the floor of the broiler house

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Photo 8. Broiler grower Albert Sanders:

“NestBorn is a somewhat different way of working, but I can only see advantages”

RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: INTERNATIONAL POULTRY SCIENTIFIC FORUM 2023

The International Poultry Scientific Forum (IPSF) 2023 was held between January 23 and 24 in Atlanta, GA, right before the International Production and Processing Expo (IPPE). More than 1,300 attendees participated in this meeting, making it again one of the biggest annual poultry scientific gatherings worldwide.

This year 365 abstracts were presented, with 165 oral presentations and 200 posters

More than 100 short talks were related to poultry nutrition, 25 to environment and management, 30 to pathology and poultry disease prevention, 15 about physiology, and a few more on processing.

Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón North Carolina State University

This article will highlight some of these presentations that won graduate student awards or were made by professionals on some key topics.

NUTRITION

Methodology for carcass data evaluation: Determining the impact of nutrition on broiler carcass traits accurately is critical to make appropriate decisions. Sample size in these evaluations is one of the factors to consider.

Mr. Caleb Marshall from Mississippi State University presented interesting information addressing statistical methodology to determine the best sample size and the personnel impact on processing metric variance.

Including processing personnel as a covariant in the statistical analysis of the processing data can reduce its variation.

This data suggested that when processing all birds subject to dietary treatment in an experiment is not possible, selecting birds within the final average mean of the pen plus or minus one standard deviation could be better than

Ileal phosphorus (P) digestibility:

Animal feed phosphate is a nonrenewable resource. Improving precision in P nutrition is a vital need for sustainable poultry production.

The study determined that MSP had AID of (92.57, 91.44, and 88.53%) depending on the levels of P included in the test diet (0.13, 0.23, or 0.33% P).

The AID for the other ingredients was 89.55%, 90.04%, and 92.2% for MCP, DCP, and bovine MBM, respectively.

Poultry accounts for almost 50% of animal phosphate consumption. The assays to estimate relative bioavailability have multiple limitations or issues with accuracy.

One is establishing an appropriate ileal digestibility value for the standard to compare the bioavailability of other sources to be tested. A study presented by Mr. Jay Hampton from the University of Arkansas and sponsored by Danisco Animal Nutrition and Health addressed this issue.

They determined the apparent (AID) and standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of P in monosodium phosphate (MSP), monocalcium phosphate (MCP), dicalcium phosphate (DCP), defluorinated phosphate (DFP), monodicalcium phosphate (MDCP), and bovine meat and bone meal (MBM) and porcine MBM.

Lower AID was observed in DFP, MDCP, and porcine MBM with 73.59, 76.58, and 77.31%, respectively.

In this study, the endogenous P flow was determined to be 75 mg/kg, and SID correction has minimal influence on AID values

The study confirmed that no P source is totally available. Consequently, when relative bioavailability assays consider a standard 100% bioavailable, they tend to overestimate P availability in the sources to be tested.

Limestone particle size and phytase in layers: The proportion of fine (F) and coarse (C) limestone and its solubility can affect: gizzard pH, physiology, calcium and phosphorus availability, and phytase activity.

These factors affect: feed intake, egg production, and eggshell-breaking strength in laying hens.

Charis Waters from Mississippi State University talked about a study that evaluated two limestone particle size ratios, 40F:60C, and 15F:85C, combined with three levels of phytase (0, 400, 1,500 FTU) in Hy-Line w-36 hens from 60 to 80 weeks of age.

Limestone at 40F:60C had better egg production than 15F:85C only when no phytase was added.

The same limestone proportion (40F:60C) improved eggshell-breaking strength when the diet contained 1,500 FTU. But, in diets without phytase, hens had stronger eggshells with 15F:85C limestone. However, hens fed 15F:85C diets generally had more unsaleable eggs than 40F:60C.

Protease inhibitors in soybean meal: One crucial quality parameter of soybean meals is trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA). Dr. Nelson Ruiz demonstrated that TIA was negatively correlated with digestible amino acid digestibility.

Linear regression R2 ranged from 0.48 for digestible lysine to 0.72 for digestible serine.

The impact of TIA and also chymotrypsin inhibitor activity on protein utilization is evident in this data.

Additionally, Dr. Ruiz mentioned that soybean meal samples analyzed with high TIA values (above 5.37 UI/kg or 3.58 mg trypsin inhibited (TId)/g) were related to outbreaks of feed passage syndrome.

ENVIRONMENT AND MANAGEMENT

Breeder rearing programs: Everyday vs. skip-a-day: Around the world, there is still controversy about the use of breeder feed restriction practices. The skip-a-day regime is still the standard in the USA and practiced in other countries, but welfare concerns and even some reproductive performance results question this practice.

The group of Luis Avila from the University of Georgia compared these programs in Ross 708 pullets fed diets with similar nutrient content but differing in 0.5% more crude fiber in everyday diets.

The results indicated that everyday feeding pullets were:

heavier from 10 to 45 weeks of age,

had better bone mineral density and fat carcass contents near the onset of egg production, and

laid heavier eggs with stronger eggshells and one percent better hatch of fertile.

Everyday feeding also had fewer embryonic losses due to:

egg contamination, dead pips, and late mortalities.

This study demonstrated additional benefits of everyday feeding compared to skip-a-day. No differences in flock uniformity were observed in this study.

Feed sanitation for breeders: The impact of formaldehydebased products on reproduction, feed, egg contamination, and offspring mortality has been questioned since it started to be practiced.

A study presented in a poster by Mr. Avila demonstrated that a feed additive based on formaldehyde did not affect hen egg production or hatchability. However, this feed sanitizer: reduced microbial contamination of feed and eggshell surfaces and improved the quality and livability of the hatched chicks.

The treated feed had fewer aerobic bacteria, fungi, Enterobacteriaceae, and C. perfringens than the control feed.

The mortality of chicks for yolk-sac contamination tended to reduce, especially in chicks from older hens.

Water usage monitoring: Flock water intake is a parameter frequently recorded in poultry farms. However, monitoring drinking water is a daily task, and farmers or poultry techs seldom have the time to review it constantly.

Will Strickland from the University of Georgia presented a prototype of an automatic system to acquire and analyze data from flow meters.

The system can detect abnormally high or low flow rates during specific times of the day.

This system can create alarms to warn farm personnel of potential issues of water lines that require maintenance, leaks, or health and stress issues that affect flock water consumption.

Lighting intensity: Light is an essential management factor for poultry. Target light intensity for brooding is recommended to be higher than 43 lux. However, achieving it uniformly in a broiler house is difficult.

A study conducted in 70 houses by Olumide Falana et al. indicated that during brooding, the floor area below the light intensity target was 99.8% for old houses and only 2.8% for new houses.

When tunnel fans are working, the light intensity is always higher than the target.

The study also showed that minimal floor area in new and old houses during tunnel ventilation was within ± 10% of the target.

The authors recommended periodic checking of light intensity in broiler houses, especially older ones.

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PATHOLOGY AND DISEASE PREVENTION

Mycoplasma detection methodology: Sethulakshmi Sasidharan from Mississippi State discussed a study demonstrating the importance of sampling sites to detect Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG).

This group evaluated swabs obtained in the trachea or choanal cleft.

Dr. Hugo Ramirez from Mississippi State indicated that strains classified within genotype G2b were predominant in the Southern US variant.

In Argentina, most strains are grouped in the same branch with viruses of genotype 4.

In Colombia, the viruses were of genotype 2b, a couple of sequences of G2a(Delaware E), and one was Winterfield.

In Mexico, most strains belonged to genotype 2a.

They concluded that the choanal cleft had 5.58 times more MG populations than the trachea, with a 95% credible interval between 2.17 and 2.79 averaged across all sampling frequencies.

Finally, in Peru, most strains were genotype 2b(T1).

This information can help epidemiologists and veterinarians establish better vaccination and control strategies.

E.coli and Salmonella typhimurium vaccines:

Live vaccines for these two diseases have been applied commercially in the industry.

Infectious bursal disease: Gumboro disease is a common cause of immunosuppression, and some virulent strains can induce high mortality. The different subtypes have diverse effects on immunity and performance. Consequently, monitoring variant strains are vital to determine vaccination programs.

Dr. Manuel Da Costa from Zoetis Animal Health showed results of a study indicating that parental application of these vaccines induced greater Salmonella spp. load and prevalence reductions against Salmonella groups B, C, and D challenges.

The vaccination also protected against various Avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) O78 and O2 challenge loads.

PROCESSING AND PRODUCTS

Bleed-out and blood collection: Blood loss from broiler carcasses is essential during processing to recover this by-product and improve carcass quality for storage. Stunning and neckcutting methods play an essential role in the bleeding process.

Caitlin Harris representing the University of Georgia and USDA-ARS at Athens, GA, discussed a study to determine blood loss and rate of blood loss for three stunning methods with two commonly used neckcutting methods.

The stunning methods evaluated were:

5 seconds 120 V AC electric stun from beak to vent (AC),

a 10-second pulsed 25V DC electrical stun from beak to vent (DC), and

a 5-min CO2 stun (gas charge 3 minutes, hold 2 minutes, CAS)

After stunning, broilers had a 1-sided neck cut severing one carotid and jugular or a 2-sided neck cut severing both carotids and jugulars. Results indicated that the cutting method and treatment interactions were not significant.

Stunning methods did affect bleeding. At 90 seconds of bleed-out, DC stunned birds lost 42% more blood than AC and 46% more than CAS. At 180 seconds of bleed-out DC, birds lost 32% more blood than AC and 35% more than CAS.

Salmonella and Campylobacter sources of contamination:

Yagya Adhikari from Auburn University presented a survey of isolation and identification of these two leading foodborne pathogens.

In a broiler complex in the Southern USA, samples were taken from pullet, breeder, and broiler farms, hatcheries, transport, and processing plant.

A total of 686 samples were taken for Salmonella and 444 for Campylobacter.

Positive samples were observed in each location; however, numbers increased from one sample in the pullet farm to 7 in the breeder and broiler farms.

Five samples were positive for Salmonella in the hatcheries and none for Campylobacter. Finally, 3 and 11 samples for Salmonella and Campylobacter in the processing plant tested positive

This study indicated that contamination in the pullets or breeders might not be directly responsible for contamination at the processing plant.

Probably, hatchery contamination is more closely related to the observed in carcasses at the processing plant.

Biosecurity in the whole system and each location is essential to minimize the prevalence of these pathogens.

The next International Poultry Scientific Forum is scheduled for January 30 and February 1, 2024. AviNews International encourages all our readers to attend and present at this event.

Salmonella rough O: r1,5 isolate was identified from pullet farm, and serotypes S. Barranquilla, S. Kentucky, S. Liverpool, and S. Luciana were identified from broiler farms. Similarly, serogroups B and D1 and C2 and E were identified from the hatchery and processing plant.

Research Highlights: International Poultry Scientific Forum 2023

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