Bellwether July 2021

The Bellwether  An awards annual dedicated to housing the best and brightest student ideas at Bellevue University

Volume 13 2021

Editor: Amy Nejezchleb Editorial Team: Tony Jasnowski, Pat Artz, Karla Carter, Anthony Clarke, Adriana Seagle, Stephen Linenberger, Kaylene Sasse, Brian Kear, Tyler Moore, Margaret Smith, Maria Cardoña, and Sierra Whitfield, with special thanks to Cris Hay-Merchant Cover artwork: Mystic Reverie by Tara Dailey computer image created in Adobe Photoshop, 10x8 inches, Spring 2021, Omaha, Nebraska The Bellwether recognizes and awards academic, innovative, and creative written and visual works. We encourage submissions from across the disciplines. Our mission is to feature outstanding academic projects with a diversity of voices, styles, and subjects meaningful to the BU community.

The Bellwether is further evidence that critical thinking and creative expressions are valued and alive at Bellevue University.

The Bellwether is published in July of each year, coinciding with commencement. Submissions are accepted year-round from BU students and from nominating faculty. Please submit works to bellwether@bellevue.edu, and direct any questions to Amy Nejezchleb by calling 402-557-7505 or emailing bellwether@bellevue.edu.

The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views of the editorial team or anyone associated with Bellevue University.

©2021 Rights revert to the author or artist after publication in The Bellwether.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

 4 Editor’s Notes 6 Best Overall 7 Tara Dailey 8 Elyse Rawlson 37 Zane Leyden 41 Graduate Student Formal Composition 42 Jennifer Ross 85 Megan O’Brien 107 Adrianne Presnell 124 Graduate Student Creative Expression 125 Octavia Clemons 133 Eric Tijerina 138 Undergraduate Student Formal Composition 139 Melanie Boll 144 Alisiara Hobbs, Caroline Feig, and Lorena Ramirez 149 Morgan McIlnay 152 Undergraduate Student Creative Expression 153 Blair Hopkins 157 Matthew Stoltenberg 163 Adam Pearson 168 Innovative Business or Community Idea 169 Seth McDermott 186 Saidah Scott 195 Technology Project 196 Cheryl Welch 251 Contributors

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EDITOR’S NOTES

 Last year’s pandemic positioned humans so closely to Samuel Beckett’s How It Is that many are still submerged in the muck. Others have elbowed their way through the trenches, peering up, to glimpse the yellow crocus in the flower pot on the patio table: it dies and I see a crocus in a pot in an area in a basement a saffron the sun creeps up the wall a hand keeps it in the sun this yellow flower with a string I see the hand long image hours long the sun goes the pot goes down lights on the ground the hand goes the wall goes (21) Beckett’s prosody-poetry heals. Although, some realizations ensure that one matures: “this voice quaqua of us all never was only one voice my voice never any other” (87). My peering throughout this past year led to a discovery that my mom’s German ancestry was actually Luxembourgian.

Coupled with my father’s Moravian folk, the descendants in my family are a colorful assortment of tulips.

It reminds me of a little prose poem, “A Late Detail from the Depression,” by Gary Gildner about a husband and wife upon the discovery of a terrible burden and the little baby who couldn’t be consoled in the blazes of an autoshop’s burning fire: “One freezing day,” my mother began, “I’m looking around at all the cold—the apartment, the building, the whole world’s an iceberg—and guess what? I’m wrong. We’re on fire.” [...]

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“But you,” she said, “you were howling your head off because your pants were full, which you hated, and were hungry, mad too I was holding you so tight, and I was bawling like crazy myself, Ted! Ted! And he just stood there blue in the face, that sweet man, couldn’t talk, couldn’t move, or that poor unlucky devil squirming on the greasy floor—you could only see his legs—would’ve got more than some ribs busted, and I didn’t understand any of it…” (22) More than one of us felt during the pandemic the terrible burden of wrench-hoisting the car up for the squirming devil beneath.

Like FDR remaining stoic among State advisors during the midst of WWII, we take everything in, a nation’s heroes, absorbing, until we are sure of a decision. FDR was a true leader of the modern industrial nation, positioning America in critical ways. Perhaps we might use 2021 to drive Route 66, reflecting on the events of 2020, or to follow the American Guide Series from the Federal Writers’ Program. The benefits would travel further than any prayerful plea, burgeoning the economy. Each state guide of the 1930s discussed the honest peoples populating its counties, whether rural or metropolitan, African-American, Bohemian, Dutch, Eastern Orthodox, or White Anglo-Saxon Protestant, whether mechanic, farmer, or mother. The guides connected their seemingly disparate inhabitants, forging an America whose inheritance was its regional qualities as the overarching theme for a stronger statehood.

At times, the burden seems too great. We find ourselves turning to others to make sense of it, just as Gildner’s persona finishes the poem: I waited for the happy ending, which had to do with hugging and thanking their lucky stars. But gazing off at the sun going down, sending out long red wings across the horizon, my mother only sighed, “Look at that, would you?” Then resumed raking her leaves as if no one were around.

Just as our many ancestors have done during the times of yore, the ravens knocking, knocking at their doors, we lean into one another, blazing trails as we continue on. But isn’t that how it is? ά-an Works Cited Beckett, Samuel. How It Is. Grove Press, 1964.

Gildner, Gary. The Bunker in Parsley Fields: Poems by Gary Gildner.

University of Iowa Press, 1997.

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BEST OVERALL

First Prize Tara Dailey Mystic Reverie (cover) Professor Chava Maimon

Second Prize Elyse Rawlson A Conceptual Study of the Relationship between Hope and Thriving amongst College Students Dr. Leslie Stager

Third Prize Zane Leyden

The Relationship between Football and CTE Dr. Amy Nejezchleb

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Tara Dailey

Mystic Reverie

computer image created in Adobe Photoshop 10x8 inches Spring 2021 Omaha, Nebraska

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ELYSE RAWLSON

A Conceptual Study of the Relationship between Hope and Thriving amongst College Students

Abstract Research identifies the contributions of positive psychology and hope theory to higher education success and student thriving. This paper examines the dynamics of college student thriving, defines positive psychology, student engagement, thriving, and hope, and evaluates the relationship between hope and thriving among college students. By understanding the relationship between hope and thriving within colleges and universities, educators can enhance students' growth by helping students thrive in their personal and professional lives.

Keywords: positive psychology, student engagement, thriving, hope, college

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How do colleges define success? Most commonly, the answer is grades and graduation rates. Nevertheless, excelling in those areas does not guarantee that students will engage in authentic learning and development activities that enhance thriving during their college experience. Research from the American Council on Education and the National Center for Educational Statistics demonstrates the loss of human potential represented by the 48 to 54% of college students who do not complete their degrees (Schreiner et al., 2009). Talented students fail to achieve at levels consistent with their academic potential while experiencing unprecedented stress, an inability to make decisions, and increased dependence on parents (Feldman & Dreher, 2012). Concurrently, extensive research (Kuh, 2003; Schreiner & Louis, 2006) links various factors to student success outcomes and indicates that what students do during college has more impact on success than any college choice factors or selection (Ray & Kafka, 2014; Snyder et al., 2002).

Therefore, to make a real difference in students’ lives, an imperative exists for colleges and universities to understand the factors that lead to student thriving.

One of the most promising constructs aiding in institutional assessment, student growth, well-being, and improvement efforts is student engagement (Kuh, 2003; Luthans et al., 2016). The advent of the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) in 2000 has increased the visibility of the construct of student engagement and allowed institutions to assess engagement intentionally and empirically (Schreiner & Louis, 2006).

Pascarella and Terenzini (1991) concluded that “one of the most inescapable and unequivocal conclusions we make is that college's impact is largely determined by the individual's quality of effort and level of involvement in both academic and non-academic activities” (p. 610). Thus, insight into student engagement and its predictors and components, such as hope and thriving, is imminent to students’ future success in college and beyond.

Martin Seligman, the founder of the modern positive psychology movement (Williams et al., 2018), introduced positive psychology to shift the field away from concentrating on what is wrong with people to focus on what is right. Over the past two decades, positive psychology literature has reinforced the idea that “psychological strengths and resources can shape attitudes and lead to desirable outcomes in a variety of life’s domains” (Luthans et al., 2014, p. 78).

The intersection of positive psychology and higher education provides a unique framework to view student success, thriving, and the contributing aspects. Motivation, flourishing, optimism, self-efficacy, hope, mindfulness, and resilience are a few of the factors that provide invaluable 9

insight into student engagement and ways to help students achieve in all areas of life. Specifically, the psychological constructs of thriving and hope further explain engagement and student success. These constructs benefit students in all areas of life and indicate positive relationships with student engagement and success (Feldman & Dreher, 2012; Schreiner et al., 2009; Snyder et al., 2002).

College students are the workforce of tomorrow, and higher education provides the means to train, prepare, develop, educate, and manage this future talent. Positive psychology provides a context to understand the constructs of hope and thriving and to fill in the literature gaps regarding their relationship. Conceptually, it follows that students who possess higher levels of hope will also be more likely to engage in productive educational activities and thrive in college. Hopeful, thriving students increase their ability to work to their potential, understand individual strengths, engage in healthy cultures, and foster enduring relationships during the college experience and beyond.

Given the value of thriving for success in school and subsequent careers and life, examining the connections between hope and thriving further is warranted. Since research documents robust correlations between student engagement, thriving, hope, and successful student outcomes, exploring the interactions will add insight and interpretation to the literature. Therefore, to provide further understanding, the following question will be examined: What is the relationship between hope and thriving amongst college students?

Literature Review Thriving and hope serve varied purposes that benefit individuals, organizations, and society. The linkage of both constructs with positive consequences and each other drives the investigation of the causes and relationships. To further understand the relationship between student engagement, hope, and student success, the constructs will be explored (Luthans et al., 2012: Schreiner, 2010a; Snyder, 2002; Zhoc et al., 2018).

Positive Psychology Seligmann and Csikszentmihalyi (2000, as cited in Meyers et al., 2013) describe positive psychology as, [w]ell-being, contentment, and satisfaction (in the past); hope and optimism (for the future); and flow and happiness (in the present).

At the individual level, it is about positive individual traits: the capacity for love and vocation, courage, interpersonal skill, 10

aesthetic sensibility, perseverance, forgiveness, originality, future mindedness, spirituality, high talent, and wisdom. At the group level, it is about the civic virtues and the institutions that move individuals toward better citizenship: responsibility, nurturance, altruism, civility, moderation, tolerance, and work ethic. (p.192) Positive psychology encompasses the scientific study of well-being, health, optimism, and thriving. Instead of remediating problems, the concentration develops psychological strengths to help individuals create a good life that results in desirable outcomes by fostering opportunities, possibilities, and human potential (Luthans et al., 2014; Mather, 2010; Williams et al., 2018).

The developing body of scientific research in positive psychology studies shows excellent promise in the educational field to fulfill the needs of students and schools (Buck & Robertson, 2008; Williams et al., 2018).

Traditional academic performance drivers fail to provide answers to increase engagement or predict success (Hammill et al., 2020; Luthans et al., 2012; Martinez et al., 2019). Classrooms fail to provide learning experiences that focus on strengths, appropriate challenges, or developing initiative. An alternate approach focuses on using positive psychology to build on strengths that motivate students (Luthans et al., 2012; Williams et al., 2018).

Positive psychology can help students work to their potential, engage in healthy cultures, foster enduring relationships, and influence society.

Positive Psychology and Student Engagement One of the main areas in which positive psychology contributes to education is understanding student engagement (Williams et al., 2018).

Research (Williams et al., 2018) also suggests that positive psychological traits can be taught and linked to student success and engagement.

Csikszentmihalyi (1990, as cited in Buck et al., 2008) states that the goal of a researcher is to transform or transition boring and meaningless lives into ones full of enjoyment and challenging, meaningful activities that foster intrinsic motivation. Psychological concepts such as flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, as cited in Buck et al., 2008), mindful learning (Langer, 1997, as cited in Buck et al., 2008), intrinsic motivation, and self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000, as cited in Buck et al., 2008) provide a means to reach these goals. A fuller understanding of the complexities of engagement within the field of positive psychology could enable institutions and faculty to design programs, curricula, and teaching strategies to facilitate student success and thriving (Schreiner & Louis, 2015).

While the studies of flow and flourishing are new to education, the emphases make a valuable contribution to understanding engagement and its' components. Csikszentmihalyi (1975, as cited in Schreiner & Louis, 11

2015) describes flow as an “energized, alert mental state in which one loses track of time and any sense of self-consciousness as a result of becoming immersed in challenging activities that are of interest”(p. 5). While flow provides awareness of this heightened state of engagement, flourishing adds further insight into the construct. One of the main goals of positive psychology is to enable people to flourish (Seligman, 2011, as cited in Schreiner et al., 2009). Flourishing people are engaged, resilient, productive, and involved in meaningful work and relationships while experiencing fulfillment and a sense of purpose (Seligman, 2011, as cited in Schreiner 2010a). To better understand and apply the concept of flourishing to college students, Schreiner (2010a) chose the term thriving to describe intellectually, socially, and emotionally engaged college students experiencing the academic and intellectual objectives inherent to the college experience. Schreiner emphasizes the idea of thriving as a critical element of success. To successfully thrive, the development of time management, optimism, community involvement, and appreciation of differences occurs in addition to academics (Williams et al., 2018). Additionally, research (Williams et al., 2018) states that these characteristics can be taught and linked to academic success.

Schreiner and Louis (2015) state that the ultimate goal of positive psychology is engaged learning, "whereby students meaningfully process what they are learning, attending to what is happening at the moment, and actively participating in the learning experience" (Schreiner & Louis, 2015, p. 12). Extensive research (Luthans et al., 2016; Martinez et al., 2019; Snyder et al., 2002) has shown that positive psychological constructs foster engagement and positively affect students. Conversely, a negative association exists between academic engagement and school burnout, study demands, and depressive symptoms (Carmona-Halty et al., 2019; Luthans et al., 2012; Williams et al., 2018).

Additionally, certain positive psychological constructs have indicated strong correlations with student engagement and academic success, including gratitude, hope, self-efficacy, resilience, optimism, and PsyCap, (Luthans et al., 2016; Schreiner, 2010a). Specifically, the construct of hope has demonstrated unique qualities which encourage a further investigation to understand the relationship and impact on thriving in college students.

Student Engagement “Engagement helps develop the habits of the mind and heart that enlarge their capacity for continuous learning and personal development” (Kuh, 2003, p. 5). Student engagement and its impact on learning are among the most extensively researched and applied topics in higher 12

education literature. Nevertheless, a 2014 Gallup-Purdue University study (Ray & Kafka, 2014) of almost 30,000 college graduates showed that only 3% of those graduates had the type of experiences in college that Gallup and Purdue University found were strongly related to fulfilling jobs and lives after college. Engagement during college was the most significant factor in determining future well-being (Ray & Kafka, 2013). The long-term effects of student engagement extend far beyond the college experience and profoundly impact graduates’ careers and life.

Initially, student engagement was a concept modeled after work engagement. As stated by Schaufeli and Baker (2004), work engagement is “a positive, fulfilling, and work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption” (p. 295). The performance of students’ core activities and work toward specific goals is similar to employees’ roles.

Therefore, the use of management research and constructs to investigate student actions and explain engagement behaviors occurs because student behaviors are considered “work” (Adil et al., 2019; Burch et al., 2015; Carmona-Hartley et al., 2019; Siu et al., 2013).

Student engagement is a complex and multifaceted meta-construct that plays a critical role in student achievement and learning. Literature attempts to draw together the various threads of research, fostering explanations of student success. The construct is divided into four relatively distinct socio-cultural, behavioral, psychological, and holistic perspectives to understand and apply student engagement (Kahu, 2013).

Student Engagement Perspectives Socio-cultural Perspective. The socio-cultural perspective focuses on the broader social context of the student experience. Rather than concentrating on student behavior or emotions, examining the sociocultural context of why students become engaged or alienated occurs. This perspective highlights non-traditional students and minorities and often adds neglected and valuable insight to the overall understanding (Kahu, 2013). The consideration of student support structures and the institution’s culture and the broader political and social debates impacting student engagement are critical to a fuller comprehension of the construct.

Behavioral Perspective. The behavioral perspective is the most widely accepted and practiced view of student engagement, underscoring student behavior and teaching practices. These behaviors are related to student satisfaction and achievement, emphasizing how institutions affect student engagement. Within this perspective, student engagement is the time and effort students devote to educationally purposeful activities (Kahu, 2013).

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The National Survey of Student Engagement and its successor, the Australasian Survey of Student Engagement (AUSSE), are the main survey tools used to measure student engagement within the behavioral perspective (Kahu, 2013). As of 2016, more than 1500 colleges in the U.S. and Canada have used the NSSE to collect information about the undergraduate experience (Schreiner & Louis, 2015) and increase the popularity of the student engagement concept. The NSSE focuses on student behaviors indicative of engagement and the educational practices that support such actions to effectively measure institutional quality (Schreiner & Louis, 2015).

Psychological Perspective. The psychological perspective examines an individual’s internal cognitive and emotional states and external behaviors. The psychological perspective evolves and varies in intensity, creating a fuller interpretation by distinguishing between engagement and its antecedents. The malleability of the construct suggests that engagement can be improved. Further, encompassing behavioral, cognitive, and affective dimensions leads to a rich understanding of the student experience (Kahu, 2013; Zhoc et al., 2019).

The behavioral facet of this perspective is the extent to which students are making active responses to the learning tasks presented through conduct, effort, participation, and attendance in educationally purposeful activities and interactions (Gunuc & Kuzu, 2015; Zhoc et al., 2018). Essentially, cognition facet is the way students approach learning, the degree to which their intelligent energy effectively uses deep learning strategies to comprehend complex ideas beyond the minimum requirements. The affective dimension comprises students’ investment in and emotional reactions to learning tasks and distinguishes between instrumental and intrinsic motivation (Kahu, 2013; Mandernach, 2015).

Holistic Perspective. Within the holistic perspective, engagement is a dynamic continuum with different locations best measured through indepth qualitative work. This approach recognizes the strength of emotion and a broad institutional approach that supports both staff and students.

The holistic method incorporates multiple perspectives and theories, such as motivation and autonomy (Kahu, 2013).

Each of the four perspectives offers valuable and relevant insights into the construct of student engagement and student success. Instead of thriving, many approaches focus primarily on what we can see, those educationally purposeful behaviors that lead to learning outcomes, institutional supports for engagement behaviors, widely available programs, or predictive characteristics of achievement and persistence (Schreiner et al., 2009; Schreiner, 2010b). Focusing on controllable elements and ignoring the psychological perspective excludes explanatory variables, such as student motivation, expectations, and emotions. These variables are 14

necessary to provide a richer understanding of the student experience (Bean, 2005; Kahu, 2013; Steele & Fullager, 2009; Zhoc et al., 2018).

Thriving Psychological engagement must go hand in hand with behavioral engagement. A multidimensional approach to student engagement that recognizes the links among students’ behavior, cognition, and affective responses is essential to gain insight into student success (Fredricks et al., 2004; Schreiner, 2010b; Zhoc et al., 2018). To thrive in the learning environment and not just participate in rote, expected, or required activities, students must be psychologically involved in the process (Schreiner, 2010b).

Further, the construct must be malleable to allow for the development of strategic interventions to impact the student experience. As higher education seeks to advance the next generation of scholars, more must be done to help students not only survive but thrive in the college environment (Schreiner et al., 2009).

Conceptual Framework Thriving denotes a holistic model of student success representing the intersection of higher education and positive psychology. Empirical research about what leads to positive individual and community functioning provides the background for exploring the difference between students who thrive in college compared to those who merely survive. The literature on flourishing (Keyes & Haidt, 2003; Seligman, 2011, as cited in Schreiner, 2010a) and the psychological model of student retention and persistence (Bean & Eaton, 2000) provide a conceptual framework of thriving within the field of positive psychology.

According to Bean and Eaton (2000), any model of student success must include not only behaviors but also motivational factors. Through positive interactions at college, students experience an internal locus of control, proactive coping skills, and a greater sense of self-efficacy, as well as lower levels of stress (Derrico et al., 2015). These positive interactions increase students’ academic motivation and lead to academic and social integration, institutional fit and loyalty, persistence/retention, and graduation (Bean & Eaton, 2000).

Positive psychology research on flourishing influences the view of well-being in the thriving construct (Derrico et al., 2005). Keyes and Haidt (2003, as cited in Derrico et al., 2005) define flourishing as “emotional vitality and positive functioning manifest through positive relationships, rising to meet personal challenges, and engagement with the world” (p. 3).

Flourishing individuals have high levels of emotional, psychological, and 15

social well-being. An enthusiasm for life, meaningful work, resilience in the face of personal challenges, and focus beyond self to the greater good of others are additional traits (Schreiner et al., 2009). Schreiner (2010a) extended the concept of flourishing specifically to college students as the basis for the construct of thriving.

Contrasting the idea of survival mode, Schreiner (2010a) employs the term thriving to describe college students who exceed expectations.

Specifically, thriving in college is defined as being “fully engaged intellectually, socially, and emotionally in the college experience” (Schreiner, 2010a, p. 3). The holistic construct includes psychosocial factors identified in the literature as predictive of student success, persistence, retention, and amenable to intervention (Schreiner, 2010a). Thriving college students fully participate in the learning process, manage the demands of college effectively, and maintain healthy relationships that allow them to gain maximum benefit from college. Students are academically successful and experience a sense of community and a level of psychological well-being that contribute to an investment in and enjoyment of the college experience (Schreiner, 2010a; Schreiner, 2010b).

Thriving Quotient After combining interdisciplinary perspectives on well-being and student success with descriptions from successful college student instruments, Schreiner (2010a) developed the “Thriving Quotient,” an instrument that reliably measures the elements of student thriving that are predictive of academic success and persistence. Thriving is conceptualized as optimal functioning in the three critical areas of academic engagement and performance, interpersonal relationships, and intrapersonal well-being.

Each of the factors empirically demonstrates as amendable to change and functions independently of gender, parent educational attainment, or academic achievement (Schreiner, 2010a).

Academic Thriving. The first factor, academic thriving, consists of engaged learning and academic determination and encompasses psychological constructs empirically linked to student success, such as GPA. Academically thriving students exhibit the characteristics of deep learning, academic self-efficacy, goal direction, self-regulated learning, and investment of effort (Schreiner, 2010a). Specifically, engaged learning is the positive energy invested in learning consisting of the three components of regulating one’s learning behavior through meaningful processing, focused attention, and active participation in learning activities. Highly engaged students are psychologically present and behaviorally focused in the classroom, curious about content, and continually learning. Engaged

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students typically report higher satisfaction with the learning process, faculty interactions, and academic gains (Schreiner, 2010b).

Academic determination is the other side of academic thriving, encompassing one’s learning behavior. The four aspects of academic determination are goal orientation, self-regulation, environmental mastery, and investment of effort. Academically determined students are intrinsically motivated, tend to try new strategies, ask for help, and persevere through challenging situations (Derrico et al., 2015; Schreiner, 2010a; Schreiner, 2010b).

Intrapersonal Thriving. Intrapersonal thriving is composed of a factor called positive perspective that embodies healthy attitudes toward self as well as toward the learning process. Students who thrive in this area have a positive, optimistic view of the world and the future, resulting in life satisfaction, long-term viewpoint, and college enjoyment. The increase in positive emotions helps students handle stress, not overreact, have a healthy perspective, and reframe adverse events. The malleable factors of optimism and well-being encompassed in this factor are significant predictors of decreased psychological distress and increased success and life satisfaction (Schreiner, 2010a; Schreiner et al., 2009).

Interpersonal Thriving. Thriving is impossible without relationships, and interpersonal thriving measures this relational aspect through diverse citizenship and social connectedness. Diverse citizenship is a complex combination of ideas consisting of openness and valuing of differences in others, an interest in relating to others from diverse backgrounds, and a desire to contribute to the world. Students have a growth mindset—believing that change is possible with effort—and the necessary confidence (Schreiner, 2010a). Social connectedness includes having friends, being in healthy relationships, and experiencing a community within the college environment. Students feel known, supported, and valued and believe that change is possible with effort (Schreiner, 2010b).

Together these three malleable factors of thriving, academic, intrapersonal, and interpersonal, represent a tool that allows colleges and universities to measure student development holistically. The thriving quotient provides a means to create specific mechanisms for increasing student success, institutional effectiveness, and profitability that helps college students to thrive. Student engagement, particularly the construct of thriving, is linked to numerous positive outcomes that benefit students, institutions, and society.

Positive Outcomes of Student Engagement and Thriving

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Thriving is among the better predictors of student learning and development, with prior research connecting desirable results and positive learning and development outcomes (Luthans et al., 2016; Schreiner, 2010a). Research (Schreiner, 2010a; You, 2016) has found that engaged and thriving students demonstrate high levels of curiosity, interest, and citizenship, have a passion for learning and others, are motivated by challenges and complex tasks, put in more effort, and exhibit high persistence levels. In contrast, disengaged students tend to be passive, express negative emotions, and give up easily on complex tasks (You, 2016).

Positive relationships among thriving and cognitive, social, selfgrowth, psychological well-being (PWB), physical well-being, and satisfaction with the university outcomes occur. These consequences include increased meaningful relationships, diversity, critical thinking, optimism, accrual of social capital, leadership, coping skills, and communication skills (Luthans et al., 2012; Martinez et al., 2019; Schreiner, 2010a; Steele & Fullager, 2015; Zhoc et al., 2018). Additionally, research (Luthans et al., 2016; Schreiner, 2010a) has indicated that thriving students demonstrate higher graduation rates, better grade point averages, better retention, greater levels of educational satisfaction, a desire for life-long learning, and post-graduation engagement at work.

The psychometrically sound construct of thriving expounds on the student success outcomes already linked to student engagement (Schreiner, 2010a). Research (Schreiner, 2010a) suggests that levels of thriving appear to matter as much, if not more, than the typical characteristics and campus experiences used to predict student success. Student gains from thriving occur regardless of background differences, ethnicity, gender, academic ability, or type of institution attended, indicating that thriving may transcend circumstances and increase the likelihood of success for students from diverse backgrounds (Schreiner, 2010a). Thriving may also explain an additional 8 to18% of the variation in positive student outcomes, such as GPA, intent to graduate, and institutional fit, after adjusting for background differences and key institutional features.

The mediating effects of the psychosocial factors suggest that established accomplishments such as campus involvement and studentfaculty interaction contribute to student achievement to the extent that thriving is enhanced. Thus, reaffirming that relying solely on observable, behavioral, and environmental interactions does not fully capture the portrait of student success (Schreiner, 2010a; Schreiner et al., 2013). This holistic measure of positive student functioning is a reliable, valid tool, connected to essential outcomes in higher education. The substantial research indicating the benefits of fully engaged students facilitates examining the contributors to thriving and understanding the implications and relationships largely absent from the literature.

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Hope Theory Extensive research has generated new insights and understanding regarding the potential predictors of student engagement and student success. Prior research has implied that socioeconomic status, high school grades and achievements, perceived ability, test scores, and academic preparation have a positive relationship with both constructs (Luthans et al., 2016). However, studies suggest that intelligence and ability are not the only determinants of student success and engagement, necessitating a need to understand the indicators to promote thriving (Snyder et al., 2002).

Motivational and positive psychological constructs have contributed to understanding student engagement (Luthans et al., 2016; Snyder et al., 2002). Among these constructs, Hope Theory (Snyder, 1995), one of the most researched and developed constructs in positive psychology, can provide answers to a piece of the educational research puzzle. Hope offers unique advantages by conceptualizing academic motivation, offering predictive ability, and explaining behavior patterns predicted by goal theory (Snyder et al., 2002). Consequently, hope expands the possibilities of understanding and fills a void in the literature by explaining how students can utilize their strengths to achieve beyond the norm. Snyder (2002), the founder of Hope Theory, states as follows: In studying hope, so too have I observed the spectrum of human strength. This reminds me of the rainbow that frequently is used as a symbol of hope. A rainbow is a prism that sends shards of multicolored light in various directions. It lifts our spirits and makes us think of what is possible. Hope is the same—a personal rainbow of the mind. (p. 269) Typically, hope is viewed as an emotion. However, as a psychological construct, hope is perceived as a dynamic, cognitive, motivational system (Snyder et al., 1991, p. 820). Hope is the process of thinking about one’s goals through agency (willpower) and pathways (way power). Agency encompasses the motivation to move toward those goals while pathways are the ways to achieve those goals (Snyder, 1995). These goals are the targets of mental action sequences driven by purposeful, goaldirected behavior (Feldman & Dreher, 2012). Agentic thinking translates into the “can do” attitude that enables individuals to have the confidence to attain valued goals. Pathways represent an individual’s ability to generate strategies to accomplish goals with contingencies to overcome obstacles.

This ability to create multiple pathways with motivation is critical to

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students’ success when encountering challenges in the academic domain (Snyder et al., 2002; Yoon et al., 2015).

Outcomes of Hope Hope theory suggests that an individuals’ self-perception as a goal agent inspires performance or behavior rather than the actual goal, indicating that students’ levels of hope directly affect how goals are pursued (Snyder et al., 2002). High-hope students are highly motivated, clearly conceptualize goals, internalize self-standards, and establish goals based on previous performances. These processes cause a perceived likelihood of positive outcomes and a willingness to try new approaches. Focusing on success and determination causes a reduction in distress, self-deprecatory thinking, and counterproductive, negative emotions. Further, information regarding unreached goals provides diagnostic feedback and an opportunity for growth (Snyder et al., 1991; Snyder et al., 2002).

Conversely, low-hope students are ambiguous and uncertain about goals, which leads to counterproductive avoidance, disengagement thinking, and detrimental negative feelings. When confronted with obstacles, students do not try alternate pathways or learn from past experiences but instead establish big, overwhelming, and anxiety-producing goals. A belief of future poor performance causes difficulties in focusing and studying, leading to poor academic achievement (Onwuegbuzie, 1998; Snyder et al., 1991; Snyder et al., 2002).

Accordingly, the academic advantages of higher hope and disadvantages of lower hope are apparent. Day et al.’s (2010) three-year longitudinal study revealed that hope was predictive of academic achievement in college students over and above prior academic performance, intelligence, and personality. Research (Curry et al., 1997; Day et al., 2010; Feldman & Dreher, 2012; Snyder et al., 2002) shows positive academic outcomes such as higher GPAs and graduation rates, retention, resilience, and vocational identity are associated with hope. Decades of research have established the positive benefits of hope in promoting psychological and physical well-being (Chang, 1998). Conceptually, it follows that students who possess higher levels of hope will be more likely to engage in productive educational activities, with empirical studies in education consistently showing hope to be predictive of student engagement (Luthans et al., 2016; Feldman & Dreher, 2012; Van Ryzin, 2011; Yoon et al., 2005).

Despite the considerable amount of attention given to the relationships between hope and academic success, few studies have examined the role of hope in increasing student engagement in college students. Collectively, evidence supports the importance of hope and 20

thriving in student success and the malleability of the constructs, suggesting that hope plays a vital role in thriving. However, little about the mechanisms through which hope exerts its influence on students’ thriving is known. Therefore, further studies are needed to examine the linkages between hope and thriving among college students.

Figure 1 Theoretical Research Model of the Relationship between Hope, Thriving, and Student Success

Methods and Procedures The independent variable of this study is hope, and the dependent variable is thriving. A survey will be constructed to gather data to measure and analyze the strength and direction of the relationship between hope and thriving among college students. Aspects of student success will also be measured to determine correlations among the variables.

Participants The participants in the study were full-time college students, ages 18 and up, currently attending a public or private university in the United States. Participants were recruited through various social media platforms, including Facebook, Slack, and LinkedIn, to target students willing to 21

participate. Data collection began in May 2021 and continued through June 2021. Participation was voluntary, and students were not compensated. The goal was to collect a minimum of 10 responses.

Procedure Participants were provided the questionnaire through the platform Qualtrics. The survey was accessed via computer, tablet, or mobile device through a link from Qualtrics. Upon accessing the link, the participant first encountered a consent form outlining the purpose of the study, procedures, any potential risks (no foreseeable risks are indicated), a notice of confidentiality and anonymity, the contact information of the researcher, and a notice of voluntary participation. Informed consent was required before access to the survey was granted.

Once consent was provided, access to the survey was granted.

First, twelve demographic questions requested information regarding gender, age, year in school, ethnicity, and major area of study. The survey consisted of eight items assessing hope, 25 items assessing thriving, and nine items assessing student success factors using a Likert-type scale. Two open-ended questions were also included. Participants were directed to answer the questions concerning their current, personal experiences when completing the survey. Upon completion, the instrument was submitted through a link directly to Qualtrics.

Materials The utilized measure included specific validated and reliable scales already developed for measuring hope and thriving, plus additional openended questions. The questions measured the variables of hope and thriving.

Hope Trait Scale The adult Trait Hope Scale (Snyder et al., 1991) consists of the four-item agency subscale and four-item pathways subscale. Items were assessed using an 5-point Likert type scale ranging from 1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree. Both subscales have adequate internal reliability, with Cronbach's alphas ranging from .70 to .84 for the Agency subscale and from .63 to .86 for the Pathways subscale (Snyder et al., 1991).

Questions for the Trait Hope Scale are shown in Appendix A.

Thriving Quotient

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The Thriving Quotient (TQ) (Schreiner et al., 2013) used as a model was refined for concision and psychometric strength among 25,000 students after the pilot version was administered in 2008. The TQ scale (α = .88) contains survey items representing malleable psychosocial constructs predictive of student success consisting of the five latent factors that comprise thriving: Engaged Learning, Academic Determination, Positive Perspective, Social Connectedness, and Diverse Citizenship. Students responded to each item on a 5-point Likert type scale from 1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree. Thriving Quotient questions are shown in Appendix B.

Student Success Thriving and hope have been linked with various positive student success outcomes (Day et al., 2010; Luthans et al., 2016; Schreiner, 2010a; Snyder et al., 2002). Outcomes of student success, such as grades, university satisfaction, intent to graduate, and future goals, were self-reported to determine any correlations to hope and thriving. Student Success questions are shown in Appendix D.

Open-ended Questions In addition to the Likert-type questions, two open-ended questions were included in the survey to draw out additional information on the students’ sense of hope and thriving. The questions are included in Appendix C. Discussion Limitations, Delimitations, and Future Research This study holds several limitations, the consideration of which should prove helpful in future research. The study used a cross-sectional design in which data was collected from individuals at a single point in time.

Therefore, if the results indicate a significant relationship between hope and thriving, the relationship between the variables should be interpreted only as correlations. To further examine the relationship between the variables, a longitudinal or experimental study design would be helpful. Additionally, future studies may want to distinguish between the agency and pathways of hope while examining the relationship with thriving to determine if different correlations exist. Other possible contributing factors, such as personality, socioeconomic factors, GPA, years in school, type of school,

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and traditional predictors of academic performance, were not considered in this study. Future studies may want to consider these factors A convenience sample was used, with access to the number of participants limited by the time frame allocated for the research and the accessibility of participants. Participants may have included both undergraduate and graduate students from a variety of institutions. Besides increasing the number of participants, similar studies are recommended with a broader range of institutions to explore the contribution of hope to thriving in these environments. Studies could also distinguish between graduate and undergraduate students and include a more diverse population. This exploration could expand to study the relationship between hope and thriving over time rather than a specific snapshot in time, such as a semester, academic year, or the entire college experience.

The access limitations may have introduced selection bias and may limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations and institutions.

All data collected used a self-reporting survey method, possibly causing common method and source bias to exist. Further research could use other measurement methods than self-report to examine various academic or success variables concerning hope and thriving. Value also exists in researching which practices and interventions most effectively facilitate hope and thriving, and once employed, whether such practices and interventions yield the intended benefits. Future studies should consider these issues. Despite the limitations, this study contributes to validating the relationship between hope and thriving among college students in an academic and cultural setting. Furthermore, the findings will provide implications of developing and managing students that promote students' thriving.

Conclusion Higher education is in a time of transition as technology, finances, and decreasing retention and graduation rates inform decisions and profitability (Williams et al., 2018). Innovative and compelling discussions must continue regarding the importance of creating a transformative experience for students versus just obtaining a degree. Evidence supports the importance of hope and thriving in achieving student success and the malleability of the constructs, creating a need to further study the relationships among college students. By examining the relationship, a deeper understanding of the influence of hope on thriving can be obtained.

Then, universities will have the tools necessary to remain competitive and profitable. Faculty, staff, and administrators will be equipped with the resources required to help students thrive. Most importantly, students can work to their potential, understand their strengths, engage in healthy 24

cultures and environments, and foster healthy relationships with faculty, administration, and peers.

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Schaufeli, W.B., & Bakker, A.B. (2004). Job demands, job resources and their relationship with burnout and engagement: A multi-sample study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(3), 293-315. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.248 Schreiner, L. A. (2010a). The “Thriving Quotient”: A new vision for student success. About Campus, 15(2), 2-10. doi:10.1002/abc.20016 Schreiner, L. A. (2010b). Thriving in the classroom. About Campus, 15(3), 210. doi:10.1002/abc.20022 Schreiner, L. A., & Louis, M. C. (2006, November). Measuring engaged learning in college students: Beyond the borders of the NSSE [Conference session]. Association for the Study of Higher Education, Anaheim, CA, United States.

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Appendix A Trait Hope Scale Questions (Snyder et al. 1991) 1. I can think of many ways to get out of a jam. (Pathways) 2. I energetically pursue my goals. (Agency) 3. There are lots of ways around any problem. (Pathways) 4. I can think of many ways to get the things in life that are most important to me. (Pathways) 5. Even when others get discouraged, I know I can find a way to solve the problem. (Pathways) 6. My past experiences have prepared me well for my future. (Agency) 7. I've been pretty successful in life. (Agency) 8. I meet the goals that I set for myself. (Agency)

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Appendix B Thriving Quotient Questions (Schreiner et al., 2013; Thriving Quotient Undergraduate Survey, 2021).

Academic Determination 1. I am confident I will reach my educational goals.

2. Even if assignments are not interesting to me, I find a way to keep working on them until they are done well.

3. I know how to apply my strengths to achieve academic success.

4. I am good at juggling all the demands of college life.

5. Other people would say I’m a hard worker.

6. When I’m faced with a problem in my life, I can usually think of several ways to solve it.

Diverse Citizenship 1. I spend time making a difference in other people’s lives.

2. I know I can make a difference in my community.

3. It is important to become aware of the perspectives of individuals from different backgrounds.

4. It’s important for me to make a contribution to my community.

5. I value interacting with people whose viewpoints are different from my own.

6. My knowledge or opinions have been changed by becoming more aware of the perspectives of individuals from different backgrounds.

Engaged Learning 1. I feel as though I am learning things in my classes that are worthwhile to me as a person.

2. I can usually find ways of applying what I’m learning in class to something else in my life.

3. I find myself thinking about what I’m learning in class, even when I'm not in class.

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4. I feel energized by the ideas I am learning in most of my classes.

Positive Perspective 1. My perspective on life is that I tend to see the glass as “half full.”

2. I always look on the bright side of things.

3. I look for the best in situations, even when things seem hopeless.

Social Connectedness 1. Other people tend to make friends more easily than I do.

2. I don’t have as many close friends as I wish I had.

3. It’s hard to make friends on this campus.

4. I often feel lonely because I have few close friends with whom to share my concerns.

5. I feel content with the kinds of friendships I currently have.

6. I feel like I belong here.

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Appendix C Open-ended Questions 1. Thriving is defined as making the most out of your college experience so that you are intellectually, socially, and psychologically engaged and enjoying the college experience. Given that definition, to what extent do you think you are THRIVING as a college student this semester?

The first part of this question will be assessed through 3 choices of “Yes; Not sure; No.” The second part is an open-ended question.

What has happened this semester that has led to your perception of whether you are thriving or not? (Thriving Quotient Undergraduate Survey, 2021).

2. Academic hope is the motivational system that helps us achieve our goals. Do you think you are HOPEFUL as a college student this semester?

The first part of this question will be assessed through 3 choices of "Yes; Not sure; No.” The second part is an open-ended question.

What has happened this semester that has led to your perception of whether you are hopeful or not?

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Appendix D Student Success Questions 48. How would you describe your grades in college so far?

49. I am confident the amount of money I’m paying for college is worth it.

50. I intend to graduate from this institution.

51. What is the highest degree you intend to pursue in your lifetime?

52. Given my current goals, this institution is a good fit for me.

53. If I had to do it over again, I would choose a different university to attend.

54. I have a set of goals that I care about for my life after graduation.

55. I have a passion to continue learning after I graduate.

56. I am serving in leadership in at least one group or organization.

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Zane Leyden

The Relationship between Football and CTE

Football is one of the most high-contact sports played in the entire world. It is known for the excitement it brings to people because of how the game is played. Fans love to see spectacular catches, long runs, deep throws, and obviously, touchdowns. However, what really gets crowds to jump out of their seats is the hard hitting plays. They want to watch the tackles that you can hear from the seats in the stadium because that’s how football should be played; it is known for being a sport where it is okay to hit someone and be rough. Since this is such a high contact sport, though, oftentimes players receive traumatic head injuries such as concussions. This can happen when there is head-to-head contact, as well as any high impact that the head receives. A concussion is where the brain crashes into the skull from the impact of a collision. Research has been done that shows getting multiple concussions, especially numerous cases of severe head trauma, can lead to Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) (Wolpert, 2019). With these circumstances, the National Football League (NFL) needs to create new ideas to make the game of football more safe for its players. The NFL also needs to come up with an agreement where if a player is diagnosed with CTE from their time in the league, they must help and contribute to the player’s future needs.

For the past several years, the alarming amount of head injuries in professional football has started to raise questions on the NFL’s effort to make the game safer. There have been plenty of research and studies done that have shown the statistics on the amount of head-related injuries there are and the chronic effects on the players. According to neuroscientists’ 37

studies, it was found to be that there are on average 162 head injuries per football season, which means there are about 10.8 concussions a week around the entire NFL (Wolpert, 2019). These drastic amount of head injuries can lead to the increasing number of cases of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE). CTE is known to negatively affect the brain and can eventually lead to death. The NFL has been known to avoid the issue and fails to take any responsibility for the damage that has been done to players’ heads. In 2011, former NFL players filed a lawsuit against the NFL because the league did not do anything in their favor to prevent these injuries and “mishandled concussion-related injuries” (Wolpert, 2019).

Once the lawsuit was finally filed and settled, it was agreed that families of “any previous player that had died between January 1, 2006, and July 7, 2014,” would receive four million dollars (Wolpert, 2019). This is an issue that needs to be fixed as soon as possible because players outside of those dates, whether they have passed away, are currently playing, or former players who are diagnosed with CTE, are left out of receiving a monetary settlement. Players feel as if they are getting betrayed by their employer— the NFL—because of the sacrifices they have made and getting nothing in return.

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy is caused when there are repetitive collisions to the head. It often happens in football from tackling and blocking but it also happens from hitting the ground too hard with a helmet. In a report that was conducted with a total of 68 men who had CTE, 36 were former football players. There are even different levels of severity with CTE. There was another report that had a total of 111 CTE cases and 23 “were considered mild and the other 84 people had severe cases” (Mez, 2017). There were symptoms that were present in both mild and severe cases. These included symptoms of depression, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts and verbal and physical violence. Over half of those men were football players, so it should be safe to say that the amount of repetitive contact to the head that football players go through is the reason it leads to CTE. All this should be concerning to everyone who plays football and enjoys watching the NFL; however, “CTE will continue to wreak havoc and cause needless suffering unless the NFL decides to lead by example and really do something about it” (Stone, 2017). The NFL should be the leader in their player’s safety; however, they have not shown much concern on the impact of the game. Football players should not want to play in the NFL if they know the league doesn’t have their backs, and ultimately, saying that they just don’t really care much about their players’ health. Athletes know that their health is the most important thing to 38

maintain, so the National Football League needs to create policies and other regulations to be able to ensure players’ health in the present and the future.

CTE has been found to be linked with the deaths of many former NFL players. The first CTE linked death was former player Mike Webster.

This became a turning point as “the results of Webster’s brain examination provided the first evidence of a link between the long-term neurodegenerative consequences that are associated with CTE and the exposure to repeated mild traumatic brain injury associated with football” (Abreu, 2016). There’s a relationship between former NFL players that have committed suicide and Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy because of how it diminishes their psychologic and cognitive capabilities. It was noted that even family members and friends “noticed cognitive impairments such as memory loss and psychological consequence like increased depression, irritability, aggression, and suicidal thoughts before the former NFL players committed suicide” (Abreu, 2016). People notice when somebody is not acting like their normal character; some former players say they cannot control their temper and that they need help. With the increased research of multiple concussions and head injuries, CTE is more known than ever. The number of cases continues to grow larger and it is becoming a large concern. It is time the NFL becomes more responsible for their lack of action. If people see what has happened to other former players, parents won’t want their kids to get started in football and quite possibly kids themselves won’t want to play. It is getting more difficult to deny that CTE is not at all related to the sport of football.

Although football is a sport that is popular for the hard contact and big hits, it is important that people know what could possibly happen down the road later on in life. It is no longer a question if football and CTE are related, because there is a clear connection. There have been proven studies, and numbers clearly show that there is a relationship between football and CTE. The condition can heavily affect a person’s brain for the worse, so it should be discussed in order for people to understand it. The NFL needs to take more responsibility in taking care of those who suffer from CTE because despite it being a sport, the players still work for them: “Treating football players like the workers they are means that we must find a balance between risk and regulation” (Finkel, 2018). Everybody’s health should be maintained as much as possible because it is the most important aspect of life, and football players’ health should be no different.

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References Abreu, M. A., Cromartie, F. J., & Spradley, B. D. (2016). Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) and former National Football League player suicides. Sport Journal, 22, 1–12. https://thesportjournal.org/article/chronic-traumaticencephalopathy-cte-and-former-national-football-league-playersuicides/ Finkel, A. M., Deubert, C. R., Lobel, O., Cohen, I. G., & Lynch, H. F. (2018). The NFL as a workplace: The prospect of applying occupational health and safety law to protect NFL workers. Arizona Law Review, 60(2), 291–368. https://arizonalawreview.org/the-nflas-a-workplace-the-prospect-of-applying-occupational-health-andsafety-law-to-protect-nfl-workers/ Mez, J., et al. (2017). Clinicopathological evaluation of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in players of American football. JAMA, 318(4), 360–370. doi:10.1001/jama.2017.8334 Stone, E. S. (2017). The NFL concussion settlement, traumatic brain injury, and CTE: Fact, fiction, and spin doctoring. Journal of Legal Nurse Consulting, 28(3), 8–11. https://view.flipdocs.com/?ID=10004296_115508 Wolpert, J. (2019). Concussions and contracts: The National Football League’s limitations to protecting its players from Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy. Journal of Law and Health, 33(1), 1–16.

PMID: 31841615

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GRADUATE STUDENT FORMAL COMPOSITION

First Prize Jennifer Ross Employee Engagement: Crisis Effects on Remote Office Personnel Professor JoDee Goracke

Second Prize Megan O’Brien

Examining Performance Management and Its Relationship with Leader Behavior and Employee Engagement Professor JoDee Goracke

Third Prize Adrianne Presnell

Employees with Visible Tattoos: The Impact of “Cover-Up” Professor JoDee Goracke

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JENNIFER ROSS

Employee Engagement: Crisis Effects on Remote Office Personnel

Abstract Employee Engagement has grown in business popularity since 1990. The topic has become mainstream as it can affect organizational retention, productivity, and workplace environment. However, relatively little is known about employee engagement and crisis combined. This study examines how a crisis affects employee engagement for in-office personnel who were forced to move to remote work. The participants are from all levels of an organization and worked remotely during COVID-19. The study utilized qualitative (CIT) and quantitative (ISA) methods. The primary data was collected through an online survey of 114 employees from across the United States whose organizations rapidly moved to work remotely due to COVID-19. The research concludes that there is a decrease in employee engagement scores; however, the results are not statistically significant to determine whether the COVID-19 crisis affects engagement. Results did indicate a correlation between the during-crisis score and the ISA engagement and the Task Performance, Organizational Citizenship Behavior, and Quit Intention. Based on the level of analysis conducted, the researcher suggests that organizations focus on other impact variables that might cause the decrease of engagement during a crisis. Further investigation is essential to determine the variable causing the engagement score decrease. The findings, limitations, and accompanying suggestions for future research are also discussed.

Keywords: Employee Engagement, Crisis Management, Crisis, ISA, CIT, Virtual Teams, COVID-19, Coronavirus, Pandemic 42

1.0 Employee Engagement: Crisis Effects on Remote Office Personnel March 11, 2020, is when the Coronavirus (COVID-19) disease was declared a global pandemic by the World Health Organization. The virus causes severe acute respiratory syndrome with symptoms ranging from fever, dry cough, fatigue, diarrhea, sore throat, loss of smell and taste, and chills in some people (Carlson, 2020; WHO, 2020). Many organizations were operating in person and were forced to find ways for employees to work remotely (Cucinotta & Vanelli, 2020; Kniffin et al., 2021). The transition to remote work was rapid, and while some organizations were better prepared than others, the impact was overwhelming. Examples of the impacts are mandated six-feet distance between individuals, facial coverings in public, and a limited number of people indoors. Hospitals were forced to limit physical visits by utilizing telehealth technology, and grocery markets were barren from heightened demand. Certain professions were deemed essential, and those that were not were mandated to quarantine and work from home (Contreras, 2020, Kniffin et al., 2021). Although employee engagement is not the first thing that comes to an organization’s mind when preparing to combat crisis challenges; research has shown a correlation between employee engagement and mental health, causing insecurity, confusion, emotional isolation, and stigma for employees during tough and uncertain times (Pfefferbaum & North, 2020). With uncertainty looming, the organization must implement preventative or assistive measures to maintain or improve employees’ mental health to sustain engagement. Through evidence-based practice, employee engagement research suggests positive correlations between engagement, profits, productivity, customer satisfaction, and shareholder returns (Crawford et al., 2010). The current study will explore how a crisis affecting national and international areas will affect in-office employee engagement through a mixed-methods electronic survey.

1.1 Research Rationale The rationale for conducting the study is to help organizations understand and prepare for the next business crisis. For example, research from the financial crisis in 2008 prepared various organizations to increase mental health services and make other resources available to employees during COVID-19 (Kniffin et al., 2021). A crisis is defined as an unstable or crucial event that affects people for better or worse, locally, nationally, or internationally (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). Being prepared for a crisis helps organizations exhibit genuine care for their employees while preserving organizational productivity and culture. According to Kniffin et al. (2020), 43

organizations are focusing on mental awareness, stress, anxiety, fear, and health during COVID-19. Therefore, the pandemic has created an opportunity to study employee engagement during a crisis to fill the gaps in the under-researched area of employee engagement and virtual teams.

1.2 Research question The current study aims to find how a crisis affects employee engagement while working remotely for in-office personnel that shifted to remote work. Therefore, stating that if a crisis happens and office personnel are moved to work remotely, they will experience low employee engagement. Employee engagement is defined as employee commitment to the organization and the positive behaviors they display (Kahn, 1990). The research will measure the hypothesis by rating remote employee engagement, with the dependent variables being the participants and their remote engagement. The independent variable is the crisis, which is COVID-19. Additionally, it is expected that participants will experience low social employee engagement during the national and international crisis while working remotely. Figure 1A, in the Appendix, illustrates a model of the anticipated antecedents and consequences from employee engagement during a crisis. There are three types of employee engagement; Intellectual, Social, and Affective, that follow the conceptual framework of Soane et al.

(2012) and Kahn (1990). These three levels combined comprise employee engagement in its entirety, which then leads to possible consequences.

1.3 Significance to Practice The aforementioned involuntary push to work remotely gave organizations little time to figure out how to train leaders, acquire equipment, and develop remote employees’ policies. Leaders who do not have virtual team experience had to figure out how to manage the technology change (Tena-Chollet et al., 2018). With current studies uncovering how organizations were unprepared for virtual conversion, the study aims to help organizations develop the understanding of engagement areas to prepare crisis management teams in planning, sustaining, or increasing productivity even during a national or international crisis. The researcher anticipates that the information obtained from this study will begin to inform the area of employee engagement research during a crisis when quantitative and qualitative data is lacking.

1.4 Significance to Social Change

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Organizations can apply the study’s findings to understand what challenges their employees face in intellectual, social, or affective engagement areas, what resources they should offer, and how leaders can mitigate disengagement. Should the study’s data positively correlate, the research can serve as a starting point to validate how crisis affects employee engagement, creating a need for preventative measures. Having participants reflect on the pandemic allows them to express their experiences through the mixed-methods survey to generate change within their organization.

2.0 Literature Review Current research of employee engagement and virtual teams discusses the flexibility of working remotely and the benefits of the employee’s experience. A virtual team is an arrangement where team members work remotely, have limited face-to-face interactions, and utilize electronic communication software to achieve common goals (Dulebohn & Hoch, 2017). Alternatively, a few studies oppose the benefits of employee engagement and the use of virtual teams. Discussed below are articles from Kahn (1990), May et al. (2004); Pierce & Agunis (2013); and Bryne et al.

(2016) on Employee Engagement. Articles on Virtual Teams (VT) are from Gilson (2014), Horowitz (2016), Rezugi’s (2007), and Gupta (2018). Lastly, articles on Crisis Management are from Akhmetshin (2019) and Bundy, et al. (2017). The background and conclusions helped the researcher decide what to investigate, why the area should be studied, and to determine the gaps in previous research.

2.1 Supporting Employee Engagement Research

2.1.1 Kahn’s Research Although there are numerous predominant studies on employee engagement, one of the most notable researchers in employee engagement is William Kahn’s research conducted in 1990. Kahn’s research of Psychological Conditions of Personal Engagement and Disengagement at Work has been used many times as the foundation for understanding and defining employee engagement (Albrecht et al., 2015). Kahn interviewed camp counselors and employees from an architecture firm to uncover engaged or disengaged employees (Kahn, 1990; Kahn, 1992). There were 32 participants selected from two different organizations in which all the participants were white Americans from middle-class to upper-class backgrounds. When collecting qualitative data, observation methods, data analysis, self-reflection, an in-depth interview was utilized (Kahn, 1990).

There are three phases for data analysis. The first phase was immediately 45

after the camp study where Kahn transcribed the interviews to identify engaged and disengaged moments. The second phase was conducted directly after the interviews at the architecture firm. The third phase revisited the camp data to investigate for more complex categories. The research was primarily categorized and sorted by instances of engagement and disengagement. According to Khan (1990), engaged employees express themselves intellectually, emotionally, and physically during work.

Disengaged employees’ withdraw and regret the lack of connections physically, cognitively, and emotionally. Since Kahn’s 1990 research, organizations have embraced employee engagement research, making employee engagement widely popular (Soane. et al., 2012). The researcher utilizes Kahn (1990) as the foundation for the conceptual framework and employs an engagement scale developed by Soane et al. (2012) from Kahn’s research.

2.1.2 May et al.’s Research A study conducted by May et al. (2004) enhanced Kahn’s theory (1990) by validating his work; moreover, May et al. found a positive correlation between intellectual, emotional, and physical engagements. The researched areas are meaningfulness, safety, and availability, which are believed to influence a person’s engagement (May et al., 2004). The research utilized a large insurance firm to conduct a survey that measured the employees’ perceptions of themselves, their jobs, and their supervisors. There were 213 participants with a mean age of 35 and a mean of at least 2.5 years of college education with a 79% response rate. The researchers administered the engagement survey to the entire organization on a single day during two separate sessions. The participants’ occupations were from an array of departments associated with the insurance firm. The survey encompassed Kahn’s three cognitive, emotional, and physical engagement components that consist of 24 questions. Each question is categorized into psychological meaningfulness, safety, availability, job enrichment, work role fit, coworker relations, supervisor relations, and norm adherence. The data analysis conducted suggested moderate levels of psychological engagement, meaningfulness, safety, availability, self-consciousness, coworker relations, and job enrichment. Results showed low engagement levels for the categories work role fit and relations with supervisors. As years progress, researchers such as May et al. use Kahn’s research as the foundation for researching engagement scales or other areas of employee behaviors (Soane et al., 2012). Discussions by Kahn and May et al. explain that more support is necessary to investigate employee engagement further. There are still areas in employee engagement, which are theorized and need validation.

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2.2 Supporting Virtual Teams Research

2.2.1 Gilson et al.’s Research Before COVID-19, approximately 66% of organizations actively worked in virtual teams. Virtual teams continue to increase as technology becomes embedded in everyday business practices (Mathieu et al., 2008; Society for Human Resource Management, 2012). When virtual team research began, it was typically in a university lab setting involving student teams (Gilson et al., 2014). Not only are virtual teams increasing in business, but also they are rising in educational settings. The research consisted of a literature review on virtual teams from the past ten years and investigated emerging themes. Gilson collected studies and coded them by types of teams, team size, and task duration; then categorized and examined each theme by methodology, processes, emerging states, and outcomes. The emerging themes are research design, team input, team virtuality, technology, globalization, leadership, mediator and moderators, trust, outcomes, and ways to enhance virtual teams (hereafter VT). After analysis, VTs have been shown to evolve due to technological advancements. As technology increases, so do the way teams interact. A few benefits of working remotely include flexibility, reduced commute stress, money savings, and increased productivity and performance (Putri et al., 2020). However, there could be potential unfavorable effects of working from home due to employees not leaving their residence. Gilson et al. (2014) mentions areas that call for future research: study setting, methodological considerations, member mobility, team adaptation, transition process and planning, and teammember well-being. Thus, there is a need to fill the research gap and investigate how a crisis such as COVID-19 affects virtual teams.

2.2.2 Horowitz’s Research Additional research discusses the development and disabling factors of virtual teams. Research from Horowitz et al. (2016) sought to investigate enabling and disabling factors in VT development. Horowitz explicitly looked for team development, leadership, and communication as contributors for virtual team effectiveness. Participants of 115 virtual team members totaled a 55% response rate. Virtual teams that participated completed an online survey that combines quantitative Likert scale with qualitative explanatory questions (Horowitz et al., 2006). The questions entailed the following variables: trust, employee roles, relationships, responsibilities, and team dynamics. Additionally, 90% of the participants were under 50 years of age, with no other reported demographic information. Analysis suggests that the participants felt their VTs perform 47

successfully. The second factor is that participants showed the importance of face-to-face interaction between coworkers and leadership (Horowitz et al., 2006). Horowitz calls for more research in knowledge-intensive firms, telecommunications, research, and development to provide virtual teams insight, which further cements the research gap on employee engagement in VTs. 2.3 Supporting Crisis Management

2.3.1 Akhmetshin’s Research The first reaction for any employee in a crisis concerns what will happen to them personally. During a crisis, it is the organization’s decision to demonstrate empathy, address concerns, and mobilize staff to overcome the crisis. A study conducted by Akhmetshin et al. (2019) expresses that the way an organization withstands crisis determines its viability. Therefore, Akhmetshin et al. investigated the relationship between employees and business results. The objective is to understand how employee engagement contributes to recovering from a crisis. The study’s primary basis is to review five study results and combine them to develop a conclusion based on the pooled results. One of the studies collected data from 7,939 business units from 36 companies, validating the adequate sample sizes utilized in Akhmetshin’s study and other reviewed literature. From the literature reviews, Akhmetshin concluded that management and modern communication is the key driver to employee engagement during a crisis.

Focusing on employee engagement can help organizations withstand and succeed in times of crisis. After a crisis, the engaged employees will help an organization make it through challenges (Sorenson, 2013). Therefore, an opportunity for research investigating employee engagement and crisis together exists.

2.3.2 Bundy et al.’s Research Opposing research in crisis management claims that the perspective of crisis management is fragmented, making it difficult for scholars to understand core conclusions. Bundy et al.’s (2017) research investigated crises within organizational strategy, theory, and behavior.

Their review reveals extensive and integrative articles published in major academic journals. The period of the articles ranged from 1998 to 2015.

From these articles, the researchers categorized critical themes that are most relevant to management and organizational scholars. After review and categorization, emerging crisis themes are uncertainty, change, harmful or threatening disruption, behavioral phenomena, and processes. The 48

researchers then developed a model that breaks down the crisis process; the pre-crisis prevention, crisis management stage, and postcrisis outcomes stage. Researchers conclude that prominent factors of crises and crisis management have yet to be tested simultaneously on a large scale, and examination of multiple factors remains elusive (Bundy et al., 2017).

Identified future research areas are integrative opportunities on a macroand micro-organizational level, utilizing their model to conduct more multilevel research. Therefore, crisis management research is an excellent topic of study, especially when coupled with employee engagement.

2.4 Opposing Employee Engagement Research

2.4.1 Pierce and Agunis Research Opposing research contends employee engagement is timeconsuming, irrelevant, and too ambiguous. These articles declare that 79% of organizations measure employee engagement once a year, and 14% do not measure engagement (Burnett & Lisk, 2019; Deloitte, 2017). Pierce and Agunis (2013) discuss why and whether an organization should consider employee engagement. Additional opposing arguments cite length of time, over-engagement, and resources as the main reasons for not measuring engagement regularly. For some, employee engagement research could take up to one year to complete, time which organizations might use for other administrative necessities. Pierce and Agunis convey that Too Much of a Good Thing (TMGT) can cause diminished returns and counter-productive actions. TMGT happens when previously enjoyable experiences reach heights, begin to fall off, and cease to be linear and positive (Pierce & Agunis, 2013). The purpose of Pierce and Agunis’s study is to present a meta-theoretical principle to account for the paradoxical results. The researchers hypothesize that relatively high-level antecedents may lead to unexpected and undesired outcomes. For example, an over-engaged manager may infringe upon employees too much, causing frustration and beginning a counter-productive cycle.

2.4.2 Bryne et al.’s Research In literature, employee engagement is often labeled as ambiguous because of the lack of clarity. According to Bryne et al. (2016), employee engagement research has not made any significant changes within the last couple of years, and ambiguity about the definition remains. Multiple challenges to several scales’ validities have raised significant concerns about the measurement and conceptualization of employee engagement. The research sought to examine construct relationships and related variables 49

while controlling measurement error through five field samples. The employee engagement tools adopted are the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) and Job Engagement Scale (JES). While analyzing the differences and similarities between the two scales, the researchers concluded that the type of engagement scale used is essential to measuring different areas of the organization’s engagement (Bryne et al., 2016). The two engagement scales do not capture the same effects in each sample; therefore, employee engagement is still ambiguous. Bryne et al. suggest that organizations should take extreme caution when selecting an engagement measure. Considerations for selecting the proper measurement are based on the area of engagement, the time, and resources the organization wants to investigate. Reasons for selecting the proper engagement measure are essential to determining whether employees are experiencing low engagement or a product of burnout.

2.5 Opposing Virtual Teams Research

2.5.1 Rezugi’s Research Competing research on virtual teams states that the teams are not successful because of the technology but due to the skills possessed by the team members. Rezgui (2007) expresses that VTs are not solely successful when technology alone is implemented. However, it is the critical analysis of social and organizational processes that make VTs successful. Rezgui’s study utilized a qualitative approach to find if VTs are the proper organizational form that can provide flexibility, responsiveness, and effectiveness. Action research was conducted to associate research and practice through change and reflection (Rezugui, 2007). Three reviews were conducted over 27 months, including feasible project preparation, modeled core business processes, and comprehended practice (Rezugui, 2007). These reviews helped capture the socio-organizational environment of a team working in construction. Ultimately, construction teams have insufficient technological support. When addressing technical challenges, the VT model is only successful if the development, evaluation, human capital, and organizational aspects are monitored closely (Rezugui, 2007). The research ultimately suggests that without the proper technology, virtual teams are unsuccessful.

2.5.2 Gupta’s Research

Additional research on opposing VTs investigates the outcomes of these teams over time. Gupta (2018) sought to document the experiences of a VT’s outcomes and to expand the literature on challenges related to virtual work and their work arrangements. The study utilizes an exploratory 50

qualitative approach that sampled semi-structured interviews with 52 participants from IT organizations. Responses were recorded digitally and transcribed for analysis. The themes that emerged from the research are familiarity, functionality, motivation, challenges, and skills. The study’s analysis suggests that VT members’ perceptions of VT work are favorable; however, fundamental challenges must be met, such as network and communication-related issues. The study respondents have also suggested that specific skills are required to be a successful member of a virtual team (Gupta, 2018). From Gupta’s research, one can adopt the notion that the virtual team will fail without proper management, training, or skills.

2.6. Summary of Literature The collection of supportive studies provides the foundation, validity, and reliability of this research. Literature is abundant on employee engagement; however, the methodology has been primarily qualitative. The research will enhance the current literature on employee engagement by utilizing mixed methodology for the study’s design to support suggested outcomes. Crises such as COVID-19 do not often happen; therefore, many studies are currently being conducted (Kniffin et al., 2021). The literature supports the need for crisis management and will assist organizations with preparing for the next crisis. Although research on crisis and employee engagement is lacking, the study being conducted fills the gap by further investigating these topics. As more organizations incorporate technology and VTs, literature is steadily rising. Literature for VTs suggests technology alone does not make a VT successful; however, it is the leaders and employees who do (Gupta, 2018). Current VT literature on the crisis is small; hence, this study enhances the existing literature on VTs and VT engagement to fill gaps. The collection of opposing literature suggests TMGT can negatively impact employee engagement. The ambiguity of employee engagement and measurement tools is too vast and needs to be narrowed down. Lastly, organizations that do not have the monetary funding to incorporate the latest technologies can be left behind or fail in times of crisis. Additionally, managerial skills are essential in the success of a VT. Research from competing perspectives was null in the area of engagement.

3.0 Methodology 3.1 Conceptual Framework The construct stemmed from previous research on how working remotely affects employee engagement during a crisis. Several empirical 51

studies have uncovered that working remotely positively impacts employee engagement (Albrecht et al., 2015; Crawford et al., 2010; May et al., 2004; Putri et al., 2020). The researcher began questioning the engagement of teams that were rapidly forced into VTs due to COVID-19. According to Albrecht (2015), engagement increases performance; therefore, stakeholders and leaders are open to ways that might enhance their employees’ work.

Gallup (2015) found that 70% of employees in the U.S. are not engaged at work. A quantitative and qualitative electronic online survey was administered to collect data. The survey contained a validated employee engagement scale and qualitative CIT technique. The quantitative data assists in viewing demographical trends through regression analysis (Bott & Tourish, 2016). The qualitative data showed some insights on the participant’s emotional engagement from their responses to the social challenge, utilizing visual board software to categorize emerging themes.

3.2 Research Design The research design takes advantage of the unique period when the world must operate differently due to COVID-19. There is a heavy focus on mental health during quarantine, and many employees are experiencing stress, anxiety, fear, awareness, and loss (Kniffin, 2020). Research from the financial crisis in 2008 has prepared some organizations to increase mental health services and other resources as applicable (Kniffin, 2020). Therefore, a large part of the research investigates the Intellectual, Social, and Affective (ISA) areas of engagement in a virtual setting. Intellectual engagement measures the range to which people are intellectually immersed in their work. Social engagement measures the level to which people feel socially connected in their work environment. Lastly, Affective engagement measures the scope to which people experience optimistic and energizing feelings about their work (Soane et al., 2012). The proposed research design utilizes a quantitative survey and exploratory qualitative research method to gain insight into employees’ remote engagement levels during a crisis.

Survey questions utilize the validated ISA scale and Critical Incident Technique (CIT). The scale is an employee engagement measurement tool based on Kahn’s theory and development model (Soane et al., 2012). The CIT technique is a descriptive reflection to deepen the understanding of emotions (Douglas et al., 2014).

3.3 Rationale for Mixed Methods Research The researcher is utilizing mixed methods that combine qualitative and quantitative research. The qualitative approach assists in comprehending how employees feel about work and if they are engaged 52

remotely during the crisis. A study by Dvorak and Sasaki (2017) shares that more than half of remote employees are disengaged and experience isolation due to the lack of social interaction, workplace culture, and physical visibility. The developed CIT questions identify the current remote engagement trends during a crisis in an organization. The quantitative data can help determine engagement levels in addition to age, ethnicity, gender identity, tenure, and work industry (Grootaert et al., 2004). When combining the Likert scale’s quantitative factors, additional insights into the organization’s root cause are identified from emerging themes (Creswell, 2012).

3.3.1 Rationale for Exploratory Research Exploratory research is optimal for situations with no clear outcomes, such as the crisis effects of employee engagement for remote office personnel.

Organizations are unsure about timelines for returning to physical work locations as state and city mandates regulate when organizations can physically return (Kniffin et al., 2021). Numerous organizations question whether they should make plans to return or continue to work on virtual challenges and stay working remotely. Therefore, making exploratory research a good fit for this study. Furthermore, exploratory research captures the circumstance thoroughly (Baxter & Jack, 2008).

3.3.2 Rationale for Survey Method The rationale for utilizing an online survey is to ensure the appropriate number of participants is obtained for an adequate sample size. An online survey is the quantitative portion of the study, which provides data for the regression analysis. The online survey distribution was chosen to gather information instantaneously and reach a wider geographic area. The survey is a self-administered electronic survey to allow the participant to complete at their leisure. There are inclusion criteria that the participant must meet before they participate. Once the requirements are met, they are given a consent form. They decide to terminate participation or continue taking the survey. Figure B1 illustrates the consent form. According to Patterson et al.

(2018), 30% of people finish online surveys; to prevent such an inadequate response; the survey is relatively short, easy to answer, and almost entirely multiple choice. The survey questions were constructed by Soane et al.

(2012) and were tested for validity and reliability with employee engagement and job satisfaction surveys with a seven-point Likert scale. Lastly, the demographics are added to the end of the survey to assist with survey fatigue and narrow down areas of need. Immediately after the survey, the participants are debriefed with an online form.

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3.4 Limitations and Delimitations Some limitations for using these techniques entail data from a crosssectional field that utilizes a self-reporting method for both the independent and dependent variables. Using this method establishes a potential for the same source bias. As time passes, participants’ responses could change with further reflection; a long-term study can be conducted to mitigate the limitation. Research from Campton and Wagner (1994) investigated samesource bias with 42,000 correlations over 25 years, concluding that one cannot rule out same-source bias; however, it is not likely to alter conclusions (George & Pandey, 2017). Second, other variables are not included, such as the organizational culture and size. The third limitation is the inability to gather scores for task performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and quit intentions before the crisis. Lastly, regression analysis limitations only consider linear relationships, and other variables are not studied yet to influence the response. The delimitations are the population, as it is limited to only office personnel ranging from 19 years of age and older. Many of the participants are located from the middle to western portions of the United States, encompassing only a few from the United States’ eastern coast. Lastly, data collection will only be for three months; although, the time given is enough to acquire an adequate sample size.

3.5 Role of the Researcher The researcher’s role is to maintain the research and results’ integrity and to develop competence in methods. Secondly, the researcher’s responsibility is to collect qualitative and quantitative data from participants and explore relevant literature to understand the psyche, methodologies, and effects behind employee engagement during a crisis. The role should be unbiased to leave emotion out of the research, hypothesis, and results. The researcher is also responsible for creating unbiased themes based on the participants’ responses to the qualitative questions online survey.

3.5.1 Researcher Bias The identified biases include some insider information through convenience sampling. A few of the participants have a relationship with the researcher; therefore, they may be more willing to disclose more on the topic than a random participant would divulge. The researcher expects remote employees will experience low engagement due to the lack of flexibility during a worldwide pandemic. Furthermore, the researcher is aware of 54

confirmation bias and will take every precaution necessary to ensure confirmation bias is not present.

3.5.2 Research Ethics 3.5.2.a Confidentiality and Anonymity. Participants are informed not to leave any identifiable information when responding to the descriptive questions to keep the participants’ confidentiality. Comments submitted in the surveys will not be verbatim; they are combined and generalized to present findings as a group. The primary researcher is the only individual who has access to the information, and a number is assigned to participants to keep their identity anonymous. The Qualtrics survey has built-in software to immediately anonymize responses while keeping track of who has not completed the survey to send reminders (Qualtrics, 2021).

3.5.2b. Voluntary Participation and Informed Consent.

Participants are free to refuse to partake in the research or withdrawal their consent at any time. An electronic consent form (see Figure B1) is given to the participants through Qualtrics before the survey, including procedures, risks, benefits, confidentiality, compensation, voluntary participation, and researcher contact before the participant can partake in the survey.

Informed consent is required before participants are administered the survey. If the participants select the “NO” option to any one of the inclusion criteria, they cannot participate in the study. If the participants pass the requirements and select the “YES” button, the Qualtrics software will electronically administer a survey to the qualified participants.

3.5.2.c Protecting Data. The data collected is stored in a HIPPAcompliant Qualtrics-secure database until the primary investigator has deleted it. The Qualtrics password is private and is not shared with anyone other than the primary researcher. Emails received from Qualtrics are only sent to the primary researcher, so no one else has access to the emails.

3.5.2.d Risk of Harm. There are no immediate risks to the participants and no risks to taking the survey. The participants are free to refuse to participate in the research or withdraw consent at any time. They may also decline to answer any or all questions and may terminate involvement at any time. The researcher submitted the survey procedures, consent, debrief form, and methods to the Institutional Review Board (IRB) to ensure human subjects' safety (American Psychological Association, 2021). The IRB has approved the researcher to proceed with the study.

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3.6 Instrumentation The main tools used were the CIT technique and the ISA engagement scale. The CIT and ISA scale provide the framework to collect data with a systematic approach. These approaches investigate employee engagement, reflection description, outcome, emotions, and perceptions (Bott & Tourish, 2016; Soane et al., 2012). With this systematic approach, the results and themes are analyzed to support or reject the hypothesis.

3.6.1 ISA Scale The ISA scale categorizes responses by the previously discussed engagement areas. The ISA scale has been validated and researched since 2012, making it a preferred option for the investigation of employee engagement (Sidharta, 2019). The tool employs a 7-point Likert scoring method that generates low, medium, and high engagement areas (Soane, 2012). The 7-point scale ratings are labeled as 1=Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Slightly Disagree, 4=Neutral, Slightly 5=Agree, 6=Agree, and 7=Strongly Agree. Additionally, the ISA scale was developed utilizing Kahn’s Employee Engagement Scale as the foundation (Soane, 2012).

3.6.2 CIT Technique The rationale for choosing the CIT technique is years of validation and reliability, which couple well with behavioral studies (Douglas et al., 2014). When following the CIT protocol, one develops research questions before adding them to an interview or survey. The CIT questions have been added to the end of each ISA engagement level. The second step is planning. Each survey is administered through the Qualtrics software utilizing a unique link to the survey shared through various online outlets, such as email, social media. Step three is the data collection process. Step four is the analysis of the descriptive data and summary of the case study.

Step number five is analyzing the process for potential bias in the data (Papouli, 2016).

3.6.3 Survey Questions The case study begins with a convenience selection process that includes participants within the required criteria. The 29-survey questions encompass one Pre-COVID-19 engagement question, nine ISA engagement scale questions developed by Soane et al., three qualitative questions the researcher developed utilizing the CIT Technique, five task performance questions based on research from Janssen and Van Yperen 56

(2004), four organizational citizenship behavior questions designed by Lee and Allen (2002), two questions on the intentions of quitting based on research from Boroff and Lewin (1997), and five demographic questions.

The demographic questions follow the survey to ease survey fatigue. Once the survey is complete, a debriefing form will be displayed to the participant. Once data is collected by Qualtrics, the information is moved to SPSS (v 27) to assist with the regression analysis to test the relationship and significance. An illustration of the survey is visible in Figure C1.

3.6.3a Task Performance. The rationale for adding task performance survey questions is assessing how employees rate themselves to complete tasks during a crisis, which is part of comprehending employee engagement. Research from Janssen and Yperen (2004) found a positive correlation between self-rated task performance and engagement. Janssen and Van Yperen’s study measured leader-member exchange of goal orientation. The results found that employees had a more robust job performance based on goal orientation.

3.6.3b Organizational Citizenship Behavior. The rationale for adding Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) is observing employee behavior which contributes to a positive organizational culture by going beyond a job description. Measuring OCB is relevant to an organization as the measured outcomes are linked to positive motivational behaviors (Lee & Allen, 2002). Kahn (1990) and Kahn (1992) proposed that engaged employees are more likely to participate in organizational events because of positive input and rewarding outcomes. Validating the proposal was Lee and Allen’s (2002) investigating the role, affect, and cognition in predicting OCB. The study found a positive correlation between cognition and discrete emotions (Lee & Allen, 2002).

3.6.3c Intentions to Quit. The rationale for adding the intentions to quit questions is to determine if the employee intends to remain with the organization. Highly engaged employees are associated with positive emotional well-being. These individuals are likely to interact with others and display positive organizational behaviors influencing their attachment to their role and current employer (Boroff & Lewin 1997). As Kahn (1990) indicated, the lack of engagement could lead to cognitive and behavioral withdrawal from work. An organization benefits from these questions to measure workplace culture and turnover.

3.6.4 Participants

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Participants must meet the specific criteria to participate; they must be age 19 and over, have worked in-person, move to remote work during COVID-19, and work in an office setting. The survey is administered utilizing the Qualtrics program software. The goal is to reach a minimum of 100 participants to meet an adequate sample size for the population through an online survey. The participant’s role and responsibility are to self-report honestly and to answer the survey questions to their best ability, thereby aiding in the quantitative and qualitative data. Completion of the survey will take about 7-10 minutes.

3.7 Data Analysis Plan Case studies are used when researching behaviors in a real-world setting (Baxter & Jack, 2008). The plan to analyze the data is to utilize a five-step data analysis process. The five steps consist of organizing data, exploring the data, connecting, and creating categories based on data, creating themes, and cohesively presenting the themes. Participant responses are placed on a visual board utilizing visual collaboration software to categorize descriptive data by engagement area. Once all the information is on the visual board, the next step is to identify and connect participant responses into emerging themes. Once the themes are found, the scale of the participant’s experience working remotely during COVID19 can be understood. The ISA categories are already organized and ready to be input into SPSS for data output. When the SPSS output is complete, analyzing data commences to look for emerging trends and to support or reject the hypothesis.

4.0 Results 4.1 Demographic Results

4.1.1 Gender There are 114 participants, all of whom are 19 years of age or older, who worked in a physical office setting, and began working remotely due to COVID-19. As seen in Table D1, participants comprised 91 Females (F) and 20 Males (M), giving the participant ratio of Females=79.8%, Males=17.5%, 2.6% Prefer not to answer, and 0% Transgender Female, Male, and Non-binary. Figure D1 illustrates the pre-COVID-19 score between Males and Females, in which Males have a pre-Engagement score of 6.5 compared to the Females score of 6.3. The scores for Male and Female Engagement scores during the crisis are similar in which Males (M=6.0) compared to the Females’ (F=5.3) engagement scores. An 58

additional area to note is the Quit Intention (QI) scores for Males (M=2.5) and Females (F=3.2) (Figure D1).

4.1.2 Age When analyzing figure E1, the lowest pre-Engagement score is 6.2 from the 25-34 age range, and the lowest score during the crisis is the 65-74 age range with a 4.0 score. The highest score belongs to 65-74 and 75 and up with a 7.0 pre-engagement score. The highest during crisis engagement score is 7.0, by the 75 and up age range (Figure E1). The lowest score for Intellectual and Affective engagement is 2.0, by the 65-74 age range; however, the lowest Social score is 4.2 by the 19-24 age range. Lastly, the highest quitting Intention of 7.0 is by the 65-74 age group, and the lowest quitting Intention is 75 and up with a 1.0 score (Figure E1).

4.1.3 Ethnicity The Ethnicity with the lowest pre-engagement score is 6.0 from Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander ethnicity, with the highest score being 7.0 from Middle Eastern or North African ethnicity (Figure F1). The lowest during engagement score, 5.0, is shared from the Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander ethnicities and Middle Eastern or North African ethnicities while the highest score is 5.72 by the White, German, Irish, English, and Italian ethnicities (Figure F1). The lowest score for quitting intentions is 1.0 from the Middle Eastern or North African ethnicity while the highest score is 4.1 from the Black or African American ethnicities (Figure F1).

4.1.4 Tenure When analyzing the pre-engagement score for Tenure, the lowest score is 6.1 from the 0-1 tenure range while the highest score is 6.6 from the 26–30-year tenure group (Figure G1). During the crisis, the lowest tenure score is 5.1 from the 11-15 tenure range, and the highest score is 6.0 from the 26-30 and 30 or more tenure range. Lastly, the lowest score for Intention to quit is 2.1 from the 26-30 tenure group while the highest Intention to quit score is 3.7 is from the 0-1 tenure range (Figure G1).

4.1.5 Work Industry When analyzing the Work Industry’s lowest pre-crisis engagement score, the lowest score is 5.3 from Construction (Figure H1). The highest pre-engagement score is 7.0 from the Legal Services, Hotel and Food 59

Services, Military industries. The lowest score for engagement during COVID-19 is 4.0 from the Scientific or Technical Services industry while the highest score is 7.0 from the Hotel and Food Services industry. Lastly, the QI lowest score is 1.5 from the Military industry, and the highest score is 7.0 from the Hotel and Food Services and Retail industries (Figure H1).

4.2 Quantitative Results from Regression Analysis Figure I1 indicates a decrease in the overall engagement between the pre-engagement score and the during-COVID-19 crisis engagement score. However, a more in-depth analysis suggests the pre- and during COVID-19 Engagement Score displays a mean of 6.4 with a Standard Deviation (SD) of ± .80 out of 7 score. The results translate to participants being engaged before COVID-19 (Table I1). The pre-Engagement score accounts for 1.5% of the variation (Table J1). The F-statistic (2.71) explains that there is a 97% chance of the null hypothesis is true; therefore, the linear model fits for finding the prediction during Engagement over Engagement's mean value (Table K1). Although there was an initial suggestion of a slight drop in score between the pre- and during crisis engagement scores, the regression analysis determined no significance between the two variables. Other correlation areas should be investigated (Table K1), thus rejecting the hypothesis and accepting the null hypothesis.

The next group of scores is the Intellectual engagement scores, displaying a mean score of 5.6 ± 1.3 out of a 7 score (Table K2). The Social engagement mean score is Social 5.28 ± 1.3 (Table K2). The final ISA engagement score is Affective with a mean of 5.21 ± 1.5 (Table K2). The ISA ANOVA and Model Summary show the p < .05, therefore stating a positive correlation between the ISA engagement areas (Table L1 & L2). When one of the areas changes, the other two areas are affected in the same direction as the initial change. The alternative hypothesis was rejected as the lowest score was not the social engagement area; the lowest score was in the affective engagement area (Table K2). The Regression Model Summary shows that the ISA areas collectively account for 91.8% of the variation (Table L1).

Table L1 depicts the Adjusted square only indicates a 0.4% difference, which means there would only be a 0.4% difference if the data were gathered from the population instead of the sample. The ISA scale’s ANOVA indicates a p-value of p=0.01, therefore stating these areas are positively correlated (Table L2). The Task Performance results have a mean score of 6.3 ± .98 out of 7. The result suggests self-reporting participants complete their workplace duties (Tables M1). When Looking at the Organizational Citizenship group, the mean score is 5.1 ± 1.3 (Tables M1).

The score’s interpretation suggests participants are still slightly willing to attend functions, offer ideas of improvement, and problem solve. Lastly, 60

the intentions to quit have a mean score of 3.1 ± 2.1, which reveals that participants do not intend to leave their current organizations (Table M1).

4.3 Qualitative Results of CIT Reflection The qualitative responses were categorized into the three ISA categories: Intellectual, Social, and Affective. General responses for the Intellectual engagement encompassed 69% of participants having a positive experience and 32% having a negative experience. When participants reached out for help, half of them reached out to colleagues, and the other half sought help from supervisors. Additional insights describe 64% of participants receiving the help they required at work while 36% of those participants did not. When looking at the Social responses, 98% of participants increased the usage of multiple modes of communication, such as video teleconferencing, text, phone calls, email, internet calls, instant messaging through online communication platforms and social media. If participants continued physical interaction, it was with close family and friends. Lastly, in the Affective engagement, 55% of participants enjoyed working remotely while 45% did not. The more prominent positive themes consist of being more productive and not having to commute. The most significant negative response was wanting to return to the workplace. The descriptive responses collected revealed every negative response; two positive responses were made regarding the overall remote working experience during a crisis.

5.0 Discussion The general purpose of the research was to examine the effects of a crisis on employee engagement in-office personnel. The hypothesis suggested that a crisis such as COVID-19 would affect employee engagement. Results indicated that a crisis does not affect employee engagement, and other variables should be investigated. Although the researcher does theorize some outside variables affect the employees mentally, it appears those outside factors do not affect employee engagement. The alternate hypothesis indicated that Social engagement would be a factor. However, the lowest score was Affective engagement; this indicates that the employees did not necessarily have positive feelings about their work. Descriptive data showed that frustration between technical issues, lack of communication, and project work might cause the lowered score. Organizations can utilize this information to be proactive when the next crisis occurs in remote office personnel. Additional interesting insights include low scores for females compared to males in all areas except quit intentions. Is the reason the score is lower because of self61

perception or additional responsibilities during the crisis? Minorities, Females, and people 65-74 have higher intentions to quit. People 65-74 also had the lowest engagement score during the crisis. The researcher theorizes that the low score is due to not being tech-savvy; further investigation in this area is needed in the 75-and-up age group have the highest during crisis engagement score. After data was collected, a limitation that arose was the lack of male participants. Although Male participants encompassed 16.7% of participants, the Females overshadowed their representation. Overall, results are consistent with previous literature in which the ISA scale and engagement is a reliable and validated indication way of examining emotional connection employees feel toward their places of work.

5.1 Future Research Future research areas include examining which variables caused the lowered score since the pre-crisis engagement score was not significant with the during-crisis engagement. Investigation into why Females reported a lower engagement score than Males and why Females had a higher Intention to Quit is required. From the literature, additional areas to investigate are the outcomes of an over-engaged employee and exploring which managerial skills are the successful qualities that pull virtual teams through a crisis. Additional investigative questions that arose from this study are how often an employee’s engagement changes and if a proper home office and ergonomics affect remote productivity levels. Lastly, more research is necessary specifically on employee engagement during a crisis while working remotely to advance the area’s literature, validity, antecedents, and consequences across all three engagement areas.

6.0 Conclusion The study aimed to answer the question of how a crisis affects employee engagement in remote office personnel. Identification of research gaps in a virtual team, engagement, and crisis areas was established from the literature summary and data collected. Finding gaps in these areas validated the necessity for the study, thus taking advantage of the COVID-19 crisis to study how engagement is affected. Participants were selected utilizing convenience sampling while using three criteria for inclusion. The case study utilized the CIT technique and the ISA scale to gather themes and trends based on the results. From these themes and results, the researcher concluded that a crisis such as COVID-19 does not correlate or significantly impact Employee Engagement. Based on the level of analysis conducted, the suggestions for organizations are to focus on other impact variables that might cause the decrease of engagement during a crisis. Areas 62

such as communication challenges, technical issues, or managerial style are areas to address first. Furthermore, flexible work options are optimal as most employees stated they enjoyed working remotely and not commuting.

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Appendix A Figure A1 Antecedents and Consequences of Remote Employee Engagement during a Crisis

Note. The figure above illustrates the antecedent, employee experience, and consequences of the three measured levels of employee engagement.

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Appendix B Figure B1 Consent Form

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Appendix C Figure C1 Employee Engagement Survey

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Appendix D Table D1 Frequency Gender

Frequency Percent Valid

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

Female

91

79.8

79.8

79.8

Male

20

17.5

17.5

97.2

Prefer not to

3

2.6

2.6

answer

100.00

Total 114 100.00 100.00 Note. n=114. The table illustrates the number of participants categorized by their gender identity and the percentage for each group. Not shown in the table are Transgender Female, Male, and Non-binary genders, as the survey did not reach anyone who selected these options.

Figure D1 Gender

Note. n=114. The figure above illustrates the median’s mean scores for gender in Pre- & During Quitting Intentions.

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Appendix E Figure E1 Age

Note. n=114. The illustration above depicts the median’s mean scores for Age Pre- & During Crisis Engagement scores, ISA, and Quit Intentions.

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Appendix F Figure F1 Ethnicity

Note. n=114. The figure above illustrates the median’s mean scores for Ethnicity in Pre- & During Engagement and Quit Intentions.

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Appendix G Figure G1 Tenure

Note. n=114. The figure above illustrates the median’s mean scores for Tenure Pre- & During Engagement and Quitting Intentions.

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Appendix H Figure H1 Work Industry

Note. n=114. The figure above illustrates the median’s mean scores for Work Industry in the Pre- & During Engagement and Quit Intentions.

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Appendix I Figure I1 Overall Pre- and During Crisis Engagement

Note. n=114. The figure above illustrates the median’s mean scores for the overall Pre- & During Crisis Engagement.

Table I1 Descriptive Statistics Pre- and During Engagement

N

Pre-Engagement During-

Stat 114 114

Range Min Max Sum

Mean

SD Variance Skewness

Stat Stat Stat Stat Stat SEM Stat 4 3 7.0 730 6.4 .07 .80 5.0

2.0

7.0

628

5.5

.11

1.1

Stat .65

Stat SES Stat SEK -1.3 .22 2.0 .44

1.4

-1.1 .22

Engagement Valid N

114

Note. n=114. The table illustrates the Pre- and During Engagement Means.

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Kurtosis

1.0

.44

Appendix J Table J1 During Crisis Engagement Model Summary

Change Statistics R

Adjusted R Std. Error of the

R Square

Change Statistics

F

Sig. F

Model

R

Square

Square

Estimate

Change

Change df1 df2 Change

Pre-

.154a

.024

.015

1.1

.024

2.71

1

112

.102

.650b

.423

.402

.91

.399

25.14

3

109

<.001

Engagement TP, OCB, QI

Note. n=114. Pre-Engagement (r=.154); TP, OCB, QI (r=.650). PreEngagement r2= .015; TP, OCB, QI ( r2= .40), *p<.05. The table above illustrates the model summary where the Dependent Variable is During Engagement. The Pre-Engagement score accounts for 1.5% of the variation. When the other three variables (TP, OCB, QI) are incorporated, the total is 40.2%. The Adjusted square indicates that there is only a 2.0% difference. The difference implies that if the data were gathered from the population instead of the sample, there would only be a 2.0% difference. a. Predictors: (Constant), Pre-Engagement. b.

Predictors: (Constant), Pre-Engagement, Task Performance, Quit Intention, OCB c. Dependent Variable: During Crisis Engagement

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Appendix K Table K1 Pre- and During Crisis Engagement ANOVA

Model Pre-Engagement

TP, OCB, QI

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Regression

3.75

1

3.75

2.71

.102b

Residual

154.74

112

1.38

Total

158.49

113

Regression

67.04

4

16.76

19.97

<.001c

Residual

91.44

109

.839

Total

158.49

113

Note. n=114. Degrees of Freedom =df, p=<0.05 is the number of observations minus the regression model's coefficients. The table above illustrates the SS divided by the df that gives the MSR. The second model significantly improves the ability to predict the outcome. a. Dependent Variable: During Engagement. b. Predictors: (Constant), Pre-Engagement, c. Predictors: (Constant), Pre-Engagement, Task Performance, Quit Intention, OCB. Table K2 ISA During Crisis Descriptive Statistics

Mean

Std. Deviation

N

Intellectual

5.67

1.35

114

Social

5.28

1.30

114

Affective

5.21

1.55

114

Note. n=114. The table above illustrates the M and SD of the three engagement areas.

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Appendix L Table L1 ISA During Crisis Model Summary Change Statistics R

Adjusted R

Std. Error of the

R Square

Model

R

Square

Square

Estimate

Change

ISA

.918a

.843

.839

.47

.84

Change Statistics

F

Sig. F

Change df1

df2 Change

197.20

110

3

<.001

Note. n=114. r=.91. r2= .843. *p<.05. Dependent Variable is ISA scale, The table above illustrates the ISA model summary. The ISA score accounts for 91.8% of the variation. When looking at the Adjusted R Square, there is only a difference of 0.4%, which means that if the data were gathered from the population instead of the sample, there would only be a 0.4% difference.

Table L2 ISA During Crisis ANOVA Model ISA

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Regression

133.64

3

44.54

197.20

<.001b

Residual

24.84

110

.226

Total

158.49

113

Note. n=114. Degrees of Freedom =df is the number of observations minus the regression model's coefficients. The table above illustrates the SS divided by the df that gives the MSR. The second model significantly improves the ability to predict the outcome.

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Appendix M Table M1 TP, OCB, Q1 During Crisis Descriptive Statistics N

Minimum

Maximum

Mean

Std. Deviation

Task_Performance

114

1.00

7.00

6.39

.98

OCB

114

1.00

7.00

5.18

1.38

Quit_Intention

114

1.00

7.00

3.17

2.19

Valid N (listwise)

114

Note. n=114. The table above illustrates the M and SD of the TP, OCB, and QI scores.

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MEGAN O’BRIEN

Examining Performance Management and Its Relationship with Leader Behavior and Employee Engagement

Performance management is notoriously one of the most difficult HR systems to implement in organizations (Pulakos, 2009). Not only is performance management difficult to implement, but it also is consistently viewed negatively by both employees and their leaders (Pulakos et al., 2012).

In fact, if one asks employees and leaders about their current performance management systems, over 70% of them will say that it is ineffective in setting goals, providing feedback, and improving performance (Pulakos et al., 2012). However, effective performance management has been linked to increased organizational returns, so it really is in any organization’s best interest to invest time and energy into examining and updating their performance management systems. This proposal will introduce the constructs of performance management, employee engagement, and leader behavior and suggest a proposed research model that explains the relationship between the three constructs.

Literature Review Case Studies A case study is a type of research that examines a small set of data in the context of a larger problem (Yin, 2012). This type of research is dependent on the assumption that the context and conditions of a 85

particular case are essential to one’s ability to understand it. Case studies are useful research methodologies when the researcher is attempting to answer a descriptive or explanatory question, as is the case in this proposal – what is the relationship between performance management, leader behavior, and employee engagement (Yin, 2012)?

Case studies, by design, highlight details from the participant’s point of view and utilize multiple sources of data to collect evidence for the study (Tellis, 1997). While the methodology and data collection efforts are still being refined, case studies provide a reliable way to utilize several different methods of evidence to conduct an in-depth examination of a specific question (Yin, 2012).

Performance Management Performance management has been referred to as the “Achilles’ Heel” of human capital management (Pulakos, 2009). This is because the majority of organizational leaders acknowledge the importance of performance management, but many still fall short in developing effective systems. When surveyed, only 30% of employees felt like their organization’s performance management system helped them improve their performance (Pulakos, 2009).

When implemented correctly, performance management is not only about evaluating performance, but it is also strongly rooted in managing the context in which performance occurs (Saks & Gruman, 2011). Effective performance management systems help organizations communicate expectations, encourage goal-oriented employee behaviors, and identify employee development opportunities (Pulakos, 2009).

Types of Performance Appraisals A huge component of performance management is performance appraisals. Performance appraisals are the formal evaluation processes that help determine compensation, promotions, or training needs (Lunenburg, 2012). While there are dozens of different performance appraisal methods, these methods can typically be grouped into three categories: the judgmental approach, the absolute standards approach, and the resultsoriented approach (Lunenburg, 2012).

Judgmental approach. This approach involves comparing employees to one another based on their behaviors and personality traits (Lunenburg, 2012). This type of performance appraisal typically relies solely on the subjective opinion of the supervisor (Lunenburg, 2012). It often does not account for different levels of variation amongst employees, so

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employees are either rated higher or lower than usual and the “middle” becomes more obsolete (SHRM, 2020).

Absolute standards approach. This approach to performance appraisals involves using job analysis to evaluate employees (Lunenburg, 2012). Supervisors compare employee behavior to the standard of behavior detailed in the job analysis instead of comparing their behavior to other employees (Lunenburg, 2012). This approach is advantageous in that it makes it clear to both employees and managers what employees are expected to do (Cascio & Ramos, 1986).

Results-oriented approach. These kinds of performance appraisals examine what the employee is supposed to accomplish versus what they have accomplished based on objectives set earlier in the year (Lunenburg, 2012). This approach removes the consideration of individual traits or behaviors and instead focuses on quantitative and qualitative performance outcomes (Lunenburg, 2012). This provides the most objective way to assess employee performance, especially when multiple performance measurements are taken over the course of the year (Bratton, 2012). One of the most important components of this method is that the criteria used to assess an employee’s performance is directly controlled by the employee (Bratton, 2012).

Leader Behavior Effective leadership plays a crucial role in the success of a performance management system (Gruman & Saks, 2011). A 2009 study at Google discovered that Google employees cared about having leaders who were even-mannered, made time for one-on-one meetings, helped their direct reports solve problems, and took an interest in their employee’s lives outside of the workplace (Bryant, 2011). Technical expertise, which Google had previously thought was the most important managerial behavior, ranked last amongst all of the behaviors in the survey (Bryant, 2011). Once Google started to place more of an emphasis on training their managers in the eight habits that produced highly effective managers, 75% of their least competent leaders displayed significant performance improvements (Bryant, 2011). They also found that manager effectiveness had the largest impact on employee performance over any other factor (Bryant, 2011). This study implies that effective leadership behaviors directly correlate with effective performance management (Pulakos et al., 2012).

Other research studies have been able to draw a direct relationship between leader behavior and employee performance. An Israeli study of law enforcement personnel found that leaders who more frequently performed transformational and transactional leadership behaviors had employees with higher performances (Vigoda-Gadot, 2007). A recent study from South 87

Korea also found that performance management improvements occurred when transactional leadership behaviors were more frequent (Lee, 2020).

Gabris and Ihrke (2000) also examined the role of leadership on performance management and found that while the type of performance management system is incredibly important, the credibility of leaders and their behaviors is equally as important as having employees accept a performance management system.

Employee Engagement Employees consistently rate performance management systems poorly on employee engagement and satisfaction surveys (Pulakos, 2009).

However, the research and literature show that there is a strong relationship between employee engagement and performance (Saks & Gruman, 2011).

Research by the Corporate Leadership Council (2004) found that the largest drivers of employee engagement were also drivers of effective performance management systems. These drivers of engagement and performance management included leader behaviors that set clear expectations, helped employees accomplish work, provided frequent feedback, and found new ways to increase training and development (Corporate Leadership Council, 2004).

Recent qualitative research in various organizational roles in a South African organization found that as employee engagement increases, so too do employee and organizational performance (Govender & Bussin, 2020). These employees felt that empowerment and communication were two of the key themes that united engagement and performance within their organization (Govender & Bussin, 2020). Other research on the topics of employee engagement and performance management found that changing some of the social aspects of performance management systems actually improves employee engagement (Smith & Sezer Bititci, 2017).

These social aspects include eliminating competition between peers, removing unnecessary time constraints on performance management systems, and implementing a more participative approach to management (Smith & Sezer Bititci, 2017).

Fairness of Performance Appraisal System Sudin’s (2011) research on employee perception of the fairness of the performance appraisal process found that as employee’s perceptions of the fairness of the system increased, so too did employee satisfaction (Sudin, 2011). Additionally, Swiercz et al. (1993) found that employees were more concerned with fair performance appraisal procedures than they were with the actual outcome of the appraisal. However, other research suggests 88

that managing employees’ perceptions of the fairness of the system, not the system itself, is the best way to have a successful performance appraisal process (Kim & Rubianty, 2011).

Trust plays a large role in an employee’s perception of fairness in the performance appraisal system. When leaders behave in a manner to build trust amongst their employees, the employees are more likely to perceive fair treatment in the performance appraisal process (Pulakos et al., 2012). Reinke (2003) found that trust is the most important predictor of acceptance of the performance appraisal system rather than the type or quality of the system.

Additionally, leader behavior greatly affects employees’ perceptions of fairness in the performance appraisal process. Landy et al. (1978) found that employees view the performance appraisal process more fairly when leaders more frequently evaluate performance, are familiar with a person’s job duties and responsibilities before conducting an appraisal, and participate in an ongoing feedback process with the employee.

Insights That Guided Topic Decision As a current employee at a large corporation, I have had the unique experience of participating in performance management within a large organizational setting. In 2016, my organization changed the performance management system from a ranking-based system to a conversation and goal-based system, which led me to wonder how changes in performance management impact employees. Engagement has always been a passion of mine, as I believe that there are so many antecedents and outcomes of employee engagement that can either help or harm an organization.

Examining the effect that performance management has on employee engagement seemed like a natural fit due to my interests and the unique position I am in to conduct a case study within my organization.

My professional contact provided a lot of insight and guidance throughout the topic selection and refining process. As a project manager with expertise in the HR field, my mentor has a lot of experience in participating in the performance management process from both a leader and an employee perspective. We discussed adding leader behavior as a construct to the research model since a common theme that arose in our conversations was that leader behavior drastically impacted the implementation and effectiveness of performance management systems, regardless of how well-designed the systems were. Thus, the research model was born from a combination of professional insight, personal experience, and a thorough literature review.

Research Question 89

This case study will examine the interconnectedness of leader behavior, performance management systems, and employee engagement. A large entertainment corporation will be the organization at the center of this case study.

Constructs

Leader Behavior Leader behavior is best defined as a combination of a manager’s “perceptions, decisions, and actions” that have an impact on their employees’ behaviors and organizational outcomes (Stahl & De Luque, 2014).

Performance Management Performance management is an ongoing process that is a combination of all of the organizational policies and practices that interact to set goals, evaluate progress, and improve employee performance (SHRM, 2020; Gruman & Saks, 2011).

Employee Engagement Employee engagement is the emotional commitment and attitudes an employee feels toward an organization and its goals and values (Jenkins & Delbridge, 2013). Engagement has been linked to increased organizational outputs, so it is generally in an organization’s best interests to emphasize employee engagement (Kruse, 2012).

Purpose Since performance management systems are consistently poorly rated across all types of organizational settings, this case study will provide more insight into some potential reasoning behind this phenomenon (Pulakos et al., 2012). This case study will examine whether there is a relationship between different types of performance management systems and employee engagement within an organization, and a second aim studies how leader behavior influences the implementation and effectiveness of different performance management systems. The findings of this case study can help determine if the literature accurately reflects actual organizational practices and employee experiences, and it may guide organizational and

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HR leaders in where to focus efforts when making changes to performance management systems.

Potential Impacts I hope that the results of this case study will have a positive impact on the leaders and employees within the organization. This case study should be able to confirm or deny whether changes in the performance management system are having the intended effects on employees and whether or not leader behavior impact the implementation of performance management practices. When large organizations make procedural changes, like those to performance management systems, there is often a disconnect between the proposed system, the leader implementation of that system, and the employee experience; hence, these results should help fill that information gap.

Conceptual Framework Figure 1 depicts the conceptual framework of the proposed research model. This research will focus on how leader behavior impacts performance management systems, which in turn impacts employee engagement.

Figure 1 Research Model Flow Chart

Leader Behavior

Performance Management Systems

Employee Engagement

Methods The proposed methodology should be an embedded, single-case study. This type of case study examines data from a group of employees within a single organization (Yin, 2012). This case study will also integrate theoretical perspectives on the proposed constructs to provide a strong background on the constructs and the previously observed relationships between these constructs (Yin, 2012).

Source of Data

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The data in this case study will be collected via interviews with a variety of employees about their experience with performance management and engagement. Specifically, semi-structured interviews will be used to collect data. Semi-structured interviews are those that utilize pre-determined questions that allow the researcher to seek clarification or ask the interviewee to expand on one topic or another (Doody & Noonan, 2013).

This is the most common type of interview that is used in qualitative data collection because it allows for flexibility and the opportunity to explore new topics as they arise (Doody & Noonan, 2013). Interview questions will be prepared in advance, but the order of the questions and the ability to elaborate will be left up to researcher discretion, depending on how the interview is going (Doody & Noonan, 2013).

These semi-structured interviews will be conducted within the researcher’s organization. Interviews will occur with experts on engagement and performance management as well as with managers and employees who have direct experience with both sides of performance management.

It is important to note that while semi-structured interviews have several advantages, there are some disadvantages to using this type of data collection method. Semi-structured interviews are more time-consuming and take a lot more interviewer preparation than other methods (Adams, 2015). Another disadvantage is that it is hard to yield a large sample size of interviews due to the lengthiness and difficulty in scheduling (Adams, 2015).

Reasoning Despite the few disadvantages to semi-structured interviews, they were chosen for this case study because they allow for more personal conversations that enable the researcher to pull additional information from the interviewees (Whiting, 2008). Semi-structured interviews use closed and open-ended questions, are flexible, and allow for a more natural conversational flow, which are all reasons that make them advantageous to use to maximize the amount of quality information gathered in the interview (Adams, 2015). Additionally, the semi-structured format will allow the researcher to network more effectively with the chosen professionals while also sticking to an interview format and gaining appropriate information.

Interview Insights There were 11 interviews conducted with organizational employees to gather qualitative information about the constructs of leader behavior, performance management, and employee engagement. The interviewees 92

were broken up into four different categories: engagement experts, performance management experts, department leaders, and department employees. The interview questions are presented in Appendices A-D and were specifically focused on changes in performance management systems, the role of fairness in performance management, employee engagement, and how leader behavior affect all of these constructs.

Table 1 provides key quotes about the research constructs that were obtained via interviews with various professionals within the organization. The data is broken down by the interviewee group to help better communicate which sentiments came from which group of interviewees.

Table 1 Key Quotes from Interviews Interviewee Group Engagement Experts

Key Interview Quotes 

 

Performance Management Experts

 

 

Department Leaders



“There are 8 leadership attributes that drive engagement which includes caring about me as an individual, recognition, development, fairness, support, trust, follow-through, and open communication.”

“Performance management should depend on the employee; each employee is individual in their preferences and recipes for success.”

“Recognition is one of the most impactful ways to improve employee engagement.”

“Performance discussions should prepare individuals for how they can work to get to the next level of their career.”

“Making changes to the performance management system meant improving the accuracy of people’s end of year evaluation but decreasing the amount of compensation available to those who are consistently meeting their goals.”

“If an employee feels like they belong in an organization, they’re going to do everything you ask of them.”

“A rating system makes performance management too much about the score and less about the development of the individual.”

“We’re currently using a one-size-fits-all approach to performance management when the department is not one-size-fits-all.”

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



Department Employees







“Goals should be more clearly defined across the department and more clearly aligned with organizational objectives in order to better manage performance.”

“Leadership style is the largest variable in the effectiveness of a performance management system.”

“My performance appraisals are fair, but only because I work really hard to make sure that is the case by spending time with my managers and communicating my successes with them.”

“If I could change one thing about the performance management system, it would be to get more feedback throughout the year rather than having to constantly seek out feedback.”

“Managers should be equal participants in the performance management process.”

Table 2 provides a more thorough summary of the main takeaways from the interviews. Once again, the data is broken down by the interviewee group. A synopsis of their thoughts on the topics of performance management systems, employee engagement, the perceived role of fairness in performance management, the role of leadership in managing performance, and how to better manage employees to improve engagement are provided below.

Table 2

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Summary of Main Points from Interviews

Discussion Tables 1 and 2 visually represent a large amount of data that was obtained during the interview process. However, in closely examining the tables, a few key themes emerged in all of the discussions. The first of these key themes is that leader behavior truly does influence the implementation and effectiveness of performance management systems. This is consistent with the literature on the topic, which largely shows that leader behavior in regards to the performance management system is just as important as the system itself (Gabris & Ihrke, 2000). A large majority of the interviewees stated that the biggest issues with the current performance management system stem from ineffective or inconsistent application of the system by organizational leaders. This is not completely surprising given that the organization employs thousands of leaders in a variety of departments, but it does suggest an area for further investigation to see how the organization can better support leaders and provide the necessary training or development opportunities that are needed to more consistently and appropriately implement the performance management system.

Another theme that emerged from the interviews is that more feedback is needed in order to better manage performance. Employees expressed a desire to receive more consistent feedback, and leaders also expressed a desire to provide and receive more feedback. The experts also 95

mentioned that providing feedback is a crucial component of performance management and actually a large part of the reason that the system was changed from a ranking-based system to a conversation and goal-based system – to encourage more frequent conversations and feedback.

However, there clearly is a disconnect in feedback administration because, while every group of interviewees expressed a desire for more feedback, most also reported that feedback is lacking in the current performance management system. These feedback gaps were proposedly caused by the technological aspects of the performance management system, the tediousness of the paperwork, or the inability of leaders to provide constructive feedback. Whatever the reason, this issue should be further examined to determine how the organization can improve the quantity and quality of feedback that employees receive during the performance management process.

The interviewees also provided information as to what role the perception of fairness played in the performance management system.

These answers were more dissimilar across interviewee groups than some other answers were; the performance management experts believe that perceived unfairness occurs due to employees not understanding the complicated system while department employees feel like leader subjectivity plays a larger role in their perceived fairness of the system. The engagement expert feels like trust in leadership is a key component to how employees perceive fairness while department leaders feel like individual employee factors, like the length of time with the company, has more to do with the discrepancies in perception of fairness of the system. The literature suggests that trust and leader behavior play the most important role in employee perception of the fairness of systems, even more so than the design or content of the system itself (Reinke, 2003; Landy, Barnes, & Murphy, 1978).

An interesting finding from the interviews is that almost every individual has a different idea of what employee engagement is. This suggests that employee engagement is not fully understood in the organizational context and employees view it as a much more personal construct rather than one supported and backed by literature.

A final key theme that emerged from the interviews is that individualization is crucial to better managing performance to improve employee engagement. This is a unique finding, as the current performance management system is described by several interviewees as “one-size-fitsall.” This suggests that interviewees feel like department leaders need to take more time to learn about their employees and utilize individualized performance management tools in order to help them be more engaged and achieve better organizational returns. This is definitely an area of research that the organization should examine further, as the fact that the system is designed to be streamlined across the organization appears to dissatisfy 96

interviewees in terms of not being able to manage performance and engagement as effectively as possible.

Overall, the interview insights supported the proposed research framework that is presented in Figure 1, which is that leader behavior affects how performance management systems are implemented, and performance management systems ultimately influence employee engagement. Further examination of these constructs within the organization, looking for areas of improvement to the performance management system, is a value for the company to reap more organizational benefits from the increase in employee engagement arising from improved leader behaviors and the performance management system. Appendix E contains an infographic which can be shared with organizational leaders to summarize the interview findings and convey the importance of further studying the topics of performance management, leader behavior, and employee engagement.

Organizational Recommendations Based on the literature and interview findings, there are some specific recommendations that this organization can look into following the results of the case study to help improve the performance management process and increase employee engagement. The first of these recommendations is to implement more leadership training. Leaders should be trained on how to effectively conduct performance management in order to reduce inconsistencies in the system’s implementation.

There should also be a leader accountability aspect included in the performance management system. Currently, leaders are not being held accountable for their performance appraisals or for their employee’s performance and development. If a leader accountability aspect is added to the performance management system, it would reduce inconsistencies in implementation and ensure that leaders are frequently participating in performance management.

The organization should also work to be more transparent with their employees about the performance management and compensation systems. The company is notoriously secretive about organizational practices and policies despite employees wanting to know more about how performance is measured and determined. When employees understand the system and where their appraisals are coming from, they may perceive the fairness of the system differently, which could improve employee engagement.

Finally, the organization should work individualization into the performance management system. A more flexible system would allow for leaders to better manage performance at the individual level instead of the 97

organization level. Figuring out how to motivate individuals or what type of recognition individuals prefer is a great first step to adding a more individualized component to the performance management system and therefore hopefully increasing employee engagement.

Conclusion While performance management is a notoriously difficult organizational topic, this research proposal illustrated that there are benefits to organizations taking a deeper look into how their performance management systems are implemented by company leaders and what impacts the performance management systems have on employee engagement. A case study research methodology would provide valuable information about the specific organization and would allow for an effective combination of academic literature and employee experiences to provide direction on the future of these constructs in the organizational setting.

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Bryant, A. (2011, March 12). Google’s quest to build a better boss. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/13/business/13hire.html Cascio, W. F., & Ramos, R. A. (1986). Development and application of a new method for assessing job performance in behavioral/economic terms. Journal of Applied Psychology 71(1), 2028. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.71.1.20 Corporate Leadership Council. (2004). Driving employee performance and retention through engagement: A quantitative analysis of the effectiveness of employee engagement strategies. (Catalog No. CLC12PV0PD). Corporate Executive Board.

Doody, O., & Noonan, M. (2013). Preparing and conducting interviews to collect data. Nurse Researcher, 20(5), 28-32. doi: 10.7748/nr2013.05.20.5.28.e327 Gabris, G. T., & Ihrke, D. M. (2000). Improving employee acceptance toward performance appraisal and merit pay systems. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 20(1), 70-89. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X0002000104 Govender, M., & Bussin, M. H. R. (2020). Performance management and employee engagement: A South African perspective. South African Journal of Human Resource Management, 18(0), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v18i0.1215 Gruman, J. A., & Saks, A. M. (2011). Performance management and employee engagement. Human Resource Management Review, 21, 123136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2010.09.004 Jenkins, S., & Delbridge, R. (2013). Context matters: Examining “soft” and “hard” approaches to employee engagement in two workplaces.

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Landy, F. J., Barnes, J. L., & Murphy, K. R. (1978). Correlates of perceived fairness and accuracy of performance evaluation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63(6), 751-754. https://doi.org/10.1037/00219010.63.6.751 Lee, H. W. (2020). Motivational effect of performance management: Does leadership matter? Transylvanian Review of Administrative Sciences, 16(59), 59-76. http://dx.doi.org/10.24193/tras.59E.4 Lunenburg, F. C. (2012). Performance appraisal: Methods and rating errors.

International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, 14(1), 1-9. http://www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volum es/Lunenburg,%20Fred%20C.%20Performance%20AppraisalMethods%20And%20Rating%20Errors%20IJSAID%20V14%20N 1%202012.pdf Pulakos, E. D. (2009). Performance management: A new approach for driving business results. Wiley-Blackwell.

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Reinke, S. J. (2016). Does the form really matter? Leadership, trust, and acceptance of the performance appraisal process. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 23(1), 23-37. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.905.2 425&rep=rep1&type=pdf

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Saks, A. M., & Gruman, J. A. (2011). Manage employee engagement to manage performance. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 4, 204207. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1754-9434.2011.01328.x SHRM. (2020). Managing Employee Performance. https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/tools-andsamples/toolkits/pages/managingemployeeperformance.aspx.

Smith, M., & Sezer Bititci, U. (2017). Interplay between performance measurement and management, employee engagement, and performance. International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 37(9), 1207-1228. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOPM-062015-0313 Stahl, G. K., & De Luque, M. S. (2014). Antecedents of responsible leader behavior: A research synthesis, conceptual framework, and agenda for future research. The Academy of Management Perspectives, 28(3), 235-254. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amp.2013.0126 Sudin, S. (2011). Fairness of and satisfaction with performance appraisal process. Journal of Global Management, 2(1), 1239-1257. https://ideas.repec.org/a/grg/03mngt/v2y2011i1p66-83.html Swiercz, P. M., Icenogle, M. L., Bryan, N. B., Renn, R. W. (1993). Do perceptions of performance appraisal fairness predict employee attitudes and performance? Academy of Management Proceedings, 304308. https://doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.1993.10317055 Tellis, W. M. (1997). Application of a case study methodology. The Qualitative Report, 3(3), 119. https://doi.org/10.46743/21603715%2F1995.2015 Vigoda-Gadot, E. (2007). Leadership style, organizational politics, and employees’ performance. Personnel Review, 36(5), 661-683. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/0048348 0710773981/full/html Whiting, L. S. (2008). Semi-structured interviews: Guidance for novice researchers. Nursing Standard, 22(23), 35-40. https://doi.org/10.7748/ns2008.02.22.23.35.c6420 Yin, R. K. (2012). A (very) brief refresher on the case study method.

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Appendix A Interview Questions for Engagement Experts 1. How do you define engagement?

2. What types of indicators do you look for to see changes in employee engagement?

3. What are some behavioral indicators of positive employee engagement?

4. Have you noticed a difference in employee engagement as organizational changes occur?

5. What role do you think the perception of fairness plays in impacting employee engagement?

6. Do you have specific examples of teams you’ve worked on with either really high or really low levels of engagement?

7. What are some qualities you look for in a performance appraisal as an employee?

8. What do you need from a performance discussion?

9. What do you believe the role of management is in employee performance?

10. Is there a better way to manage performance to improve engagement?

11. In your opinion, which approach does Disney’s performance management system fall under? a. Judgmental approach b. Absolute standards approach c. Results-oriented approach

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Appendix B Interview Questions for Performance Management Experts 1. What was the driving force behind updating the performance management system?

2. What were the strengths and weaknesses of the previous system?

3. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the current system?

4. What feedback have you received on the current system?

5. Is the current performance management system fair?

6. Did you model this performance management system on any particular research or another organization’s system?

7. What have your external experiences with performance management been like versus your internal experiences?

8. What does engagement mean to you?

9. Is there a better way to manage performance to improve engagement?

10. In your opinion, which of these approaches does your organization’s performance management system fall into? a. Judgmental approach b. Absolute standards approach c. Results-oriented approach

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Appendix C Interview Questions for Department Leaders 1. What do you like about the current performance management system?

2. Are there components of the old system that you miss?

3. Have you noticed a difference in employee performance since the change in performance management systems?

4. Are you having more quality conversations with your direct reports about their performance?

5. Is the current performance management system fair?

6. What have your external experiences with performance management been like versus your internal experiences?

7. What does engagement mean to you?

8. Have you noticed a difference in employee engagement with one system over another?

9. Is there a better way to manage performance to improve engagement?

10. In your opinion, which of these approaches does your organization’s performance management system fall into? a. Judgmental approach b. Absolute standards approach c. Results-oriented approach

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Appendix D Interview Questions for Department Employees 1. Is the current performance management system at your organization fair?

2. Are you treated fairly based on your performance in the organization?

3. What do you like about the way performance is measured in your organization?

4. If you could make changes to the performance management system, what would you change and why?

5. Would you rather receive a performance rating comparing your performance to other people or comparing your performance over time?

6. What have your external work experiences with performance management been like versus your internal work experiences?

7. Are you having quality conversations with your leaders?

8. What does engagement mean to you?

9. Are there ways your performance management system could be improved to increase your engagement?

10. In your opinion, which of these approaches does your organization’s performance management system fall into? a. Judgmental approach b. Absolute standards approach c. Results-oriented approach

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Appendix E Infographic Summarizing Interview Findings and Recommendations

A link to the full infographic is available at https://bellevueuniversitymy.sharepoint.com/:i:/g/personal/anejezchleb_bellevue_edu/EcTxh7wO ZyZEoBXW6pE7F0UBWk5TxZAx_XHXn5CUEqHUTw?e=eukbPM.

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ADRIANNE PRESNELL

Employees with Visible Tattoos: The Impact of Coverup Policies on Their Feelings of Inclusion

Abstract A culture of inclusion may be difficult to achieve for organizations with dress code policies requiring employees to hide or cover-up tattoos. Tattoos are often personally meaningful; an organization that projects a message that tattoos are unsightly, inappropriate, or unprofessional can psychologically affect employees’ feelings toward their work. This discussion is particularly relevant now that nearly half of the current United States workforce has one or more tattoos. An organization would be wise to acknowledge the impact and unintended consequences these cover-up policies may have on both the employee and their human resource management goals. This paper is an exploration of a research topic, including a literature review, presentation of a conceptual model, insight from the researcher’s interviews, and a proposal for additional areas of research. Specifically, a larger and more formal case study would help expand the depth and application of knowledge in the area of visible tattoos in the workplace.

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Research Proposal Introduction A significant challenge that organizations face today is building a culture that embraces the values of diversity and inclusion. While diversity efforts can often be quantified in terms of representation, inclusion is a much more elusive construct. Inclusion is about valuing individuals for their differences, not despite them. Shore et al. (2011) defines inclusion as “the degree to which an employee perceives that he or she is an esteemed member of the workgroup through experiencing treatment that satisfies his or her needs for belongingness and uniqueness.”

An exploratory case study is proposed to understand how employed persons with visible tattoos think and feel about having to “cover up” due to organizational policy. This is an important phenomenon to investigate from an inclusion lens in order to understand the employee’s view. Organizations and leaders, however, should take note because the level to which an employee feels included or excluded in company culture affects their commitment and engagement – both constructs that have repeatedly been demonstrated in the literature to be correlated to organizational outcomes (Brimhall, 2019).

Research There has been substantial research done on the perception of tattoos – including the unconscious bias associated with such perceptions.

In addition, there are many research studies in the areas of how organizations, hiring managers, and the general public perceive tattoos in a work setting. This research should be considered foundational context for this study and the studies thoroughly explored prior to moving to a fresh proposition.

Tattoo Stigma Goffman (1963) defines “stigma” as the socially constructed relationship between a socially undesirable attribute and a stereotype. A person that is different from the social majority due to an attribute is more likely to be stigmatized (Broussard & Harton, 2018). Interestingly, the type of attribute makes a difference. A “controllable stigma” based on an attribute the person can be held responsible for is looked at in a more negative way than an unavoidable or inherent attribute. Since tattoos are a controllable stigma, and represent a choice, the majority public feels more legitimized in their perceptions (Larsen, et al., 2014).

Not all tattoos are stigmatized in the same way (Arndt et al., 2017).

Generally speaking, the larger the tattoo, the more difficult it is to hide, and 108

the “darker” it is (for example, a skull and dagger as opposed to Mickey Mouse) are more stigmatized by the general public. Tews et al. (2020) found that in the workplace setting, however, “light” tattoos could be perceived more negatively for being childish or silly – particularly if they were on a male employee or candidate. Additional studies have found (Defelman & Price, 2001) that most people have an association between tattoos and alcohol/drug abuse, dishonesty, and low intelligence.

The question should be asked, “If there is such a stigma, why do people get tattoos?” The answer to this question may be different for each person. However, in general, tattoos are personally meaningful (Brimhall, 2019). They may represent anything from military service, to honoring a loved one that has passed, a challenging life experience, resiliency in overcoming trauma, or family connections. Ball & Elsner (2019) found that getting a tattoo improved college students’ self-esteem for this reason.

Persons with tattoos often consider the tattoo a part of “who they are” – not just because the ink is physically permanent but also for what the ink stands for.

Tattoo Bias in the Workplace There are two primary reasons why tattoo bias exists in the workplace according to the literature. The first reason is the perception of the tattooed employee/applicant having less competence or desirable qualities, and the second reason is concern that customers will think poorly of the organization as a whole for employing a tattooed person.

To the first reason, Arndt et al. (2017) shares that studies have repeatedly confirmed that managers across many industries have shown a preference for hiring employees without tattoos. This is largely due to negative implicit associations – not even within the manager’s realm of awareness. Curiously, the second reason is a very conscious decision.

Arndt et al. (2017) suggest that some managers are not concerned about competence or character deficits, but rather, they are concerned about how a tattooed employee may negatively influence their organization’s brand or image. In fact, Arndt et al. (2017) conducted the first study of its kind – demonstrating evidence of this type of “indirect bias” in hiring. In other words, organizations stereotype their customers by assuming customers are stereotyping the tattooed employees. Tews, et al.

(2020) found that negative tattoo effects were very dependent on context, such as: • • •

Type and size of tattoo.

Generational cohort of the manager.

The employee’s gender.

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Finally, other research (Arndt & Glassman, 2010) has shown that customers with tattoos prefer employees with tattoos. This bias with a positive association actively contradicts some of the assumptions leaders have been shown to make.

Literature Gap There is a gap in the literature. Most studies have sought to understand the impact that other people’s perception had on employees with tattoos. This proposed case study is different. Here, the researcher seeks to understand thoughts and feelings from the tattooed employees’ perspective. What is learned as a result of this case study will advance understanding of how the tattooed employees feel. Questions will not be asked about performance evaluations, perceived discrimination, and interview experiences. Instead, questions will focus on the internal dialogue that happens in the mind of an employee.

Professional Insights Guiding the Research Proposal This case study will provide new insights into a complex and sometimes taboo situation and provides an opportunity to resolve literature conflicts by providing nuance and context from a novel perspective (the employee’s).

In addition, there were two content-expert interviews that guided the decision to pursue this research. Gayla Thomas-Dabney is an expert in the Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) space, and she provided guidance and feedback for forming the case study. Having the opportunity to discuss tattoos in the workplace with a DEI expert provided this researcher with the confidence that this was an issue of inclusion and that it had potential for an interesting study. As a result of conversations with her, the research model consequences were established, as she provided excellent information supporting how inclusion and the feeling of “bringing one’s whole self to work” drives both retention and engagement. She also suggested including a question in the final interview guide that has worked well in the past for her DEI research: “Do you feel that your organization promotes inclusion, equity, and diversity?”

Industrial-Organizational (IO) Psychologist A. J. Ruiz was also supportive of this research. Her recommendation was not to forget the commitment that an employee makes on hire. Ideally, the dress code policy would have been communicated to the employee in the interviewing and hiring stages, and the employee would have the opportunity to weigh the pros and cons before entering into a working relationship with the organization. This was an important insight because it brought awareness to 110

many employees who may decide to turn down jobs in workplaces if they feel they are not accepted. These people were not included in this research.

While outside the scope of this study, this would be a promising a future research topic.

Project Goal & Impact The purpose of this case study research is to begin the work of filling a literature gap in understanding the impact of workplace tattoo restrictions from the employee’s point of view. Learnings may assist leaders in thinking of inclusion strategies and retention efforts differently— particularly for this demographic.

Constructs Three constructs will be explored with the interviewees: perceptions of inclusion, affective organizational commitment, and effects of conspicuity by absence.

Inclusion Inclusion is a buzzword in the corporate world right now. Often leaders think of inclusion as something to do rather than a climate to nurture. It is of great interest to this researcher which types of words employees use to describe how the “cover-up” policy makes them feel.

Capturing these sentiments will help identify whether these policies affect employees’ sense of inclusion.

Brewer (1991) introduced the optimal distinctiveness theory. This theory can help us understand why inclusion is important to employees.

The optimal distinctiveness theory proposes that people want to be recognized for their unique attributes and that they want these attributes to be recognized as a positive difference (Shore et al., 2011). Brimhall (2019) found that as perceived acceptance increases, so do feelings of inclusion.

Affective Commitment Affective commitment is related to the employee’s emotional attachment to the organization as related to their values and goals (Meyer & Allen, 1991). Interviewees will be asked about their value congruence within the organization. A thought experiment will be posed: “If you were offered a near-identical job to the one you have now in terms of pay, benefits, hours, work environment, but you did not have to cover your tattoos, how interested would you be?”

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Conspicuity by Absence Finally, the phenomenon of conspicuity by absence will be explored with the interviewees. Today, tattoos have become a common form of self-expression. A Pew Research Survey conducted in 2010 found that nearly 4 in 10 Millennials have tattoos. The Bureau of Labor Statistics 2014-2024 Employment Projections report that by 2020 Millennials will make up about 50% of the workforce – and this figure will be near 75% by 2030. Societal biases are surfacing, and many businesses no longer care if employee tattoos are visible (as long as they are not offensive). Conspicuity by absence (also called “absent presence”) is a symbolic and intentional erasure of some factor, which results in a glaringly obvious “elephant in the room.” Interviewees will be asked how it feels to work in an environment conspicuously absent of tattoos.

Conceptual Framework A conceptual model has been created to guide the research (Figure 1) in exploring the constructs mentioned above. The literature review already demonstrated that the type of tattoo, generational cohort of the manager, and type of work has an antecedent effect on how being tattooed impacts the employee.

Figure 1 Conceptual Model for Exploring the Perspective of Tattooed Employees in Conservative Workplaces

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Modifiers this researcher would like to explore, with their rationale, can be found in Figure 2. Social identity theory has heavily influenced the modifiers to test. Flanagan & Vance (2019) explain social identity theory as how someone categorizes information in tandem with their identity – specifically “in-group” and “out-group” identities and behaviors. Feeling like one is an outsider in a workplace setting actively works against inclusion.

Consequences are primarily related to research demonstrating outcomes of inclusive work environments. Hwang and Hopkins (2012) found inclusion in the workplace to be a factor that increases employee commitment and loyalty. Acquavita et al. (2009) and Cho & Mor Darak (2008) came to similar conclusions – inclusiveness creates better job satisfaction and commitment. The improved attitudes resulting from inclusive environments have also been shown to be correlated with enhanced job performance (Carmeli et al., 2010).

Interview Insights Using questions formed from the literature review and expert interviews, four interviews were conducted to better understand the research question, guide the development of the research model, and assist in refining the proposed case study’s final interview guide (Appendix A).

The interviewees’ occupations were a police officer, job seeker, medical assistant, and operational director. The decision was made to interview people with visible tattoos currently employed in a workplace that requires them to cover up. This is the same target audience that will be interviewed in the proposed case study. See Figure 3 for common themes from the interviews.

Figure 2 Modifiers to Explore in Case Study Interviews with Rationale Modifier

Personal support system Self-esteem Work/life balance Having colleagues also with tattoos

Rationale Explore whether having a robust personal support system that celebrates differences helps the employee cope with their more stringent workplace expectations.

Explore whether self-esteem affects the employee’s perspective on workplace bias towards tattoos.

Explore whether a healthy work/life balance (as defined by the interviewee) moderates how they view work expectations.

Explore whether having colleagues with tattoos (and covering them) changes how they feel about their workplace expectations and sense of inclusion.

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Explore if there is a relationship between the effort needed to cover up (clothing, makeup, etc.) and the impact on the employee. Some more heavily tattooed employees or those with ink in places like their neck or hands may have to put more financial or time resources into daily cover-ups.

Ease at which cover-up is possible

Figure 3 Common Themes among Interviewees Question Asked Tell me about your tattoos.

What is it like to work in an environment absent of tattoos?

Do you feel that your personal values and the values of your organization are similar?

What types of words would you use to describe how the “coverup” policy makes you think/feel?

Do you feel like you are valued in your organization?

If you were offered a nearidentical job to the one you have now in terms of pay, benefits, hours, work environment…but you didn’t have to cover your tattoo, how interested would you be?

Common Themes Across Interviewees  Enthusiastic in showing/describing tattoos  Consider tattoos a part of “who they are”  Do not regret getting their tattoos  Very meaningful  Confusing (because tattoos are now so commonplace and generally accepted)  Frustrating (outdated policies and mindsets)  Uncomfortable (especially needing to wear extra clothing) 

Yes; most interviewees felt that they matched

  

Not good enough Hidden/ashamed Not professional enough



Generally, interviewees said yes. This was due to their work accomplished, though, rather than intrinsic value as a person/employee.



All stated that they would be very interested.

A few interesting discussions came from the interviews that will inform the proposed case study research. One is related to the difference between compliance with a policy and acceptance of a policy. It was also important for a couple of the interviewees to emphasize that just because they follow the rules (being compliant) does not mean that they accept or agree with the rules. Sowdena’s et al. (2018) research provides definitions to support this sentiment, saying that compliance is present when an individual publicly conforms but does not change their internal attitude or belief, as opposed to acceptance, which occurs when social influence causes an individual to conform based on the internalization of an outside attitude or belief. In no interview did anyone say that their organization’s policy

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changed their internal beliefs. All it did was create an inconvenience and value conflict related to acceptance and inclusion of differences.

Interviewees said that they sense the leader’s age has a significant impact on how much importance is placed on keeping the tattoos covered and/or enforcing the dress code. They stated that, generally, the younger the leader is the more s/he is accepting of others’ wishes. This was supported in the literature review as well.

Finally, there were some very interesting conversations around loyalty to the organization when asking the last question: if they would leave their current job for a similar one in which cover-up policies were not present. Responses varied. One said that if offered more money, she would stay in the current position and keep covered even though she still “wouldn’t like it.” Another reported that he would rather be covered and enjoy his team than be uncovered and not have close bonds. This is an area that will need to be explored with a larger group in the proposed case study.

Research Design Case study research (CSR) will be the design method used. CSR’s primary objective is to achieve a deep understanding of a participant’s perceptions, thinking processes, intentions, and environmental influences (Woodside, 2017). Neale et al. (2006) share that CSR is appropriate when there is a “story to be told.”

As this case study focuses on the employee experience, interviews will be primarily focused on tattooed persons currently employed in a workplace that mandates covering tattoos. A semi-structured interview (SSI) approach should be used with this study. Bearman (2019) shares that SSIs are among the most effective ways to gather rich, experiential data.

This collective case study’s method is exploratory. As many interviews as possible will be conducted in a synchronous setting such as a phone call, video call, or in-person interview. To ensure that a wide range of opinions and experiences are gathered, there will also be an electronic form (Appendix B) distributed via various social media platforms, asking for volunteers to share their thoughts. The questions in the form will mirror the interview questions to a reasonable degree. This information will form the initial conceptual framework that will help visualize, identify, and clarify key aspects of the phenomena.

Discussion Limitations

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A limitation of this study is that it does not capture the potential employees who have turned down a job in a conservative workplace because of the policy. This study is only hearing the voice of those that are currently in a workplace requiring them to cover up. There may be certain factors (personality, economic, demographic) that may cause one person to accept a job with a dress code with which they disagree versus declining the job offer to look for another with a progressive-company climate.

A second limitation is inherent in the case study methodology.

Qualitative data seeks to understand opinions, attitudes, and motivations.

There will not be conclusions that can be quantified with numbers or statistics. While the reader will enjoy a robust thematic analysis, objective conclusions cannot be drawn and projected on a population outside of the one being studied in the research sample.

Future Considerations for Research As mentioned in the Limitations section, there is an opportunity to understand how tattooed persons, who opted not to apply/work to/for an organization which mandates they cover up their tattoos, feel about organizations that retain appearance codes.

This study may prompt deeper, philosophical questions about the ethical obligations an organization may or may not feel relative to propagating bias. Future research in understanding the effects of bringing awareness of implicit bias to leaders who uphold the policies would be very interesting. These leaders may not be aware of their own unconscious associations, their own stereotyping of customers (believing that their customers stereotype their employees), or how their employees’ feelings are impacted by the policies.

Finally, the interviews brought something interesting to the surface regarding the enforcement of tattoo “cover-up” policies. It seems like it is common for enforcement to be applied unevenly across an organization based on different leadership styles. More understanding is needed related to how this inconsistent application affects the organization.

Conclusion While it is widely recognized that there are benefits to creating inclusive workplaces where employees feel valued and included, not many leaders know how to do it (Brimhall, 2019). Organizations can feel a conflict between balancing diversity, allowing individual expression, and managing customer perceptions (Flanagan & Lewis, 2019).

As the demographics of an “average American employee” shift, it would be naïve to think that approaches to inclusivity do not also need to 116

broaden. Zestcott et al. (2018) share that significant interpersonal and professional consequences arise due to the stigma toward tattoos in the workplace. With such a widely researched stigma and generally acknowledged bias, exploring its impact on the tattooed employee’s psyche will provide insight into their relationship with the organization.

Understanding how tattooed employees in conservative workplaces view themselves and their organization can provide unique insights currently not found in the literature and opportunities to learn how to foster inclusive organizations.

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References Arndt, A. D., McCombs, G., Tolle, S. L., & Cox, C. (2017). Why are healthcare managers biased against hiring service providers with tattoos? Services Marketing Quarterly, 38(2), 88–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332969.2017.1289789 Arndt, A. D., & Glassman, M. (2012). What tattoos tell customers about salespeople: The role of gender norms. Marketing Management Journal, 22(1), 50–65. http://www.mmaglobal.org/publications/MMJ/MMJIssues/2012-Spring/MMJ-2012-Spring-Vol22-Issue1-ArndtGlassman-pp50-65.pdf Acquavita, S. P., Pittman, J., Gibbons, M., & Castellanos-Brown, K. (2009).

Personal and organizational diversity factors’ impact on social workers’ job satisfaction: Results from a national Internet-based survey. Administration in Social Work, 33(2), 151-166. https://doi.org/10.1080/03643100902768824 Ball, J., & Elsner, R. (2019). Tattoos increase self-esteem among college students. College Student Journal, 53(3), 293–300. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A603511047/AONE?u=anon~4 11f0ad8&sid=googleScholar&xid=63da6672 Bearman, M. (2019). Focus on methodology: Eliciting rich data: A practical approach to writing semi-structured interview schedules. Focus on Health Professional Education, 20(3), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.11157/fohpe.v20i3.387 Brewer, M. B. (1991). The social self: On being the same and different at the same time. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17(5), 475-482. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0146167291175001 Brimhall, K. (2019). Inclusion is important . . . but how do I include?

Examining the effects of leader engagement on inclusion, innovation, job satisfaction, and perceived quality of care in a diverse nonprofit health care organization. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 48(4), 716-737. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0899764019829834

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Administration in Social Work, 32(4), 100-126. https://doi.org/10.1080/03643100802293865 Flanagan, J., & Vance, J. (2019). Marked inside and out: an exploration of perceived stigma of the tattooed in the workplace. Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion: An International Journal, 38(5), 87-106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EDI-06-2018-0101 Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: notes on the management of spoiled identities.

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Career Outlook. https://www.bls.gov/careeroutlook/2015/article/projectionslaborforce.htm Woodside, A. (2017). Case study research: Core skills in using 15 genres. Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Zestcott, C. A., Tompkins, T. L., Kozak Williams, M., Livesay, K., & Chan, K. L. (2018). What do you think about ink? An examination of implicit and explicit attitudes toward tattooed individuals. The Journal of Social Psychology, 158(1), 7–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2017.1297286

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Appendix A

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Appendix B

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GRADUATE STUDENT CREATIVE EXPRESSION

First Prize Octayvia Clemons “Listen to My Ethics” TED Talk Professor Karla Carter

Second Prize Eric Tijerina “Military Suicide” TED Talk Professor Karla Carter

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OCTAYVIA CLEMONS

“Listen to My Ethics” TED Talk

Audio Podcast One can access Clemons’s talk here: https://bellevueuniversitymy.sharepoint.com/:u:/r/personal/kcarter_bellevue_edu/Documents/Oct ayvia%20Bellwether/Octayvias%20pROJECTt1111.mp3?csf=1&web=1&e =SHtv9J

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Transcript* Hey, it’s Octayvia Clemons, telling you to go to my podcast, Listen to My Ethics. It is a podcast that breaks down the most controversial, trendy technology and cybersecurity issues. It started out as a final project that became so much more. So don’t talk; and just listen to my podcast. Thank you.

Hi, guys, welcome to my podcast, Listen to My Ethics. Today, we’re gonna basically talk about artificial intelligence, and kind of the ethical surrounding of artificial intelligence.

I’m not gonna lie to you: I didn’t know much about artificial intelligence before I started this podcast.

But I am in my master’s course. And this is kind of like a final project for us. So I kind of, we got to choose, you know, what we want to talk about. And what’s ethical about it? I got into AI because of us discussing question, I did.

I didn’t know much. So I, my teacher suggested, you know, to go look at a TED talk, you know, someone to explain it in depth. And I did find this TED Talk. And the speaker, she explained artificial intelligence so beautifully. She explained, not only what people normally think of, but she also explained what it actually is, how humans are such a huge influence on artificial intelligence. And we don’t even know that because of our pre-bias of, you know, the technology.

So, before I get into all that, I want to kind of give everyone a general official definition of artificial intelligence; I decided to look up.

And it says, Intel intelligence demonstrated by machines, which is unlike natural intelligence that’s displayed from humans and animals, which involves, you know, consciousness and emotions.

Now, I didn’t want to just go off with that one definition. Even though it’s the official, I kind of wanted to just kind of play around and, you know, look at every what everyone’s opinion on artificial intelligence is.

So another definition is shot down, which, which is unofficial. It said, it’s a wide-ranging branch of computer science concerned with building smart machines capable of performing tasks typically required by human intelligence, which that definition is just crazy. It’s just, I just, the way it’s worded is it made me really kind of see that there’s two sides to how people can describe artificial intelligence. But honestly, no matter what word you choose to describe artificial intelligence, it’s basically our approach to science that goes into every realm and goes into multiple branches of not just knowledge, but technology.

So let’s, let’s talk about how people view artificial intelligence, for you know, this podcast, I want to kind of talk to other people, you know, about their opinion. So I asked, either friends, you know, or, you know, 126

non-friends about what their opinions are. And I got back some of the craziest answers. I got people saying that if we allow technology to, you know, become just like us, it’s going to take over the world. It’s going to, you know, call off our walls, were gonna gang up on all of our technology, and we’re all going to be defensive, like the humans are the ones that are going to be the victims. If we keep teaching computers and technology to, you know, be smart, which is crazy, because, you know, I, you know, you see it in the movies, you see it all the time, how a machine learns how to be smart. It got jealous of the humans and ends up, you know, turning, you know, the world into a technology-owned and odd dictatorship, you know, against the humans. But I didn't think that I didn't think that was what, you know, AI is going to do, but I did have some issues or concerns about it when I first started, you know, learning about it, you know, just because if we do end up teaching, you know, intelligence or technology to be smart, what is going to happen to humans, like what's going to happen to jobs.

You know, and how are we going to be able to provide and, you know, just just more of like a materialistic type or, you know, environmental type, you know, concerns in my head, but like I told you all before, you know, when I listened to that TED Talk, she explained it so well. She explained how Artificial Intelligence is actually pretty stupid.

Her words. So basically, artificial intelligence only does what we tell it to do. There’s no other way around it. We are the dictators; we are the ones that are in control. And they’re throughout the whole process. The only issue with humans is it seems, cuz, you know, everyone has cybersecurity knows it, you know, which is it could be a debatable slogan.

But the slogan basically is humans are the weakest link in cybersecurity, which, in some cases, that may be true, in some cases, it may be not. But for artificial intelligence, it kind of is true. When you are in a relationship with someone, your communication is key, as the same way it is with artificial intelligence. You tell your computer, or your artificial intelligence, what to do. You tell your AI, what you want to do, how not even how it should be done more of just what you want it to do, and they should find the solutions how to get done, but you need to be specific in what you tell it to do. Because they can think of multiple situations to get something done.

It’s honestly, it’s the quickest way. So one of the examples that she used, she used, was they had a program, and it was a robot. And he not not just not an AI robot, but just a robot, it was a computer, and, like, if you, if you type that in, like code, code-wise, like if you type hand manually code, you know, the solution, you know, everyone knows how to do computer science, right? Everyone knows how to code. You, you tell it what you want it to do, how to do it, and how to get it. And if this doesn’t happen, then try this, you know, you have to you explain it step by step. But with AI, you don’t. It cuts out the middleman: it cuts out the extra steps that you need to 127

tell you, tell it what you want it to do, and how does, not how to physically do it, but you tell it how to do it, and it will find solutions to do it. So in this example, that she used the robot, we should tell the AI to, like, you know, move the robot from one side of the computer string to another open in the middle of the computer screen, I forget to say is like huge lake of water, right. And there’s two sides of the land. So she’s telling the robot to find a way to get from point A to point B. She, like I said, you didn't tell the robot how to do it, or the AI how to do it, or how you want to accomplish it. So they created their own simulation of it. So, what the AI did was made their whole robot super, super huge. So, when the robot would step in the water, it wouldn’t drown. It would just basically be stepping in a puddle. But that’s not how they wanted the AI to do it. So, communication is so important when you’re dealing with AI. Now, I decided to look up different, or I’m sorry, a lot of concerns. When it comes to AI, like what is everyone’s concern? And it kind of was, you know, the latter, like, you know, they don’t want AI to take over the human race.

Which it’s hard to do that, like, you know, let’s be honest. Like, I don’t, I don’t see that happening. But one of them was the self-driving cars.

They think that that is a huge ethical issue. And I, I don’t agree wholeheartedly. I, it’s kind of, it’s kind of both, I disagree and agree at the same time. I can see the side where they’re concerned about it. And I can see the side where they’re not really that concerned about it.

So one of the, one of the examples I want to use about, you know, AI in cars is the Tesla. We all know the Tesla, we all want the Tesla. I want the Tesla, basically, wanted it when they were first testing out AI in the Teslas. There were so many trials and errors, so many, I mean, most of them people don’t even know about.

So, as everyone knows, the test, like, can be a self-driving car, which is super cool. And honestly, I don’t have the money, but I would love one. Um, but one of the issues that I ran into is that during the testing and during the, I guess the creation of the car, they put the AI through simulations of driving, and that’s how the AI knows how to drive, how to turn or switch lanes, how to break things like that. But during the testing, they basically only showed the AI the highway; they didn’t show the AI, you know, the side roads or, you know, like neighborhood streets. So during the testing, they are doing a real-life event. I guess the AI was driving on a side road or in a neighborhood, and it didn't see a truck coming. So the truck hit the AI because the AI didn't know what to do. All right, at the Tesla, because the AI in the Tesla didn’t know what to do.

When people wanted to—Tesla was asked about it. They basically said, “Well, during the testing, all we showed was the AI on a highway.”

And everyone knows how it is to be on the highway, right? Like, you go straight, there’s no one coming from each side. I mean, there’s people on 128

the side of you, but no one’s coming at you on the side. So everyone’s straight. So all I knew was that a truck should be straight, either straight ahead of them, or straight behind them, or straight to the side of them, or straight to the you know, to the other side, but it shouldn’t be coming at an angle towards them, you know. So obviously, that is a huge communication issue. That is something that they will definitely have, like they will, they have definitely changed it. But that was something they definitely had, like, you know, taken concern about is that you have to be very specific, super specific, really, like about everything. Another one is, you know, I have a really cool relationship with one of my professors. She’s so awesome. And we were on Zoom one day and group talking about, you know, this topic and how I wanted to kind of present this podcast to people. And so she was telling me about, and she also sent me a lot of articles, which I will read one of the articles here soon because of the fact that it’s just so relevant to what we’re talking about. And also it’s so recent, it’s really recent, actually happened on February 19. But we’ll get into that later.

But one of the examples that me and my professor, we’re, talking about on the Zoom call is hand sanitizers. Right, hand sanitizers. Um, first of all, did not know there was artificial intelligence in hand sanitizers. I’m not gonna lie to you. I know that sounds really like, you know, bad of me, because not only am I, you know, trying to get a career, my career, you know, advanced in cybersecurity. I’m going to try a master’s for, I kind of dedicated my life to it, but I did not know like in it, it stuns me that I did not know this.

But one time, I guess, during a testing process, I think in India, there was this hand sanitizer incident, right. So, basically, this man, which he was darker skinned. He put his hand under the hand sanitizer, custom hand sanitizer, and it wouldn’t do it for him. But someone with a fair skin, not fair skin, but lighter skin, you know, I guess white skin, they put their hand under there, and it worked perfectly for them. But it’s not saying that the AI is racist or the AI is prejudiced towards people because really, technology is neutral. Technology is something that has no bias, has no reflections of people.

So basically, during the testing process, though, because like I said, communication is key. So during the testing process of this hand sanitizer, they, they didn’t choose someone with darker skin. They didn’t choose people that have a tan to their skin. They chose light, light, you know, faired skin colors, so when the man put his hand under for the AI, or for the hand sanitizer, the AI didn’t know the difference. I didn’t know that was, that was what he was supposed to do. It’s not technology’s fault.

You know, and that’s, and that brings me to another topic. I know, I’m just rambling here, y’all. But when I get into the topic of it, when I started discussing, I’ve kind of lights a fire under my belt, you know, really, 129

it’s something that I want to, I just I want to just discuss. I want to be able to communicate how I feel about things. You know, like I said, we are, we’re doing good and bad. I love technology. Like I said before, it’s neutral, it is something that is not going to choose to be a way because of the way it feels. Because you know, like we said earlier, it has no emotions, it has no consciousness. So what it’s doing is, is going off of what we want it to go off of, you know. So my dad recently just had, my mom and dad just recently had surgery, and what are their biggest concerns, was AI robots were doing the surgery, and they are super scared because they just didn’t understand what the process was, how they’re going to be able to, you know, like it, like, they’ree just scared like it’s not a human. It’s not someone that you could, you know, see. It’s a robot, something that’s new, it’s different. But that’s what a lot of people are upset about is, you know, robots in health care. And it’s crazy to me that they’re upset about it.

Because if anything, you would think that robots would be more precise in health care. Now, I’m not saying that we should get rid of doctors, by any means, you know, but to have AI able to help you in situations, you couldn’t ask for anything better. And like, the way I kind of prepared them for it, you know, is like, you know, I discussed, you know, what I was going to talk about also, what I discussed, you know, just about AI. It’s no matter if it goes right or wrong. It’s always, it’s always a human of why, like the human is the reason why it’s happening. And I don’t want to say bad things, bad about humans. But again, like the technology does what we tell it to do.

So why is that? They’re like, “Oh, well, it’s ethically bad.”

It’s, you know, something that, sorry, it’s something that we should, you know, just keep as a human thing, but when you think about it, AI is going to be able to fix the problem that was questioned in the first place. Like, if there’s a question about something, AI is going to solve it without any judgment. And that kind of brings me to my next topic, if, you know, judgment of AI, like I said, neutral, neutral, neutral, like, there was, I guess, a hospital. I don’t want to name the hospitals; I don’t want anyone to get in trouble or anything like that. But there was a hospital that used AI after a while. And kind of one of the biggest, you know, scandals about the hospital was, you know, a lot of black men would go.

They’re saying that their knees hurt. And the human doctor would say, “Oh, no, you’re fine. You know, I checked you out, you’re good, you’re good.” And then, you know, if a white male came in saying his knees hurt, you know, the doctor would be like, “Okay, well, let’s find a way, a solution to this problem.” I’m not saying every person’s like that. And I think every hospital is like that. But there are biases in this world that we have to be aware of.

So they changed, you know, some of it out with or some of the technology, some of the, you know, the, I guess systems in the hospital with 130

AI. And they fixed, you know, the black man’s problem, or the, you know, they fixed the black man’s knee. They didn’t see then, see race, they just saw a knee had a problem, and we’re going to fix it. But, well, we need to learn as humans is to communicate. If we can’t communicate to ourselves or to our partners, or to our families, how are we going to be able to communicate to technology to advance in this world? I mean, I know I have communication issues. I’m gonna sit there and say that right now, but I’m also not trying to create an AI robot either. But if I did, it’s all about communication. It’s all about the way we talk, you know. Not only do we say we need to say things will be, you have meaning behind those things, we need to have an understanding, a clear definition of what we want to happen.

If we are able to communicate, if we’re able to put everything into a clear perspective, imagine the possibilities that we can come to. And like I said, it’s, it’s not that AI will take over our society. I guess, it is here to help build our society. Now, there are things like, you know, turning the robots into, like, you know, actual humans. And, you know, I know there was one for like a pregnant AI like that those things are unnecessary. Those things are, they’re pushing the line of ethical boundaries. But when you’re using it in actual meanings and actual things, imagine the possibilities we could have, it just, it’s, it’s beyond me. It’s crazy. It’s just, it’s wild. Oh, my goodness. So we’re basically coming to the end of the pot, the first podcast, you know, my first episode.

Come back for more if you like, you know, what I discussed, how I talked, you know, things like that.

But I kind of wanted to end it on kind of like a recommendation. A note of what we should do, what we should be aware of. Like I said, you see artificial intelligence in so many different ways. But the way I see it, like I said that the podcast is called Listen to My Ethics. So this is the way I see it.

I see it as an opportunity. I see it as something that we can learn from, learn to adapt to, learn to use it.

For great potential, what we need to learn as humans is just like I said, communication, we learn how to talk. We need to learn how to talk like in multiple aspects, not just technology. But that’s a whole other, you know, career field. But technology-wise, we just we need to learn how to communicate, it is there to help. So why not receive it—or not receive the help? Why? Why make it more than what it is, if you learn how to communicate, you can unstop, you can be unstoppable in this world.

So that’s pretty much it, y’all. I had a great time talking to y’all. I had a great time discussing my ethics, my point of view.

It’s just been it’s been great. I did want to leave off with kind of, like, a small joke, you know, to those who say, “Oh, no, I’m gonna just, I’m gonna keep thinking the way I think, you know. AI is going to basically 131

destroy us. We’re in the world, you know, blah, blah, blah.” If you think that, then you know, I recently heard that Mars just opened their doors for you know, people to come in there. So good luck, a new trip. And enjoy it.

Enjoy technology.

Enjoy life.

Enjoy happiness.

Thank y’all.

*A transcript reflects spoken language present in the corresponding video, so editing is minimized to reflect what was spoken as opposed to what is grammatically accurate.

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ERIC TIJERINA

“Military Suicide” TED Talk

Video One can access Tijerina’s talk here: https://bellevueuniversitymy.sharepoint.com/:p:/r/personal/kcarter_bellevue_edu/_layouts/15/Do c.aspx?sourcedoc=%7B7C271EC6-49AC-4021-96C453D38252866C%7D&file=Tijerina.%20Eric%20%20Military%20Suicide%20vs%20Data%20Analytics%20%20TED%20Talk.pptx&action=edit&mobileredirect=true. Simply click on the powerpoint, and it contains the YouTube video with the TED Talk.

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Transcript* Greetings, Was suicide as common now as it was back in the 90s? Growing up, it seemed like suicide was rare, and when it did happen it was someone famous. Maybe my parents and society did not highlight that kind of stuff, or maybe it is more common these days. Are we dealing with psychological reasons that enable depression; has life gotten harder even though our basic human necessities are being met at a higher level than ever before? I can’t speak to what we can do to solve the world or the country’s suicide rate, but I can present a case for the United States military.

According to a 2020 article by USA Today, the military suicide rate has been on an upward trend since 2014, from 18.5 suicides per 100,000 service members in 2014 to 25.9 in 2019. When 498 service members die by suicide in one year, you better believe there are big problems that we need to figure out. Without a doubt, suicide prevention is a top priority for the Pentagon, but how can they get after it? How they have been going about it is through efforts in the form of awareness training, down days, commander’s calls, and also hiring counselors to walk around the workplace. But what if a possible solution was figured out by Target almost ten years ago?

In 2012, an angry father walked into Target to talk to a manager about the coupons that they were sending to his teen daughter. The man doesn’t hate savings but when the coupons are pregnancy-related and addressed to his teen daughter, I can see why he might be upset. The manager had nothing to defend himself and apologized. The manager going above and beyond, he later called the father to follow up, and the father told him that his teen daughter was actually pregnant and that he was sorry for the outburst.

How did Target know before the dad? That’s crazy right? Well Target’s statisticians can take the credit for the stalkerish prediction.

Shoppers are tied to their credit cards or rewards programs; through this they can be identified and their consumer habits can be analyzed for direct advertising. Target happens to have a pregnancy prediction score that they tied to a number of products. The teen was identified in Target’s customer base, and she had happened to buy enough of those related products that Target felt confident that she was most likely pregnant; therefore, they sent her coupons of products that they knew would eventually be needed. It’s genius but kind of creepy. If we break down this 2012 capability, you can write it up as a collaborated result of statistics, customer tracking, and data analytics.

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Technology is a wonderful thing, am I right? From the Internet to our self-driving cars. . . Technology has come a long way in just a short period of time. It’s hard to imagine that other elements in life can keep up.

Privacy being one. User agreements, geolocation, mobile cameras, wearable accessories, and companies that sell your information. It’s hard not to be tracked in some way. Getting off the grid and staying off the grid would take a pilgrim lifestyle to pull off.

So what do we do with this technology; how can we use this to prevent or stop suicide? Well, service members make up a small fraction of the United States population. These members sign on the dotted line and they are technically government property. The Department of Defense requires less legislation to make it’s members provide their banking activity, social media, and consumption habits. With analytics that Target was able to do back in 2012, how do you think this could be used in terms of preventing suicide?

Through studies we know that some external expression of suicidal ideations include social withdraw, giving away things, and talking about death. Surveillance of a few data commonly used sources would provide the data needed to analyze.

For example, a twenty-two-year-old soldier starts going to the bar a lot—no red flags there. But you notice that some of these outings are consistently through the week. You also notice that the soldier has been posting some questionable things on social media. Then you see that this same soldier is giving away valuable belongings to strangers on Facebook Marketplace for free. The weighted system would than assign a high-risk score to the soldier, and his or her commander would have the option to take action with maybe a directed mental health visit.

Is that ethical? Is it ethical to profile people based off of their activity? In the same way that Target direct-advertised to that pregnant teen, the Department of Defense would use those same analytical techniques to prevent suicide. By identifying trends of consumer and social media activity, the authorities would at least develop a means of proactive prevention. That would be a big step in the right direction in getting after the suicide problem, but is it ethical?

Is it ethical to be tracked?

Is it ethical to be profiled?

Is it ethical to diminish freewill?

But is it ethical to know you can do something to stop someone from killing themselves, but don’t take action?

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The balance between freedom and security has been one of the biggest challenges in the 21st century, and I would argue that this ethical question fits under that category. Actually, as I was listening to YouTube music videos in preparation for this talk, a depression medication was advertised between videos. Looks like YouTube knows what I’ve been researching or saying.

Pentagon leaders would have a great way forward in bringing a new line of effort against suicide. So far the military is dependent on selfreporting and coworkers having the courage to ask the question, “Are you thinking of hurting yourself?” Using the data analytic technique would take emotion out of asking the question. As for enforcing this, the military specializes in group punishment and accountability. Like how military members have to ask permission to leave the local area or can be told that they are going to the Middle East for a year without their family. A lifealtering requirement can be placed on the military without pushback; the military do not really have the same rights as civilians, which some find it surprising. Along with the state and federal laws, service members are also held to the articles of the Uniform Code of Military Justice.

The technology, enforcement, and the means are all there. This is possible, but is it worth the cost of privacy? Will the future look something closer to the minority report, or will we hold true to what we still have in this technologically evolving world. Will we place importance on privacy and keep freedom of choice over security?

That is for you to decide.

Thank you.

*A transcript reflects spoken language present in the corresponding video, so editing is minimized to reflect what was spoken as opposed to what is grammatically accurate.

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References LaGrone, S. & Eckstein, M. (2020). Pentagon “very concerned” with military suicide trends: Effect of pandemic on 2020 rates unclear.

United States Naval Institute. https://news.usni.org/2020/10/01/pentagon-very-concernedwith-military-suicide-trends-effect-of-pandemic-on-2020-ratesunclear Brook, T. (2020). Suicide rate among active-duty troops jumps to six-year high: COVID-19 stress could make it even worse. USA Today. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/10/01/suic ide-rate-among-active-duty-troops-jumps-six-yearhigh/5879477002/ Hill, K. (2012, February 16). How target figured out a teen girl was pregnant before her father did. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2012/02/16/howtarget-figured-out-a-teen-girl-was-pregnant-before-her-fatherdid/?sh=e62938c66686 Ellis, M. (2019, September 10). 5 warning signs of suicidal behavior that are easy to miss. Bridges to Recovery. https://www.bridgestorecovery.com/blog/5-warning-signs-ofsuicidal-behavior-that-are-easy-to-miss/

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UNDERGRADUATE STUDENT FORMAL COMPOSITION

First Prize Melanie Boll Open Adoption: Closing the Door on a Secretive Past Professor Erica Wright

Second Prize Alisara Hobbs, Caroline Feig, and Lorena Ramirez Macrophages Dr. Tyler Moore

Third Prize Morgan McIlnay Tradesmen Up Close Dr. Amy Nejezchleb

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MELANIE BOLL

Open Adoption: Closing the Door on a Secretive Past

The concept of adoption can be traced back to the ancient Romans when wealthy families with multiple sons would give them to other families of nobility to evenly disburse their wealth and power (Jones, 2019).

Knowing that, it may come as a surprise that it took until 1851 for the first modern adoption law to be written in the United States. For the next hundred years, adoptions were what are now referred to as closed adoptions where there is no information or communication between the adoptive family and the biological family. It wasn’t until the 1970s that former adoptees began advocating for their birth records to be unsealed, thus sparking the idea of open adoptions. In an open or semi-open adoption, there are varying levels of communication between the biological and adoptive families. Sometimes, this communication is just done through the agency with no identifying information given. In other situations, the biological family can be seen almost as extended family to the child (Mehan, 2013). It took another 20 years for open adoptions to gain traction, but they have become increasingly common since the 1990s. Despite closed adoptions being more popular in the past, experts are finding that open adoptions, whether fully open or semi-open, are the better option for the biological family, the adoptive family, and the child involved.

Traditionally, adoption records were sealed to hide the shame of young mothers who gave birth out of wedlock. The secrecy within the system stemmed from the secrecy within the community as families would pretend that their daughters didn’t have a baby (Mehan, 2013). This caused a lot of grief for those young women who were forced to give up their 139

children, and it still does for women who choose a closed adoption in modern times. The Minnesota/Texas Adoption Research Project found that there was the highest level of adoption-related grief among birthmothers who chose closed adoptions. This same study found that the level of grief decreased based on the level of openness in the adoption.

(Grotevant et al., 2019). Open or semi-open adoptions give birth mothers control over who the adoptive parents are. They also can choose to receive updates via letters, pictures, or even direct contact with the family.

Previously, they would have had to pretend that they never had the child, with many women claiming that they felt their baby was stolen from them.

It is thought that this stigma is the reason that only about 1% of birthmothers choose adoptions over abortion or keeping their child (Mehan, 2013). Many agencies hope that the rising popularity of open adoptions can help change this and encourage more birth mothers to choose adoption over the alternatives. This would allow for more babies to be available for adoption and would shorten the waiting period for adoptive parents to be partnered with a child.

The long waiting period is not the only thing that has discouraged aspiring parents from adopting. In closed adoptions in the past, adoptive parents reported anxiety over the birth parents’ changing their minds and attempting to take back their roles as the parental figures for the child. In open adoptions, they are able to discuss this with the birth parents directly, making them feel more secure. Research has found that no matter the level of openness, this communication has eased the fears of the adoptive parents and actually allowed them to be more empathic toward birth parents (Grotevant et al., 2019). In a study involving 44 adoptive parents, they all stated that they felt they made the right choice by having an open adoption. They did not feel that there had been too much openness at any point in the relationship between the families, even when the children reached adulthood (Siegel, 2013). Another common concern raised on behalf of adoptive parents is that the child will reject the adoptive parents in favor of their birth family. Actually, even adoptees who have expressed challenges or discomfort have found that the level of openness does not cause a major issue in their relationship with their adoptive parents (Siegel, 2013). Even when children expressed a yearning to learn more about their birth parents, their positive views of their adoptive family did not change (Grotevant et al., 2019).

When adopted children seek out information about their biological families, it typically stems from curiosity rather than a wish to rekindle the relationship with their birth parents. Many adoptees involved in closed adoptions expressed that not knowing who their birth parents were or why they were put up for adoption actually prevented them from fully bonding with their adoptive parents as they were afraid to discuss those concerns 140

with them (Mehan, 2013). By having an open and honest relationship from the start, adopted children not only have answers to their questions, but they also can feel more comfortable communicating with their adoptive parents about it. Furthermore, the sense of identity given by knowing where they come from is important to a child’s development to help them build self-esteem and confidence. This is especially impactful for children who are adopted from other countries, as losing that part of their identity could mean a complete loss of their history and culture. Open adoption can also help children who may have otherwise worried that they were not good enough for their biological parents to keep. By the biological parents continuing to request and receive updates, even if communication is done indirectly, it can show children that a lack of interest is not the reason that they were given away. They may even be able to hear the specific reason for that decision. Many children also find that they have other biological siblings who can provide them with a wholly different relationship than they would have experienced otherwise.

Regardless of the benefits that communication can have on the relationships between adoptees and their biological or adoptive families, open adoption is not without critics. Along with the apprehensions from the adoptive parents mentioned previously, there are concerns that tension between the adoptive and birth parents could cause anxiety for the child.

Experts also worry that the birth mother will feel that the child is flaunted in front of her, causing the guilt over her decision to be extended. While research suggests that the opposite is true in most cases, these concerns are not without merit. The 44 adoptive parents in Siegel’s study do admit to some challenges during the open adoption process, such as the birth parents having another child that they decide to keep or cutting off contact with the adoptee at random. However, the adoptive parents describe it as an opportunity to communicate and grow with their child (Siegel, 2013). In regards to the concerns on behalf of birth mothers, some women do express regret over putting their child up for adoption and wish they had at least tried parenting the child for one or two weeks. They also share that their friends and family make inappropriate or judgmental comments about their decision, causing more difficulty for them (Mehan, 2013).

Nevertheless, there is no evidence that these feelings would be fixed with a closed adoption. While a fully open adoption may not be the right choice for every individual, some level of openness is still more beneficial than a fully closed adoption for most families.

The positive results that research has shown through reduced grief of birth mothers, less anxiety for adoptive parents, and a better sense of identity in adoptive children is why closed adoptions are becoming increasingly outdated. Even families that had concerns prior to beginning the adoption process have found that an open or semi-open adoption is 141

more advantageous for them. Open adoption can just include selecting the adoptive parents and sharing medical information through the agency if there are concerns such as what is mentioned previously. It is especially helpful that open adoption allow for changes to the level of openness throughout the course of the child’s life. While birth mothers and potential adoptive parents should still look into each option extensively prior to the adoption, all parties can ease into the relationship and make any changes if they find that something isn’t working for their individual personalities and lifestyles. With closed adoptions, they would not have the option to change their minds until the child has reached adulthood and may experience difficulties gaining information or contact even then. The stigma that began with secret pregnancies and maternity homes is being replaced by more and more families advocating for open adoption, which can hopefully spark reform in the adoption system in the future.

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References Grotevant, H. D., McRoy, R. G., Christian, C. L., & Bryant, C. (2019, September 13). Minnesota/Texas Adoption Research Project Outcomes for Birthmothers. Rudd Adoption Research Program. https://www.umass.edu/ruddchair/research/mtarp/keyfindings/outcomes-birthmothers Jones, J. S. (2019, May 29). What Is the History of Adoption? Gladney Center for Adoption. https://adoption.org/what-is-the-history-ofadoption#:~:text=The%20first%20traces%20of%20adoption,from %20another%20family%20through%20adoption.

Mehan, M. (2013). Adoption: Where is Solomon when we need him?

Human Life Review, 39(4), 61–70.

Siegel, D. H. (2013, July 23). Growing up in open adoption: Adoptive families look back [Slides]. ScholarWorks. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1094 &context=rudd_conf

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ALISIARA HOBBS CAROLINE FEIG LORENA RAMIREZ

Macrophages

Introduction Phagocytosis, a type of endocytosis, is an engulfing process done by phagocytic cells to eliminate invading organisms. An example of a phagocytic cell undergoing this process is a macrophage. A macrophage is a type of white blood cell that identifies, engulfs, and eliminates harmful bacteria, in this case E. coli. Unlike other methods of transportation, such as osmosis and active transport, the particles involved in phagocytosis are too large to be carried across the membrane causing the cell to attach and engulf the particle (Richards, 2017).

A method of quantifying the rate of E. coli being phagocytized is using flow cytometry. Flow cytometry is a technique used to measure particular components of given cells (McKinnon, 2018). A sample of cells, suspended in a fluid, is injected into a flow cytometer where they pass through very small channels that align them in a single file as they pass through the detector. In order for E. coli to be read by the machine, it needs to be changed to express glowing fluorescence done in a process called transformation.

Transformation occurs when foreign DNA is added to bacteria, ultimately resulting in the uptake and expression of the traits in the DNA (Griffiths, Miller, Suzuki 2013). Plasmids, pieces of DNA encoding for specific traits, are used in the process of transformation. GFP plasmids are proteins that encode for a green fluorescent gene and can be transformed 144

into the bacteria, allowing E. coli to uptake and express a green fluorescence.

During transformation, bacteria can acquire multiple genes from the plasmid. In addition to receiving the GFP from the plasmid, E. coli will receive a gene coding for antibiotic resistance, in this case ampicillin resistance or ampR. Positive ampR cells contain the resistance to ampicillin and can be used to distinguish those who successfully transformed the GFP gene (Feilmeier, 2020). This can be done by suspending the bacteria onto an antibiotic plate after transformation, in this case ampicillin agar plate, where those without this resistance will not be able to survive.

Being specialized in the phagocytic process, a macrophage may have many reasons to want to undergo this process. E. coli, typically able to coexist in the human intestine, may exist as a strain that is deemed a harmful bacterium, ultimately turning it into a candidate for phagocytosis.

Primarily, macrophages recognize harmful particles that are actively harming the body such as live E. coli, but this may not always be the case.

In humans, abundant cell types often exhibit short life cycles, resulting in about 100 billion dead cells within a 24-hour period (Uribe-Querol & Rosales, 2017). Having such a large number of built-up cells requires a method or recognizing and removing the inactive cells. Inactive cells, such as heat-killed E. coli, will be recognized and removed by the macrophage also via phagocytosis. Although both reasons for phagocytosis are equally important, we were curious to see if there was a difference in rate of phagocytosis between alive and inactive bacteria. Comparing the rates of phagocytosis using flow cytometry, of live and heat-killed E. coli, we expect the rate to be higher for the alive bacteria.

Materials and Methods GFP E. coli: To begin setting up for this experiment, E. coli was transformed from a green fluorescent protein (GFP) into E. coli where it was then treated for antibiotic resistance. First, E. coli was taken from a plate during the log phase and transferred into a cold Calcium Chloride Solution, using a bacterial loop. Next ampR plasmids were added to the bacterial-chloride solution and were shocked with heat. Using another bacterial loop, the cells were streaked onto an ampicillin agar plate. Cells resistant to the antibiotic survived and were incubated for 24 hours resulting in isolated ampR E. coli.

Phagocytosis:

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Isolated ampR ampicillin resistant positive E. coli cells were taken and suspended into a liquid. The number of bacteria was quantified using a spectrometer machine. The OD 600 from the machine was then compared to the ratio of 2.69x 109/ 1 OD 600 to determine the number of cells in the liquid. RAW264.7 Macrophages were observed under a microscope using a hemocytometer and Trypan blue to determine the number of cells present.

A ratio of macrophages to E. coli was created (1:5) and was co-cultured with the GFP-E. coli under our two conditions. Using two six-well plates, a negative control, heat-killed, and a positive controlled E. coli was placed in each well with each having three replicates. In each well, 1 mL of macrophages containing 1x10^(6 )cells were added with 1.04 µl of E. coli.

First, in three wells, live E. coli was placed with macrophages to create the negative control. Next, in six wells, E. coli was heat-killed using a microwave for 10 seconds. Lastly, in three wells, macrophages were placed with no bacteria creating the positive control.

Flow cytometry: Once the well plates were set up, they were run through a flow cytometry machine where green cells were analyzed, giving us data on which type of E. coli is most readily phagocytized by macrophages.

Results Figure 1

(A) Status of E. coli does not affect the rate of phagocytosis. (A) Distribution of cells expressing GFP+ in relation to its intensity. (B) 146

Percentage of E. coli expressing GFP+ gene within varying conditions. *P=0.0287 **P=0.0036 determined by one-way ANOVA for multiple comparisons. (C) Mean Fluorescence Intensity (MFI) of GFP in varying conditions *P=0.0268 **P=0.0078 determined by one-way ANOVA for multiple comparisons.

1.04 µL of heat-killed and live E. coli were co-cultured with 1mL of RAW264.7 macrophages containing 1x106 cells. Comparisons of heatkilled, live, and E. coli-absent cultures were completed using a flow cytometry, each replicated 6 times.

All conditions of E. coli were effectively phagocytized by macrophages with no significant difference between the two; however, there were significant differences between the live E. coli and the control.

Displaying nearly double the number of cells within the distribution of cell intensity, live e. coli exhibited the most abundant cells within 10^3 and 10^4 intensity (A). Heat-killed E. coli also typically displayed higher intensities than the control in terms of area under the curve but was not significantly different. In relation to the GFP intensity, heat-killed E. coli had no significant difference compared to live but did in relation the control of no e. coli (B).

Discussion Previous studies have shown that phagocytosis of macrophages predominantly attack detrimental E. coli when present in the human intestine. However, macrophages are known to phagocytize inactive bacteria as well (Uribe-Querol & Rosales, 2017). Herein, we identified the effects of phagocytosis of macrophages in live and heat-killed conditions of E. coli. and expected the rate of active bacteria to be higher than inactive bacteria. Our flowcytometry revealed there was no significant difference amongst the live and heat-killed bacteria. Additionally, we demonstrated a notable difference between live E. coli and the control, resulting in a pvalue of 0.0036. Coevality, the difference between heat-killed and the control was significant in relation to the GFP intensity, resulting in a pvalue of 0.0287. Based on these findings, we can conclude that in the terms of phagocytosis, macrophages prioritize live and heat-killed E. coli. equally.

To complete the full understanding of this experiment, future experiments should also work on different types of noxious bacteria to discover if it has the same effect.

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References Feilmeier, B. J., Impinger, G., Schroeder, D., Webber, H., & Phillips, G. J. (2020, December 20). Green Fluorescent Protein Functions as a Reporter for Protein Localization in Escherichia coli. Journal for Bacteriology. https://doi.org/10.1128/JB.182.14.4068-4076.2000 Griffiths, A., Miller, J., & Suzuki, D. (2000). An introduction to genetic analysis (7th ed.). W. H. Freeman. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21993/ McKinnon, K. M. (2018, Feb 21). Flow cytometry: An overview. Current Protocols in Immunology, 120. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5939936/ Richards, D. M. (2017, October 26). How cells engulf: A review of theoretical approaches to phagocytosis. IOPScience. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28824015/ Uribe-Querol, E., & Rosales, C. (2017). Control of phagocytosis by microbial pathogens. Frontiers in Immunology, 8, 1368. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2017.01368

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MORGAN MCILNAY

Tradesmen Up Close

What does one do if air conditioning goes out at home or if the electricity isn’t working? What happens when someone has a plumbing problem or wants to get a new roof due to excessive hail damage? All of these difficult situations are solved by tradesmen. Tradesmen are skilled workers in specialized occupations like plumbers, welders, roofers, construction workers, carpenters, electricians, and painters. Tradesmen often need work experience, on-the-job training, vocational education, and a license, but a degree is not required. Since a degree isn’t necessary for tradesmen, and it is a “blue-collar job,” society often undervalues their profession. Considering that tradesmen are underestimated, I wanted to find out more about them and if they should be more appreciated in the community. Through interviewing five tradesmen and observing different tradesmen at a job site, I found that tradesmen carry patterns of motivations and personality traits that enable them to succeed in their field of work and help the community function properly. Therefore, tradesmen should earn more recognition and not be looked down upon in society.

By going to a job site located in Omaha, Nebraska, I was able to find that tradesmen succeed in their field of work and help the community function properly through their common patterns of motivations and personality traits. The job site I went to was at an apartment complex where buildings were being built and necessities were being added. I saw all different types of tradesmen working on the buildings, such as heating and cooling technicians, framers, roofers, and electricians. I observed the tradesmen wearing jeans, work boots, a t-shirt or a sweatshirt, hard hats, gloves, and protective eyewear. I also saw the majority of tradesmen carrying tool bags around and others holding papers, but the biggest 149

observation I made was that all of the tradesmen were male. I did not see a single female at the job site, and when I questioned my subjects about it, one of them stated, “I have never met a woman on the job site working at a trade.” As the gender of most tradesmen was identified clearly as males, the age range and ethnicity of tradesmen at the job site were more diverse. The tradesmen ages ranged from 19 to 55, and their ethnicity varied from White, to Hispanic, to African American. This is easily represented through the five tradesmen I interviewed. Their ages were 19, 21, 32, 45, and 55. The 19-year-old was Hispanic, the 21 year old was White, the 32 year old was African-American, and the 45 and 55 year olds were White as well. From interviewing each tradesman for approximately thirty-to-forty minutes and spending the day observing at an apartment complex job site, I was able to find that tradesmen have patterns of motivations and personality traits that enable them to succeed and help the community function properly.

After interviewing the five different tradesmen at the job site, I found that they have common motivations which, in return, allow them to succeed and support the community. When I asked the tradesmen, “What motivates members such as you to become a tradesman?” I got similar responses. Tommy (21) answered, “I always knew I wanted to work with my hands. I wanted to figure out how to put things together, fix things, and build. I wanted to build everything from scratch, raw material.” Scott’s (55) response was related to Tommy’s when he said, “I wanted to provide highquality work to others. Becoming a tradesman was my purpose in life because I realized the potential I had to help others.” Cory (45) stated, “I knew I had the basic skills, abilities, and interest for trades. I always liked working with my hands, challenging myself, and trying new things out. I realized becoming a tradesman allowed me to become a part of something bigger. Every day, I get the opportunity to create connections with customers, employees, and other trades members through working together as a team to complete a job, but still getting to do my own individual work and tasks.” From the tradesmen’s explanations, I found out that their desire and passion to want to work with their hands, learn more, challenge themselves, and try new things is providing them with success in their field of work. Furthermore, I discovered that tradesmen support the community from their unwillingness to help others in need and using their skills, knowledge, and abilities to provide others with high-quality work. The patterns of motivations seen in tradesmen lead them to success and giving assistance to the community.

The next category of a pattern found in tradesmen that empowers them to succeed and help the community function properly is their personality traits. Through observations and interviews, I was able to find that tradesmen carry patterns of personality traits like hardworking and bravery. I became aware that tradesmen are hardworking due to their work 150

ethic, determination, and productivity. As I was at the job site, I observed tradesmen walking with intensity, adding little details to perfect their work, and asking questions to better understand. For example, I heard Marcos (19) ask Scott, “What am I supposed to do if the plumber’s pipe is in the way?” Not only was I able to observe the pattern of hardworking tradesmen, but I also got insight when I asked Tommy, “What makes tradesmen hardworking?” He voiced, “Tradesmen are hardworking because we show up every day, on time, whether it is freezing cold outside or scorching hot. Sometimes we start early on the job, sometimes we work late on the job, and other times, we might skip lunch to complete a job. We give 110% and fight through the soreness and fatigue we face. We rarely take “sick days” or vacation time. For example, I know that Cory has only missed one day of work due to being ill in all of his 17 years of being a tradesman.” The next pattern of personality traits seen in tradesmen is their bravery. I noticed the pattern of bravery in tradesmen through observing different trades at the job site. I saw roofers on top of the apartment buildings using nail guns to install shingles, electricians working with wires that could cause electric shocks or burns, framers using sharp saws to cut wood, and construction workers drilling holes right next to their fingers. I was also told a story by Alonzo (32) when I questioned the kinds of dangers tradesmen come in contact with every day. He mentioned, “Actually, a couple of weeks ago I was up in an attic and I was standing on a ladder. I was reaching far to my right with my drill in hand and suddenly the ladder slipped from under me. Luckily, I was able to grab onto the ledge and dangle there while Tommy put the ladder back under me. I was close to being seriously injured, but that is what comes with this profession.

Tradesmen accomplish an act of courage once making it to the end of each workday and showing up the next day to risk it all over again.” After watching tradesmen and asking them questions, I found out that they have patterns of personality traits including hardworking and bravery. Through these traits, tradesmen are successful in trades and improve the community.

In conclusion, tradesmen should earn more recognition and acknowledgment for their work. After interviewing five tradesmen and observing different tradesmen at the job site, I was able to discover that tradesmen hold patterns of motivations and personality traits that make them succeed and keep the community functioning properly. Tradesmen have the desire and passion to learn more, work with their hands, challenge themselves, try new things, and help others. They hold personality traits of hardworking and bravery. Overall, people should appreciate and recognize the work of tradesmen because what is one going to do if the water runs out in one’s home? Additionally, they should think about how their homes came to be in the first place.

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UNDERGRADUATE STUDENT CREATIVE EXPRESSION

First Prize Blair Hopkins All in a Day’s (Sex) Work SWOP behind Bars Professor Ron Woerner

Second Prize Matthew Stoltenberg Dom Dr. Tony Jasnowski

Third Prize Adam Pearson Elizabeth Dr. Tony Jasnowski

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BLAIR HOPKINS

All in a Day’s (Sex) Work and SWOP behind Bars*

The Correlation between Intergenerational Poverty and Intergenerational Trauma

by Laura Lemoon ACES is also known as Adverse Childhood Experiences, a term created by the CDC in Partnership with Kaiser Permanente. The groundbreaking study found that children who experience trauma have more negative health outcomes as an adult. A study by the National Institutes of Health also found that brain development of children can be negatively impacted from growing up in poverty. This is due to factors such as exposure to greater levels of stress, cold or lack of proper heating, and high-fat diets.

Intergenerational poverty has a very strong relationship to intergenerational trauma. The nature of poverty has the potential to facilitate the propensity for trauma. An example would be a teenager whose parents are rarely home because they have to work so much that the child ends up getting into trouble and going to jail. A second example is the mom who can’t participate fully in parenting her child because unemployment and a limited income has meant she can no longer access her mental health care, which leaves her unable to function. There are many more examples of how interrelated poverty and trauma are correlated.

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SWOP Behind Bars eases the impacts to families of incarcerated persons through programs like MoneyTalks, which provides financial tools and education to incarcerated and formerly incarcerated persons who may not have ever had access to financial education due to the axes of intergenerational poverty and intergenerational trauma. One of the biggest ways in which the State fails incarcerated people is by not sufficiently working to counter the impacts of poverty and trauma; a second is the lack of their supporting a transition from prison to the outside world.

Incarcerated people, upon release, are maybe given a ride to the nearest bus stop, possibly a very small stipend, and that’s about it. This is a huge contributor to recidivism, and we know that people with more ACES (adverse childhood experiences) are likely to have a higher rates of adverse health (including mental health) outcomes and difficulties of financial barriers when compared to adults with fewer or none. By not fully addressing the potential impacts of issues such as poverty, trauma, and systemic racism, prisons are failing incarcerated persons.

Five Facts We All Need to Know About the Intersections of Race and Mass Incarceration

by SWOP Behind Bars Mass incarceration is a highly complex issue that has deep, historical roots. Paired with considerations around racial inequity, it becomes even more historical in nature. According to the University of Wisconsin at Madison, many people don’t know that racist policy changes during the 1960s and the criminalization of social issues like poverty, mental illness, and homelessness (not an actual increase in crime) were what contributed to even higher rates of incarceration among Black and Latino men. If you are looking for a deeper understanding around the issues of racism and mass incarceration, these are the top five facts you need to know:

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1. As evidenced by the below Harvard University graph, Black and Latino men are at an even higher rate of vulnerability to incarceration when they do not have a high school diploma or a GED. Multiple things contribute to this, including disproportionate poverty rates in Black and Latino households and disproportionate rates of having a parent behind bars.

Figure 4. Black Men with Low Education Levels are at High Risk for Incarceration, Much Higher than White Men with Similar Education Levels

Note. Figure 4 shows the cumulative probability of male incarceration by age 30 to 34. Source: B. Pettit, B. Sykes, and B. Western, “Technical Report 155

on Revised Population Estimates and NLSY79 Analysis Tables for the Pew Public Safety and Mobility Project” (Harvard University, 2009).

2. According to the National Institutes of Health, having an incarcerated parent puts Black families in the position of being more susceptible to economic hardship, greater difficulty of missing basic needs, and greater need to rely on social services. According to Harvard University, this difficulty can continue after the incarcerated parent is released, and they struggle to find work due to their record.

3. As reported by the U.S. Department of Justice, roughly 65,000 incarcerated persons are released from jail every year and two thirds will be re-incarcerated within three years. The USDOJ states that this is because many people have no safety nets, such as jobs, places to live, or spare money to ease the transition back into society, so it becomes very difficult not to resort to certain behaviors to get money out of desperation.

4. Mass incarceration fuels poverty, especially in Black and Latino communities. This is because mass incarceration 1) fuels job instability, 2) results in less lifetime earnings and less intergenerational wealth, 3) removes primary earners and drains assets, 4) limits access to public benefits, and 5) disrupts the social and economic fabric of neighborhoods.

5. There are many things that can be done to advocate for dismantling mass incarceration; this includes policy work at the state and federal levels, advocating for more robust college funding opportunities, and ending the employment discrimination of people with prison records. Great ways to take the first step toward this are volunteering with nonprofits that work towards dismantling mass incarceration, such as Sex Worker’s Outreach Project Behind Bars or making donations to organizations that actively work against these problems (i.e., SWOP Behind Bars). *Editor’s Note: To view her work as Deputy Director and to view Hopkins’s activist websites, All in a Day’s [Sex] Work and SWOP behind Bars, in their entirety, please visit https://www.adswproject.org/about and https://www.swopbehindbars.org.

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MATTHEW STOLTENBERG

Dom

He held a single hair between the tips of his fingers. Holding it to the light, he turned it back and forth, inspecting it. It almost looked gray.

He held his hand out to his side and shook the hair loose, letting it fall to the floor. He pressed his eyes closed and ran his hands over his face and up through his hair, like he was trying to push the pressure that was building at the back of his skull up and out of his body.

When he brought his hands back down, a new hair was stuck between his fingers, and this one was definitely gray. “Christ,” he said, “not only is it turning gray, it’s falling out.” He loosed this one to the floor as well, both hairs disappearing from both sight and mind as they laid on the carpet. Consuela would suck them up this afternoon when she made her rounds.

Consuela was the name he gave to the vacuum that sat in its charging station in the corner of the living room. He had given a name to all the little gadgets and gizmos that had come into his life, which made his life more convenient. When he woke up in the morning, Karen had a cup of coffee waiting for him in the kitchen. When the time came to take his daily medications, Dr. Patel dispensed them neatly in a little tray, just the right amount of pills at the right doses. Dr. Patel sat on the counter in the bathroom next to Flo, who cleaned his teeth. They had company in the bathroom, which was home to Blaine. Blaine the bidet, who automatically washed his ass, which he was sure that Martha the Maytag appreciated when she cleaned his underwear.

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He had a device for almost every activity he could think of, and some he couldn’t think of. He was just a few devices away from not having to do anything at all he reckoned, and at that point what reason would there be for him to be there?

He stood up and moved to the window as Letitia cleared away the dishes from his breakfast. Three inches of snow had fallen the night before.

From inside, the smooth white yard looked like a blank canvas, untouched and ready to accept a masterpiece.

He had considered taking up painting when he had been Replaced.

He had considered several hobbies, but they either did not stick or did not seem worth his time. It wasn’t like he would ever be the next Rembrandt, he thought, and besides, artists made art because they had some message they wanted people to understand, and he had no message, no take on things that weren’t as mundane as the next guy’s.

He pulled a pair of boots and a heavy down coat from the closet.

The boots didn’t see much use, it had been ten years since he lost his job to Dom. Dom was the Dynamically Operated Machine that had made him obsolete. When he first met Dom, he was amazed at the speed and accuracy with which Dom could replicate his work. A whole day’s work, done in an hour, and without the aching back or the sore feet.

He thought about his aching feet while he laced up his boots. He thought about how much he spent on those boots, nearly a week’s pay. He even paid extra for custom insoles, but they only made his feet hurt worse.

Feet are so fucked up, he thought, that when they are held in the correct shape for eight hours, they hurt like hell.

He zipped up the coat and pulled his wool cap over his graying hair. The cold rushed in as Larry opened the garage door for him. Hank sat where he always did, in his charging station, waiting to be useful. With one touch of the button on Hank’s head, Hank sprang to life with a series of chimes and a green light, heading out to do his business.

He stood outside the garage and watched Hank do his work.

Carving neat lines in the snow, efficiently exposing the concrete below. He pulled a pack of cigarettes out of his coat pocket and lit one. He was sure the cigarettes were killing him, but it was one of the few things he could still do for himself, a sort of middle finger to the Hanks and the Karens of his life. Besides, when the time came, he was sure Dr. Patel would spit a new pill out at him in the morning, designed to fix all the damage he was inflicting.

He liked to watch the gizmos work. He didn’t have to; Hank would do his job with optimized efficiency and return to his charging station all on his own. It occurred to him that it didn’t even matter if the driveway was cleared of snow, he had no place to go. If he needed something, Dave would set it right on his front porch before flittering off to wherever Daves 158

went when they were done. He liked to stand there in his boots that hurt his feet and think about how much his feet would have hurt in the days before Hank, in the days when he would shovel the snow himself.

Looking up and down the street, he could see that he was neither the first nor last to set their Hank to work clearing the snow from the pavement. The house with the blue door, two house up the street, that used to belong to the Daltons wasn’t cleared yet. Back when the Daltons had lived there, it would have been the first to be cleared, but they moved to Florida, or Texas maybe, when they got Replaced.

Lots of neighbors had changed since Replacement. Some only lived here for the work, but with the work gone they went back home, wherever that was, or somewhere else. Maybe he would go somewhere else, somewhere where it didn’t snow, he thought, but then what would he do with Hank? It didn’t seem right to Replace Hank, not when so much work went into creating Hank and the other gizmos so that they could Replace him.

Come to think of it, he wasn’t sure who lived in the Daltons’ house now. He wasn’t sure of the names of any of his neighbors anymore. He couldn’t remember the last time he had spoken to any of them. With all of the wars and pandemics and climate emergencies and Replacements, he had lost touch with most of his friends, coworkers, and neighbors. There just wasn’t any good time to get out, to socialize; plus it was easy to stay home, with all the gizmos.

Hank gave a shrill screech, followed by a clank, then nothing.

Hank just sat there; the green light turned to red. He flicked the cigarette into the snow and walked over to inspect the gizmo. Turning it on its side, he saw the problem. Something was stuck in Hank’s auger, a piece of metal.

He twisted and grunted and heaved the object out of Hank’s guts. Holding it in his hands, he could see that it was a wrench. An inch and one sixteenth box wrench. “How the hell you suppose that got there?” he asked. He tucked the wrench into his pocket and checked on the damage to Hank. It was pretty rough; the auger had been bent clean out of shape. No way Hank could get back to work before getting this fixed.

He pulled Siri from his pants pocket and asked her to order a Dave to take Hank for repairs. “I’m sorry, there are no listings available for repair services at this time.”, she said. He remembered a time when he wasn’t so useless, a time when he would work on his car just for fun. “Maybe I can get you going again myself, Hank.”, he said. He asked Siri to order a replacement auger. “I’m sorry, there are no items matching your description available in your area.”, she told him. He poked his finger at her screen and found a match, one match, available for pick up only nearby.

He dragged Hank’s lifeless body back into the garage and got into Herbie. He tapped the address Siri gave him and Herbie prompted him to 159

confirm his destination. “Yes”, he said sharply, as he pulled another cigarette from his coat. The car pulled away from the garage, crunching the snow beneath its wheels. As he puffed away at his cigarette, he saw all manner of Hanks working on driveways through his neighborhood. Or maybe these were Steves, or Jamals, or maybe these people didn’t name their gizmos at all.

“You have arrived at your destination,” Herbie said after fifteen minutes or so. He looked at the imposing gray brick building in disbelief.

This was his old factory. Fifteen years he had worked here, before Dom came along. He hadn’t been back since, and he almost didn’t recognize the place. The parking lot usually filled with cars stood empty except for him and Herbie. He walked through the snow to the doors of the factory. Odd, he thought, why haven’t their Hanks cleared the lot?

When he pulled open the door, he was blasted back by a furious wall of sound and thick black smoke. The chaotic grinding and clanging of gears and machines was deafening, and the smoke choked out the lights. He covered his mouth and nose with his hand and pressed his way into the building.

Inside, there was no one to be found. Just an array of Karens and Blaines and other gizmos whose purpose he did not know, piled on top of each other. Everywhere he looked, gizmos were strewn in great heaps, carrying out their functions for no one in particular. In the center of the room, Dom was clambering away, churning a column of great black smoke from the top of its head.

He climbed past piles of haphazard gizmos, whirring and broken, and made his way towards Dom. He could see that something was wrong with Dom: it was shaking violently, rocking from side to side, stressing the bolts that once held it firmly to the ground.

On the conveyor belt that led from Dom’s mouth came Dave after Dave, one every few seconds. But these were broken, useless Daves. Their crippled, flightless bodies crashed off the end of the conveyor belt where an army of Consuelas crashed into them, feverishly trying to suck them up.

This isn’t right, he thought. He was there when Dom took over; this wasn’t how it was supposed to work. Dom was supposed to be just as efficient as all the other gizmos, this was a mess. When he helped install Dom, just before he was Replaced, the machine was nearly silent. Now it was screaming, howling, almost like it was in pain.

And where were the workers? Surely they all hadn’t been Replaced, he thought. Looking around, he could see no person had been here in some time. Every space in the factory was filled with gizmos, some working and some mangled beyond their original shape, a freak show of disfigured machines.

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He slipped his hand under his wool cap and ran his fingers through his hair, pressing his nails hard into his scalp. This was confusing to him.

He couldn’t understand what had went wrong, but what caused him the most concern was that he couldn’t understand why he cared. Whatever had gone wrong here, it wasn’t his problem, but he couldn’t help the feeling that somebody should do something, anything to put a stop to this.

He ran his thumb over the raised letters on the forged wrench he still carried in his pocket. He felt sorry for Dom. He had never held any resentment towards Dom for making him obsolete, quite the opposite in fact. Replacement wasn’t like it used to be, now if you got Replaced you got a Replaced People check once a month, enough to have a comfortable life.

He didn’t like seeing Dom hurting like this. If no one were going to fix this, maybe he could. Maybe he could jam the wrench into Dom’s guts, shut him down like Hank, putting him out of this misery. Another Dave came out of Dom’s mouth. This one tried to fly, but its misshapen body jerked to the left and it almost crashed into him. He dove out of the way, and the Dave slammed into a pile of gizmos. He looked at the Dave, its propellers still spinning as it lay smoking on the ground. In Dave’s little arms was a wrench, an inch and one eighth.

He climbed over a stack of gizmos to the side of Dom. He could see Dom’s load control arm reaching into a toolbox, retrieving another wrench. Normally this arm would collect the materials necessary for Dom to produce another gizmo, but now it was grabbing whatever it could reach, stuffing all manner of loose parts and broken gizmos into the back of Dom. Dom was trying to send anything he could out into the world on a Dave. It couldn’t reach its guts with the control arm, it must need someone to come, someone to end this hell, he was sure of it. That must be how the wrench ended up in his drive, he thought. Some dilapidated Dave must have teetered as far as his place before dropping its load, Dom’s way of sending a message in a bottle. He pried open the access panel on the side of Dom. Inside where a thousand different gears and belts and cables, circuit boards, chips, hoses, all the guts that kept Dom going.

He jammed the wrench in between two gears, the force of the wrench being pulled from his hand nearly took his arm off. Dom let out a deep, agonizing groan as his guts came to a stop. Relief, he thought.

The strain of all these guts trying to move was tearing Dom apart.

Pressure built up and blew open the coolant hose. Belts snapped; gears came apart. The shaking was worse now. He had to get out of there, away from Dom before he blew up. He couldn’t make the door, too far, and too many gizmos in the way. He tried for the window. Normally, it would be too high to reach, but if he clambered up the pile of gizmos in front of it, he might make it.

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He pulled his hand inside the sleeve of his coat and balled it into a fist, slamming it through the glass. He started pulling himself up through the window. It was a long way down, but if he landed in the snow, maybe he wouldn’t be hurt too bad. Dom gave one last great bellow, choking and spitting on his own guts, before it let loose.

When he came to, he was almost fifty yards from where the factory used to be. The blast had knocked him out, and he couldn’t hear anything except a constant whine in his ears that didn’t seem natural. Laying in the snow, he didn’t feel cold. He didn’t feel anything at all. He reached up under his wool cap and ran his fingers through his hair, pulling down clumps of singed gray and black with burnt skin still attached.

He turned on his stomach and raised himself to his knees. Deep in his belly there was some piece of a Dave or a Karen or maybe a Hank. He grasped it in his hands and wrenched it free from his guts, warm blood spurting out in dark pools in the snow.

He looked around him at the mess. Shrapnel and glass and brick, spatters of red against a canvas of white, with him in the center. A masterpiece, he thought. A work of art born of pain and destruction, and life.

He slumped down into the snow, pressing his face into the cold, wet ground. I wonder what kind of gizmo is going to clean this up, he thought. He wondered what he would name it.

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ADAM PEARSON

Elizabeth

It was an eerie foggy night on an endless stretch of empty highway that Ted found himself driving down for what seemed like the hundredth time. It was always the same when he took out his trash. Always the same long drive to the middle of nowhere. Always in the middle of night. This night was like most others in the small, sleepy town of Whisper Springs, Alabama. Except the thick fog. That was strange.

Ted was irritable. He hadn’t been getting much sleep. He suspected the drinking wasn’t helping. He had had the radio on at first. The girl’s shrill singing gave him a headache. He turned it off. He got headaches often. This one was a real rager. He glanced at the box in the floorboard of his ‘93 plymouth for some degree of comfort. The car itself was a mess. He knew this. With a good portion of the paint job being rust and all the sides having at least one characteristic dent, it wasn’t difficult to notice. But it didn’t bother him so much. At least it moved. It moved and it hadn’t tried to leave him. He laughed at the thought. That was something at least.

The moment he looked at the box he felt a measure of relief. His headache just barely began to subside. He turned to look at the road again and standing right in the middle of it just visible due to the fog was a silhouette of a woman in a white dress. Ted screamed and reactively jerked the wheel to the side, swerving out of the way. The car swerved off the road but somehow Ted managed to correct himself. He looked in his rearview mirror and saw nothing. The woman he thought he had seen had vanished.

Instead replacing her were flashing red and blue lights. At this point Ted would have preferred the woman.

Ted slowed down and pulled onto the side of the deserted highway, the patrol car pulling up behind him. Head throbbing once again, 163

Ted swallowed hard. He was willing moisture back into his mouth. He could see the officer getting out of his vehicle. He glanced at the box, at the bags, and back at the officer again. His mind was racing but had gone completely blank at the same time. All he could do was stare on in abject horror as his impending doom slowly strolled up to his window, all while shining his flashlight throughout the vehicle. When Ted was face to face with his executioner, the man, for he was a man, motioned for Ted to roll down his window.

At this point Ted began to do battle with his old companion. The old Plymouth had a crank handle that was trying in the least stressful of times, but on this occasion it felt like years were passing under the intense gaze of his arbiter before the window was down a sufficient length. Ted’s hand slipped off the crank twice due to the intensity of his sweating.

“License and registration.” came the monotone response to Ted’s triumphant completion of the task.

It took a moment for Ted to realize that that was directed at him.

The man’s eyebrow shot up over his dark sunglasses. Ted was too caught up in those very glasses to even hear the request. Why was he wearing sunglasses? Did he not realize it was night time? Upon the ascension of that very brow, Ted’s reverie snapped and he regained some of his cognitive function.

He fumbled about looking for his wallet. He noticed the man began looking around while he got his papers. He tried to distract him.

“Crazy weather - this fog.” Ted tempted.

“Hmm.” came the flat reply.

“What’d you get me for anyway?” Ted said, finally securing the requested items and passing them through the window.

“You swerved off the road ...just a second ago,” the brow once again reaching for the stars.

At this point Ted remembered the woman. “Oh yeah! There was a woman in the road!”

The brow rose, if possible, even higher. “Oh really? I didn’t see a woman.”

“Yeah I blinked and she was there. I swerved out the way to miss her and when I looked back, she was gone! Just gone. Like dust in the wind.

I know it sounds crazy but I swear!”

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“You been drinking tonight, Theodore?” the officer said, glancing up from the license he had begun inspecting.

“No sir. Honest.” you?” there.”

“You wouldn’t mind taking a sobriety test for me then would “Not at all sir, but really you should check on that woman back “I’ll go run these papers and then I’ll have a look. You just sit

tight.”

Ted considered driving off the moment the officer turned around.

He thought better of it. The cops could catch his old beater in its best day.

The officer headed back to his car and began messing presumably with his car computer. Totally unfair that the folks that get to pull people over for bad driving get to drive around looking at a computer screen all day, Ted thought. But such is the way of the world. The ones enforcing the rules need not follow them. Just another sickness of society. Ted glanced at the box again. Then into his rearview mirror at the black bags in his back seat.

He grew measurably calmer. In the mirror, he saw the officer talking on his radio looking directly at him through those black glasses. There’s no way he could see anything, Ted thought, but it still unnerved him and he lost some of his regained calm.

The officer got out of the car with his flash light and walked quickly back towards Ted. “I thought you were gonna look for that woman.” Ted said as soon as the man arrived at the window.

“I didn’t see any woman following you, and another call just came in and they need me. I’m gonna let you go with a warning tonight because you don’t seem too drunk but go home. I don’t wanna see you out here again tonight or I’ll have you walk the lines next time.”

“Yessir. Well thank you, sir. You have a good night.” Ted couldn’t believe his luck.

“Mhmm.” And he turned and walked back to his car, got in, and sped off.

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It was another ten minutes before Ted felt he could actually move.

He bent down and grabbed the box from the floorboard and opened it.

The relief was immediate and euphoric. He slowly traced the hollow holes in the places where the eyes had been in the skull. The sensation of flesh touching bone was unlike any other. It took him back to the first time he felt the sensation. What a wonderful night that was. One of the few times he had truly felt alive.

Then he remembered his trash. He thought of what might have happened if the officer had checked his car. He shivered briefly but then smiled. If he could get away like this, he didn’t think anyone could ever catch him. Then he remembered the woman from the road. In fact he remembered her very vividly. He almost thought he might have recognised the woman.

When he realized he did recognize the woman, he felt an iron weight sink in his stomach. Fear gripped Ted as he realized the woman looked just like the particular owner of this skull. This first woman that had tried to leave him. Elizabeth was her name. Remembering her name, he thought he felt her gaze on the back of his neck. His eyes anxiously but grudgingly darted to the rearview mirror. Nothing. Nothing but that thick fog and the cold, black night. He closed his eyes and tried to calm himself.

There was never even any woman. A woman that doesn’t exist can’t possibly look like a dead woman he tried to reason. Amidst this reasoning, a terrifying thought arose. Wait... Ted thought. Isn’t today the day I...his eyes snapped open in realization and horror and as his eyes opened they locked with the eyes of Elizabeth standing maybe thirty feet in front of his car once again. Only this wasn’t the Elizabeth he remembered. She was dripping wet. Bloated and decomposing but wearing the same white dress he buried her in. Only it was covered in filth and torn. And she had blood oozing from the corner of her mouth. And her neck hung at an odd angle, and he could see the handprints around it only they were distorted. And her muddy hair clung in wet bunches to her face and over her shoulders. He could hear her loud raspy breath mixed with gurgles of blood.

Ted tried to scream but no sound would come. She began to writhe towards the car in a fit of twitchy blurry motions. On pure fear and instinct, Ted tried to back away fitfully but to no avail. As she was making her ghastly advance, suddenly the headlights on Ted’s car went out. Total, oppressive blackness. Ted looked around but could see nothing. Even the soft fluorescent shine of the clock on the radio had gone black. Ted could hear only the pounding of his own heart and the shallow breaths he dared to take. Ted sat for a few moments still, then tried the ignition to his car. *Click* nothing.

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*Click* nothing again.

Then from the passenger side, Ted heard a hauntingly familiar voice that froze the blood in his veins.

“You’re not trying to leave me? Are you, Teddy?” the voice cooed playfully.

Hearing those words with that voice petrified Ted. He dared not look towards the sound, lest actually seeing the specter made it more real.

Eyes bulging, hands shaking beyond control, Ted tried the ignition once more.

And miraculously the car flared into life! Ted, spurned by the hope of his trusty Plymouth returning to life, looked to his passenger seat. It was empty. Ted glanced to the road to secure his escape, and his relief was short lived. She was there, only this time much closer.

And Ted could see she was smiling, teeth covered in blood. Eyes white and vacant but nonetheless intent on him. The headlights went out again, and Ted squeezed his eyes shut and cowered into his seat.

Nothing happened for a long time. Ted was unsure of how long he remained in that position. Seconds turned into minutes. Minutes to hours.

He slowly opened one eye. Nothing. Apparently the lights had flickered back on at some point. But Ted didn’t really even notice. The only thing he noticed was the absence of a certain phantom. He threw the gear shift into drive and floored the accelerator, daring some poor soul to wander in front of his vehicle tonight. He didn’t bother with the trash. That could wait till tomorrow. He had had enough excitement for tonight. He sped down the highway thinking how lucky he was to be alive. Cherishing life in all of its forms. If he would have gone to finish his task, he would have run into several police officers a few miles up the road hauling several old black trash bags out of the woods, just off the side of that deserted highway. One of those officers thought those black bags reminded him of someone.

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INNOVATIVE BUSINESS OR COMMUNITY IDEA

First Prize Seth McDermott

Seven Elements of a Compliance Program Dr. Julia Cronin-Gilmore

Second Prize Saidah Scott

Social Media Plan: Saidah’s Gifts and Things Professor Loren Standley

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SETH MCDERMOTT

Seven Elements of a Compliance Program (Powerpoint)

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Seven Elements of a Compliance Program (Paper)

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to discuss corporate compliance programs. For a compliance program to be effective, it must be thorough from top to bottom. This paper specifically discusses the seven elements needed for a successful compliance program as presented in an article by Melinda Burrows. The seven elements begin with the foundation of policies that not only prevent unlawful behavior but also ideally prevent any issues in ethical gray areas. These policies should be overseen by multiple layers of management, and anyone with previous unethical behaviors should be excluded from any positions of significant power. The next step is to educate employees, so they understand the policies and understand how to report violations. Once the issues are reported, the organization needs a clear plan on how to reward desired behaviors and reprimand those who are guilty of violations. While doing this, the organization should frequently reevaluate the compliance program and make changes accordingly. Finally, the organization must look for ways to educate employees on how better to comply appropriately in the future.

Keywords: compliance, seven elements of compliance program

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Healthcare organizations need to maintain a healthy compliance program to ensure they have an environment that produces legal and ethical behavior. Additionally, if employees discover illegal or unethical behavior, there needs to be a system in place that encourages reporting through multiple means, including anonymous means. To do that, several things are needed, including effective training and reporting systems. The following paper discusses the seven elements of an effective compliance and ethics program (Burrows, 2006).

The Seven Elements The first element of an effective compliance and ethics program is to establish standards and procedures to prevent and detect violations of law (Burrows, 2006). On a fundamental level, rules need to be put into place so they can be referred to by the employees. These rules must adhere, at a minimum, to the law. It is a better practice to go above and beyond the law to cover any ethical gray areas. For example, Medicare requires the exact number of minutes per physical therapy treatment session be recorded. A better practice might be to have the therapists enter the exact start and stop times in documentation to account for their treatment time and to show that their time did not overlap with any other discipline like speech therapy or occupational therapy.

The second element is that multiple layers of management should be involved in the ethics program (Burrows, 2006). Without multiple layers of management, a myopic view of the compliance program can develop.

Multiple layers are needed so the big picture is not lost. It can be easy to get caught up in the ever-changing laws and regulations. Additional oversight can be useful in bringing the big picture back into focus. The big picture creates a work environment that seeks to improve behaviors that reduce illegal and unethical behaviors, and team members report violations if they do occur (Waugh, 2019).

Element number three is to avoid giving substantial authority to someone with a history of illegal or unethical behavior (Burrows, 2006).

This seems obvious, but as Nicola Sharpe discussed in a law review, there was a high-profile example with Wal-Mart where the leadership was made aware of bribes that were being paid in Mexico to obtain building permits.

When wrongdoing was discovered, Wal-Mart ended the internal investigation and authorities were not notified. The Wal-Mart employees in Mexico who were responsible for the bribery were not fired, and one was even promoted to Vice President of Wal-Mart in 2008. After this scandal was discovered it ended up costing Wal-Mart approximately $900 million in legal fees and in overhauling their compliance program (Sharpe, 2019).

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The fourth element is to communicate and train employees regarding the ethics program (Burrows, 2006). The communication of compliance information should happen multiple times and in multiple forms. For example, initial compliance training should take place as part of the new-hire orientation process. During orientation, the communication form should be done ideally through live training or at least a video presentation; that way, the information is more likely to be absorbed by the new employee. Future training sessions should take place at regular intervals, and they could be in written form or a part of annual training videos to remind employees of the compliance program and how to report issues.

Element number five on the list is to create detection and reporting mechanisms for program violations and to evaluate (Burrows, 2006). This element covers several main points beginning with organizational systems to detect problems through reporting, addressing the problem, documenting it, and finally reviewing the compliance program to assess its effectiveness. First, the organization needs to have procedures in place to detect potential violations. For example, as stated previously, when providing therapy, Medicare requires reporting of the exact number of minutes provided. A therapist cannot round off the minutes. One quick screening tool used is to take a therapist’s total minutes on a given patient for a week and to divide that number by five. If it is divisible by five evenly, then it would trigger a deeper dive into their billing practices. The reason this is important is because rounding by even a few minutes can change the reimbursement amount. For example, a 37-minute treatment billed under Medicare Part B is two units of therapy. However, if the therapist rounded the number up to 40, it is three units of therapy, and those charges could be considered fraudulent. Screening tools cannot find all improper conduct, so a company must provide multiple avenues for employees to report issues, including confidential and anonymous means like a third-party hotline.

Once issues are reported, a company must thoroughly investigate and document its findings. Lastly, this element must be frequently reevaluated to find better solutions to things that may not be working.

The sixth element is to encourage and reward employees who comply with ethical guidance and to discipline those who do not (Burrows, 2006). Rewards can be built into the compensation and promotion reviews, as Burrows suggests, but often positive recognition can be enough to motivate people to do the right thing. On the other hand, punishment is not the ideal motivator when it comes to improving ethical behavior, but it is necessary if the offence is significant. Additionally, the punishment can be graded based on the seriousness of the infraction or the number of times an employee has committed the infraction. Examples of progressive

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punishments include verbal or written warnings, demotions, or ultimately, termination of employment.

Finally, the seventh element is to respond appropriately to substantiated misconduct to prevent future incidents (Burrows, 2006). It is not enough to simply reward good behavior and punish bad behavior.

Sometimes the reason for misconduct is a symptom of a greater problem that needs to be addressed by the company. For example, employees in a certain department may not have been trained adequately and, therefore, are not billing certain codes correctly. It may look like fraudulent behavior at first, but upon closer inspection, they were poorly trained. In this example, the company needs to invest in proper training to ensure violations are not being committed because of ignorance of the rules in the future.

Conclusion In conclusion, a compliance program is a vital part of any organization. It is vital because the organization needs to take an active role in preventing unethical or illegal practices. Many rules and regulations are in place, and it can be crippling to the health of an organization if they are not followed. Running and developing effective compliance is no easy task.

That is why each of these seven elements should be used and taken seriously by any organization so that they can meet and exceed expectations.

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References Burrows, M. (2006, February). The seven elements of an effective compliance and ethics program. Practical Lawyer, 52(1), 21-28.

Sharpe, N. (2019). Prioritizing process: Empowering the corporate ethics and compliance function. University of Illinois Law Review, 1321-1351.

Waugh, T. (2019). Fully compliant: Compliance training to change behavior.

Association for Talent Development. Association for Talent Development.

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SAIDAH SCOTT

Saidah’s Gifts & Things

Executive Summary Saidah’s Gifts & Things is a small minority-owned, women-owned business that has recently relocated to the Orlando, Florida area and needs to establish a local clientele and expand its online presence. The following social media marketing plan entails how Saidah’s Gifts & Things can increase their online presence through increased engagement, followers, and click-through. This plan details the steps that Saidah’s Gifts & Things will need to take to not only successfully expand its social media following but to ensure that it is maintained and continuously moving in an upward direction of growth. Included in this plan are tools that can assist the company with analyzing its social media and scheduling posts, as well as sharing content that is engaging to the target demographic. If the company implements this plan as directed and evaluates its results at the conclusion as suggested, Saidah’s Gifts & Things will be equipped with the information needed to reimplement and create new goals and objectives.

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Situational Analysis Saidah’s Gifts & Things provides custom gift baskets for every budget and any occasion. Every basket is made to order with the recipient in mind. Saidah’s Gifts & Things refers to those making a purchase as Gifters, and those receiving a gift basket as Giftees. The firm strives to see Giftees become Gifters. Saidah’s Gifts & Things is always aiming to see their social media engagement increase.

The Internal Environment Saidah’s Gifts & Things’ current goals are to acquire customers and followers on social media. Saidah’s Gifts & Things (SGT) was frequently posting on Facebook and Instagram to maintain a consistent social media presence with hopes to increase followers. SGT also purchased advertisement posts on Facebook and Instagram to promote pre-packaged gift baskets, and distributed physical flyers to family, friends, a salon in Southfield, Michigan, and a church in Detroit, Michigan. These goals are consistent with the mission of SGT and aligned with the trends on how consumers are reached but were not executed efficiently.

SGT appears to have fair pricing for its products and is a direct distributor.

SGT has not done any marketing through its social media accounts since August 2019. While none of the posts on Instagram generated any website clicks, two posts did generate new followers. One of their posts that received the most likes than any of their other posts was a paid post that reached approximately 133 people, with 85% of them not being followers, and 74% of those people were reached because of the paid promotion. On Facebook, SGT paid to boost two of their posts and was able to reach approximately 374 people from one post and approximately 1,116 from the other post. SGT was not able to report that they received any leads from distributing flyers. Social media seems to be working well for the company, but the inconsistency with their posting is not effective. The marketing flyers distributed did not contribute to the growth of the business.

SGT currently has a low sales volume resulting in a lack of profitability individually and compared to other firms in the industry. With the restrictions that COVID-19 has imposed and the lack of time and effort people like to put into gifting, the performance of the gift basket industry is improving. SGT’s performance is not improving with the trend of the industry because of their lack of consistency with their social media marketing efforts. They have a good strategy but need to be consistent with implementing the plan, evaluating the results, and making changes when necessary.

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The firm has limited resources financially and capitally but has an abundance of experience. These resources will increase as the firm expands its marketing and acquires new customers. The firm can begin to leverage additional resources by partnering with local suppliers for their needs, providing them with an advantage over its competitors when it comes to pricing and local involvement. With the increase in resources, the firm can allocate more resources into its marketing department that can be used to increase engagement and visibility on social media.

External Environment SGT’s major competitors are Do It Yourself Gift Baskets, Thoughtful Presence, The Basket Case, and Orlando Gift Baskets. Do It Yourself Gift Baskets and Thoughtful Presence appear to be medium-sized businesses that have been functioning for many years with a steady clientele. They both offer premade gift baskets and Do It Yourself gift baskets have the option to build your gift basket. The Basket Case and Orlando Gift Baskets appear to be small businesses that primarily deal with local business transactions. They both offer pre-made gift baskets, and The Basket Case offers a variety of services that include gift wrapping, character deliveries, custom imprinting, and personal shopping. All competitors excluding The Basket Case are active on social media. Do It Yourself Gift Baskets, Orlando Gift Baskets, and Thoughtful Presence have great marketing and customer engagement on their social media sites. The Basket Case does not have a visually appealing or user-friendly website, like the other competitors. Potential future competitors for SGT could be 1-800 Flowers and Edible Arrangements who are extremely active on social media and have a high rate of engagement.

The current COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the income of some individuals resulting in less free-spending on things that are not essential for survival. This pandemic has also however created more of a need for special and creative ways to celebrate special milestones and occasions while practicing the social distancing guidelines that the Center for Disease Control and Prevention has recommended. The suggestion for people to stay at home because of COVID-19 has caused consumers to have more free time than they previously did. This extra free time is often being spent online utilizing social media sites. This is the most convenient way to stay connected while socially distanced.

The internet and the popularity of social media have made it easier for the firm’s customers to view recent products and promotions at any time of the day or night. The advancement of website development to include optimization specifically for mobile devices has also made it more convenient for customers to view the firm’s website from any device with 188

ease and security. With the help of technology, there are many safeguards in place to protect customers as they communicate and make purchases with SGT. Customers enjoy being able to see the personalization and showmanship of the products and gain confidence and excitement in the product they are expecting. Just as customers can look at products from SGT with ease and convenience at any time, they can also look at the products of competitors.

SWOT Matrix Strengths: • Quality Products • Stellar Customer Service • Affordable Pricing • Creative Leadership

Opportunities: • Community Grants • Few Local Competitors • Seasonal Holidays • New Technology

Weaknesses: • No Storefront • Lack of Social Media • Unfocused Marketing • Limited Financial Resources

Threats: • Competition Has More Offerings • Competition Has Greater Social Presence • Economic Slowdowns • Cyber Attacks

Social Media Strategic Planning With the firm having quality products and few competitors in the area they can increase promotional offerings as seasonal holidays approach to increase sales. Consumers will be drawn in by the firm’s quality images and low prices and retained because of their stellar customer service. As the firm begins to improve its social media presence with more consistent posts, its following and social media engagement will increase. This would result in removing this item as one of their weaknesses. The strategic focus of the social media plan is to increase social media engagement, followers, and click-through rates.

There is no data available for Instagram followings and interactions because the firm has not reached the designated number of followers to receive such data. There is data from Facebook shown in figure 1, that shows that SGT fans have more recently on average been active on Facebook from six o'clock in the morning to eight o’clock in the evening, with numbers peaking between 7:00 am and 11:00 am, and 5:00 pm and 8:00 pm. According to Marmer (2020), it is recommended that you post one quality post per day to Facebook to get the best results. SGT will follow this recommendation and post once daily. They will also seek to engage with fans during the peak times.

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Figure 1

Figure 2 shows that SGT’s posts reach a decent number of people organically but have a more successful reach when they have a boosted promotion. There are however more organic posts with engagement, and posts with the highest engagement are centered around seasonal holidays and events. To increase reach the firm will purchase boosts for future posts targeted toward engaging current fans and gaining new fans. To increase engagement on posts SGT will continue to post about seasonal holidays and expand its holiday calendar. The firm does not have a large enough presence on social media to analyze sentiment, feedback, or average response time.

Marketing Goals and Objectives

Marketing Goal A: Increase Social Media Engagement Objective A1: The company is to increase social media following by 46% on Instagram and by 35% on Facebook in ninety days, which would bring the following to 100 and 200 respectively. This will be achieved by reviewing Instagram and Facebook analytics for previous paid and unpaid posts and increasing the success of the most successful posts. This will require an increase in budget for promotional posts on both platforms that will allow for consistent scheduled posts as well as content for organic posts. The company can also encourage Gifters to follow SGT on Instagram and like them on Facebook when taking and distributing orders.

Objective A2: The company should aim to increase engagement on Facebook over a ninety-days. This can be achieved by offering Gifters and Giftees 10% off their next purchase for leaving a review on Facebook. The company can also encourage Gifters to leave a review on Facebook when picking up and delivering orders.

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Marketing Goal B: Increase Click-Through Rates Objective B1: The company is tasked with increasing clickthrough rates within a ninety-day period. This can be achieved by running an online promotion to include discount code ‘GIFT1’ giving customers 10% off their first order. The promo code would be advertised via Facebook and Instagram every other week for sixty days.

Objective B2: The company should increase click-through rates by utilizing the built-in shopping tools on each platform. The graphics associated with the shopping tools should be animated and eye-catching for the user. Facebook and Instagram offer a shop now feature on their advertisements that can take users directly to what they are currently viewing.

Social Media Marketing Strategies

Primary Target Market The primary target market of SGT is mid to upper class, goaloriented women, aged 25-60, that are family-oriented living in urban and suburban areas. These consumers maintain a busy schedule and value ease and convenience being associated with quality products and stellar customer service. They frequent convenience stores such as CVS and Walgreens for last-minute items and utilizes social media to stay connected and up to date with current events and popular brands.

Social Relationship Zone Strategies The goal is to increase the social presence of the company to encourage engagement from users. This is to be accomplished by utilizing earned and paid media. For earned media, SGT will share original content through their Facebook and Instagram to increase its influence impressions, likes, followers, and fans. The company will also converse with users that leave comments. Paid media will be attained through sponsored and boosted posts on Instagram and Facebook respectively. These posts will be made to reach our targeted demographic.

Social Publishing Zone Strategies To increase click-through rates the company should increase its use of search engine optimization (SEO) and social media optimization (SMO).

This will be achieved by sharing content that aligns with seasonal interests and includes terminology that can be used for optimization. The company 191

will be easier to recognize by utilizing a particular set of hashtags that represent the brand as well as its easily identifiable blue logo. Using the logo will assist in retaining the target demographic because according to Dash (2018) blue is considered to be a color of stability and sincerity, often associated with persistence, dependability, and loyalty. This will contribute to increasing the ease and convenience of finding and going to the company website.

Social Commerce Zone Strategies The ‘Baskets Over Plastic’ campaign will be advertised on social media to increase sales. The Baskets Over Plastic campaign will encourage people to purchase thoughtful and personalized gift baskets over thoughtless, generic gift cards. Customers will have the opportunity to earn 10% off their first basket by subscribing to receive texts or emails from SGT. The budget for this campaign is $1,000, with $700 being allocated to social media advertisements and $300 reserved for miscellaneous expenses.

There will be multiple ads created for this campaign. The first ad will consist of a clearly labeled gift card moving then a red prohibition sign will appear over the gift card, and it will move into the background. As the gift card moves into the background a gift basket will appear in the foreground and a green checkmark followed by the company information and discount.

The second ad will be a split-screen with a hand closer to the bottom gifting someone a gift card and the recipient appearing unsatisfied or disappointed.

On the right side of the screen, there will be a set of hands closer to the bottom gifting someone a gift basket with the recipient appearing elated and the imagery will become unfocused and the company information and discount will appear. The top line of the graphic will say “Baskets Over Plastic” and the second line will say “Get 10% off,” followed by the firm’s logo, website, contact information, and social media.

Activation Plan SGT will create a social media content calendar to maintain consistency on both Facebook and Instagram with their posts. The calendar will include seasonal holiday promotions and organic posts. They will then employ a graphic designer to create quality graphics to be used in social media posts. SGT will also acquire access to analyze and post, segments of Buffer to schedule and analyze social media posts and engagement. To properly integrate SMO and SEO the firm will research keywords at a minimum quarterly. The anticipated costs are listed in table 1.

Table 1 192

Task

Baskets Over

Party

Amount

Responsible

Budgeted

SGT

$1,000

Plastic

Timeline

90 days to complete

Graphics

Agency

$1,000

Ongoing

Buffer

SGT

$45/mo

Ongoing

Manage and Measure The company will conduct a social media audit following the Baskets Over Plastic campaign to gain a full perspective on the successes and failures of the campaign. SGT will also compare analytics from Buffer on a biweekly and monthly basis to establish how engagement has and/or can improve. The company should look for if the shared content resonated with the targeted audience and why or why not. SGT should also track website traffic to determine if click-throughs have increased and if the SMO and SEO are increasing traffic. If the current model is not working the firm must be open to adapting the graphics, content, and hashtags associated with its shared content at any given time if they are not yielding the proper success (Wind, 2008).

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References Dash, S. K. (2018). Role and importance of colour in marketing. Vilakshan: The XIMB Journal of Management, 15(1), 105–112.

Marmer, Daria. (2020). How frequently should I publish on social media? A HubSpot experiment. Retrieved from https://blog.hubspot.com/marketing/how-frequently-should-ipublish-on-socialmedia?MessageRunDetailID=1915876076&PostID=15625299&ut m_medium=email&utm_source=rasa_io Wind, Y. (2008). A plan to invent the marketing we need today. MIT Sloan Management Review.

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TECHNOLOGY PROJECT

First Prize Cheryl Welch PYZ Technology: Information Technology Dr. Arnetria Arrington

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CHERYL WELCH

PYZ Technology Information Technology: Strategy and Security Policy Overview

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For a pdf of Welch’s technology project, please visit https://bellevueuniversitymy.sharepoint.com/:b:/g/personal/anejezchleb_bellevue_edu/ERfeUEp6DpOkMvgn29yIR8BFJN4y02fHzLJ90alwtwZLA?e=sGhwp8 250

CONTRIBUTORS (Appearing in alphabetical order) Melanie Boll is currently pursuing a degree in Business Administration from Bellevue University. She resides in a cabin in the mountains of North Carolina with her cat, Theo, and other local wildlife (her alarm clock is a distant donkey bray). Although she works full-time in a retail environment, she makes sure to find time for her hobbies of reading, hiking, and cooking.

Boll has been lucky to travel to places such as Hawaii and Italy. She has even had the opportunity to experience bungee jumping in Switzerland. Her favorite place to visit is Cherry Grove Beach in South Carolina.

Octayvia Symon Clemons holds a bachelor’s degree in Security Studies (Angelo State University), and she is pursuing a master’s degree in Cyber Security (Bellevue University). Clemons worked at Geek Squad as a consultant agent for five years before leaving to pursue a graduate degree full time at Bellevue University. Originally from Sumter, South Carolina, she had the opportunity to live in three other states until her father, a twentyyear Army Veteran retired at Fort Hood, Texas. Texas is now home for Clemons and hosts her accomplishments. During her undergraduate education, she earned certification in cybersecurity from Angelo State University, thereafter moving on to receive awards and recognition from her place of work. Clemons comes from a family-orientated family; they focus on love, education, and happiness. Her family provides continuous support for all her endeavors and accomplishments.

Tara Dailey has had a deep interest in anything artistic and crafts-related for as long as she can remember; hence, she has a need to create. Dailey grew up watching her parents and grandparents do different creative things, but watching her grandfather, Henry Gene Hauser, draw is what influenced her the most in the beginning. He showed so much dedication to his art by working in many media and mastering whatever he could. While in the hospital for rheumatic fever during his service in the army in the 1940’s, he held his pencils in his mouth because he couldn’t use his hands. He had also trained himself to be ambidextrous and could carve and draw just as well 251

with his left hand. He taught Dailey what tips and tricks he could, and she attributes her talent to him to this day. Dailey still wouldn’t be where she is now if it weren’t for her family and friends who pushed her to keep going and tested her abilities.

Both sides of Dailey’s family are filled with creators and artistic people, which leads her to believe that her talent is a gift given to her. She needs to use it and share it with the world. This is what leads her to design today. In a growing digital world, Graphic Design is the best way to use her skills as an artist, to use design as a translator for the world’s problems and cares.

Caroline Feig currently attends Bellevue University, pursuing a bachelor’s degree in Biology while also minoring in Chemistry. Feig was born in Pyeongtaek, South Korea. She is a former resident of Oregon where her father was born and raised before entering the military. She is interested in Pharmacy school, having worked at St. Charles Medical Center as a pharmacy technician in Bend, Oregon. Feig transferred from Lane Community College, and she hopes to join her fellow classmates in running Cross Country and Track & Field for Bellevue University. Some of her favorite activities are spending time fishing with her boyfriend, buying plants with her lab partners, working in the greenhouse, and being at home with her cat. This is Feig’s first time publicly sharing her experimental project through her schooling and appreciates the help of her teacher, Dr. Moore for his mentoring. For fun and amusement, Feig writes stories and non-fiction, reads books and medical journals, as well as plays the guitar, the drums, and table tennis. She also recently learned she likes making sauerkraut.

Alisiara Hobbs (Ali) was born and raised in Topeka, Kansas by her parents Joe and Tiffany Hobbs. Majoring in Biology and minoring in Chemistry, she is finishing her second year at Bellevue University. Having an interest in helping people since a young age, she wants to pursue a career in the medical field. Being a part of the University’s Cross Country and Track team, Hobbs is also passionate about running, and she likes to spend her free time collecting house plants, trying new recipes, and skateboarding.

Hobbs and her lab partners contribute the success of this experiment to Dr. Tyler Moore for his persistence and knowledgeable insight throughout the project.

Blair Hopkins is a New Orleans-based photojournalist and lifelong adultindustry professional. As the Deputy Director of SWOP Behind Bars, she hosts and produces our podcast, All in A Day's (Sex) Work, and has published a book of the same name.

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“Well, they say you are supposed to face your fears.” That is what I was telling myself as I applied to Bellevue University. I am a forty-somethingyear-old, non-traditional student returning to school after a twenty-year hiatus. I graduated in 2000 with an Associate of Science as in Occupational Therapy. Being out of school for that long can cast doubt on one’s ability to do it again. I was no exception. I love being an Occupational Therapy Assistant, but I felt I had exhausted my possibilities with that degree after twenty years. Returning to school was a daunting idea. The fear of being unsuccessful at school nearly stopped me. It was laborious to balance working full time, being a full-time student, and full-time husband and dad.

However, I was determined, and I started to gain confidence after receiving a few good grades. At one point, my professor asked if he could submit some of my work to the Bellwether, and I consented. Now, I have nearly completed my bachelor’s degree in Healthcare Management. I am looking forward and looking up. I am excited by the possibilities in front of me, but I remember the fear and doubt when I glance back. The fear and doubt have dissolved into gratitude and optimism. Being a part of the Bellwether is validating; I made the right choice to face my fears. I am thankful and honored to have my work recognized in this way. Thank you, Seth McDermott.

Morgan McIlnay just finished her freshman year at Bellevue University.

McIlnay was born and raised in Omaha, Nebraska, and she went to Millard North High School. She has a big family, which includes her parents, two sisters, two brothers, and two dogs. While conquering her courses this year, she had the opportunity to play Bellevue University Women’s Soccer. She has played soccer her entire life, but she also enjoys shopping, bike riding, traveling, swimming, and anything involving friends and family as other interests. She is an outgoing, kind, hardworking, and laughable person. Her goals after college are to become a child and adolescent behavioral therapist. She enjoys helping others and always tries to picture herself in others’ shoes so that she can better understand them. The published ethnography in this publication represents a situation where she dove deep into other people’s lives, learned about them, and produced a positive outcome.

Zane Leyden is from Firth, Nebraska, and he graduated from Norris High School in 2020. Leyden played football, basketball, and baseball in high school but also did choir and show choir. He just finished his first year at Bellevue University and also plays baseball. Leyden hasn’t declared his major yet, but he has been leaning toward Computer Information Systems.

In his freetime, Leyden enjoys hanging out with friends, being outdoors, and traveling.

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Megan O’Brien is a recent graduate of the Master of Science in Industrial and Organizational Psychology at Bellevue University. She is also a full-time Cast Member at the Walt Disney World Resort where she is an Animal Keeper on the Primate-Carnivore team. Her coworkers currently include gorillas, tigers, mandrills, gibbons, and bats. Megan describes herself as both a “people-person” and an “animal-person,” which is largely what inspired her to pursue her Master’s Degree in this field. Her research was inspired by her networking experiences and her genuine curiosity about how to improve the employee experience in the workplace.

Megan grew up in Media, Pennsylvania, which is a suburb of Philadelphia.

She moved to South Carolina after high school to pursue her undergraduate degree in Environmental Science from Clemson University. She currently resides in Central Florida with her boyfriend and their two dogs.

Elyse Rawlson graduated with an undergraduate degree in Liberal Studies in 1987. Thirty-two years later, Rawlson began to pursue her master’s degree in Industrial-Organizational Psychology. Her main occupation for the last few decades has been a stay-at-home mom and homeschool educator. Homeschooling her children and seeing them grow and learn has been her greatest joy and accomplishment over the past twenty years. When she returned to school, she did not know what she wanted to achieve aside from receiving the degree. Rawlson has always loved writing but has never had the opportunity to write and research at this level. The experience has helped confirm the path she wants to pursue for her future. Following graduation, she plans to pursue her Ph.D. so that she can continue to write, research, and teach. About three years from now, she will finish her formal education with a Ph.D. at the same time her youngest child will graduate from high school, essentially graduating from homeschooling and receiving a terminal degree at the same time. She is very excited about her future and all the opportunities to continue learning and growing. Rawlson has been in school or teaching school since she was four years old and cannot wait to pursue the next steps in her education and career.

Lorena Ramirez is an Omaha/ Bellevue native raised by her parents, Francis and Ana Ramirez. Starting her freshman year, Ramirez was unsure of what she wanted to pursue in life. Once she fell in love with the medical field, she quickly switched her business major to a biology major during her sophomore year. Ramirez is now majoring in Biology with a minor in Chemistry, and she is pursuing a career as a physician’s assistant. She hopes to find her niche as a PA and to dive into learning and helping others.

Ramirez is a member of the Cross Country and Track & Field team at Bellevue University where she is very competitive. She has a strong passion 254

for creating art, drawing, painting, working with kids, and spending time with family. She can also make a mean apple pie.

Jennifer Ross: Sweet cream puff or one tough cookie? Originally from El Paso, Texas, Ross began her professional career in 2008 educating the LGBTQIA+ community on available resources. After completing her undergraduate Human Services degree in 2009, she was accepted into the Master of Science in Clinical Mental Health in Nevada while becoming a single mother of two. She worked several jobs to support her family, and despite finishing all her classes, the degree was not conferred. In 2011, she met her husband, who emotionally supported her endeavors while she reestablished her confidence. Ross began her corporate career in 2014 and began pursuing a master's degree in Industrial-Organizational Psychology from Bellevue University in 2018. In the year that shall not be named (2020), Ross and the rest of the world rode the worst rollercoaster in existence. Determined not to let history repeat itself, she completed her degree in 2021.

Ross combines her passion for human behavior with corporate business strategies and organizational development. Her education enables her to identify, implement, and analyze situations to be a more impactful presence capable of creating social change. Currently living in California, she enjoys her family time – including hiking, sports, camping, and making TikToks with her husband, children, and fur-baby. In her spare time, she is an avid decorative dagger and dragon collector. What did you decide? Is Jennifer Ross a sweet cream puff or tough cookie? Ross has proven that a person can be both; she is a sweet, tough cookie.

Saidah Scott is a native of Detroit, Michigan and earned her bachelor’s degree in Public Relations, minoring in Marketing from Hampton University in 2014. She went on to Bellevue University where she earned her master’s degree in Strategic Marketing this year. Scott has a creative mind and strives to use her talents to help others achieve their goals. She enjoys reading, ice skating, coordinating and planning events, and giving back to the community. Scott is meticulous and vigilant about all her work, taking extreme pride in every project she takes on. She hopes give back to the community by teaching at the collegiate level and instilling her passion in others.

Eric Tijerina is a first-generation American, born and raised in San Antonio, Texas. Tijerina spent his time on distance running and video games until he enrolled at Texas State University. Majoring in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) while also in the Air Force Reserve Officer 255

Training Corps, he was able to commission into the United States Air Force as an Aircraft Maintenance officer. Although, Tijerina did not get to utilize my GIS education, but he’s been fortunate enough to learn a great deal on communication, leadership, logistics, and people through his career in the Air Force. His experience in management, along with a big interest in technology, have led him to the Bellevue Management in Information Systems program. He would love to enter the technology workforce someday and contribute to these exciting times. He currently teaches at LSU as an Air Force ROTC instructor. While he has no family at the moment, he plans to start off with maybe getting a cactus.

Tijerina sends a big thank you to his Bellevue University professors over the years that have introduced him to a higher standard of business practices and project management tools. He has been able to bring to them to his workplace. He is surprised and an honored to have been nominated, so he says, “Thank you!”

Cheryl Welch currently works for the Midwest Regional Office of the National Park Service located in Omaha, NE. As the Technology Officer, she is responsible for contributing to national discussions on Information Technology (IT) policy and procedures and verifying that they are implemented properly to the national parks in the region.

She has a Bachelor of Science in Secondary Education from Emporia State University. When teaching didn’t pan out, she attended the Washburn Institute of Technology to obtain her IT certificates. Twenty years later, she decided to challenge herself, and her supervisor recommended Bellevue University, her alma mater. She is currently earning her Master of Science in Management Information Systems with a concentration in Project Management.

Education is very important to her family. Her daughter is a graduate of Kansas State University and is currently working on her MBA at Washburn University. Her son attended the Washburn Institute of Technology also and has his associate’s degree in Culinary Arts from Washburn University.

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